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10802175 Submitted To Suman Rani (Deptt Of Physics) Course Code- PHY 152

PHYSICS TERM PAPER

ARTICLE ON * BIG BANG THEORY * INDEX1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Main Heading. Introduction. Review Of History Theory & Working Summary Bibliography

*Main Heading*

BIG BANG THEORY

*Introduction*
Big Bang theory is a cosmological approach to the formation of universe through the best support of scientific evidences and observations. According to the Big Bang model, the universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common and useful analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. General relativistic cosmologies, however, do not actually ascribe any 'physicality' to space. Big Bang Theory was Proposed by Georges Lematre. He says it his 'hypothesis of the primeval atom'. The framework for the model relies on Albert Einstein's General Relativity as formulated by Alexander Friedmann. After Edwin Hubble discovered in 1929 that the distances to far away galaxies were generally proportional to their redshifts, this observation was taken to indicate that all very distant galaxies and clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our vantage point: the farther away, the higher the apparent velocity. If the distance between galaxy clusters is increasing today, everything must have been closer together in the past. This idea has been considered in detail back in time to extreme densities and temperatures, and large particle accelerators have been built to experiment on and test such conditions, resulting in

significant confirmation of the theory, but these accelerators have limited capabilities to probe into such high energy regimes. Without any evidence associated with the earliest instant of the expansion, the Big Bang theory cannot and does not provide any explanation for such an initial condition; rather, it describes and explains the general evolution of the universe since that instant. The observed abundances of the light elements throughout the cosmos closely match the calculated predictions for the formation of these elements from nuclear processes in the rapidly expanding and cooling first minutes of the universe, as logically and quantitatively detailed according to Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the phrase 'Big Bang' during a 1949 radio broadcast, as a derisive reference to a theory he did not subscribe to. Hoyle later helped considerably in the effort to figure out the nuclear pathway for building certain heavier elements from lighter ones. After the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its collective frequencies sketched out a blackbody curve, most scientists were fairly convinced by the evidence that some Big Bang scenario must have occurred.

Review Of History
Names of the scientists who contributed to the theory approach as a team and also made there efforts in coming out with new inventions related to this theory are :1. 2. 3. 4.

Vesto Slipher Alexander Friedmann Albert Einstein Edwin Hubble

5. 6.

Georges Lematre Fred Hoyle

Vesto Melvin Slipher (November 11, 1875 November 8, 1969) was an

American astronomer.]His brother Earl C. Slipher was also an astronomer and a director at the Lowell Observatory. His children are son David C. Slipher and daughter K. J. Nicholson

In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a "spiral nebula"
(spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth. Vesto Slipher was Known for the Expanding Universe.
He was responsible for hiring Clyde Tombaugh and supervised the work that led to the discovery of Pluto in 1930. The redshift(increasing distance between nebulas) of galaxies; these measurements and their significance were understood before 1917 by James Edward Keeler (Lick & Allegheny), Vesto Melvin Slipher (Lowell), and William Wallace Campbell (Lick) at other observatories.

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein, 1921

Albert Einstein (14 March 1879 18 April 1955) was a German-born

theoretical physicist. He is best known for his theory of relativity and

specifically massenergy equivalence, expressed by the equation E = mc2. Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect."
In 1916 General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916. It is the state-of-the art description of gravity in modern physics. It unifies special relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation, and describes gravity as a property of the geometry of space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the four-momentum (mass-energy and linear momentum) of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations

Einstein's theory has important astrophysical applications. It points towards the existence of black holesregions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escapeas an endstate for massive stars. There is evidence that such stellar black holes as well as more massive varieties of black hole are responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects such as active galactic nuclei or microquasars. The bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, where multiple images of the same distant astronomical object are visible in the sky. General relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves, which have since been measured indirectly; a direct measurement is the aim of projects such as LIGO. In addition, general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of an expanding universe. DEFINATION:-General relativity is a metric theory of gravitation. At its core are Einstein's equations, which describe the relation between the geometry of a four-dimensional, semi-Riemannian manifold representing spacetime on the one hand, and the energy-momentum contained in that spacetime on the other. Phenomena that in classical mechanics are ascribed to the action of the force of gravity (such as free-fall, orbital motion, and spacecraft trajectories), correspond to inertial motion within a curved geometry of spacetime in general relativity; there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths. Instead, gravity corresponds to changes in the properties of space and time, which in turn changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow. The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy-momentum of matter.

Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 September 28, 1953) was
an American astronomer He discovered that the degree of redshift observed in light coming from a galaxy increased in proportion to the distance of that galaxy from the Milky Way. This became known as Hubble's law, and would help establish that the universe is expanding.

In 1924, Edwin Hubble's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral
nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies. Hubble's arrival at Mount Wilson in 1919 coincided roughly with the completion of the 100-inch Hooker Telescope, then the world's largest telescope. At that time, the prevailing view of the cosmos was that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way. Using the Hooker Telescope, Hubble identified Cepheid variables (a kind of star; see also standard candle) in several spiral nebulae, including the Andromeda Galaxy. His observations, made in 19221923, proved conclusively that these nebulae were much too distant to be part of the Milky Way and were, in fact, entire galaxies outside our own. This idea had been opposed by many in the astronomy establishment of the time, in particular by Harvard-based Harlow Shapley. Hubble's discovery, announced on January 1, 1925, fundamentally changed the view of the universe.

Georges Lematre

Monsignor Georges Lematre, priest and scientist

Monsignor Georges Henri Joseph douard Lematre (July 17,

1894 June 20, 1966) was a Belgian Roman Catholic priest, honorary prelate, professor of physics and astronomer at the Catholic University of Leuven. Lematre proposed what became known as the Big Bang theory of the origin of the Universe, which he called his 'hypothesis of the primeval atom'.

Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, Georges Lematre, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, predicted that the recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe.

In 1931 Lematre went further and suggested that the evident expansion in forward time required that the universe contracted backwards in time, and would continue to do so until it could contract no further, bringing all the mass of the universe into a single point, a "primeval atom", at a point in time before which time and space did not exist. As such, at this point, the fabric of time and space had not yet come into existence. This perhaps echoed previous speculations about the cosmic egg origin of the universe.

Work Done By The Scientist Are:Lemaitre was a pioneer in applying Einstein's theory of general relativity to cosmology. He suggested a precursor of Hubble's law in 1927. In 1931, he published his primeval atom theory in Nature. At the time, Einstein believed in a static universe and had expressed skepticism about Lematre's 1927 paper. A similar solution to Einstein's equations, implying a changing radius of the universe, had been proposed in 1922 by Alexander Friedman, as Einstein told Lematre when he approached him with the theory at the 1927 Solvay Conference. (Einstein had also criticized Friedman's theory.) But it is Lematre's theory that changed the course of science, for the following reasons:

Friedman was a mathematician who neither worked with astronomical data nor cared whether his theory was a description of physical reality. Friedman died in 1925, soon after first proposing his theory. Lematre worked with astronomers and designed his theory to have testable implications, and to be in accord with observations of the time. Arthur Eddington made sure that Lematre got a hearing in the scientific community.

Lematre proposed his theory at an opportune time, since Edwin Hubble would soon publish his velocity-distance relation that strongly supported an expanding universe and, consequently, the Big Bang theory. In fact, Lematre's 1927 paper derived what became known as Hubble's Law, two years before Hubble did so. Because Lematre spent his entire career in Europe, his contributions are not as well known in the United States (USA) as those of Hubble or Einstein, men well known in the USA by virtue of residing there.

Both Friedman and Lematre concluded that the universe must be expanding. Lematre further concluded that an initial "creation-like" event must have occurred. This is the Big Bang theory as we know it today, and why he is credited with its discovery. Einstein at first dismissed Friedman and then (privately) Lematre out of hand, saying that not all mathematics leads to correct theories. After Hubble's discovery was published, Einstein quickly and publicly endorsed Lematre's theory, helping both the theory and its proposer get fast recognition. In 1933, Lematre found an important inhomogeneous solution of Einstein's field equations describing a spherical dust cloud, the LemaitreTolman metric.

Theory & Working

According to the Big Bang model, the universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common and useful analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. General relativistic cosmologies, however, do not actually ascribe any 'physicality' to space.

Evidences & Proofs Of Its Working :Big Bang Theory - The Only Plausible Theory? Is the standard Big Bang theory the only model consistent with these evidences? No, it's just the most popular one. Internationally renown Astrophysicist George F. R. Ellis explains: "People need to be aware that there is a range of models that could explain the observations.For instance, I can construct you a spherically symmetrical universe with Earth at its center, and you cannot disprove it based on observations.You can only exclude it on philosophical grounds. In my view there is absolutely nothing wrong in that. What I want to bring into the open is the fact that we are using philosophical criteria in choosing our models. A lot of cosmology tries to hide that."4 In 2003, Physicist Robert Gentry proposed an attractive alternative to the standard theory, an alternative which also accounts for the evidences listed above.Dr. Gentry claims that the standard Big Bang model is founded upon a faulty paradigm (the Friedmann-lemaitre expanding-spacetime paradigm) which he claims is inconsistent with the empirical data

The earliest and most direct kinds of observational evidence are the Hubbletype expansion seen in the redshifts of galaxies, the detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background, and the abundance of light elements. These are sometimes called the three pillars of the big bang theory. Many other lines of evidence now support the picture, notably various properties of the large-scale structure of the cosmos which are predicted to occur due to gravitational growth of structure in the standard Big Bang theory.

Hubble's law and the expansion of space

Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshiftedthe light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light. These redshifts are uniformly isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions. If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated. For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder. When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as Hubble's law is observed: where v is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object D is the comoving proper distance to the object and H0 is Hubble's constant, measured to be 70.1 1.3 km/s/Mpc by the WMAP probe. Hubble's law has two possible explanations. Either we are at the center of an explosion of galaxieswhich is untenable given the Copernican Principle or the universe is uniformly expanding everywhere. This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedman in 1922 and Georges Lematre in 1927, well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann, Lematre, Robertson and Walker.

The theory requires the relation v = HD to hold at all times, where D is the proper distance, v = dD / dt, and v, H, and D all vary as the universe expands (hence we write H0 to denote the present-day Hubble "constant"). For distances much smaller than the size of the observable universe, the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity v. However, the redshift is not a true Doppler shift, but rather the result of the expansion of the universe between the time the light was emitted and the time that it was detected. Astronomical redshifts are extremely isotropic and homogenous, supporting the Cosmological Principle that the universe looks the same in all directions, along with much other evidence. If the redshifts were the result of an explosion from a center distant from us, they would not be so similar in different directions.

Summary
So in summarized form it was conclude by all the scientists who worked over this concept using the above proofs and evidences that The Universe goes beyond the Milky Way galaxy and it is still expanding under extermely hot ,dense conditions with collisions etc. between emensely hot materials in the universe to form new galaxies etc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 2. 3.

www.google.co.in www.encyloworld.com www.wikipedia.com