PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES DISCUSSED IN THIS WEBSITE

Draw a Diagram Make a List Guess and CheckRole playing allows students to take risk-free The Value of questions

"Asking good questions is productive, positive, creative, and can get us what we want".1 Most people believe this to be true and yet people do not ask enough good questions. Perhaps one of the reasons for this is that effective questioning requires it be combined with effective listening. Effective questions help you: Effective Questions Effective questions are questions that are powerful and thought provoking. Effective questions are open-ended and not leading questions. They are not "why" questions, but rather "what" or "how" questions. "Why" questions are good for soliciting information, but can make people defensive so be thoughtful in your use of them. When asking effective questions, it is important to wait for the answer and not provide the answer. When working with people to solve a problem, it is not enough to tell them what the problem is. They need to find out or understand it for themselves. You help them do this by asking them thought provoking questions. Rather than make assumptions find out what the person you are talking to knows about the problem.

Essential an Effective Demonstration: (i) It is clear The demonstration is expected to be as clear as crystal so that the possible doubts of prospects are eradicated. (ii) It is complete Good demonstration, by its very nature, aims at creating conviction and desire. (iii) It gains confidenciv) It eliminates competition The pertinent question very often asked is whether the salesman should discuss competition

1. INTRODUCTION (Any logical order)

a. Attention Gain the attention of your flight to insure that they are mentally prepared for the lesson. If this is the first time with this flight, it is a good idea to introduce yourself. b. Overview Tell what you are going to teach - state the name of the position/movement, the objective and main points pertinent to the lesson being taught. What I am going to teach you today is the military way of turning 90 degrees to the right from a halt. We call it a "right face." c. Motivation Give a purpose for the position/movement telling them why it is used and why they must be attentive. (Stress Teamwork, p
Models of Instruction Instruction was defined previously as "the purposeful direction of the learning process" and is one of the major teacher class activities (along with planning and management). Professional educators have developed a variety of models of instruction, each designed to produce classroom learning. Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2003) describe four categories of

models of teaching/instruction (behavioral systems, information processing, personal development, and social interaction) that summarize the vast majority of instructional methods. Each model differs in the specific type or measure of learning that is targeted. Therefore, as we make decisions about "best educational practices" we must be certain that we connect recommended practices with specific desired outcomes. This point is often omitted; discussion of best practices then becomes a debate about desired outcomes rather than a discussion of how to achieve them. Another important point is that the different models and methods of instruction have been developed based on specific interpretations of concepts and principles of teaching and learning. While it is important to learn and practice the approaches developed by others, it is even more important to understand the concepts and principles upon which they are based. If you learn only methods, you'll be tied to your methods, but if you learn principles you can devise your own methods. -- Ralph Waldo Emerson As you review each of the models or methods of instruction, ask yourself "Why is this being done?" and "Why is this being done now?" See if you can determine the underlying principles that are being advocated. You will then be in a better position to make modifications as your competency as a teacher grows. Direct Instruction As stated in other sections of these materials, the most often used measures of student achievement in the U.S. are scores on standardized tests of basic skills. Using this criteria as the desired student outcome, one set of models, labeled direct or explicit instruction (Rosenshine, 1995), has developed overwhelming research support in the past 25 years. Several principles of direct instruction, such as more teacher direction and student-teacher interaction, provide the foundation for this approach. The following chart (adapted from Slavin, 1994, p. 287) provides a comparison of instructional events from several well-known direct instruction models that incorporate these principles. Good & Grouws (1979) (Missouri Mathematics Program) 1. Opening.

Slavin (1994)

Gagne (1977); Gagne & Briggs (1979)

Rosenshine (1995) 1. Review

Hunter (1982) (Mastery Teaching) 1. Objectives; provide anticipatory set.

1. State learning objectives and 1. Gain and control attention orient students to lesson. 2. Inform the learner of expected outcomes.

Homework Relevant previous learning Prerequisite skills 2. Review. 2. Review homework; mental computations; review prerequisites.

2. Review prerequisites.

3. Stimulate recall of relevant prerequisite capabilities.

2. Presentation

3. Present new material.

State goals Small steps Model Examples Check understanding 3. Input & modeling 3. Developement.

4. Present the stimuli inherent to 3. Guided practice the learning task

4. Conduct learning probes.

High frequency of questions All students respond High success rate Continue to fluency 4. Check understanding and guided practice. 4. Assess student comprehension.

5. Offer guidance for learning. 4. Corrections & Feedback .

Process Sustaining Reteach 5. Independent practice. 5. Seatwork.

5. Provide independent practice.

6. Elicit performance 7. Provide feedback

5. Independent practice.

Help during initial steps


6. Assess performance and 8. Appraise performance. provide feedback. 7. Provide distributed practice 9. Ensure retention and make and review. provisions for transferability

Continue to automaticity Active supervision

6. Weekly and monthly reviews

6. Homework.

6. Homework; weekly and monthly reviews.

Notice that Slavin's model, which provides a reasonable summary of the approach of the other models, is focused on the activities of the teacher. This is in line with his QAIT model of effective classrooms in which he proposes that the classroom teacher is responsible for classroom learning. Huitt (1996) provides a model of direct instruction from a transactional perspective. From this viewpoint, both the teacher and student are active participants in the learning process, each with their respective responsibilities. At each event of instruction, Huitt provides both a recommended teacher activity and a set of alternative student activities. The most important deviation from the other models is that Huitt emphasizes teacher/student interaction at every event in the lesson. Considering Individual Differences Although the research shows that, in general, direct instruction is the preferred model of instruction when the measure of learning is scores on a standardized test of basic skills, teachers must also decide how to deal with individual differences. In general there are three different approaches. The first is to develop a set of instructional events that directly address different student learning styles. This is the approach adopted by Bernice McCarthy in her 4MAT System. A second approach is to use a method of grouping. Research has shown that cooperative learning, an in-class, hetergenous grouping alternative, is an effective alternative that both impacts student achievement as well as social skills. A third approach is to alter the schooling system within which instruction is provided. This is the approach used by Bloom (1976; see Davis & Sorrell, 1995) in his mastery learning strategy. Although many teachers have attempted to implement a mastery learning strategy in their individual classrooms, the approach seems to work best when implemented on a school- or district-wide basis. Summary In summary, instruction (the purposeful guidance of the learning process) is complex and can take many forms. It is a vitally important classroom activity, but must be considered in the context of such factors as measures of desired student learning (including overlapping objectives taught to objectives tested), controlling student behavior (classroom management activities), individual differences among students, and school processes and characteristics. Under the best conditions it takes many years of experience for most teachers to meet the ideals of instructional practice that they set for themselves as preservice undergraduate students.

The teacher student relationship is very important for children. Children spend approximately 5 to 7 hours a day with a teacher for almost 10 months. We ask ourselves what is considered a good teacher? All of us have gone through schooling, and if fortunate had a favorite teacher. A positive relationship between the student and the teacher is difficult to establish, but can be found for both individuals at either end. The qualities for a positive relationship can vary to set a learning experience approachable and inviting the students to learn. A teacher and student who have the qualities of good communications, respect in a classroom, and show interest in teaching from the point of view of the teacher and learning from a student will establish a positive relationship in the classroom. I will be focusing on the relationship between the student and teacher, involving a setting in the primary grades, which I have found second grade to be extremely important for the student to gain a positive attitude for their future education. Children have different strategies for learning and achieving their goals. A few students in a classroom will grasp and learn quickly, but at the same time there will be those who have to be repeatedly taught using different techniques for the student to be able to understand the lesson. On the other hand, there are those students who fool around and use school as entertainment. Teaching then becomes difficult, especially if there is no proper communication. Yet, teachers, creating a positive relationship with their students, will not necessarily control of all the disruptive students. The book, Responsible Classroom Discipline written by Vernon F. Jones and Louise Jones discuss how to create a learning environment approachable for children in the elementary schools. According to the Jones, Student disruptions will occur frequently in classes that are poorly organized and managed where students are not provided with appropriate and interesting instructional tasks (101). The key is, teachers need to continuously monitor the student in order for him or her to be aware of any difficulties the student is having. Understanding the childs problem, fear, or confusion will give the teacher a better understanding the childs learning difficulties. Once the teacher becomes aware of the problems, he or she will have more patience with the student, thus making the child feel secure or less confused when learning is taking place in the classroom. The communication between the student and the teacher serves as a connection between the two, which provides a better atmosphere for a classroom environment. Of course a teacher is not going to understand every problem for every child in his or her classroom, but will acquire enough information for those students who are struggling with specific tasks. A significant body of research indicates that academic achievement and student behavior are influenced by the quality of the teacher and student relationship (Jones 95). The more the teacher connects or communicates with his or her students, the more likely they will be able to help students learn at a high level and accomplish quickly. The teacher needs to understand that in many schools, especially in big cities like Los Angeles, children come from different cultures and backgrounds. A teacher then needs to understand the value of the students' senses of belonging, which can be of greater value and build self worth for minority students. If the teacher demonstrates an understanding of the students culture, it will provide a better understanding between the teacher and the student. Though there are students who have a difficult time in school and according to David

Thomas essay, The Mind of Man states, children who are yelled at feel rejected and frightened because a teacher shouts at them (Thomas 122). The example above demonstrates the feelings the child has towards the teacher leading to inhibiting the child from learning. The reasons for children to be yelled at vary from teacher to teacher, but shouting should not be the solution for children who find education a difficult process or simply lack of learning experiences, but sometimes teachers find yelling at the child as the only quick solution. Therefore, those teachers who demonstrate respect towards their students, automatically win favor by having active learners in their classroom. The arrogant or offensive teacher will lack these positive qualities due to his or her lack of control over the children. Teachers should assert that they should also be treated with respect and their responsibilities to ensure that students treat each other with kindness. According to the Jones, teachers are encouraged to blend their warmth and firmness towards the students in their classroom, but with realistic limits (111). Another point, I have often found critical, are the number of times the teacher does not correct the students who find calling names to their classmates amusing. Children who are teased or bullied by other children find themselves being victimized by their peers. Children who have become victims of this nature find learning difficult. They will be stressed out not only by trying to achieve academically, but also because the names they have been appointed by their classmates are destructive, demeaning, and destroy self esteem. Therefore, it is important for teachers to have children respect each other. Usually, a type of lesson involving with self-esteem can be an excellent activity for children who are involved in this destructive nature. Teachers who are in a classroom everyday have experienced one time or another the student(s) who are disruptive and/or find learning boring. Teachers understand that if this behavior continues in the classroom and if they do nothing to prevent this from happening, the outcome proves to be disastrous for both types of participants. The student will conclude that his or her behavior is permissible, and will draw away from learning, therefore it is essentially important for the teacher to explain to the child the importance to learn. Though we understand that learning cannot be forced. Learning becomes a process for an individual where he or she feels comfortable with learning whether its in a classroom or at home. Mike Rose explains in Lives on the Boundary that It is what we are excited about that educates us (106). Roses quote can be applied to children at an early age, just as well as it can be applied to adults. Definitely children learn when they enjoy learning, but also they need some control over the teacher (s) decisions. Authoritarian control is often destructive to students who are in the primary grades, and eventually upper grades teachers have difficulty dealing with children who were taught with an authoritarian teacher (Jones 215). Children in primary grades feel the urge to talk about their problems, fears, or even show their knowledge, but at the same time they want to be listened too. The student will feel valued and respected. Students feel flattered when the teacher eventually gives them the option of contributing, or in other words the teacher asks for an opinion, which is usually not offered to the students. The teacher(s) does not have to give up all their control, rather teachers share control with students and encourage interactions that are determined by mutual agreement. For teachers conducting a classroom and shaping the minds of the young students, teachers who communicate effectively with their students should give appropriate and helpful feedback to their students. Interaction between the student and teacher becomes extremely important for a successful relationship through the entire time of a school year. A close, but limited relationship between the student and teacher can be helpful for those students who are shy, and find speaking in front of the classroom difficult or children who have low selfesteem. The tension these students hold in a classroom will have the confidence they had always wanted, but never achieved due to not having a good relationship with the teacher. Another important point is raised when teachers think of themselves as traditional are following the canonical approach. The traditional teachers follow the famous list of books to be read by his or her students. Many children will not enjoy reading because they do not have the background to understand the material. They do not have any interest in the book, which makes reading confusing and difficult to understand. Students have felt what mattered most was the relationship teachers established with their students providing guidance to students who have felt inadequate or threatened (Rose 115). Teachers who follow the traditional curriculum do not necessarily need to focus on their traditional ideas, but rather interact with their students and find interesting topics to discuss with their students. Therefore, how does a teacher hold a relationship that leads to effectively teach the children? The answer becomes clear when teachers interact with, and learn more about their students. Our first educational experience, which takes place in the primary years of our life, sets the principles for our future education. Every school year an elementary teacher deals with new faces and new attitudes. Some children find themselves lacking an interest in learning and others feel playing and fooling around at school with friends is the happiest moment of their life. The solution to inappropriate behavior will not automatically get rid of the poor attitude of these children, but is to establish a positive relationship. Teachers can establish a positive relationship with their students by communicating with them and properly providing feedback to them. Respect between teacher and student with both feeling enthusiastic when learning and teaching. Having established a positive relationship with students will encourage students to seek education and be enthusiastic and to be in school. Remembering our favorite teacher will be recognized because they had at least in one way or another the qualities I discussed in this essay, although we are not aware of it during the time we are in school, but teachers are well recognized at a later time of our lives. eCreative drama is an improvisational, non-exhibitional, process-centered form of drama in which participants are guided by a leader to image, enact and reflect upon human experience. The purpose of creative drama is to foster personality growth and to facilitate learning of the participants rather than to train actors for the stage. Creative drama may be used to teach the art of drama and/or motivate and extend the learning in other content areas. Participation in creative drama has the potential to develop language and communication abilities, problem-solving skills, and creativity; to promote a positive self-concept, social awareness, empathy, a clarification of values and attitudes, and an understanding of the art of theater. Built on human impulse and ability to act out perceptions of the world in order to understand it, creative drama requires both logical and intuitive thinking, personalizes knowledge, and yields aesthetic pleasure. Problem analysis vs decision making It is important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision making. The concepts are completely separate from one another. Traditionally it is argued that problem analysis must be done first, so that the information gathered in that process may be used towards decision making. [4] Problem analysis

Analyze performance, what should the results be against what they actually are Problems are merely deviations from performance standards Problem must be precisely identified and described Problems are caused by a change from a distinctive feature Something can always be used to distinguish between what has and hasn't been effected by a cause Causes to problems can be deducted from relevant changes found in analyzing the problem Most likely cause to a problem is the one that exactly explains all the facts

Decision making

Objectives must first be established Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance Alternative actions must be developed The alternative must be evaluated against all the objectives The alternative that is able to achieve all the objectives is the tentative decision The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences The decisive actions are taken, and additional actions are taken to prevent any adverse consequences from becoming problems and starting both systems (problem analysis and decision making) all over again There are steps that are generally followed that result in a decision model that can be used to determine an optimal production plan. [5] In a situation featuring conflict, role-playing is helpful for predicting decisions to be made by involved parties.[6]

Decision planning One must keep in mind that most decisions are made unconsciously. Jim Nightingale, Author of Think Smart-Act Smart, states that "we simply decide without thinking much about the decision process." In a controlled environment, such as a classroom, instructors encourage students to weigh pros and cons before making a decision. However in the real world, most of our decisions are made unconsciously in our mind because frankly, it would take too much time to sit down and list the pros and cons of each decision we must make on a daily basis.[citation needed] Logical decision making is an important part of all science-based professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in a given area to making informed decisions. For example, medical decision making often involves making a diagnosis and selecting an appropriate treatment. Some[which?] research using naturalistic methods shows, however, that in situations with higher time pressure, higher stakes, or increased ambiguities, experts use intuitive decision making rather than structured approaches, following a recognition primed decision approach to fit a set of indicators into the expert's experience and immediately arrive at a satisfactory course of action without weighing alternatives. Recent robust decision efforts have formally integrated uncertainty into the decision making process. However, Decision Analysis, recognized and included uncertainties with a structured and rationally justifiable method of decision making since its conception in 1964. A major part of decision making involves the analysis of a finite set of alternatives described in terms of evaluative criteria. These criteria may be benefit or cost in nature

TO TEACH YOUR STUDENTS HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS 1. Give your students problems that they CAN solve This is basic! The joy of problem solving is SOLVING problems. The misery of problem solving is failing to solve problems. Students who experience the JOY of solving problems WANT to solve MORE problems. Students who experience only the misery of failure DO NOT even want to TRY to solve any more problems. To be good problem solvers, students must BELIEVE that they can solve problems. Therefore you must give them problems they CAN SOLVE. 2. Give your students problems that SEEM difficult. This also is basic! If ALL the problems that your students solve are EASY problems, they will not believe they can solve difficult problems. Therefore you must TEACH them to solve problems that SEEM difficult but CAN BE SOLVED--if they try! Problems only SEEM difficult before theyve been solved. After theyve been solved, problems seem easy. 3. Teach your students HOW to solve problems that SEEM difficult. Problems seem difficult when the solution is not obvious. Usually, difficult problems are solved by a series of logical STEPS that CANNOT BE SEENat first! If all the steps of the solution can be seen immediately, the problem is not difficult. But good problem solvers START by TRYING to solve the problem. They take the FIRST STEP, and look for the second step. If they do not see the second step, they take a DIFFERENT first step. In other words good problem solvers start by TRYING to solve problems that seem difficult, not by wondering how to solve them. 4. Teach your students problem-solving STRATEGIES. The choice of a problem solving STRATEGY suggests the first step and helps the problem solver to see the next step. Good problem solvers do not give up; they try a different strategy, a different first step, and then they look for the second step.

positions by acting out characters in hypothetical situations. It can help them understand the range of concerns, values, and positions held by other people. Role playing is an enlightening and interesting way to help students see a problem from another perspective. Divide and Conquer Look for a Pattern Start at the End

5. At first, tell them which strategy to use, but later, expect them to CHOOSE AND TRY to find an effective strategy for themselves. Introduce your students to each of the problem-solving strategies. You will find sample problems for each strategy and sample solutions showing you how experienced students have solved them. At first, tell your students which strategy to use. In this way, the problems are made a little easier, and they will get some practice using each strategy in turn. Eventually, you will not tell them which strategy to use, and for this purpose you may select from the Mixed Problems.