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http;<<en2)i0ipedia2o%g<)i0i<Sic
The Latin adverb sic ("thus"; in full: sic erat scriptum, "thus was it written") added immediately after a
quoted word or phrase (or a longer piece of tet), indicates that the quotation has been transcribed
eactly as found in the original source, complete with any erroneous spelling or other nonstandard
presentation! The usual purpose is to inform the reader that any errors or apparent errors in the
transcribed material do not arise from transcription errors, and the errors have been repeated
intentionally, i!e!, that they are reproduced eactly as set down by the original writer or printer! "t may
also be used as a form of ridicule or as a humorous comment, drawing attention to the original writer#s
spelling mista$es or emphasi%ing his or her erroneous logic! &ic is generally placed inside
square brac$ets, or in parentheses (round brac$ets), and traditionally in italic, as is customary when
printing a foreign word!
http:''en!wi$ipedia!org'wi$i'&emantics
&emantics (from (ree$: s)manti$*, neuter plural of s)manti$+s),-. ,/. is the study of meaning! "t
focuses on the relation between signifiers, such as words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they
stand for, their denotata!
Linguistic semantics is the study of meaning that is used to understand human epression through
language! 0ther forms of semantics include the semantics of programming languages, formal logics,
and semiotics!
The word semantics itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical! "t is often
used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection
or connotation! This problem of understanding has been the sub1ect of many formal inquiries, over a
long period of time, most notably in the field of formal semantics! "n linguistics, it is the study of
interpretation of signs or symbols as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances
and contets!,2. 3ithin this view, sounds, facial epressions, body language, and proemics have
semantic (meaningful) content, and each has several branches of study! "n written language, such
things as paragraph structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other forms of language, there
is other semantic content!,2.
The formal study of semantics intersects with many other fields of inquiry,
including leicology, synta, pragmatics, etymology and others, although semantics is a well4defined
field in its own right, often with synthetic properties!,5. "n philosophy of language, semantics
and reference are closely connected! 6urther related fields include philology, communication,
and semiotics! The formal study of semantics is therefore comple!
&emantics contrasts with synta, the study of the combinatorics of units of a language (without
reference to their meaning), and pragmatics, the study of the relationships between the symbols of a
language, their meaning, and the users of the language!,7.
"n international scientific vocabulary semantics is also called semasiology!
"n linguistics, semantics is the subfield that is devoted to the study of meaning, as inherent at the levels
of words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of discourse (termed tets)! The basic area of study is the
meaning of signs, and the study of relations between different linguistic units
and compounds: homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, hypernymy,hyponymy, meronymy, metonymy, ho
lonymy, paronyms! 8 $ey concern is how meaning attaches to larger chun$s of tet, possibly as a result
of the composition from smaller units of meaning! Traditionally, semantics has included the study
of sense and denotative reference, truth conditions, argument structure, thematic roles,disambiguation
needed., discourse analysis, and the lin$age of all of these to synta!
,edit.
"n 9homs$yan linguistics there was no mechanism for the learning of semantic relations, and
the nativist view considered all semantic notions as inborn! Thus, even novel concepts were proposed
to have been dormant in some sense! This view was also thought unable to address many issues such
as metaphor or associative meanings, and semantic change, where meanings within a linguistic
community change over time, and qualia or sub1ective eperience! 8nother issue not addressed by the
nativist model was how perceptual cues are combined in thought, e!g! in mental rotation!,:.
This view of semantics, as an innate finite meaning inherent in a leical unit that can be composed to
generate meanings for larger chun$s of discourse, is now being fiercely debated in the emerging
domain of cognitive linguistics ,;. and also in the non46odorian camp in philosophy of language!
,<. The challenge is motivated by:
factors internal to language, such as the problem of resolving indeical or anaphora (e!g! this
, him, last wee$)! "n these situations contet serves as the input, but the interpreted utterance also
modifies the contet, so it is also the output! Thus, the interpretation is necessarily dynamic and the
meaning of sentences is viewed as contet change potentials instead of propositions!
factors eternal to language, i!e! language is not a set of labels stuc$ on things, but "a toolbo, the
importance of whose elements lie in the way they function rather than their attachments to
things!",<. This view reflects the position of the later 3ittgenstein and his famous game eample, and
is related to the positions of =uine, >avidson, and others!
8 concrete eample of the latter phenomenon is semantic underspecification ? meanings are not
complete without some elements of contet! To ta$e an eample of one word, red, its meaning in a
phrase such as red boo$ is similar to many other usages, and can be viewed as compositional!
,@. Aowever, the colours implied in phrases such as red wine (very dar$), and red hair (coppery),
or red soil, orred s$in are very different! "ndeed, these colours by themselves would not be
called red by native spea$ers! These instances are contrastive, so red wine is so called only in
comparison with the other $ind of wine (which also is not white for the same reasons)! This view goes
bac$ to de &aussure:
Bach of a set of synonyms li$e redouter (#to dread#), craindre (#to fear#), avoir peur (#to be afraid#) has its
particular value only because they stand in contrast with one another! Co word has a value that can be
identified independently of what else is in its vicinity!,-D.
and may go bac$ to earlier "ndian views on language, especially the Cyaya view of words as indicators
and not carriers of meaning!,--.
8n attempt to defend a system based on propositional meaning for semantic underspecification can be
found in the generative leicon model of Eames Fuste1ovs$y, who etends contetual operations (based
on type shifting) into the leicon! Thus meanings are generated on the fly based on finite contet!
,edit.Frototype theory
8nother set of concepts related to fu%%iness in semantics is based on prototypes! The wor$ of Bleanor
Gosch in the -@;Ds led to a view that natural categories are not characteri%able in terms of necessary
and sufficient conditions, but are graded (fu%%y at their boundaries) and inconsistent as to the status of
their constituent members! 0ne may compare it with Eung#s archetype, though the concept
of archetype stic$s to static concept! &ome post4structuralists are against the fied or static meaning of
the words! >errida, following Ciet%sche, tal$ed about slippages in fied meanings! Aere are some
eamples from Hangla fu%%y words ,-/. ,-2.
&ystems of categories are not ob1ectively out there in the world but are rooted in people#s eperience!
These categories evolve as learned concepts of the world ? meaning is not an ob1ective truth, but a
sub1ective construct, learned from eperience, and language arises out of the "grounding of our
conceptual systems in shared embodiment and bodily eperience"!,-5. 8 corollary of this is that the
conceptual categories (i!e! the leicon) will not be identical for different cultures, or indeed, for every
individual in the same culture! This leads to another debate (see the &apir?3horf hypothesis or Bs$imo
words for snow)!
,edit.Theories in semantics
,edit.Iodel theoretic semantics
Iain article: formal semantics (linguistics)
0riginates from Iontague#s wor$ (see above)! 8 highly formali%ed theory of natural language
semantics in which epressions are assigned denotations (meanings) such as individuals, truth values,
or functions from one of these to another! The truth of a sentence, and more interestingly, its logical
relation to other sentences, is then evaluated relative to a model!
,edit.6ormal (or truth4conditional) semantics
Iain article: truth4conditional semantics
Fioneered by the philosopher >onald >avidson, another formali%ed theory, which aims to associate
each natural language sentence with a meta4language description of the conditions under which it is
true, for eample: J&now is white# is true if and only if snow is white! The challenge is to arrive at the
truth conditions for any sentences from fied meanings assigned to the individual words and fied
rules for how to combine them! "n practice, truth4conditional semantics is similar to model4theoretic
semantics; conceptually, however, they differ in that truth4conditional semantics see$s to connect
language with statements about the real world (in the form of meta4language statements), rather than
with abstract models!
,edit.Leical and conceptual semantics
Iain article: conceptual semantics
This theory is an effort to eplain properties of argument structure! The assumption behind this theory
is that syntactic properties of phrases reflect the meanings of the words that head them!,-7. 3ith this
theory, linguists can better deal with the fact that subtle differences in word meaning correlate with
other differences in the syntactic structure that the word appears in!,-7. The way this is gone about is
by loo$ing at the internal structure of words!,-:. These small parts that ma$e up the internal structure
of words are termed semantic primitives!,-:.
,edit.Leical semantics
Iain article: leical semantics
8 linguistic theory that investigates word meaning! This theory understands that the meaning of a word
is fully reflected by its contet! Aere, the meaning of a word is constituted by its contetual relations!
,-;. Therefore, a distinction between degrees of participation as well as modes of participation are
made!,-;. "n order to accomplish this distinction any part of a sentence that bears a meaning and
combines with the meanings of other constituents is labeled as a semantic constituent! &emantic
constituents that cannot be bro$en down into more elementary constituents are labeled minimal
semantic constituents!,-;.
,edit.
http:''en!wi$ipedia!org'wi$i'Fragmatics
Fragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which contet contributes to meaning!
Fragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, tal$ in interaction and other
approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, and linguistics and anthropology!
,-. Knli$e semantics, which eamines meaning that is conventional or "coded" in a given language,
pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic
$nowledge (e!g!, grammar, leicon, etc!) of the spea$er and listener, but also on the contet of the
utterance, any preeisting $nowledge about those involved, the inferred intent of the spea$er, and other
factors!,/. "n this respect, pragmatics eplains how language users are able to overcome apparent
ambiguity, since meaning relies on the manner, place, time etc! of an utterance!,-.
The ability to understand another spea$er#s intended meaning is called pragmatic competence!,citation
needed.
http:''en!wi$ipedia!org'wi$i'AumptyLdumpty
Aumpty >umpty sat on a wall,
Aumpty >umpty had a great fall!
8ll the $ing#s horses and all the $ing#s men
9ouldn#t put Aumpty together again!,-.
Aumpty appears in Lewis 9arroll#s Through the Loo$ing4(lass (-<;/), where he
discusses semantics and pragmatics with 8lice!
M" donNt $now what you mean by Oglory,N P 8lice said!
Aumpty >umpty smiled contemptuously! M0f course you donNtQtill " tell you! " meant OthereNs a nice
$noc$4down argument for youRN P
MHut OgloryN doesnNt mean Oa nice $noc$4down argumentN,P 8lice ob1ected!
M3hen " use a word,P Aumpty >umpty said, in rather a scornful tone, Mit means 1ust what " choose it to
meanQneither more nor less!P
MThe question is,P said 8lice, Mwhether you can ma$e words mean so many different things!P
MThe question is,P said Aumpty >umpty, Mwhich is to be master thatNs all!P
8lice was too much pu%%led to say anything, so after a minute Aumpty >umpty began again! MTheyNve
a temper, some of themQparticularly verbs, theyNre the proudestQad1ectives you can do anything
with, but not verbsQhowever, " can manage the whole lotR "mpenetrabilityR ThatNs what " sayRP,-7.
This passage was used in Hritain by Lord 8t$in and in his dissenting 1udgement in the seminal
case Liversidge v! 8nderson (-@5/), where he protested about the distortion of a statute by the ma1ority
of the Aouse of Lords!,-:. "t also became a popular citation in Knited &tates legal opinions, appearing
in /7D 1udicial decisions in the 3estlaw database as of 8pril -@, /DD<, including two &upreme 9ourt
cases (TS8 v! Aill and Tschernig v! Iiller)!,-;.
9L8&F
9ircular Logic 8ristocrat &emantics Fragmatist
CB3&
Cever Bnding 3ar &tory
9asserole 6actorial F& Law
9onstitution 8ssimilation &ubversive &elf Bvident Gule of Law Blusivity 6iduciary 8ccountability
9orporation Taing 0vert Genege "ntuitive 8ppropriating Lucifer Fyramid &chematics Loo$ 8way
3rit
Bean Factor
6actorial
Froduct of multiplication
Iathematics the number resulting from multiplying a whole number by every whole number between
itself and - inclusive! : factorial, or :R is : 7 5 2 / - U ;/D! (&ymbolR)
-! of factorial
Iathematics relating to or involving a factorial
/! "nvolving 6actor
Husiness involving or characteristic of a commercial factor or the wor$ of such a factor
Hean vs Hene 6actor
7 &enses vs :
th
&ense
Aearing &ight Touch &mell Taste vs - Flanet - Feople - &pirit - 6orce - Law - &ense
0C0
0sculate Cot 0scillate
0sculate
mathematics intransitive verb to touch at a point of common tangency to a line passing between two branches of a curve,
each branch continuing in both directions of the line
0scillate
&wing, move bac$ and forth, move to and fro, move bac$ward and forward, fluctuate, vacillate, alternate
Geciprocals
Iultiplied to give one
mathematics describes a number or quality that is related to another by the fact that when multiplied together the product is
one
1 Planet x 1 People x 1 Spirit x 1 Force x 1 Law x 1 Sense = 1 Humanity 6
th
Sense
Geciprocate
-! (ive mutually
transitive and intransitive verb to give or feel something mutually or in return
V " couldn#t accept such a generous gift without reciprocating!
/! Iove bac$wards and forwards
Bngineering transitive and intransitive verb to move bac$ward and forward in an alternating motion, or
move something in this way
http:''en!wi$ipedia!org'wi$i'6iveLwits
"n the time of 3illiam &ha$espeare, there were commonly rec$oned to be five wits and five senses!
,2. The five wits were sometimes ta$en to be synonymous with the five senses,,2. but were otherwise
also $nown and regarded as the five inward wits, distinguishing them from the five senses, which were
the five outward wits!,5. ,7.
Iuch of this conflation has resulted from changes in meaning! "n Barly Iodern Bnglish, "wit" and
"sense" overlapped in meaning! Hoth could mean a faculty of perception (although this sense dropped
from the word "wit" during the -;th century)! Thus "five wits" and "five senses" could describe both
groups of wits'senses, the inward and the outward, although the common distinction, where it was
made, was "five wits" for the inward and "five senses" for the outward!,:.
The inward and outward wits are a product of many centuries of philosophical and psychological
thought, over which the concepts gradually developed, that have their origins in the wor$s
of 8ristotle (who only defined four senses, however)! The concept of five outward wits came to
medieval thin$ing from 9lassical philosophy, and found its most ma1or epression in
9hristian devotional literature of the Iiddle 8ges! The concept of five inward wits similarly came
from 9lassical views on psychology!
Iodern thin$ing is that there are more than five (outward) senses, and the idea that there are five
(albeit that it superficially matches the gross anatomical features Q eyes, ears, nose, s$in, and mouth
Q of many higher animals) does not stand up to scientific scrutiny! (6or more on this, see >efinition of
sense!) Hut the idea of five senses'wits from 8ristotelian, medieval, and -:th century thought still
lingers so strongly in modern thin$ing that a sense beyond the natural ones is still called a "sith
sense"!,;.
http:''en!wi$ipedia!org'wi$i'BtrasensoryLperception
Btrasensory perception (B&F) involves reception of information not gained through the recogni%ed
physical senses but sensed with the mind! The term was adopted by >u$e Kniversity psychologist E! H!
Ghine to denote psychic abilities such as telepathy, clairaudience, and clairvoyance, and their trans4
temporal operation as precognition or retrocognition! B&F is also sometimes casually referred to as
asith sense, gut instinct or hunch, which are historical Bnglish idioms! "t is also sometimes referred to
as intuition! The term implies acquisition of information by means eternal to the basic limiting
assumptions of science, such as that organisms can only receive information from the past to the
present!
Farapsychology is the pseudoscientific ,-. study of paranormal psychic phenomena, including B&F!
Farapsychologists generally regard such tests as the gan%feld eperiment as providing compelling
evidence for the eistence of B&F! The scientific community re1ects B&F due to the absence of an
evidence base, the lac$ of a theory which would eplain B&F, and the lac$ of eperimental techniques
which can provide reliably positive results!,/. ,2. ,5. ,7. ,:.
0n anarchism, 0rwell wrote in The Road to Wigan Pier: "" wor$ed out an anarchistic theory that all
government is evil, that the punishment always does more harm than the crime and the people can be
trusted to behave decently if you will only let them alone!"
Ae continued, however and argued that
"it is always necessary to protect peaceful people from violence! "n any state of society where crime
can be profitable you have got to have a harsh criminal law and administer it ruthlessly!"
[SIC]
6th Amendment assistance of counsel for defence
#n &on4 #ct 334 3=13 at 13;3> '&4 ?ob Hu%t @bobAbobhu%t2comB )%ote;
US Constitution 6th Amendment:
"In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial,
by an impartial jury of the State and district
wherein the crime shall have been committed,
which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to
have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor,
and
to have the Assistance of Counsel for his
defence."
Wa 0$
"mpartial 1ury of the geographical locality (of the &tate and >istrict) wherein the crime committed and
to have the 8ssistance of 9ounsel for his defence
3hatNs Legal 8id all aboutX
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