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30/06/2012
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CI/SfB (57)(L7)
Licensed copy from CIS: uninorth, University of Northumbria, 30/06/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
information paper
IP 18/00
Envirobods Ltd
Ammonia is being increasingly used as refrigerant for building air conditioning systems on account of its low environmental impact and
excellent refrigeration properties. However, ammonia is highly toxic which means that greater care is needed in its use.
This paper shows that the design of safe ammonia systems must also take into account dispersal mechanisms.
Introduction
The phasing out of CFCs and HCFCs (chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons), and uncertainty about the environmental acceptability of the newer HFC (hydrofluorocarbon) refrigerants, has led to growing use of ammonia in air conditioning systems in buildings. Ammonia has excellent refrigeration properties and a low environmental impact. The high efficiency of ammonia-based refrigeration systems could reduce the energy consumption and CO2 emissions of building cooling systems. However, ammonia is highly toxic and mildly flammable which means that more demanding safety measures are required than with the much safer HFC refrigerants and older CFCs and HCFCs. Until recently ammonia refrigeration systems were mainly used for industrial applications, especially in the food processing and brewing industries where the advantages of higher efficiency offset the higher cost of safety and maintenance. The environmental benefits of the use of
ammonia must be weighed against the higher safety risks. The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is concerned[1] that deficiencies in the underlying management of industrial ammonia systems cause unnecessary incidents leading to injury, deaths and sometimes widespread evacuation of the vicinity. HSE is also concerned that wider use of ammonia could increase the incidence of such occurrences. Designers and consultants currently believe that a safe location for ammonia refrigeration systems is in the open air on a building roof, based on the premise that because ammonia vapour is less dense than air it should discharge safely skywards. This paper shows that this is an incorrect assumption which can lead to unsafe installations, and it gives preliminary guidance on how to overcome this problem.
Ammonia is highly toxic. However, its characteristic pungent odour makes it readily detectable by smell at a concentration of
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around 5 parts per million (ppm), well below the level for toxic effects, giving early warning of its presence and making inadvertent and voluntary exposure to high concentrations unlikely. Industrial experience is that exposure to concentrations between 400 and 700 ppm causes immediate eye and throat irritation, and a level of 1700 ppm causes tissue damage and repeated coughing which can prove fatal after 30 minutes exposure. A significant fraction of the general populace is far more sensitive than the working populace, and would show much more severe reactions to these levels of exposure. The HSEs occupational exposure standards (OESs) have been set to protect workers from both long-term and short-term effects. The 8-hour time-weighted average is 25 ppm and the short-term limit measured over a 10-minute reference period is 35 ppm. This compares with an 8-hour time-weighted average of 1000 ppm for the majority of HCFC and HFC refrigerants. Although HCFCs and HFCs have low toxicities they can also be dangerous. Because they are practically odourless and are heavier than air, they can accumulate undetected in confined spaces. High concentrations can result in a risk of asphyxiation and other toxic effects including narcosis and cardiac sensitivity.
Flammability
Licensed copy from CIS: uninorth, University of Northumbria, 30/06/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
Ammonia is flammable in air at concentrations between 16 and 27%, although ignition is more difficult than for fuel gases.
* The high charge was due to this chiller being a thermosyphon chiller with a ooded shell and tube evaporator
A crucial feature of ammonia discharges is the ambient density of the discharged ammonia. Ammonia vapour has a density between 0.6 and 0.7 that of air (depending on its discharge temperature), so that a cloud of released ammonia will be positively buoyant. Liquid ammonia releases behave differently and when released from a part of the plant which is at high pressure can produce flashing clouds of boiling liquid droplets and vapour. The cooling effect of the continuously evaporating droplets cools the cloud so that it becomes denser than air. Very large discharges from industrial plant, which sometimes contain tonnage quantities of ammonia, can therefore
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be very dangerous. The hazard from the majority of the building systems detailed in Table 1, which generally have total charges below 60 kg, would be less. Some liquid releases produce less flashing and can lead to relatively stable pools of liquid ammonia on the ground. The high latent heat of ammonia can mean that the ground cannot supply sufficient heat for rapid evaporation. Sudden input of heat, such as by spraying with water to clear the discharge (see Containment of accidental spillage and leakage of liquid ammonia ), would cause violent boiling and formation of vapour clouds. The high latent heat of ammonia can also result in liquid pools remaining in large plant after refrigerant recovery and evacuation, creating a safety hazard for maintenance personnel. ranges is usually unsteady. No account is taken of plume buoyancy or the influence of the surroundings (including buildings) on wind behaviour. Figure 1 shows curves for a range of plume concentrations plotted as a function of ammonia release rate and distance from the release, assuming a wind speed of 2 m/s. It is clear that quite high gas concentrations (above the level for toxic effects) are possible at significant distances from the point of discharge. It should be emphasised that Figure 1 shows worst-case short-term concentrations. Practical experiments with ammonia discharges are necessary to determine more typical concentrations.
Licensed copy from CIS: uninorth, University of Northumbria, 30/06/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
where V is the gas discharge rate, u is the wind speed, and x is the distance along the plume from its source. This gives the highest likely concentration at a given distance. In practice such exposure would be intermittent as plume motion at short
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F = (V/) g (/)
(3)
where V is the volume discharge of ammonia, L is the scale of the release (in this case the height of the building), is the density difference between the discharged ammonia and ambient density , and g is gravitational acceleration. High values of the dimensionless buoyancy flux (Equation 2) above about 0.10.3, mean that the plume will have a positive buoyancy. A positively buoyant discharge (for example ammonia vapour) will rise, and a negatively buoyant discharge (for example a heavierthan-air cold ammonia droplet and vapour cloud) will fall. Conversely low values for the dimensionless buoyancy flux, below about 0.002, mean that the plume will have neutral buoyancy and will neither rise nor fall, regardless of the discharge buoyancy. These values have been determined from previous BRE work on fire plumes discharging from warehouses (D J Hall et al, 1995, unpublished). It is clear from these equations that the dimensionless buoyancy flux is proportional to
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Distance (m)
150.00
m Plu
3) /m (mg 00 =1
100.00
300
1000
50.00
3000
Figure 1 Approximate distances to a given predicted ammonia concentration in dispersing plumes (wind speed = 2 m/s) (Note: 1 mg/m3 1.43 ppm)
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the rate of gas discharge and its density difference from ambient as well as to the scale of the dispersion pattern. (For discharges from building roofs the dispersion scale is taken as the height of the building.) The dimensionless buoyancy flux is also very strongly dependent on wind speed (as u 3), so that the highest levels of the dimensionless buoyancy flux occur at low wind speeds and reduce rapidly with increasing wind speed. From the range of possible ammonia release rates estimated earlier, the range of values of the dimensionless buoyancy flux that may occur in practice can be calculated. Figure 2 shows plots of the values of ammonia release rate and wind speed that give rise to specific values of the dimensionless buoyancy flux, for positively buoyant discharges (for example ammonia vapour). The approximate divisions between negligible, partial and pronounced plume buoyancy effects are shown by dashed lines. Also shown are values of the 98th percentile (20 m/s) and typical annual mean (3 m/s) wind speeds in open country at 10 m height. In urban areas wind speeds are generally reduced significantly below these values. The scale L has been taken as the height of a typical building, 10 m. Figure 2 shows that smaller release rates at higher wind speeds show negligible plume buoyancy effects, while the larger release rates at lower wind speeds will show very pronounced plume buoyancy effects. Although not shown here, the equivalent effects occur for heavier-than-air releases: the larger release rates at lower wind speeds will show pronounced slumping of the plume, while the plume will have a neutral buoyancy with smaller release rates at higher wind speeds.
Licensed copy from CIS: uninorth, University of Northumbria, 30/06/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
Safety guidelines
The requirements of BS 4434:1995[2], the Institute of Refrigeration Safety Codes[3] and HSE PM81[1], as well as the general requirements of the Health and Safety at Work etc Act, should always be complied with. Even so, the work described in this paper shows that additional consideration needs to be given to the location of ammonia plant and possible ammonia discharges.
Minimise ammonia charge
100
Bu oy an cy flu x=
10
0.01
0.0 0
01
0.1
The hazards of ammonia discharges can be minimised by restricting the amount of ammonia charge in any single chiller. Careful chiller design can lead to very low ammonia specific charges, and values of around 0.05 kg per kW nominal cooling capacity are possible with current commercially available chillers using plate heat exchangers. Note that it is not recommended to use ammonia in direct expansion (dx) air cooler systems in which the refrigerant-containing parts of the system may be located in occupied parts of the building (see also BS 4434:1995[2]).
Location of ammonia chillers
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10 0 10 1 0.1 0.0 1
0.001 0.1 1
0.0 0
10
Figure 2 Effect of wind speed and discharge rate on plume buoyancy for positively buoyant ammonia releases
The safest location for ammonia chillers is in a special plant room (complying with the safety requirements of BS 4434:1995[2] and the Institute of Refrigeration Safety Codes[3]). The
Licensed copy from CIS: uninorth, University of Northumbria, 30/06/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
Figure 3 Flow visualisations of neutrally buoyant discharges from the roof and upwind ground level sources
Figure 4 Flow visualisations of positively buoyant discharges from the roof and upwind ground level sources
siting of ammonia chillers out of doors, either at ground level or on a building roof, would result in any accidental release or leakage of ammonia dispersing in an unpredictable manner, depending on the rate of discharge and prevailing local wind conditions. The advantages of locating ammonia chillers in special plant rooms is that liquid spills can be contained and that external discharge rates of ammonia can be controlled. Discharge could be through a fan-assisted stack with high velocity efflux. Specific guidance on stack design is given elsewhere (for example ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals [5]). An alternative to a special plant room for smaller systems is a container or box with its own ventilation system and ammonia vapour detectors. If designed and built correctly this should offer safety comparable to a conventional special plant room but with significantly lower cost and weight.
Pressure relief valve discharge locations
the ammonia is diluted with fresh air and then discharged through a vertical fan-assisted stack. However, this makes little difference to concentrations beyond a few metres from the discharge point and it is better overall to retain a high velocity vertical discharge of ammonia from an elevated nozzle as this maximises the plume rise. The design of the stack or elevated nozzle must prevent water and dirt ingress. Guidance on this is contained in the ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals [5].
Containment of accidental spillage and leakage of liquid ammonia
It is fairly common for pressure relief valve discharge pipes to terminate with a 90 elbow to prevent ingress of water and dirt. However, this results in a horizontal discharge and therefore destroys much of the vertical momentum which assists the rise of the discharging plume. An improved arrangement has been suggested by Stoecker[6] where the relief valve discharges into a mixing box where
Liquid ammonia releases tend to remain in the liquid phase for a long time, owing to the high latent heat of ammonia and insufficient heat normally being available in the air or through the ground surface to cause rapid evaporation. This results in low rates of evaporation of ammonia, which is advantageous in avoiding high concentrations around the building. The fire brigade, who tend to be summoned to deal with large ammonia releases, are trained to drench the area of the spillage with water. This is actually potentially dangerous as the water provides sufficient additional heat to cause liquid ammonia to boil violently and create hazardous droplet and vapour clouds with a far higher effective rate of discharge. All plant, but especially when it is located out of doors,
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should be surrounded by an insulated bund to contain any liquid spills and reduce evaporation rates. Liquid ammonia should also be prevented from entering roof-top drains or ventilation inlets. Clearly it is safer for the plant to be contained in a special plant room, or box for smaller systems.
Acknowledgements
This work was carried out by BRE with funding from the DETR Construction Sponsorship Directorate. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions.
Licensed copy from CIS: uninorth, University of Northumbria, 30/06/2012, Uncontrolled Copy.
Conclusion
The phasing out of CFC and HCFC refrigerants and environmental concerns about HFC-based alternatives mean that ammonia refrigeration plant will be increasingly specified for building air conditioning applications. However, ammonia is highly toxic and issues such as location of the plant and safety measures require careful consideration. In particular it has been shown that the dispersal of accidental releases of ammonia is not properly understood by the industry, and current practice could lead to hazardous concentrations of ammonia around the building which could enter any building opening. The safest location for ammonia plant is in purpose-built plant rooms, or boxes for smaller plant, complying with the relevant standards and codes (for example BS 4434: 1995[2] and the Institute of Refrigeration Safety Codes[3]). Any accidental release should be vented vertically above the roof in a controlled manner, so that it cannot be entrained back to the building. This may require the use of fanassisted stacks. Despite its toxicity ammonia is an excellent refrigerant, and industry experience has shown that accidents are rare if plant is designed, installed and maintained strictly in accordance with existing codes and standards. BREs research has shown that it is also necessary to consider the dispersion of ammonia to minimise the risk of it reaching building occupants or people on the ground. Further work is needed to determine actual rates of ammonia discharge so that the degree of hazard from ammonia leaks and discharges can be more accurately assessed.
References
[1] Health and Safety Executive. Safe management of ammonia refrigeration systems. Guidance Note PM81. London, HSE, 1995. [2] British Standards Institution. Safety and environmental aspects in the design, construction and installation of refrigerating appliances and systems. British Standard BS 4434:1995. London, BSI, 1995. [3] Institute of Refrigeration. Safety code for compression systems utilising ammonia. Part 1: Design and construction. Part 2: Commissioning, inspection and maintenance. Carshalton, Surrey, Institute of Refrigeration, 1990. [4] Wilson D J. Flow patterns over at roofed buildings and application to exhaust stack design. ASHRAE Transactions, 1979, 85 284295. [5] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). ASHRAE Handbook 1997. Fundamentals. Chapter 15. Airow around buildings. Atlanta, ASHRAE, 1997. [6] Stoecker W F. Expanded applications for ammonia: coping with releases to the atmosphere. CFCs: Todays Options Tomorrows Solutions. CFC Technology Conferences, US National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 2728 September 1989. ASHRAE, 1989.
Further reading
BRE Digest
358 CFCs in buildings