United States

Department
of Agriculture
Wildland Fire in
Forest Service

Rocky Mountain
Research Station
Ecosystems
General Technical
Report RMRS-GTR-42-
volume 3 Effects of Fire on Cultural
May 2012
Resources and Archaeology
 Ryan, Kevin C.; Jones, Ann Trinkle; Koerner, Cassandra L.; Lee, Kristine M., tech. eds. 2012. Wildland fire in
ecosystems: effects of fire on cultural resources and archaeology. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3.
Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 224 p.

Abstract
This state-of-knowledge review provides a synthesis of the effects of fire on cultural resources, which can be used
by fire managers, cultural resource (CR) specialists, and archaeologists to more effectively manage wildland vegeta-
tion, fuels, and fire. The goal of the volume is twofold: (1) to provide cultural resource/archaeological professionals
and policy makers with a primer on fuels, fire behavior, and fire effects to enable them to work more effectively with
the fire management community to protect resources during fuels treatment and restoration projects and wildfire
suppression activities; and (2) to provide fire and land management professionals and policy makers with a greater
understanding of the value of cultural resource protection and the methods available to evaluate and mitigate risks
to CR. The synthesis provides a conceptual fire effects framework for planning, managing, and modeling fire effects
(chapter1) and a primer on fire and fuel processes and fire effects prediction modeling (chapter 2). A synthesis of the
effects of fire on various cultural resource materials is provided for ceramics (chapter 3), lithics (chapter 4), rock art
(chapter 5), historic-period artifacts/materials (chapter 6), and below-ground features (chapter 7). Chapter 8 discusses
the importance of cultural landscapes to indigenous peoples and emphasizes the need to actively involve native
people in the development of collaborative management plans. The use and practical implications of this synthesis
are the subject of the final chapter (chapter 9).

Keywords: cultural resources, heritage resources, archaeology, fire regime, fire environment, fuels management,
fire management, fire planning, wildfire, prescribed fire, First-Order fire effects, Second-Order fire effects,
Third-Order fire effects, Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER), fire severity, traditional cultural
knowledge (TKE), cultural landscapes

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 Wildland Fire in Ecosystems
Effects of Fire on Cultural Resources and Archaeology
Technical Editors
Kevin C. Ryan, Research Forest Ecologist, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
Ann Trinkle Jones, Cultural Resources Coordinator, U.S. National Park System,
Colorado Plateau Cooperative Ecosystem Study Unit (CP CESU), Flagstaff, Arizona.
Cassandra L. Koerner, Graduate Student in Environmental and Natural Resources Policy
and Administration, Department of Public Policy and Administration, Boise State University,
Boise, Idaho.
Kristine M. Lee, Supervisory Biological Scientist and Deputy Program Manager for the
Fire, Fuel, and Smoke (FFS) Science Program; Director of the Fire Modeling Institute, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.

Authors Daniel F. McCarthy, Tribal Relations Program Manager,

Krista Deal, Pacific District Archaeologist, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Eldorado National
Forest, Pollack Pines, California.
Leonard DeBano, Adjunct Professor, School of Renew-
able Natural Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona.
Michael L. Elliot, Archaeologist, Santa Fe National Forest
Mountain Heritage Associates, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Charles Haecker, Archaeologist, National Park Service
Intermountain Region, Heritage Partnerships Program,
Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Ann Trinkle Jones, Cultural Resources Coordinator, U.S.
National Park System, Colorado Plateau Cooperative
Ecosystem Study Unit (CP CESU), Flagstaff, Arizona.
Roger Kelly, National Park Service (retired) and Ex-
ecutive Director (retired), Benicia Historical Museum,
Benicia, California.
Kristine M. Lee, Deputy Program Manager for the Fire,
Fuel, and Smoke (FFS) Science Program; Director of the
Fire Modeling Institute, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula,
Montana.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, San
Bernardino National Forest, Supervisors Office, Heritage
Resources, San Bernardino, California.
Elizabeth Oster, Archaeologist, Jemez Mountain Re-
search Center, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Trisha Rude, Macrobotanical Specialist, Aztec Archaeo-
logical Consultants, Aztec, New Mexico.
Samantha M. Ruscava-Barz, Staff Attorney, WildEarth
Guardians, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Kevin C. Ryan, Research Forest Ecologist, U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Fire Sciences
Laboratory, Missoula, Montana.
Nelson Siefkin, Archeologist/BAER Coordinator, Fire
& Aviation Management, National Park Service-Pacific
West Region, Oakland, California.
Rebecca S. Timmons, Forest Archaeologist, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Kootenai
National Forest, Libby, Montana.
John R. Welch, Canada Research Chain, Indigenous
Heritage Stewardship, Department of Archaeology, Simon
Frasier University, British Columbia, Canada.

i
Acknowledgments______________________________
The Rainbow Series was completed under the sponsorship of the Joint Fire Sciences
Program, a cooperative fire science effort of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service and the U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of
Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Park Service.
The authors are grateful for reviews of the manuscript from: Anne Baldwin, Mike
Bremer, J. Claire Dean, Cathy Gilbert, Cari Goetcheus, Rob Jackson, Jane Kolber,
Steve Lentz, Tom Origer, Jim Reardon, Doug Scott, Nelson Siefkin, and George Teague.
The reviews added substantially to the document. We are thankful to Emily Schembra
for her library work and pulling together all the pieces of the final document; Brook
Easterday for editing and working with authors to get their contributions electronically;
Denny Simmerman and Kelsi Plante for graphics support; Larry Bradshaw for provid-
ing weather and fire danger rating for sidebars; and, Miguel Cruz for radiant energy
calculations and graphs. We also appreciate photographic contributions from Sharon
Waechter and Tammara Norton of Farwestern Anthropological Research Group; Don
Bragg, Sally Crum, Clay Johnson, Lee Johnson, David Jurney, Rhonda Kimbrough,
Patricia Lacey, Chris Lydick, Neil Weintraub, and Linda Pollak from CalFire.

Summary_____________________________________
Cultural resources refer to the physical evidence of human occupations that
cultural resource specialists and archaeologists use to reconstruct the past. This
includes the objects, locations, and landscapes that play a significant role in the
history or cultural traditions of a group of people. Cultural resources include artifacts
of historical significance left by prehistoric aboriginal peoples . Archaeological con-
stituents, the basic units of archaeological analysis, consist of artifacts and features.
Artifacts include carved objects, pottery and ceramics, flaked and ground stones,
faunal and floral remains, glass, and metal. Features include earthen works, rock
art (e.g., petroglyphs and pictographs), midden soils, and structures (e.g., buildings,
monuments, etc.). Cultural resources are at risk of being damaged by wildfires as
well as active natural resource management. In Canada and the United States,
managers have legal requirements to protect cultural resources during fuels treat-
ments, restoration activities, wildfire suppression, and post-fire rehabilitation. The
successful implementation of prescribed burning and wildfire suppression in cultural
resources sensitive areas requires integration of cultural resources and wildland
fire science. Knowledge of the local archaeology, artifact materials, site types, and
context is essential to minimizing the negative impacts of all management activities.
Likewise, understanding fuels, fire behavior, and heat transfer mechanisms is key
to predicting, managing, and monitoring the effects of fire on cultural resources.
This volume of the Rainbow Series synthesizes the relationships between fire and
cultural resources. It presents the reader with the context of contemporary fire use
and how these fire management tactics may affect prehistoric and historic cultural
resources. It synthesizes the impacts of fire and fire management on various types
of cultural resources and identifies management strategies to minimize negative
impacts on cultural resources.
Chapter 1 provides basic definitions of wildland fire, the categories of cultural
resources (including basic operational definitions), and the legal framework for both
the United States and Canada for resource protection. It provides a framework
for classifying fire effects by direct versus indirect effects into First-Order (fire-
caused changes), Second-Order (post-fire biophysical changes), and Third-Order
(human actions/reactions). Chapter 2 provides an overview of the various spatial
and temporal scales of fire analysis and their relationship to the effects on cultural
resources. It includes a primer on the biophysical processes that couples fuels and
fire behavior to the observable effects on cultural resource types, and identifies a

ii
number of fire behavior and effects models useful for fire planning and prescription
development. Chapter 3 summarizes fire effects on prehistoric ceramicswhich
in North America are primarily earthenware, a porous ceramic, fired at a relatively
low temperatureincluding the direct effects of heating and sooting on the visual
and physical characteristics that affect archaeological dating and sourcing as well
as the indirect effects on the depositional environment and its impact on interpre-
tation. Chapter 4 describes common lithic artifacts, including flaked and ground
stone objects, and the effects of fire on archaeological interpretation including
obsidian hydration, thermoluminesence, and archaeo-magnetic dating. Chapter 5
describes the effects of fire and fire management on petroglyphs and pictographs
(rock art) and the significance of these resources in understanding the history and
culture of the site. Chapter 6 describes historical sites and artifacts in the context
of their material makeup, their susceptibility to fire, and the types of fire damage. It
also stresses the need to move beyond describing historic resources solely on the
basis of their material properties and physical boundaries, but to asses them in the
context of the landscape in which they occur. Chapter 7 focuses on the effects of
fire on subsurface archeological deposits: the matrix containing post-depositional
fill, artifacts, ecofactual data, dating samples, and other cultural and non-cultural
materials. In order to provide a context for understanding these data, this chapter
provides a summary of previous research about the potential effects of fire on
subsurface cultural materials. Chapter 8 describes the significance of wildland fire
and fire management to contemporary communities and provides a clear distinc-
tion between the definitions of tangible and intangible resource components. It also
challenges us to go beyond the tangible materials science and regulatory compli-
ance measures of cultural resources and begin to integrate the formal, historical,
and relational aspects of landscapes into planning and management of cultural
resources. It emphasizes the need to develop and implement programs that are
integral to the landscape through consultation with affected communities. Finally,
chapter 9 presents a framework for integrating cultural resource and wildland fire
management, provides practical applications for situations mentioned throughout
the text, and clearly defines management roles in fire situations. It also elaborates
on the process of identification, evaluation (documentation), and mitigation in both
planned (prescribed) and unplanned (wildland) fire situations.
The Editors
July 2007

iii
Contents_________________________________
Page

Chapter 1: Effects of Fire on Cultural ResourcesIntroduction..................... 1

by Kevin C. Ryan, Cassandra L. Koerner, Kristine M. Lee, and Nelson Siefkin

Introduction............................................................................................................................1

Cultural Resources................................................................................................................2

Legal Protection....................................................................................................................6

Cultural Resources Categorized.........................................................................................10

Tangible and Intangible Cultural Resources...............................................................10

Fire Management................................................................................................................10
Categories of Effects...................................................................................................11

What is the Objective of This Volume?................................................................................13

Chapter 2: Fire Behavior and Effects: Principles for

Archaeologists............................................................................................ 15
by Kevin C. Ryan and Cassandra Koerner

Fire Basics...........................................................................................................................16
Combustion.................................................................................................................17
Heat Transfer..............................................................................................................18
Fire Behavior Principles..............................................................................................20

The Many Scales of Fire.....................................................................................................22

Fire Behavior and Effects: Concepts and Models...............................................................23

Fire Environment.........................................................................................................23

Fire Intensity, Depth of Burn, and Fire Severity...................................................................37

Fire Intensity...............................................................................................................37
Depth of Burn..............................................................................................................39
Fire Severity................................................................................................................40

Integrating Fire Severity With Cultural Resources..............................................................41

Fire Regime.........................................................................................................................45

Fire Planning.......................................................................................................................48
Fire Planning Software................................................................................................52

Conclusions.........................................................................................................................55

Appendix 2-1A Field Guide to Fire Severity Terminology and Classification...................56

Fire Characteristics: Fire Intensity Classes.................................................................56
Fire Characteristics: Depth of Burn Classes...............................................................67
Fire Severity Matrix.....................................................................................................75

Chapter 3: Fire Effects on Prehistoric Ceramics............................................. 85

by Trisha Rude and Anne Trinkle Jones

Materials and Mechanics of Pottery Construction...............................................................86

Pottery as Raw Material..............................................................................................87
Vessel Formation and Preparation for Firing..............................................................87
Decoration...................................................................................................................88
Clay Firing...................................................................................................................88

iv
 Page

Firing Effects on Non-Clay Inclusions..................................................................................89

Pottery Use and Post-Depositional Changes..............................................................90

Fire Effects Research..........................................................................................................91

Fire Effects on Appearance.........................................................................................92
Fire Effects on Analytical Properties...........................................................................93

Conclusions.........................................................................................................................94

Chapter 4: Fire Effects on Flaked Stone, Ground Stone, and

Other Stone Artifacts..........................................................................................97
by Krista Deal

Introduction..........................................................................................................................97

Lithic Artifacts and Fire........................................................................................................98

Some Caveats............................................................................................................98

Flaked Stone.......................................................................................................................99
Chert: Flint, Jasper, Chalcedony, and Related Silicates.............................................99
Obsidian....................................................................................................................101
Basalt........................................................................................................................105
Quartz, Quartzite, Mudstone, Rhyolite, Siltstone, Slate, and Vitrified and Welded Tuff......105

Ground Stone....................................................................................................................106

Thermal Effects on Rock Used as Heating or Cooking Stones.........................................108

Other Stone Artifacts.................................................................................................109

Implications for Cultural Resource Protection and Fire Planning......................................110

Chapter 5: Fire Effects on Rock Images and Similar

Cultural Resources................................................................................... 113
by Roger E. Kelly and Daniel F. McCarthy

Introduction........................................................................................................................113
Setting and Placement..............................................................................................116

Heritage And Research Values..........................................................................................117

Fire Effects........................................................................................................................117

Field Examples..................................................................................................................122
Hawaii.......................................................................................................................122
Arizona......................................................................................................................122
Texas.........................................................................................................................124
California...................................................................................................................124
Colorado...................................................................................................................125
Utah..........................................................................................................................125
Washington...............................................................................................................127
Kentucky...................................................................................................................127
Nevada......................................................................................................................127
Field Examples: Observations..................................................................................127

Mitigation and Protection...................................................................................................127

Restoration and Stabilization.............................................................................................130

Resources Available..........................................................................................................130

v
 Page

Chapter 6: Fire Effects on Materials of the Historic Period.......................... 131

by Charles Haecker

Types of Fire Damage.......................................................................................................132

Historic Structures.............................................................................................................132
Native Materials Structures.......................................................................................132
Structures Using Manufactured Materials.................................................................136

Historic Artifacts.................................................................................................................137
Glass.........................................................................................................................137
Metal.........................................................................................................................140
Miscellaneous Artifacts.............................................................................................142

Summary...........................................................................................................................142

Chapter 7: The Effects of Fire on Subsurface Archaeological Materials.... 143

by Elizabeth A. Oster, Samantha Ruscavage-Barz, and Michael L. Elliott

Fire and Cultural Sites.......................................................................................................143

Fire Effects and Subsurface Cultural Resources: Previous Research..............................144

Post-Fire Studies of Archaeological Sites.................................................................145
Experimental Studies Dealing with the
Effects of Heat on Artifacts, Ecofacts, and Datable Materials...................................146
Thermal Alteration of Cultural Materials and Features..............................................147

Dendrochronology.............................................................................................................150

Radiocarbon Dating (14C)..................................................................................................150

Archeomagnetic Dating.....................................................................................................150

Obsidian Hydration............................................................................................................150

Case Study: Investigation of Subsurface Heating Effects at Bandelier National

Monument, NewMexico..............................................................................................151
Thermal Alteration of Ecofacts and Cultural Materials..............................................152
Correlation Between Heating Effects on Archaeological Materials and Visible
Changes in the Surrounding Matrix..........................................................................153
Correspondence Between SHE Study Fire Effects and Effects Noted in
Experimental Fires....................................................................................................154
Alteration of Datable Materials..................................................................................154
Potential for Detecting Ancient Fires, and Correspondence of Surface
and Subsurface Burn Severity Data..........................................................................155

Summary and Conclusions...............................................................................................155

Postscript..................................................................................................................156

Chapter 8: Effects of Fire on Intangible Cultural Resources:

Moving Toward a Landscape Approach................................................. 157
by John R. Welch

Fire Policy and Standard Practice in Cultural Resource Management.............................158

Approach, Scope, and Goals....................................................................................159

Why Consider Fire Effects on Intangible Cultural Resources?..........................................161

Cultural Resources in Local and Management Community Context.................................163

Local Communities...................................................................................................163
Management Communities.......................................................................................163

vi
 Page

Landscapes as Common Ground......................................................................................164

Beyond Compliance and Materials Science......................................................................165

Steps and Stumbling Blocks in Inter-Community Collaboration...........................................166

People First...............................................................................................................167
One Local Community at a Time...............................................................................167
Deal Face Up............................................................................................................167
The Sooner the Better...............................................................................................168
Go to the Source.......................................................................................................168
Respect Tribal Sovereignty.......................................................................................168

Summary and Recommendations.....................................................................................168

Concluding Thoughts.........................................................................................................170

Chapter 9: Implications of Fire Management on Cultural Resources......... 171

by Rebecca S. Timmons, Leonard deBano, and Kevin C. Ryan

Planning............................................................................................................................172

Risk Management.............................................................................................................175

Wildland Fire Management Recommendations................................................................180

Prescribed Fire..................................................................................................................182
Prescribed Fire Management Recommendations.....................................................185

Fire Rehabilitation.............................................................................................................186
Fire Rehabilitation Recommendations......................................................................186

Fire Use.............................................................................................................................186
Fire Use Recommendations.....................................................................................186

Summary...........................................................................................................................190

References........................................................................................................................192

Glossary............................................................................................................................209

Index..................................................................................................................................223

vii
Kevin C. Ryan
Cassandra L. Koerner
Kristine M. Lee
Nelson Siefkin
Chapter 1:
Effects of Fire on Cultural
ResourcesIntroduction
The worlds diverse cultures have their varying
creation stories (Moyers and Campbell 1988; UGA
2000). Many of these stories contain physical fea-
tures: the mountains, hills, plains, and rivers of their
native lands that are integral components of cultural
traditions (Berkes and others 2000; Goetcheus
2002; King 2003; Martin 2002; Parker 1993; Parker
and King 1990; Smythe and York 2009; Stoffle and
others 1997). Fire figures prominently in the tradi-
tions of most cultures, both in their beliefs and their
practices (Lewis and Ferguson 1988; Stewart 2002;
Williams 2001, http://www.wildlandfire.com/docs/
biblio_indianfire.htm). Before modern civilizations
developed, early civilizations existed for millennia
sometimes in urban settings, sometimes in pastoral
or agrarian settings, and sometimes in hunter-
gather settings, but always in close association with
fire as a fuel for light, warmth, cooking/food preserva-
tion, security, and industry (Arnold 1961; Brown and
others 2009; de Lumley 2006; Gowlett 2006, 2010;
James 1989; Webb and Domanski 2009). Indeed, it
is argued that before there were hunter-gatherers
there were gatherers. Human physiology and anatomy
suggest that mastery of fire must have predated
specialized hunting (Sussman and Hart 2008). To
early cultures, control and use of fire increased their
survival through manipulation of habitats to promote
desired foods, materials, and medicines. For millennia,
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 1
bands of hunter-gatherers roamed the land following the
rhythms of the seasonsripening of plant resources
and animal migrations. The advent of agriculture
roughly 8,000 years ago is widely understood to have
caused major changes in land use (c.f., Diamond 1997,
2005; Thomas 1956). In recent years there has been
considerable debate as to the role of aboriginal people in
altering the landscape (c.f., Boyd 1999; Denevan 1992;
Stewart 2002; Vale 2002). It is, however, increasingly
understood that those who came before uswhether
hunter-gatherer or agricultural-urban dwellerhave
been major agents of land change through their burning
practices (Abrams and Nowacki 2008; Fesenmeyer and
Christensen 2010; Nowacki and Abrams 2008; Scharf
2010a,b; Springer and others 2010; Thomas 1956). It
is becoming increasingly apparent that the combined
effects of agriculture and fire have affected not only the
vegetation but also atmosphere and climate ( Carcaillet
and others 2002; Ruddiman 2003, 2007). Thus, fire
and culture are inexorably intertwined, all part of the
human experience. We are a fire people and this is a
fire planet (Pyne 1982, 1995, 2001, 2004).
scholars have wasted (in my view) too much time
and effort on a science versus traditional knowledge
debate; we should reframe it instead as a science and
traditional knowledge dialog and partnership. (Fikret
Berkes 2009)
 Aboriginal people adapted their tools and fire use
to meet the needs of their environment. The details of
fire use by various Native people are beyond the scope
of this volume. Readers are directed to the archaeo-
logical libraries for exploration of those relationships.
However, cultural resource management in fire prone
environments requires knowledge both of the people
who inhabited those lands, historic fire regimes, and
current fire activity (fig. 1-1).
Knowledge about the role of fire in the earths
vegetation-climate system and of peoples use of fire
for a variety of cultural purposes has grown tremen-
dously in the past two decades. Much of this new knowl-
edge stems from the innate desire to understand our
origins and more recently from the quest for greater
understanding of climate change science and feedback
mechanisms within the climate system, including the
role humans have played in affecting vegetation and
climate (Brown and others 2009; Carcaillet and oth-
ers 2002; Ruddiman 2003, 2007). The recognition of
fires integral role in the maintenance of many fire
dependent plant communities (Brown and Smith
2002) and the development of healthy landscapes
has also fueled recent research, and led to greater un-
derstanding. The preponderance of evidence suggests
that the role and use of fire in the United States and
Canada have changed markedly since Pre-Columbian
times (Abrams and Nowacki 2008; Fesenmeyer and
Christensen 2010; Nowacki and Abrams 2008; Scharf
2010a,b; Springer and others 2010; chapter 2; and
th
many others). The 20 centurythe era of wide spread
cessation of aboriginal burning practices, landscape
fragmentation and fire suppressionis the most
recent human influence on fire as a natural process
in the development of vegetation. The area burned
th
declined for decades in the 20 century (Agee 1993;
Leenhouts 1998) but has been increasing since about
1970 (Agee 1993; Westerling and others 2006) (fig. 1-2).
With this increase in area burned comes an increased
risk of damage to cultural resources. Further, public
concern for the impacts of increasingly large (fig. 1-2),
damaging, and costly fires has led to greater emphasis
on fire management programs, particularly fire use.
Wildfires, as well as suppression efforts, hazardous
fuels treatments, and post-fire restoration projects all
differentially pose a risk to cultural resources (mechani-
cally, chemically, functionally, and aesthetically).
Cultural Resources_______________
What are cultural resources and why should we be
concerned about protecting them during fire manage-
ment activities? Cultural resources are material and
non-material items that represent physical and spiri-
tual presence and practices of society throughout
2 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
its development. Cultural resources are important
resources that bind those of us living today with our
ancestors, traditions, and histories. They are generally
viewed as non-renewable resources. They are often
fragile tangible objects susceptible to thermal damage
during wildland fires (wildfires and prescribed fires),
and physical damage from management-related dis-
turbances. Others, in particular indigenous peoples,
view cultural resources as encompassing all the ele-
ments of the environment that sustain culture. From
this perspective, living organisms (plants, animals,
fungi, etc.) and the condition of sites or areas are con-
sidered as potential cultural resources. Ethics argue
that cultural resources should be protected for their
value to this and future generations, and they are
protected by numerous laws. Discussion of the many
laws is beyond the scope of this review. A primer on
the important laws for the United States and Canada
may be found at http://www.nps.gov/history/laws.htm
and http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/docs/r/pfa-fap/index.aspx,
respectively. Specific laws will be mentioned as needed
by the chapter authors.
In the United States, cultural resources generally
fall into three types:
1. PrehistoricAs defined in the 1979 Archaeologi-
cal Resources Protection Act (ARPA), the term
archaeological resources means Any material
remains of past human life or activities which are
of archaeological interest and include human
remains; burial sites; weapons, tools, vessels
(baskets, ceramics, etc.); lithic scatters; milling
and quarry sites; refuse or debris piles; middens;
rock shelters; temporary camp sites; house, vil-
lage, ceremonial sites; and sacred places.
2. HistoricAs defined in the 1976 National
Historic Preservation Act, historic includes
buildings (cabins, houses, barns, businesses,
churches); settlements; improvements (corrals,
water works), sites of important events (e.g.,
battlegrounds, treaties); passageways (canals,
trails, roads, railroads, tunnels); refuse piles;
cemeteries; distinct districts or communities; and
unique landscaping, architecture or construction.
3. ContemporaryNational Register of Historic
Places has guidelines and procedures for deter-
mining places that qualify for inclusion. These
include traditional cultural properties (Parker
and King 1993); locations of important events;
traditional resource collection locations; religious
or spiritual sites; sacred places; sites with valued
vistas; recreation sites; and cemeteries.
Similar criteria apply in the Canadian Provinces with
local variations.
 a

Figure 1-1(a) Early Indian tribes, cultural areas, and linguistic stocks (Sturtevant 1967) and (b) current probability of fire occurrence (shown on next page) (Finney

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 3

and others 2011).
 b

Figure 1-2Observed and reconstructed area-burned comparison. Time series of observed total wildre area burned for 11
western U.S. States for the period 19162009 (bars, adjusted for area reporting bias) (from Littell and others 2009).

4 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 The term cultural resource is used throughout this
volume because it is the common vernacular used by
Federal or State/Provincial land management agencies
in the United States or Canada, respectively. Other
organizations, governmental bodies, and individuals
also use the terms heritage resources or archaeologi-
cal resources. The three termscultural resources,
heritage resources, and archaeological resourcesmay
have some unique legal implications but from a fire and
materials effect perspective they are indistinguishable
and are synonymous herein unless specifically noted
by an author.
From an ecological perspective, fire is a process
necessary for the maintenance of viable populations
of many species because of its direct effects, as well
as the creation of landscape mosaic of essential habi-
tat conditions (Brown and Smith 2002; Smith 2000).
Although fire is a vital ecological process, the histori-
cal archaeological record of many tribes cultural and
social achievements is increasingly threatened by
recent increases in fire intensity, frequency, size, and
subsequent management activities.
Pre-historically, landscapes typically experienced
systematic fire return intervals and fires were routinely
set by indigenous people worldwide for various reasons
(Denevan 1992; Kay and Simmons 2002; chapter 2).
Research has documented the wide ranging use of fire
by Native Americans to manipulate the landscape,
prepare open areas to plant crops, and increase forage
for roaming megafauna, such as buffalo, elk, and deer
(Stewart 2002; Williams 2000). In both written and
oral histories of many tribes, fire is spoken of as an
instrument in bringing in animals and new growth,
thus helping to increase food availability and economic
security.
Indigenous peoples detailed traditional knowledge
about fire, although superficially referenced in various
writings, has not for the most part been analyzed in
detail or simulated by resource managers, wildlife
biologists, and ecologistsInstead, scientists have
developed the principles and theories of fire ecology,
fire behavior and effects models, and concepts of
conservation, wildlife management, and ecosystem
management largely independent of native examples.
(in Stewart 2002:4)
Studying ancient cultures and their practices may
help to identify fire use tactics and recognize pres-
ervation techniques of both tangible and intangible
resources that have stood the test of time. Only by
looking to the past, can we truly prepare for the future
by ensuring that history does not repeat itself through
catastrophic events that could be prevented. Thus, the
study of traditional cultural knowledge and its integra-
tion into land and resource management is increasingly
recognized as a valuable contribution (Berkes 2009;
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 5
Berkes and others 2000; Kimmerer and Lake 2001,
2007). Current research has also shown a close link
between the frequency and intensity of anthropogenic
and lightning caused fires and the amount of woody
fuel accumulation. For example, in long-needled
coniferous forest, particularly in the southeastern and
western United States, these frequently recurring fires
thinned out the trees, pruned the survivors, and kept
fuel load low, leading to open grasslands and park-like
tree stands (Brown and Smith 2002).
In 1905, the United States Congress created the
United States Forest Service (USFS). Several large
fires early in the century put fire suppression in the
forefront of Forest Service fire management. Following
severe fires in Idaho and Montana, the Chief of the
Forest Service established in 1935, a 10 a.m. policy
(http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/people/aboutus.html). The
goal of the 10 a.m. policy was to plan and manage each
fire so as to control the fire by 10 a.m. of the next day
(Pyne 1982). The 10 a.m. policy became the dominant
th
strategy during much of the rest of the 20 century.
Although somewhat less aggressively due to limited
resources, other State and Federal agencies also at-
tempted to implement this strategy. In a parallel way,
Canadian managers sought to limit fire in much of
Canada. This effort across North America effectively
lengthened the fire return interval and fostered the
accumulation of fuels for many forests, woodlands,
shrublands, and grasslands. The results of this fire
exclusion policy unwittingly led to hazardous fuel
levels, fires of ever increasing size and severity, and
a general decline in ecosystem health (Kaufmann and
others 2004; Keane and others 2002).
Although the attempted exclusion of fire was debated
throughout the 1940s and 1950s, particularly in the
academic literature, it was the dominant philosophy.
In 1963, the Leopold Committee issued its report to
the U.S. National Park Service regarding wildfire
management issues (Leopold Report, http://www.
nps.gov/history/history/online_books/leopold/leopold.
htm). This report identified the importance of fire in
restoring and maintaining habitat for several species.
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, research continued
to define the importance of fire in ecosystems and the
Congress passed several environmental and cultural
resource protection laws.
The 1960s and 1970s began a period of transition
in fire policy. Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park
in California created the first prescribed natural fire
program in 1968 (Stephens and Ruth 2005). In
1977, the Forest Service changed their fire policy to
emphasize a balanced fire control program, provide
for natural and planned prescribed fires, and to in-
corporate fire planning into the land management
planning process (Nelson 1979). Forest managers, on
the other hand, were fighting a battle against fire
and major fuel accumulation from over half-a-century
of suppression efforts on Federal, tribal, and private
lands (Nelson 1979; Stephens and Ruth 2005). It wasnt
until years later after several catastrophic fire events
that the Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy
was adopted in 1995 (amended in 2001). The Policy,
its 2001 revision, the 2003 Healthy Forests Restora-
tion Act, and the sequence of costly fire seasons that
spurred these developments made it clear that fuels
reduction would remain the driving issue in forest
management in the United States for the foreseeable
future (Franklin and Agee 2003). Finally, fire man-
agement included more agencies than just the Forest
Service; the National Park Service, Bureau of Indian
Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, United States
Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Biologi-
cal Service all became active participants under the
Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy. Addition-
ally, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (e.g. The
Nature Conservancy) developed national, regional, and
local programs to address the need for increased fire
use for protection of lives, property, and to promote
resource benefits (fire@tnc.org).
Under this new policy, managers are expected to
reintroduce fire on millions of acres per year to reduce
hazardous levels of fuel throughout the landscape and
create healthy ecosystems with fire-adapted species.
The central message embedded in this policy shift
is that the foregoing century of fire suppression and
other management practices have disrupted the bal-
ance between land and resource use and have also
changed peoples sense of place and their reliance on
public and tribal lands for their livelihood (see Karjala
and Dewhurst 2003; Moseley and Toth 2004). It is
ironic that, in many cases, frequent past burning may
have helped preserve artifacts in the cultural context,
while todays wildland fires and prescribed burns are
impacting and destroying the artifacts and evidence
of their cultural significance.
Legal Protection_________________
The Federal/Provincial, tribal/First Nations, and
local governments in the United States and Canada
have played a major role in determining the legal pro-
tections given to the many different classes of cultural
resources. Cultural resource specialists, with the help
of local communities, can interpret and apply these
legal protections using standards recognized in both
the United States and Canada. Tribal governments
primary role in the creation of legal protection for
cultural resources is to be consulted by government
officials for establishing proper means of protection,
conservation or mitigation (for the United States see
E.O. 13175: Consultation and Coordination with Indian
Tribal Governments). The United States Congress
6 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
passed the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA)
in 1966. Although not the first Federal historic pres-
ervation law in the United States, the NHPA, unlike
earlier legislation, such as the Antiquities Act (1906),
Historic Sites Act (1935), and Reservoir Salvage Act
(1960), very specifically defined what forms cultural
resources can take and criteria by which their signifi-
cance is measured (King 2008; National Park Service
2006).
Section 101 of the NHPA authorized creation of a
National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), the official
list of significant cultural resources in the United States
worthy of preservation. The NRHP includes criteria to
evaluate properties for the National Register (http://
www.achp.gov/nrcriteria.html). These consist of the
following:
The quality of significance in American history,
architecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture
is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures,
and objects that possess integrity of location, de-
sign, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and
association and
(a) that are associated with events that have
made a significant contribution to the broad
patterns of our history; or
(b) that are associated with the lives of persons
significant in our past; or
(c) that embody distinctive characteristics of a
type, period, or method of construction, or that
represent the work of a master, or that possess
high artistic values, or that represent a significant
and distinguishable entity whose components
may lack individual distinction; or
(d) that have yielded, or may be likely to yield,
information important in prehistory or history.
To become a historic property, a cultural resource must
satisfy several requirements:
Classifiable as a site, building, structure, object,
or district (aggregates of one or more of these
categories) (table 1-1);
Except under unique circumstances, achieved
significance 50 or more years ago;
Assigned definitive geographic boundaries;
Meet one or more of four NRHP criteria for
evaluation;
Possess and exhibit integrity of location, design,
setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and
association.
Section 106 of the NHPA requires U.S. federal
agencies to take into account the effects of their
management actions on historic properties. Simply
put, without a historic property designation, a po-
tential cultural resource is not provided assurances
by Federal policy as an important cultural resource,
 Sidebar 1-1La Mesa Fire Study
La Mesa Fire, Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, June 1622, 1977
References: Traylor and others (1990)

General Information
Elevation: 1,981.2 to 2,743.2 m (6,500 to 9,600 ft)
Vegetation: 75% ponderosa pine or spruce fir and aspen forest; 25% pinyon-juniper
Topography: canyons, drainages and mesas
Type of study: post-fire qualitative analysis of surface materials

Fire Description
Temperature range: temperature not recorded but may have reached a maximum of 800
C (1472F). Estimated temperature of top 2inches (5.1 cm) of soil: well below 100C
(212F) with maximum temperature. Fire sustained for 10 to 15 minutes.
Duration: 7 days
Relative humidity: 8 to 25%
Fuel: variable
Type of fire: wildland
Energy release component (ERC): 74 to 80
Burning index (BI): 60 to 104

The La Mesa Fire study in Bandelier National Monument was the first major post-fire
investigation of fire effects on heritage resources. The La Mesa Fire started June 16, 1977,
and burned uncontrolled for 7 days. This was a high intensity wildfire, burning more than
60 km (15,000 acres) of forest and pinyon-juniper woodland. It was the first burn in which
archaeologists were enlisted to help firefighters avoid damage to archaeological sites.
After the fire, archaeologists surveyed handlines and bulldozer lines to record site dis-
turbances caused by the fire suppression activities. Pre-burn wildlife transects were also
surveyed archaeologically to evaluate fire effects on sites within a variety of ecological zones.
Post-burn surveys covered only a small sample of the previously unsurveyed burn area.
Survey crews encountered 99 archaeological sites, 54 of which were burned (Traylor and
others 1990). Fire effects were recognized at 51 of these 54 sites (Traylor and others 1990).
Major impacts of the fire included spalling and crumbling of tuff masonry. Increased soil
erosion was also recorded as a major indirect fire impact. Fire effects on surface artifacts
included color change, breakage, and the adherence of residues and sticky adhesions.
Four prehistoric sites, consisting of small (1 to 2 room) masonry structures were excavated
to further assess fire effects on artifacts, architecture, plant and animal remains, and date-
able materials. Two of the sites were moderately burned and two had been burned severely.
Structures were excavated to a floor-depth of about 30 cm (11.8 in). Sub-floor test pits were
also excavated inside the rooms. Laboratory analyses of macrobotanical remains, pollen, soil,
and faunal remains were conducted to assess fire effects at surface and subsurface levels.
Samples for obsidian hydration, tree ring dating, archeomagnetic dating, and radiocarbon
dating were also collected and analyzed (Traylor and others 1990).
In addition to fire impacts, damages caused by fire suppression and rehabilitation activi-
ties were also common. Forty-four of the sites surveyed exhibited some suppression impact
(Traylor and others 1990:100). Bulldozer impacts to archaeological sites were the most severe.
Although archaeological monitors worked with hand crews and bulldozer operators during
the fire suppression, miscommunications caused some sites to be damaged. Fire lines were
sometimes widened and large safety areas bladed without archaeological consultation. Also,
bulldozers used for rehabilitation work were not monitored by archaeologists. Due to these
problems, bulldozers completely leveled eight sites and caused significant architectural
damage to seven sites (Traylor and others 1990).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 7

 Table 1-1Comparability of U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service,
National Register of Historic Places and Canadian Register of Historic Places
Cultural Resource Categories.
National Register of Canadian Register of
USDI, National Park Service Historic Places Historic Places
Archeological resources Site Archeological site
Structure District
Object
District
Structures Building Building
Structure Structure
Object District
District
Cultural landscapes Site Landscape
District District
Ethnographic resources Site Archeological site
Building Building
Structure Structure
Object District
District
Museum objects N/A N/A
Adapted from USDI, National Park Service (1997), National Register of Historic Places (NRHP);
Parks Canada 2003.

and therefore afforded no consideration under the
NHPA. However, as seen in table 1-2, museum
objects, though not on the list of NHPA approved
fields, contain elements of other entities and are
often considered outside of their NPS grouping as
a structure or object.
Owing to the circumstances of history and the bene
fits of hindsight, historic preservation in Canada has
taken a different trajectory than in the United States.
Only recently has the Canadian Federal government
taken a major role in establishing uniform nation-
wide preservation standards. Rather, it is provincial
and territorial governments that have the most explicit
laws related to historic preservation, albeit they vary
from one another and are restricted to archaeological
resources (Parks Canada 2000). The Canadian Fed-
eral government currently has no umbrella legislation
akin to the NHPA, relying instead on various policies
and directives that support the preservation of cultural
resources, as well as the Canadian Environmental
Assessment Act (CEAA) (Canadian Environmental
Assessment Agency 1996), which is effectively the
counterpart of NEPA.
In an effort to promote a standardized approach
to cultural resources management, Federal, Provin-
cial, territorial and local governments launched the
Historic Places Initiative in 2000 (http://www.pc.gc.
ca/progs/plp-hpp/plp-hpp1_E.asp). Two important
consequences of this initiative were the Canadian
Register of Historic Places (http://www.historic-
places.ca/) and Standards and Guidelines for the
Conservation of Historic Places in Canada (Parks
Canada 2003). The Canadian Register lists those
cultural resources, called historic places, formally
recognized as significant by Federal, Provincial,
territorial and local governments. The Standards
and Guidelines define historic places as structures,
buildings, groups of buildings, districts, landscapes,
and archaeological sites possessing heritage value.
In some respects, the Canadian concept of cultural
resources, as portrayed in law, policy, directives,
guidelines, and philosophy, is what many practitio-
ners of cultural resources management in the United
States wish was more explicitly reflected in the NHPA,
NRHP, and other key components of historic preserva-
tion. For example, cultural landscapes are recognized
as a formal resource type in Canada, whereas in the
United States the nexus between landscapes and the
NRHP can be awkward, particularly with respect to
those associated with traditional socio-cultural groups
(for example, Evans and others 2001; Goetcheus 2002;
King 2003).

8 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Table 1-2Cultural resource categories of the United States.
Category Definition
Archeological The material evidences of past human
resources activities.
Comprised of materials of prehistoric and
historical origin deposited by individuals of
any ethnic affiliation, indigenous and other.
Classified and managed as discrete
archeological sites comprised of a
combination of artifacts, ecofacts and/or
features.
Structures Constructed and usually immovable works
intended to serve human activities in
prehistory and history.
Prehistoric and some historic structures are
also archeological resources, the structural
designation often being applied in cases
where a structure is actively maintained to a
pre-determined condition*
Cultural Geographic areas containing both cultural
landscapes and natural resources associated with
events, activities, or people that reflect
human social and ecological adaptations
and perceptions.
Characterized by the way humans settle,
divide, utilize and circulate through them.
Ethnographic Variations of natural resources, standard
resources cultural resource types, and intangible
attributes assigned importance by traditional
users and seen as vital for cultural
perpetuation.
Museum objects Comprised of prehistoric and historic
materials obtained from archeological
investigations, natural resources such as
plant specimens and geological samples,
and archival documentation such as
field notes and maps, photographs, and
electronic files.
Displayed or stored in facilities where
environmental conditions are strictly
regulated, such as public museums and
curation buildings or may be found in
outdoor exhibits, historic structures, or
exposed through excavation and left in
place.
Modified from USDI National Park Service (1997a).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 9
Examples
Prehistoric: structural remnants, burials, fire
hearths, midden (Ch 7), storage facilities,
flaked and ground stone tools (Ch 4), ceramics,
caves and rock shelters, rock images (Ch5),
and raw material sources (such as lithic
quarries or culturally modified trees).
Historic (Ch 6): structural ruins, minor
features, artifacts and ecofacts associated
with homesteads and other occupation sites;
industrial complexes related to mining, logging,
fishing, and agriculture; battlefields, refuse
dumps, trails, roads, and railroad grades.
Dams, millraces, ditches, canals, reservoirs,
bridges, roads, trails, forts, defensive works,
fences, corrals, rock cairns and earthworks.
*Some publically-accessible prehistoric cliff
dwellings in the American Southwest.
See also Ch 6
Historic sites or landscapes (cemeteries,
battlefields, rural communities); historic
designed landscapes (gardens, parks, estates);
vernacular landscapes (farming, ranching,
mining, and ethnic districts, ghost towns);
ethnographic landscapes (massive geologic
structures; festival, spiritual, ceremonial
grounds; sacred sites).
With regard to tangible manifestations, in
addition to landscapes, ethnographic resources
are comprised of culturally-important objects,
plants and animals, archeological sites and
structures.
Museum objects include specimen, archival,
and manuscript collections relating to
archeology, ethnography, history and natural
history.
Cultural Resources
Categorized_____________________
The USDI National Park Service (1997a,b) employs
a classification system for cultural resources that is,
with some clarification, well suited for the purposes
of this volume. Specifically, five categories of cultural
resources are recognizednone of which is mutually
exclusive.
Canada has a similar system to categorically divide
its resources, which is represented in table 1-3. We will
use the NPS system described above for the purposes
of this volume. For both United States and Canadian
workers, it is important to understand the connections
between the two groupings of historic places that are
represented in table 1-1.
Tangible and Intangible Cultural
Resources
While both tangible and intangible cultural resources
can be affected by wildland fire and fire management
actions, it is the culturally independent (not necessarily
identified with a specific group of individuals) tangible
attributes that are the primary focus of this volume
(culturally dependent intangibles are addressed in
chapters 8 and 9). Intangible resources are often over-
looked because they are not clearly defined, may be
difficult to place value on, and, therefore, are often
given only limited protection.
All tangible cultural resources are ultimately
comprised of materialsraw and synthetic, singular
and composite, inanimate and living, prehistoric and
historicand it is those materials and their spatial
associations, or context, that are altered by direct,
independent, and operational effects. Importantly, as
described in subsequent chapters, cultural resources
display different vulnerability to those effects.
Traditional Cultural Properties (TCPs) are places
eligible for inclusion on the NRHP based on associa-
tions with traditional living communities, and spe-
cifically those historically rooted in and important for
maintaining the cultural identity of such communities
(Parker and King 1990). TCPs were devised to account
for the nexus between the tangible and intangible
aspects of cultural resources that had generally been
ignored, and included places of spiritual power, tra-
ditional practices, stories, therapeutic qualities, and
remembrances (King 2003). The importance of such
places was reconfirmed with the issuance of Executive
Order (EO) 13007 in 1996, which explicitly addresses
American Indian sacred sites, and requires Federal
agencies to accommodate access and ceremonial use
of such sites to religious practitioners, avoid physical
impacts to these sites, keep the locations of sacred
sites confidential, and ensure consultation with tribal
governments regarding sacred sites.
Fire Management_________________
In the United States, the 2001 Federal wildland fire
management policy recognizes three types of wild-
land fire: wildfire, prescribed fire, and wildland fire
use (National Wildfire Coordinating Group 2006,
http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/glossary/w.htm).
Wildland fires are non-structure fires that occur in

Table 1-3Cultural resource categories of Canada.

Category Definition
Archeological sites Physical evidence of past human activity found in a
specific location on or below the ground, or underwater.
Landscapes Exterior spaces that have been assigned cultural
including spiritualmeaning or have been deliberately
altered in the past for aesthetic, cultural or function
reasons. Landscapes include land patterns, landforms,
spatial organization, vegetation, circulation systems,
water features, and viewsheds.
Buildings Constructed works created in the past to shelter
activities related to habitation, business or social
functions.
Structures Engineered works created in the past primarily
for purposes other than habitation, including
transportation, energy development, communications,
industry, resource extraction and processing, flood
control and irrigation, and defense.
Adapted from Parks Canada (2003).

10 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

wildlandstracts with few or no developments
ranging from remote wilderness to the interface with
suburban and urban areas (Canadian Council of For-
est Ministers 2005; National Wildfire Coordinating
Group 2006). Wildland fires can result from natural
phenomena such as lightning, accidental or inten-
tional human sources, or when managed wildland
fires escape or exceed predetermined parameters.
Wildfires are unplanned, unwanted wildland fires
where the management objective is to suppress or
extinguish the fire. Wildland fire use refers to natu-
rally ignited (lightning-caused) fires managed to
accomplish specific resource management objectives
within predetermined locations. Prescribed fires are
intentionally ignited to meet specific management
objectives. These firesusually set in the late fall or
early spring, or when seasonal conditions are moist
and relatively stableare a primary means for fuel
reduction. In addition to prescribed fire and wildland
fire use, other techniques such as mechanical thin-
ning and chemical treatments are also employed to
achieve fuel reduction and resource management
objectives.
In 2008, the Fire Executive Council (FEC), which is
charged with providing interagency Federal executive-
level wildland fire policy leadership, direction and
program oversight in the United States, unveiled
modifications to the 2001 policy to allow wildland fires
on Federal lands to be managed with a full spectrum
of response alternatives (also known as appropriate
management response or AMR) (Fire Executive Council
2009). The changes include removing the distinction
between wildfires and wildland fire use, calling both
wildfires, and allowing all naturally ignited wildfires
to be simultaneously managed for multiple objectives
(for example, protection and resource benefits). Federal
wildland fire policy will now recognize two, rather than
three, categories of wildland firewildfires (unplanned
ignitions) and prescribed fires (planned ignitions). The
Canadian Council of Forest Ministers (2005) also rec-
ognizes these two terms and uses similar definitions.
Categories of Effects
For the purposes of this volume, the term effects
simply refers to the observable alterationsperma-
nent or temporary, reversible or irreversibleto the
tangible or intangible attributes of cultural resources
resulting from wildland fire or fire management ac-
tions. In most contexts, observable changes will have
a negative connotation with respect to the pristine
pre-disturbance conditions where an artifact, feature,
site, or landscape presumably had its maximum
value as a cultural resource for purposes of meeting
the intent of various laws. However, in some cases
fire or fire management may play a positive role in
restoring or maintaining a cultural landscape or
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 11
Traditional Cultural Property (TCP). Likewise it may
be instrumental in the application of Traditional
Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in the maintenance or
restoration of cultural traditions (c.f., Kimmerer and
Lake 2001; Lake 2007; Stewart 2002). The purpose of
the following classification is to attempt to develop an
objective, non-value-laden perspective on fire effects.
The classification attempts to isolate observable, mea-
sureable effects (i.e., tangible fire effects) from those
that involve ones inner relationship with the cultural
resource (i.e., intangible fire effects) (fig. 1-3).
The classification emphasizes the distinction between
biophysical processes and human actions/reactions.
Biophysical processes are further distinguished by
the time of occurrence: those that occur at the time
of the fire (First-Order) vs. those that act upon the
fire-altered biophysical system after the fire (Second-
Order). The classification is intended to emphasize
the interdisciplinary nature of the relationship of
cultural resources to fire and fire management. It is
recognized that the classification stems from a western
scientific perspective. It is argued, however, that the
knowledge, skills, and methods applied to understand
each component of the classification are substantially
independent. Earlier volumes of the Rainbow Series
provide substantial synthesis and review of tangible
fire effects on fauna (Smith 2002), flora (Brown and
Smith 2002), air (Sandberg and others 2003), soils and
water (Neary and others 2005), and exotic-invasive
plants (Zouhar and others 2007).
The effects of wildland fire, prescribed burning,
and related fire management actions on cultural
resources are divided into two major categories, direct
and indirect:
Direct effects are those caused by fire and its
byproducts, such as smoke and ash. Direct effects
result from the physical state of the fire environ-
ment (fuels, weather, terrain) and the ignition
pattern (heading-fire, flanking-fire, backing-fire)
(chapter 2). Direct effects are the result of com-
bustion and subject to all the laws of physics and
chemistry. Because temperature is a readily mea-
surable metric, many direct effects are described
as functions of the temperature and duration of
heating (chapters 2, 3, 4, and 6). However, in
most cases fire and cultural resource material
temperature histories are unknown. Thus fire
severity and direct effects are observed ex post
facto. Cracking, crazing, spalling, pot-lidding,
melting, smudging, and sooting are all direct
effects that result from combustion, combustion
byproducts, and heat transfer mechanisms
acting upon various material artifacts, features,
sites, or landscapes (table 1-4). Regardless of what
role humans may have had in creating the fire
environment (e.g., past cultural and management
 Figure 1-3Fire impacts on cultural resources. Direct, First-Order effects result from biophysical processes
related to the local combustion environment as it is juxtaposed to cultural resources and the physical properties
of the resource. Indirect effects derive from biophysical processes following the fire (Second-Order effects) or
human responses to fire (Third-Order effects) (synthesized from numerous sources).

practices), the direct effects would occur regard-
less of whether or not people were there to observe.
The term First-Order Fire Effects is frequently
applied to describe the direct effects, particu-
larly in National Wildfire Coordinating Group
(NWCG) sponsored fire effects training courses
in the United States, (e.g., Rx-310 and Rx-510).
Indirect effects are those effects that are de-
rived from or dependant on the fires occurrence.
If the fire had not occurred indirect effects could
not occur. Indirect effects are of two types:
biophysical processes acting on the fire-altered
environment and human responses. Indirect ef-
fects occur when wildland fire or associated fire
management actions change the context in which
a cultural resource is found, leaving it vulnerable
to impacts. Common examples of indirect effects
include post-fire erosion, carbon contamination in
archaeological deposits, disturbances from fire-
killed tree-fall (see for example sidebars on tree
root burnout and retardants in chapter 9), and
vandalism/looting (Christensen and others 1992).
If fire occurred in the absence of human observation
or intervention, post fire biophysical processes, such as
erosion, weathering, succession, and herbivory would
still take place following the laws that govern such pro-
cesses. These effects are referred to as Second-Order
Fire Effects. Humans are affected by, and respond to,
fire and the threat of fire in various ways that are as
complex as the human experience. The impacts of fire
on the human environment are defined as Third-Order
1
Fire Effects. Third-Order effects may be tangible or
intangible. Tangible effects are the purposeful, inten-
tional, observable, measurable human responses to the
perceived risks or opportunities presented by fire.
1
The concept of Third-Order fire effects developed from discus-
sions with Frank K. Lake while Ryan and Lake were on the Rx-510
Advanced Fire Effects Course cadre at the National Advanced Fire
and Resource Institute, Tucson, AZ. Lake (2007) discusses Third-
Order effects in the context of traditional ecological knowledge
(TEK).

12 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Table 1-4Common nomenclature to describe the first order fire effects of fire on archaeological
resources (adapted from Buenger 2003).
CB = Combustive Residue The presence of tar deposits on the surface of a specimen
formed as a by-product of the pyrolysis and combustion of organic materials. The residue is
a by-product of combustion and is not composed of pure carbon, nor is it an intact organic
compound (DeBano 1998). It is a highly nitrogenous condensate tar substance (Yokelson
et al. 1997). The residue can be tacky or semi-solid immediately post-fire and generally
appears as dark brown to black droplets on the surface of a specimen, may give artifacts a
blackened appearance if sufficiently combusted.

CC/OX = Color Change/Oxidation (1). An overall darkening or reddening of a specimen

from its original color. It is generally the result of exposure to temperatures sufficient enough
to alter the mineral composition of the specimen (this definition used to code sandstone
blocks within architectural sample units) (i.e., Cliff House Formation Sandstone changing
from its original orange-buff to a deep red color).

(2). The presence of and orange/brown discoloration on an artifact. It is generally due to the
presence of oxidized sediment on a specimen where sediment had adhered to its surface
prior to exposure to heating. Heating of the sediment results in discoloration that adheres or
permeates the surface of a specimen.

POX = Paint Oxidation The oxidation of pigment (organic or mineral) on decorated ceramic
specimens. Alterations can include a change in color from the original pigment (black to
red), or the combustion of the pigment entirely.

CC = Color Change (lithic specimens only) An observable color change of a specimen

from original, pre-fire, color. Generally due to an alteration in the mineral composition of a
specimen during exposure to heat.

CZ = Crazing The presence of fine, non-linear or latticed cracks on the surface of a

specimen.

SP = Spalling The exfoliation of a portion of the original surface of exposed rock or a

specimen due to differential heating and pressure release. It is generally the result of steam
buildup in areas of the specimen that have impurities or elevated moisture content.

SPS = Spall Scars The presence of concave depressions on the surface of a specimen
where it is evident that a portion of the surface was exfoliated due to spalling, but the actual
spall was not observed in situ. Over time, associated spalls have weathered or eroded.

PL = Potlid Fracturing (lithic specimens only) Similar to spalling, but specific to lithic
artifacts manufactured from cryptocrystalline silicate rocks such as chert. The fracture is
characterized by a circular pit on the surface of the specimen. The pit represents the area in
which the original portion of the surface has been exfoliated due to differential heating and
pressure release. The exfoliated section is generally circular, flat on the dorsal side, and
convex on the ventral side (resembling the lid of a cooking pot).

FR = Fracturing The fracturing of a specimen into multiple pieces, and/or the presence of
fractures or fissures that penetrate deeply into a specimen.

WFR = Weathered Fracturing The fracturing of a thermally altered architectural block over
time due to mechanical weathering. Fine cracks or fracture lines induced by exposure to
heat become exacerbated due to mechanical weathering processes. Fracturing is often
patterned and affects a large portion of the specimen.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 13

These include suppression, rehabilitation, and miti-
gation about which volumes are written. These real-
time active management-related effects are often
referred to as Operational Effects because they are
associated with typical fire management operations.
Changes in recreational use, hunting, and gathering,
for example, are observable and measurable and
are, therefore, also tangible Third-Order effects. In
contrast, the effects of fire, fire suppression, or fuels
treatment-restoration activities on humans spiri-
tual or emotional sense of well being are intangible
Third-Order fire effects. These intangible effects
are a reflection of humanitys complex co-evolution
with fire. Traditional Cultural Properties (TCP) are
identifiable and documentable places and as such
are tangible cultural resources (King 2003; Parker
1993; Parker and King 1990), but how a person or
group of people feel about the impacts of fire or fire
management on a TCP is an intangible fire effect.
The development of intangible Third-Order fire ef-
fects knowledge can only be obtained through close
communication and collaboration with cultural lead-
ers of affected communities (chapter 8).
Material effects receive greater attention than
operational and intangible effects in this Volume,
particularly in chapters 2 through 7. The processes
influencing direct effects are presented in chapter 2,
while chapters 3 through 7 address those impacts with
respect to specific materials. Operational effects result-
ing from activities associated with managing wildland
fires, such as the construction of firelines, application
of fire retardants, and vegetation clearing are discussed
in Management Implications, chapter9.
What is the Objective of This
Volume?________________________
The main objective of this volume is to define cultural
resources, provide information about the mechanisms
that affect cultural resources, and identify management
alternatives to prevent (or limit) adverse impacts within
the proper legal framework. This basic information cre-
ates a level playing field in fire situations, where fire
managers value cultural resources, cultural resource
specialists understand fire, and both management
groups comprehend what effects could occur without
proper mitigation. Chapters 8 and 9 also identify
techniques to facilitate better communication between
groups to improve protection through consultation.
This volume is intended to be used as a reference for
both cultural resource specialists and fire managers
14 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
during their planning processes. The intended audi-
ence includes resource and fire managers employed by
public, tribal, and private land management agencies,
non-governmental organizations, private contractors,
historic preservation officers, and researchers. Par-
ticular emphasis is given to providing guidance for
those in the realm of cultural resource management
(often called CRM), individuals actively engaged in
identifying and managing cultural resources before,
during, and after wildland fires, and preparing and
reviewing fire-related environmental compliance and
land management documents (for example, land and
fire management plans, prescribed fire burn plans,
and community wildfire protection plans).
We hope to inform the reader not only of the sub-
ject matter, but provide meaningful examples, legal
implications, and a well defined connection between
the effects of fire and cultural resources. In addition to
understanding these connections, the reader can also
understand their role in both planned and unplanned
fire situations. Each chapter provides basic information
and discussion that could be used for public education
on the subject. This volume is also intended to provide
direction for protection of cultural resources within the
legal framework. Our hope is to bring both cultural
resource and fire managers to a clear understanding
of their mutual legal responsibility for the protection
of cultural entities. Above and beyond legalities, this
volume highlights the importance of working together
with local communities.
This is the first comprehensive summary of fire and
cultural resources inclusive of Canada and the United
States, covering a wide range of cultural resource
categories as well as describing the variability of fire
on different landscapes. The United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station has produced a series
of documents that assimilate current knowledge of
wildland fire effects relevant to the management of
ecosystems, including fauna (Smith 2000), flora (Brown
and Smith 2000), air (Sandberg and others 2002), soil
and water (Neary and others 2005) and non-native
invasive plants (Zouhar and others 2008). Many of
these same topics were addressed in the first version
of this Rainbow Series volume that was published
in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Rainbow Series
volumes encompass the United States and Canada in
geographic coverage, but many of the principles can be
applied to other regions of the globe where wildland
fires occur.
Kevin C. Ryan
Cassandra Koerner
Chapter 2:
Fire Behavior and Effects:
Principles for Archaeologists
Fire is a natural component of earths ecosystems.
Fire has impacted most landscapes of the Americas,
having left evidence of its passing in trees, soils, fos-
sils, and cultural artifacts (Andreae 1991; Benton and
Reardon 2006; Biswell 1989; Bowman and others
2009; Boyd and others 2005; Cochrane and others
1999; DeBano and others 1998; Jurney and others
2004; Kilgore and Taylor 1979; Moore 1972; Nevle
and Bird 2008; P ausas and Keeley 2009; Scott
2000, 2009; Swetnam and Anderson 2008; Swetnam
and Betancourt 1990, 1998). Fires burn throughout
a range of intensities from smoldering flameless fires
producing little if any smoke to creeping fires with
short, thin flames to raging crown fires with walls of
flames 50meters (164feet) high, or more. The duration
of a fires passing may be as short as tens-of-seconds
in the case of a fast moving surface or crown fire or as
long as a day in smoldering ground fire. As fires burn
throughout this range of intensities and durations the
impact on the environment and the cultural resources
therein varies tremendously.
Wildland fire behavior is highly varied due to such
factors as the type of vegetation/fuel and its moisture
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 15
content, atmospheric humidity, wind speed, and ter-
rain. The spread and behavior of each fire is fairly
unique, which can make fire seem both mysterious
and unpredictable at times. However, the process
is a fairly well understood phenomenon. Wildland
fire is predictable in so far as both the current and
antecedent weather conditions are reasonably well
known. The state of the pre-burn fuels and weather
are highly variable both spatially and temporally.
The largest source of variation in fire behavior is lo-
cal variation in the vegetation/fuel distribution (Ryan
2002; Turner and others 1999). It is this variability
that most limits our ability to predict a fires effects
on cultural resources. This is why it is desirable to
have local fuels and weather data when planning,
implementing, monitoring and reconstructing a fire.
In the case of wildfire, pre-burn conditions often must
be inferred from post-fire proxy data, for example in-
ferring preburn conditions from those in a similar
near-by unburned area. Predicting fire behavior and
understanding its effects requires knowledge of the fire
environment, heat transfer principles, the responses
of various artifact materials to heat, and to a lesser
extent, the chemicals released by fire (such as ash or
smoke) or used in fire suppression (such as retar-
dants or foams). Models exist to predict fire behavior
and its effects through interpreting weather and fuel
conditions. It is important for managers to recognize
that some factors cannot be controlled; there will
always be spatial variation, adverse environmental
conditions, and complex vegetative structures that
make prescription development an inexact science. As
we gain a better understanding of the effects of fire on
cultural resources, we must take appropriate action
to reduce and manage risk to these assets.
The fire science literature includes a broad spectrum
of interrelated topics. Terminology within the field
varies in part because of the varying space and time
scales. For example, spatial scales vary from individual
fuel particles to landscapes, and time scales vary from
fire residence times measured in seconds to fire return
intervals measured in years to fire regimes measured
in centuries, depending on the authors subject mat-
ter. Numerous previous authors have described fire
processes at multiple scales from combustion funda-
mentals to broad-scale ecological interpretations. The
reader interested in more fully understanding the
field of wildland fire science is referred to those texts
(see Agee 1993; Chandler and others 1983a,b; DeBano
and others 1998; Gill and others 1981; Johnson and
Myanishi 2001; Omi 2005; Pyne and others 1996; Figure 2-1The multiple scales of fire (adapted from Scott
Sugihara and others 2006; Wright and Bailey 1982). 2000; Reinhardt and others 2001; Moritz and others 2005;
The purpose of this chapter is to provide cultural Cochrane and Ryan 2009).
resource specialists with a primer on fuels and fire to
enable them to work more effectively with fire man-
agers in developing fuel treatment and restoration
plans, managing wildfires, and conducting post-fire fuel (for example fireline construction and burnout),
rehabilitation. This chapter provides a scientific foun- remove oxygen (for example to smother with dirt or
dation for predicting the potential impacts of fire on foam) or reduce heat (for example to quench with water
cultural resources. It also defines terms and concepts or retardants).
and identifies their practical implications to cultural Fire affects biophysical processes across multiple
resources. Prescribed fire and wildfire conditions temporal and spatial scales from micro-scale phenom-
associated with damage to cultural resources are dis- enon (e.g., an effect on an individual plant or single
cussed, as are ways to integrate planning measures cultural resource) to broad landscape patterns and
to mitigate fires effects on cultural resources. processes. The fire triangle (fig. 2-1 lower left) is
appropriate at the combustion scale, a small localized
area where fuels making up the fuel bed are relatively
Fire Basics______________________ homogeneous. The fire environment scale (fig. 2-1
To either predict or assess the effects of fire on cultural second from bottom) is appropriate at the scale at which
resources, it is necessary to understand a few basic fire fuels treatment and restoration projects are planned
concepts. There are three essential conditions that must and implemented. The fire regime scale (fig. 2-1
be present for a fire to ignite and continue burning; second from top) is appropriate for describing the role
these three factors comprise the fire triangle (fig.2-1 of fire in shaping ecosystem structure and function.
bottom left). There must be fuel to burn, a supply of Archaeologists, paleontologists, and those who study
oxygen to support combustion, and sufficient heat to human development and migration often consider a
cause successive ignition of fuel particles. Without higher, paleo-fire scale (Rickards 2010; Ruddiman
all three components, fire cannot exist. Indeed, fire 2003, 2007; Scott 2000, 2009) (fig. 2-1 upper right)
suppression tactics rely on this fundamental principle (adapted from Cochrane and Ryan 2009; Moritz and
and design suppression strategies to either remove others 2005; Reinhardt and others 2001; Scott 2000).

16 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Combustion
Combustion is a physical process involving the rapid
oxidation of fuels releasing carbon dioxide, water,
mineral ash (e.g., Ca, Mg, K) and numerous other
compounds, the chemistry of which varies with the
type of fuel burning and the efficiency of combustion.
The rapid oxidation of fuels also produces detectable
heat and light.
Combustion is divided into four phases: preheat-
ing (or preignition), flaming, smoldering, and glow-
ing (DiNenno and others 1995; Grishin 1997; Pyne
and others 1996; Williams 1982). The fires phase
is dependent on the nature and condition of the fuel
and oxygen availability. Wildland vegetation burns
by turbulent diffusion flames in successive interac-
tions between combustion gases and unburned fuel.
Energy released by combustion of gases is absorbed
by solid fuel particles in the preheating or first phase
of combustion.
Preheating is an endothermic or energy absorbing
phase. As the flame front approaches a fuel particle
its temperature increases, gradually at first, then
more rapidly. At about 100 C (212 F), free water
begins to rapidly boil leaving an outer shell of dry fuel
(table2-1). The amount of energy needed to vaporize
water contained in the fuel increases with the moisture
content of the fuel. In the case of live, actively growing
fuels the moisture content may be quite high (100 to
200 percent on an oven dry basis). As the particle con-
tinues to absorb heat, bound water and low molecular
weight volatile compounds (such as waxes, terpenes,
and resins) vaporize, and decomposition (pyrolysis) of
solid fuel (principally composed of cellulose) begins.
If the decomposition rate is fast enough to form a
combustible mixture of vapors (carbonaceous gases),
flaming combustion results.
Flaming combustion, the second phase where
nearly all destructive fires occur (DeHaan 1997;
Williams 1982), is an exothermic process. Flaming
involves the combustion of gases (gas-phase) evolved
from the preheating of the solid fuel. This energy is
critical to the preheating of adjacent fuel particles and
sustaining the chain reaction. In wildland fuels where
oxygen is not usually limiting, fuel particles burst into
flame at around 325 C to 350 C (617 F to 662 F)
(ignition temperature) with a rapid rise in the local
temperature. During the flaming phase, luminescent
flames are produced as a flame envelope develops above
the solid fuel. Theoretically, temperatures are much
higher, 1800 C to 2200 C (3272 F to 3992F) where
chemical bonds are being broken and flames cant exist
below around 1300 C (2372 F) (Satio 2001). However,
as the flame envelope includes many products of
incomplete combustion, noncombustible particles, and
cooler air entrained into the combustion zone from
the surrounding area, measured flame temperatures
are usually between 500 C and 1000 C (932 F and
1832F) (Butler and others 2004; DeBano and others
1998; Pyne and others 1996; Sullivan and others 2003).
Solid fuels burn at high temperatures, distilling vola-
tile substances while creating charcoal. To continue
to burn, fuels must continue to produce energy faster
than it is lost to the surrounding environment. When
the energy release rate drops before all volatiles have
been liberated, flames become discontinuous and the
fire transitions into the smoldering phase (Bertschi
and others 2003).

Table 2-1Temperatures associated with phases of combustion.

Temperature C Effect
0-100 Preheating of fuel: free water is evaporated
100-200 Preheating of fuel: bound water and low molecular weight compounds
volatilized, decomposition of cellulose (pyrolysis) begins, solid fuel is
converted into gaseous vapors
200-300 Preheating of fuel: thermal degradation continues more rapidly
300-325 Ignition temperature in well aerated wildland fuels: transition to flaming
325-400 Flaming phase: rapid increase in decomposition of solid fuel
400-500 Flaming phase: gas production rate peaks around 400 C and declines
between 450 C and 500 C as all residual volatile compounds are
released.
500-1000 Flaming phase: Maximum flame temperatures within flames may approach
1600 C in deep flame envelops but temperatures of 500 C to 1000 C
are more typical.
500-800 Glowing phase: residual carbonaceous fuel (charcoal) burns by glowing
combustion. The combustion of charcoal is associated with the
liberation of CO and CO2

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 17

 Smoldering combustion is often characterized by
a complex suite of carbon-rich compounds produced
by incomplete combustion including large amounts
of hydrocarbon-rich (e.g., tars) smoke (Bertschi and
others 2003; Urbanski and others 2009; Yokleson
and others 1997). Smoldering fire often occurs when
oxygen depletes during flaming combustion. The fire
still emits high temperatures but produces no visible
flame. Once the entire fuel particle has been heated to
around 500 C (932 F) the volatile compounds neces-
sary to support flaming (gas-phase) combustion have
been exhausted, smoke ceases to rise from the charcoal,
and the remaining charcoal burns by glowing (solid-
phase) combustion. This phase continues until either
all the fuel becomes non-combustible ash and the fire
goes out, or until the fuel is quenched or cooled leaving
charcoal residues. Until the latter cool-down stage of
a fire, flaming and smoldering occur simultaneously
to some degree as evidenced by the flickering flames
of a dying campfire, for example.
Fires vary in their combustion efficiency. Combustion
efficiency is the ratio of heat released to the maximum
heat that could be released in complete combustion
in a well ventilated dry environment (Urbanski and
others 2008; Ward 2001). This is a function of the
fuels chemistry, principally its moisture content and
the fuel bed packing ratio, which affects the flow of
air to the combustion zone. The packing ratio is the
proportion of the fuel bed volume that contains fuel
particles (fuel volume + air volume = total fuel bed
volume). It is a measure of how tightly fuels are packed
together, which affects air flow into the fuel bed dur-
ing combustion. To illustrate the influence of packing
ratio, consider the spatial distribution of needles in
a conifer tree vs. those same needles compacted in
the forest floor duff after a number of years on the
ground. The former burns rapidly and efficiently by
flaming combustion whereas the latter burns slowly
and inefficiently by smoldering combustion. Combus-
tion efficiencies range from as high as 95 percent to
as low as 50 percent (Grishin 1997; Pyne and others
1996; Urbanski and others 2009). Flaming, the sec-
ond phase, which is gaseous combustion, is the most
efficient. Products of incomplete combustion include
carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides, sulfurous oxides,
hydrocarbons, and solids (soot). The darker the smoke,
the more unburned carbon particles (soot) are present
and the lower the combustion efficiency (Bytnerowicz
and others 2008; Urbanski and others 2009). Light
colored smoke indicates more complete combustion of
fuel elements, lower production of soot and, therefore,
higher combustion efficiency. If pyrolysis occurs in the
absence of oxygen, such as may occur in buried wood
or organic artifacts, destructive distillation occurs at
higher temperatures (600 C (1112 F)).
18 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Heat Transfer
The three primary mechanisms of heat transfer are
radiation, convection, and conduction. All bodies emit
radiant energy as a function of their surface tempera-
ture. Radiation is the flow of electromagnetic energy
through space at the speed of light. The radiant energy
received at the surface of a body (for example, a fuel
element, artifact, or rock art) decreases rapidly with
distance from the heat source or flame and increases
rapidly as the temperature of the emitting source in-
creases (that is, as fire intensity increases as exhibited
by the size or temperature of the flames) (sidebar 2-1)
(Butler and others 2004; Pyne and others 1996; Sullivan
and others 2003). The emissivity of a flame increases
with the depth of flaming zone and approaches unity
(i.e., the maximum possible for a black body emitter
at around 1 meter (3.28 feet) (Butler 1993; Butler and
others 2004). The actual distance depends somewhat
on the efficiency of combustion. Beyond this distance
deeper flame zone depths do not emit more radiation.
Deeper flame zone depths are, however, associated
with taller flames that can heat bodies at somewhat
greater distances. Larger flames also are associated
with greater convective heat transport.
Sidebar 2-1Impact of Flames on
Rock Art
Cultural resources may be directly or indirectly im-
pacted by the passage of a wildland fire. Direct or first
order impacts include the effects of heat (fig. S1.1); the
deposition of combustion products (e.g., tars, soot and ash);
and the exposure of cultural resources to discovery. The
latter may lead to increased vandalism. Cultural resources
may also be indirectly impacted by fires. Indirect or second
order effects include the destruction or redistribution of
artifacts due to accelerated erosion of the burned site. Of
the direct impacts, the effects of exposure to high heat are
the most critical concern. Elevated temperature during
wildland fire is the issue of greatest concern. Above ground
cultural resources may be bathed in flames where they
are exposed to both high convective and radiant heating
(fig. S1.2). Resources may be exposed to the smoke and
hot gasses above the flames where convective heating is
the dominant source of damage. The potential for dam-
age increases with the intensity or energy release rate
of the fire as is visually apparent by larger flames. The
distance at which damage can occur increases with the
size of the flames (fig. S1.3).
 Figure S1.1. Spalling of rock art fol-
lowing the 2003 Hammond Fire, Manti
LaSal NF, Utah (Johnson 2004). Pic-
tograph damaged by heat from forest
fire (photo Clay Johnson, Ashley NF).

Figure S1.2. Convective and radiant

heat from fires are a major source
of damage to above ground cultural
resources such as rock art.

Figure S1.3. Radiant heat flux

received by a rock surface or a
log cabin wall decreases with
distance from the flame enve-
lope and increases with the size
of the flame envelope. The more
intense the fire, as exhibited by
the larger the flame, the greater
the distance that damage can
occur.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 19

 Convection is the transfer of energy within liquids
and gases from a heat source (flame) to a cooler area
by transport of energy in the form of heated molecules.
In contrast to the typical lay use of a fluid as describ-
ing a liquid, gasses behave as fluids in a physics and
engineering context, that is gasses flow from places of
high temperature towards places of lower temperature.
Convective heat transport is a result of the fluid mo-
tion of gases and particulates (Cheney and Sullivan
2008; Cochrane and Ryan 2009; DeBano and others
1998; Pyne and others 1996; Van Wagtendonk 2006).
Flame and billowing smoke above a wildland fire are
the most visible examples of convective heat transport.
Radiation and convection can only heat the surface
of an opaque substance (for example, fuels or artifacts).
The heating of the interior of the substance occurs
through conduction. Conduction is the transfer of
energy through a substance by the direct imparting
of heat from molecule to molecule without appreciable
movement of molecules within the substance, which
is extremely important for heat transfer within solids
such as fuel particles. Likewise, conduction is critical
for transferring heat to artifacts buried in the soil
profile. The rate of heat movement within objects de-
pends on the temperature gradient across the object
and its thermal conductivity. Metals generally are
great conductors but wood, forest litter, and air are
poor.
Spatial and temporal variation in fire behavior,
variations in the exposure of cultural materials, and
the thermal properties of those materials all interact
to influence how fire affects cultural resources. From
a small fire that could be considered a point source,
radiation decreases with the square of the distance.
However, in wildland fires where flame fronts approxi-
mate two-dimensions (for example a line of surface
fire burning through a fuel bed) or three-dimensions
(for example a wall of flames from a crown fire) ra-
diation decreases much more slowly with distance
(sidebar2-1). This helps explain, however, why two
surfaces or surface artifacts in close proximity might
experience different degrees of damage. If two nearby
artifacts see significantly different flame emissivities
owing to their particular viewing of the fire, they will
be differentially affected. Most substances found in
nature as well as most human-made materials consist
of mixtures of compounds each with their own ther-
mal properties. Differences in thermal conductivity
and thermal expansion of various compounds within
a material lead to variable heat transfer rates and
internal stresses. These forces can cause structural
failure such as exfoliation or spalling of rock (lithic)
materials, fracturing of ceramic artifacts, and shatter-
ing of glass. Because soils are porous, multiple heat
transfer mechanisms occur simultaneously in soils,
but conduction dominates, particularly after moisture
20 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
has been driven off at around 100 C (212 F) (Albini
and others 1996; Campbell and others 1994, 1995;
Massman and others 2010).
Under suitably severe conditions, fire may spread
beyond a fires perimeter by spotting, the lofting and
transporting of burning embers or sparks through the
convection column and wind thereby initiating new
fires up to 1 km (0.6 mi.) or more (Albini 1981b, 1983).
This fourth mechanism, a special case of convective
heat transfer, is referred to as mass transport and is of
particular concern to the protection of organic cultural
resourcesfor example, cabinsat some distance from
a fire (see chapter 9).
The practical significance of heat transfer mecha-
nisms to cultural resources will be discussed in sub-
sequent sections.
Fire Behavior Principles
Fires in wildland fuels are predominantly free burn-
ing, that is they expand or propagate by successive igni-
tion of fuel elements along their perimeter. Figure 2-2
illustrates combustion zones and flame characteristics
commonly found in the fire science literature. Prior
to ignition, fuels must be raised to ignition tempera-
ture. Fuels ahead of the spreading fire are preheated
by radiation and convection (fig. 2-2a). The radiative
power of the flame approaches unity, the theoretical
maximum, as the depth of the flame zone approaches
1 m (3.28 feet) as illustrated by yellow in the flame.
Radiation from deeper flames, as illustrated in red,
no longer contributes to preheating of fuels ahead of
the fire. Energy from larger flames does contribute to
increased turbulence and convective heat transport
thereby increasing the likelihood and effectiveness of
flame contact with unburned fuels ahead of the fire as
well as the lofting of embers. Flames typically pulsate
with the local wind and the flame tilt angle varies,
periodically bathing fuels ahead of the fire in flames.
Thus both radiation and convection are important for
preheating and igniting fuels ahead of the fire. Flame
zone temperatures are variable depending on the rate
of spread and type of fuel burned but are typically in
the 325 C to 800 C (617 F to 1472 F) range. The
deeper the flame zone, the higher the temperature.
Where the human eye sees the visible flame tip de-
pends somewhat on local lighting conditions. Flame
tip temperatures are in the 500 C to 600 C (932 F
to 1112 F) range. Flame length is the best visual in-
dicator of the fires energy release rate (fig. 2-2b). The
depth of burn is illustrated by the reduced thickness
in the fuel bed plane with the passage of the fire (fig.
2-2a,b). Flames at the head of an advancing fire lean
into unburnt fuel preheating it. Fireline intensity, as
manifested in the length of flames as well as the flame
zone depth (fig.2-2), is at its maximum at this location
on the perimeter (Cheney and Sullivan 2008) (fig. 2-3).
 (a)

(b)

Figure 2-2Stylized flame zone characteristics (a), combustion phases, and dominant
heat transfer mechanism (b) (adapted from Rothermel 1972; Pyne and others 1996; Cochrane
and Ryan 2009).

Figure 2-3The parts of a moving fire (from Cheney

and Sullivan 2008).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 21

Here heat transfer by radiation and convection are also
at their maximum. Likewise, the potential for lofting
burning embers and downwind spotting is maximized
at the head of a fires perimeter (fig. 2-3). At the rear of
the fire, where the fire is backing either into the wind
or down-slope, flame length is at its minimum and
flames typically lean over the burned fuel, reinforcing
the smoldering phase. The flame zone depth is also at
its minimum but, particularly in fine surface fuels, the
slower advance of the fire (termed spread rate) is also
associated with more complete burnout and greater
duration of surface heating (Cheney 1981; Cheney and
Sullivan 2008). On the flank, the fireline intensity and
flame length are intermediate. Flames may lean either
over the unburned fuel or the burned fuel depending
on local variations of in-drafts or wind. The effect can
often be seen in char marks on tree trunks or physi-
cal structures, which indicate the direction of wind at
that point in time when a fire passed. It is common
to find char marks that indicate local winds at right
angles to the prevailing spread direction. Fires often
pulsate, surging forward at several areas along the
fires perimeter, and fireline intensity increases where
adjacent flanks of the fire converge. Thus, there can
be considerable variation in fire behavior and effects
even within relatively homogeneous fuels (Catchpole
and others 1982, 1992; Cheney and Sullivan 2008;
Finney 1998, 1999; Ryan 2002). Fire intensity, flame
size, and temperatures within a fire generally vary
within a fires perimeter. Head fires are more intense
overall but backfires can be more effective at heating
the ground surface (Fahnestock and Hare 1964; Hare
1961; Lindenmuth and Byram 1948; Martin and
Davis 1960; Stinson and Wright 1969; Trollope 1978).
For example, in light surface fuels Lindenmuth and
Byram (1948) found head-fires were hotter at heights
above 0.5 meters (~18 inches) whereas backing-fires
were hotter below 0.5 meters (~18 inches).
There are numerous decision support tools that en-
able managers to predict and manage fire behavior and
effects whether in planning fuels treatment or restora-
tion projects or suppressing and rehabilitating wildland
fires. The succeeding sections provide cultural resource
specialists with additional knowledge and background
necessary to work effectively with fire managers in
order to predict and manage fire effects on cultural
resources. Principles and models commonly used by
fire managers in the United States and Canada are
described.
The Many Scales of Fire___________
The characteristics of fire vary within individual fires
as fuel and environmental conditions vary in time and
space (fig. 2-1). Fire concepts change across spatial and
temporal scales. At the finest scale, individual fuel beds
22 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
ignite, burn, and transfer energy to their surround-
ings at the combustion scale. This is the scale of the fire
triangle familiar to all fire fighters. At this scale, heat,
oxygen, and fuel are the important elements. At this
microsite scale, combustion events range on the order
of several seconds for the passage of a flaming front to
a few days in the case of smoldering peat fires. Their ef-
fects are monitored at the small sample plot or quadrat
scale. The next higher scale is the scale of the fire envi-
ronment. The fire environment is the summation of all
the combustion environments within an individual fire.
At this scale, fire behavior monitoring and modeling are
used to evaluate fire as fuels, heat, and oxygen vary with
terrain and weather within individual fires. Temporal
variations of individual fires range from hours to days as
fires spread across landscape-scale land areas. Their ef-
fects are assessed by stand and community-level surveys.
At the next higher spatial and temporal scale, fire regime
concepts describe the modal fire type that occurs at stand/
community, landscape, and biome levels across decadal
to century-long time-scales. At these scales, broad class
descriptors of impacts on major processes are inferred
from dendroecological and paleoecological techniques. At
the fire regime scale, fire characteristics vary between
successive fires on the same site as the time since, and
severity of, the last disturbance varies. Site productivity,
disturbance history, periodic weather anomalies (such as
drought), and variations in climate cycles all contribute
to fires variability in time and space (Clark 1989; Clark
and Royall 1995; Kitzberger and others 2007; Morgan
and others 2001; Power and others 2008; Swetnam and
Betancourt 1990).
Fire affects societies and natural biophysical pro-
cesses in numerous ways. As such, it has attracted
scientists from fields ranging from combustion sci-
ence to ecology, hydrology, geosciences, anthropology,
and archaeology. At the combustion science scale,
the physics and chemistry of fuels and heat transfer
mechanisms predominate in the study of small scale
fire phenomenon on the order of seconds to minutes.
This is the fundamental scale at which fires burn. It is
at this scale that investigators study stationary fires
and their impacts on organisms and individual cultural
resources. At the fire behavior scale, the spatial and
temporal variability in fuels, weather, and terrain
dominate in the evaluation of fire potential within and
between stands and across landscapes on the order
of hours to weeks. This is the scale at which actively
spreading individual fires are studied and their effects
understood on multiple processes (for example plant
community dynamics, erosion, or hydrologic effects).
This is also the scale at which most fire manage-
ment projects occur. At the even higher scale of land
management planning, managers are concerned with
broad-brush differences in fuels and fire potential for
large planning areas on the order of multiple seasons
to centuries. At these spatial and temporal scales,
scientists synthesize patterns of fire occurrence to
better understand the relationship of fire to numer-
ous ecosystem properties that occur on the order of
years to centuries. This scale of wildland fire science
is the fire regime scale (fig. 2-1). Above the fire regime
scale is the paleo-fire scale. Understanding fire at this
longer scale is important for understanding climate-
vegetation-human interactions (Boyd and others 2005;
Pausas and Keeley 2009; Power and others 2008). There
is some interaction between scales. Insights from one
scale inform our understanding of fire phenomenon
at the next higher scale. For example, conceptually,
fuel particles aggregate up to make fuel beds and fuel
beds aggregate up to make fuel complexes necessary
for predicting behavior of individual fires.
As each discipline has studied fire phenomena,
theyve focused on their particular disciplinary aspect of
fire and each has developed their own concepts, terms,
and sets of measures. As one describes fire at finer
scales, terms and illustrations are based on precisely
measured biophysical parameters that typically require
specialized instrumentation (such as, fireline intensity
and heat transfer mechanisms). As one describes fire
at successively broader temporal and spatial scales,
illustrations rely more on broad concepts and general
trends and tendencies based on outcomes (for example,
fire periodicity and severity) and less on the physics
and chemistry of specific fire events (fig. 2-1). The
use of similar terms developed by specialists who are
focused on one discipline or scale vs. another leads
to confusion, which can be particularly difficult for
professionals from quite dissimilar disciplines such as
cultural resources. It is, however, important to consider
the purpose for which an investigation was conducted,
or a model constructed, when applying concepts and
models to fire and cultural resource problems.
Fire Behavior and Effects: Concepts
and Models______________________
Fire Environment
An essential element of wildland fire is the bio-
physical fire environment, which is composed of three
factors: weather, terrain, and fuels. Each of these var-
ies in both time and space (fig. 2-1). Weather is the
state of the atmosphere surrounding the earth. The
primary weather factors affecting wildland fire are
temperature, wind speed, wind direction, humidity,
precipitation, and sky condition (dark vs. cloudy vs.
sunny). Terrain is the shape of a particular landform
on the earths surface and is often described by slope,
aspect, elevation, and drainage properties. Fuels are
fires source of energy released in combustion. Fuels
are comprised of living and dead biomass from the
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 23
ground, the surface, and the canopy stratum and come
in many shapes, sizes and varieties (fig. 2-4).
Fire managers have long recognized that weather
conditions, terrain steepness, and the amount of avail-
able fuel have a dominant effect on a fires energy
release characteristics (Albini 1976; Grishin 1997;
Pyne and others 1996; Rothermel 1972; Stocks and
others 1989; Wotton and others 2009). Of more inter-
est in bioconservation and restoration studies is the
understanding that the energy released by fire has
the potential to do ecological work, that is, to change
a host of ecosystem state variables (Dickinson and
Ryan 2010). Thus, quantification of the energetics
of fires is desirable in ecological studies (Butler and
Dickinson 2010; Johnson 1992; Johnson and Miyanishi
2001; Kremens and others 2010; Massman and oth-
ers 2010). Likewise the energy released during a fire
has the potential to directly impact cultural resources
through the thermal effects on artifacts and the cultural
landscape. However, fire behavior is highly variable
in non-uniform fuels, instrumentation is costly, and it
is often impractical to sample fire behavior except on
small experimental plots, making it difficult to quantify
the magnitude of fire treatments in ecological studies
or restoration projects.
WeatherWeather generally refers to the day-to-
day temperature, relative humidity, wind, cloudiness,
and precipitation activity. Meteorology is the interdis-
ciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere. It focuses
on weather processes and forecasting. In contrast,
climatology is the study of climate, which is scientifi-
cally defined as weather conditions averaged over a
period of time. By convention the climate of an area is
as the average weather for the preceding 30 years, but
also includes data on extreme events. Climatology is
an important consideration in the study of fire regimes
(fig. 2-1). As the fire environment is concerned with
the behavior of an individual fire on a specific site,
fire weather is the meteorological process of concern
for predicting and understanding fire behavior and
effects.
Weather is a set of all atmospheric phenomena oc-
curring at a given time. Weather phenomena occur in
the lower atmosphere, the troposphere, an air layer
varying from roughly 7 km (4.3 mi) thick in Polar
Regions to 20 km (12 mi) thick in the tropics. The
troposphere contains approximately 75 percent of the
atmospheres mass and 99 percent of its water vapor
and aerosols. Weather patterns result from differ-
ences in atmospheric density caused by differences in
temperature and moisture content of the atmosphere
in one region of the globe versus another. Short term
weather, hours to days, is most critical for determining
the fire environment. However, longer term weather,
seasonal patterns, and periodic wet or dry cycles (e.g.,
drought) have major effects on the moisture content
 (a)

(b)

Figure 2-4Fuel elements by stratum (a) (from Sandberg and others 2001) aggregate to make a fuel bed
(b) (from Barrows 1951).

24 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

of large logs and duff (Deeming and others 1977; Van
Wagner 1987) as well as live fuel moisture. These fuel
moistures also affect the amount of available fuel and,
therefore, the fire environment. Those readers inter-
ested in more details about fire weather are referred
to the classic Fire Weather Handbook (Schroeder
and Buck 1970) or subsequent fire science texts (see
for example Chandler and others 1983a,b; Flannigan
and Wotton 2001; Gill and others 1981; Lawson and
Armitage 2008; Minnich 2006; Omi 2005; Pyne and
others 1996).
Weatherspecifically temperature, relative humid-
ity, wind, and droughtdefines the fraction of the
total fuel that is available to be consumed in a given
fire. The short-term weather history is the primary
determinant of the flammability of the moss and lichen
layers, loose litter, foliage, and fine twigs (Albini 1976;
Stocks and others 1989; Wotton and others 2009). The
moisture content of fine fuels is reflected in the U.S.
National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) 1- and
10-hour time-lag fuel moistures (Deeming and others
1977) and the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating
System (CFFDRS) fine fuel moisture content (FFMC)
(Stocks and others 1989; Van Wagner 1998; Wotton
and others 2009). Long-term weather determines
the moisture content and combustibility of deeper
organic layers and dead logs. The moisture content
of these fuels is reflected by the NFDRS 1,000-hour
time-lag fuel moisture (Deeming and others 1977),
Canadian Duff Moisture Code and Drought Code
(Hirsch 1996; Stocks and others 1989; Van Wagner
1987, 1998; Wotton and others 2009), Keetch-Byram
Drought Index (Burgan 1988, 1993; Fujioka and others
2008), or Palmer Drought Index. Wind is perhaps the
single most important cause of spatial and temporal
variation within boreal forests. Fires often pulsate
between intense surface fires and crown fires with
only modest changes in wind speed (Finney 1998;
Scott 1998; Scott and Reinhardt 2001; Van Wagner
1977, 1993). The result is a mosaic of small crown fire
patches instead of the large expanses that occur in
sustained wind-driven fires.
TerrainTerrain refers to the general relief or
topography of an area. Terrain is the most constant
factor in the fire environment. It strongly influences
fuels and weather. The earth has been shaped through
millennia by wind, water, and tectonic forces creating
mountains, valleys, plains, and canyons. The resulting
landforms affect the amount of solar radiation incident
on a site, precipitation patterns, wind flow patterns,
and evaporation, all of which affect the frequency dura-
tion of flammable periods and a sites ability to grow
biomass. Slope steepness and aspect are important
terrain features affecting the fire environment. Slope is
measured as the increase or decrease in elevation over
a fixed horizontal distance and is usually expressed
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 25
as a percent. In the field, slope is typically measured
over a distance of 30 meters (98 feet) or calculated
from contour lines on a map. The steepness of a slope
influences fire behavior through convective preheat-
ing fuels thereby increasing a fires intensity and rate
of spread. Because heat rises, fuels on steeper slopes
above fires dry quickly and ignite faster than fuels on
relatively flat slopes. The direction a slope is facing is
called the aspect. Aspect is most commonly expressed
as one of the four cardinal directions and their bisec-
tors (e.g., N, NE, E, SE, etc.) and occasionally as the
compass azimuth in degrees. The shape of the terrain
influences wind speed and direction as solar radiation
differentially heats the ground on varying aspects
throughout the diurnal cycle. In addition to slope and
aspect, elevation affects both the temperature and
humidity of the air and, therefore, vegetation/fuels
and fire potential. Slope also interacts with subsurface
geology resulting in moist microsites (e.g., seeps and
springs) that affect vegetation/fuels and fire potential.
Gravity, through its influence on erosion and ground
water, affects hill-slope hydrology (Neary and others
2005; Potts and others 1986; Swanson and others
1988; Wohlgemuth and others 2006) leading to spatial
differences in soil water content. These microsite dif-
ferences also directly affect surface and ground fuel
moisture contents (Hatton and others 1988; Samran
and others 1995).
The influence of terrain and landform on surface
energy and water budgets follows physical laws and
is, therefore, well known (Kunkle 2001; Schroeder
and Buck 1970). However, due to the sparse cover-
age of weather stations, a lack of good spatial data
on weather often leads to considerable uncertainty in
predicted fire weather. This is particularly true for
winds (Butler and others 2006). For fuels treatment
and restoration planning, reasonably robust models are
available for extrapolating weather and fuel moisture
from weather stations to the fire environment (e.g.,
FireFamilyPlus http://www.firemodels.org/index.php/
national-systems/firefamilyplus).
FuelsFuel is the burnable organic biomass on a
site. Fuel is the source of energy that does the work of
change, whether it is a change in the state of various
ecosystem components or damage to a cultural resource.
The most important aspect of fuels is to understand
that fuels can ignite and burn only when a certain
combination of conditions is met. These conditions
are described in this section. Fire influences fuels in
three ways. First, fire consumes fuel. Second, it creates
fuel by killing vegetation. Third, it indirectly affects
fuels by altering the site, thereby influencing post-fire
vegetation dynamics, the resultant fuel complex, and
the potential for future fires (Ryan 2002).
Wildland fuels are all chemically similar. Vegeta-
tive biomass fuels are of a class of chemicals called
 olymers consisting of cellulose (41-53%), hemicellulose
p content is valid for dead fuels over the range of about
(15-20%), and lignin (16-33%), with lesser amounts of
secondary plant metabolites (for example fats, oils,
waxes, resin), and minerals (calcium, potassium,
magnesium, silica) (DeBano and others 1998; Grishin
1997; Pyne and others 1996; Ward 2001). Wildland
fuels are described by their physical and chemical
properties when modeling fire danger or potential fire
behavior in the United States (Albini 1976; Andrews
2005; Deeming and others 1977; Rothermel 1972), but
in Canada they are described by a vegetation-based
physiognomic nomenclature (for example, dominant
species composition and stand structure) (Hirsch 1996;
Stocks and others 1989; Wotton and others 2009).
Likewise, field ecology studies primarily rely on veg-
etative physiognomic characteristics to characterize
fuels and fire potential.
At the finest scale, fuels are characterized by their
physical and chemical properties as they affect com-
bustion. More specifically, fuels are described by their
particle size and chemical composition (for example,
heat and moisture contents). For modeling purposes in
the United States and elsewhere where the Rothermel
(1972) model and its variants are used, the commonly
recognized particle sizes are broken down based on the
time-lag equilibrium moisture concept (Schroeder and
Buck 1970) (table 2-2). Biomass fuels are hygroscopic,
meaning that they absorb or lose moisture in response
to changes in atmospheric moisture, which is generally
defined in terms of the relative humidity (Deeming and
others 1977; Nelson 2001; Schroeder and Buck 1970).
As humidity rises or falls, so does fuel moisture. One
time-lag is the time it takes for a fuel element to change
approximately 63 percent from its initial moisture con-
tent to its new equilibrium following an atmospheric
humidity change. The concept of equilibrium moisture
2 percent up to the fiber saturation point of 30 to 35
percent, depending on the species characteristics and
the degree of rottenness. Above this point, free water
begins to form in intra- and inter-cellular spaces of the
fuel. It takes approximately five time-lags for a fuel
particle to come into equilibrium with the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is not often stable for five time-lags so
fuel moisture is almost constantly changing. Relative
humidity changes throughout the day as the tempera-
ture rises and falls through its diurnal cycle. Relative
humidity also changes when weather fronts bring in a
new air mass to a site of interest. However, the time-
lag concept is useful not only because it describes the
direction of moisture change (drying or wetting) but
also how fast fuels respond to weather changes. It is
also related to how fast particles ignite and burn in
wildland fires. For fire modeling purposes, the size class
is expressed as a function of the surface-area-to-volume
ratio (SAV, often represented by the Greek in U.S
fire modeling literature). Commonly, downed woody
debris in the 1-, 10-, and 100-hour time-lag classes (i.e.
woody fuels less than 7.6 cm diameter (< 3.0 in.)) are
referred to as fine woody debris (FWD) whereas logs
greater than 7.6 cm diameter (> 3.0 in.) are referred
to as coarse woody debris (CWD) (Sikkink and others
2009). CWD typically includes all logs both sound and
rotten. The time-lag concept is a useful one for describ-
ing fuel properties but cannot be interpreted rigidly.
Fine-fresh needles from conifer and schlerophoulos
(i.e., waxy evergreen) broadleaved species have longer
time-lag responses than weathered needles and non-
schleropholous species (e.g., pine needles) (Anderson
and others 1978). Lags larger than 20 cm (~8 in.) and
rotten logs have longer time-lags than 1,000 hours
(Deeming and others 1977).

Table 2-2Fuel moisture time lag, size class and description (Schroeder and Buck 1970). These size classes are commonly
used in fire danger rating (Deeming and others 1978), fire behavior prediction (Rothermel 1972, Albini 1976, Andrews
2008), and fuel consumption calculations (Reinhardt and others 2005, Ottmar and others 2007).
Size class,
area/volume (range), Common surface
Time lag cm (in) m1 (ft 1) Fuel description
1
1 hour <0.64 cm (<0.25 in) 630 to 10,800 m lichens, mosses, weathered pine needles,
(192 to 3300 ft1) loose leaf litter, grass straw

10 hour 0.64 - <2.54 cm (0.25 - <1.0 in) 157 to 629 m1 fresh pine needles, twigs
(48 to 192 ft1)

100 hour 2.54 - 7.62 cm (1.0 - <3.0 in) 52 to 156 m1 branch wood
(16 to 48 ft1)

1,000 hour 7.62 - 22.86 cm (3.0 - 9.0 in) 17 to 51 m1 sound logs

(5.3 to 16 ft1)

26 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Finely divided (small) fuel particles have high SAVs,
wet and dry quickly, and ignite and burn out quickly.
The larger the SAV, the faster particles ignite and
burn (table 2-2). Anderson (1969) determined that
the duration of flaming was a function of particle
diameter. Fuel pieces burn at an approximate rate of
3.15 minutes per centimeter of diameter (8 minutes
per inch). Similarly, Harmathy (1972, 1976) found
that the duration of smoldering was approximately
as long as that of flaming. Thus the total duration of
fuel burnout, flaming plus smoldering, is around 6.3
minutes per centimeter (15.75 minutes per inch) of
fuel diameter consumed (Peterson and Ryan 1986).
Thus, for example, if woody fuels up to 3 cm (1.2 in)
in diameter were consumed on an area then a rough
estimate of the duration of heating would be about 19
minutes. As available fuels in wildland fires burn at
a relatively fixed rate, increasing the rate of spread
also increases the depth of the flame zone in addition
to increasing the length of the flames (fig. 2-2). This
translates directly into higher fireline intensity, greater
radiative heat flux, and an increased potential for
damage to exposed cultural resources (sidebar 2-1).
Fuel particle characteristics vary continuously in
space and time. In all but the most homogeneous of
fuel-beds (e.g., productive grasslands), the mass and
size distribution of fuels varies across an area with
varying height as the physiognomy of the vegeta-
tion changes. Fuel particles change moisture content
as a function of their size, relative humidity, and
temperature (Sandberg and others 2001; Schroeder
and Buck 1970; Van Wagtendonk 2006) (table 2-3)
(fig.2-4a). That variation is large relative to the
spatial and temporal scales over which fires burn
in natural communities. Thus, in practice, fuels are
not described on the basis of individual fuel particle
attributes, rather they are described in aggregate at
the next higher scale as an agglomeration of several
types of fuel (fig.2-4b), referred to as a fuel complex
or a fuel bed. In the Rothermel model and its variants
(Andrews 2005; Deeming and others 1977; Finney 1998;
Rothermel 1972; Scott 1998), fuel beds are described in
the form of stylized fuel models (Albini 1976; Anderson
1982; Scott and Burgan 2005) that describe the mass
per unit area, physical distribution (weighted particle
size, fuel bed depth, bulk density), and chemistry
(heat, moisture, and mineral content) of the surface
fuels. Common U.S. terminology is the Anderson-13
(Anderson 1982) and the Scott and Burgan-40 (Scott
and Burgan 2005). In contrast, the Canadian Forest
Fire Behavior Prediction System (FBP) organizes fuel
types into 16 discrete fuel types where the user selects
the fuel type that best fits a particular situation. Fuel
types in the FBP system are described qualitatively,
rather than quantitatively (Forestry Canada 1992;
Wotton and others 2009).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 27
Fuel compactness refers to how tightly packed fuel
particles are within the fuel bed. Compactness is de-
scribed as a weight of fuel per unit volume of the fuel
bed. It is estimated by measuring depth and loading of
fuel by a standard methodology. The most commonly
used technique in the United States is the planar inter-
sect (Brown 1974; Brown and others 1982). Increasing
density of fuels like grasses, woody debris, shrubs and
forbs increases the amount of available fuels. Compact-
ness influences drying rate and heat transfer during a
fire. The more compact the fuels, the slower the drying
rate. Maximum combustion occurs when particles are
close enough together to effectively transmit heat by
radiation and convection but far enough apart to not
restrict oxygen flow to burning fuels.
It is important to understand that the emphasis
for focusing on surface fuels is a reflection of the
historic need to predict fire behavior for fire control
purposes. Operational fire behavior prediction systems
in the United States are based on the semi-empirical
Rothermel (1972) mathematical model and in Canada
on empirical field data (Stocks and others 1989; Hirsch
1996). These were developed to predict fire potential for
strategic and tactical fire planning and management,
not for predicting fire effects. One problem with using
current fire behavior prediction systems in ecological
studies is that they do not predict all of the combus-
tion and, therefore, all of the energy released over the
duration of the fire (c.f. Johnson and Miyanishi 2001;
Ryan 2002). In particular they are insufficient for un-
derstanding below-ground effects. Thus, other fuel bed
descriptors are common in the fire science and ecology
literature (for example, see Barrows 1951; DeBano
and others 1998; Ottmar and others 2007; Pyne and
others 1996; Sandberg and others 2001, 2007). These
fuel bed components are described on the basis of the
physiognomic characteristics (tree, shrub, grass, forb,
moss, etc.) (figs. 2-4a,b). Fuels are described typi-
cally on the basis of the stratum in which they occur
(ground, surface, canopy) (table 2-3), how the type of
fuel burns, (the dominant combustion characteristic
such as smoldering vs. flaming), and potential dura-
tion of burnout during severe fire weather (Ottmar
and others 2007; Sandberg and others 2001, 2002).
Conventional nomenclature defines fuels based on
whether they are alive or dead, their availability for
burning, their physical size, and chemical properties.
Conceptually, total biomass is the sum of all plant
material on the site and includes both above-ground
and below-ground carbon. Historically, little organic
mass within the mineral soil burns; therefore, the fire
literature typically ignores the below-ground fraction.
However, buried soil wood (e.g., rotten roots) may be
of concern in some archaeological contexts (see chap-
ter7). Total aboveground biomass is the sites total
dry mass of living and dead plant tissue found above
 Table 2.3Fuel bed strata and categories, and their physiognomic and gradient variables (from
Ottmar and others 2007).

Fuelbed strata Fuelbed categories Physiognomic variables Gradient variables

Canopy Tree Canopy structure Canopy height
Crown type Height to live crown
Percentage cover
Snag Snag class Diameter
Height
Snags per acre
Ladder fuels Vegetation type Significance
Shrub Shrub Foliage type Percentage cover
Growth habit Height
Accelerant potential Percentage live vegetation
Needle drape Significance
Low vegetation Grass/sedge Leaf blade thickness Percentage cover
Growth habit Height
Percentage live vegetation
Percentage cover
Forb Height
Woody fuel Sound wood Size class Loading (tons/acre)
Fuelbed depth
Rotten wood Size class Loading (tons/acre)
Stumps Decay class Stems/acre
Diameter
Woody Piles, windrows or Height
accumulations jackpots Width
Clean or dirty Length
Number/acre
Moss/lichen/litter Moss Moss type Percentage cover
Depth
Lichen Percentage cover
Depth
Litter Litter type Percentage cover
Litter arrangement Depth
Ground Fuel Duff Character Depth
Percentage rotten wood
Basal accumulation Accumulation type, e.g. Depth
litter, bark slough Trees per acre affected

the mineral soil. Above-ground biomass is further
divided based on whether it is alive or dead. Live and
dead fuel may be broken down into total and avail-
able fuel, as illustrated in the Venn diagram (fig. 2-5).
Total fuel is the total amount of biomass capable of
burning in a given area under a worst-case scenario.
Available fuel is that biomass that actually burns in a
specific fire. Total above ground biomass ( total fuel
available fuel) is the total of all carbon stored on
the site above the mineral soil including such things
as living tree boles that are not consumed by surface
or crown fires. In figure 2-5, the degree to which the
Venn areas represented by the biomass classes are
similar or different varies with the biome ranging
from a tall grass prairie, where available fuel, total
fuel, and above ground biomass are essentially equal
under drought conditions, to a rain forest where an
initial fire leaves substantial unburned biomass in the
stems and canopy. The magnitude of these inequalities
varies with the physiognomic structure of the biome
and the prevailing moisture and wind at the time of
the fire. Differences are small in grasslands and large
in long undisturbed forests. The total amount of fuel
available on a site depends on the stand structure and
plant composition as well as the sites disturbance his-
tory (Graham and others 2004; Peterson and others
2005). Structure includes the quantity, distribution,
and horizontal and vertical arrangement of live and
dead trees, understory vegetation, woody debris, lit-
ter, and humus (Artsybashev 1983; Brown and Bevins
1986; Johnson 1992; Ryan 2002).

28 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012


Figure 2-5Venn diagram schematic representation of classes
of biomass and their potential availability for combustion in a
wildland fire. The degree to which live vs. dead fuel (black line)
dominates a fuel complex varies by the biome, site disturbance
history, seasonal phenology, and climatic cycles (e.g., drought
vs. wet).
Fuel moisture is the single most important factor
determining how much of the total fuel is available
for combustion (Albini and others 1995; Nelson 2001).
Moisture content is expressed as a percentage of water
to the dry weight of fuel.
{[(wet dry)/ dry] x 100} = mc% [1]
The moisture content of fine fuels is critical because
they are the primary carriers of fire. Increasing mois-
ture content reduces the likelihood that an ignition will
lead to a propagating fire, and reduces the available
fuel fraction. Within the range of moistures where fires
can spread, increasing moisture content increases the
duration of burning, and possibly leads to more emis-
sive flames due to less efficient burning (Thomas 1970).
Once conditions for fire spread are met, the moisture
content of longer time-lag fuels becomes important to
predicting below-ground fire effects. Wind increases
the burning rate and decreases the duration of burnout
(Cheney 1981; Miyanishi 2001).
The primary factor distinguishing living fuels ver-
sus dead fuels is their moisture content. Dead woody
fuels (twigs, branches, logs) rarely exceed 30 to 35
percent moisture, the fiber saturation point on a dry
mass basis, but may be as low as 2 or 3 percent during
extended dry spells. In contrast, live fuels may have
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 29
moisture contents approaching 300 percent early in
the growing season, and rarely drop below 80 percent
prior to senescence. In contrast to woody fuels, dead
herbaceous fuels are typically less dense, have more
pore space, and are thus capable of holding more free
moisture at saturation. However, they are invariably
much dryer than when they were alive. Fuels in an
advanced state of decomposition, such as rotten logs
and organic soil horizons, can hold much more moisture
(up to 250 percent moisture content and occasionally
higher). Rotten fuels can also ignite and burn at much
higher moisture contents, approaching 200 percent un-
der ideal burning conditions. The transition from solid
fuel to rotten is a gradual process, often characterized
by decay classes (Marcot and others 2004). Often, only
a portion of the total above-ground biomass is capable
of burning. In forests, for example, solid tree boles are
too widely spaced to mutually reinforce each others
combustion. Even in the most destructive fires the
trunks and most branches on standing live trees are
not consumed. In contrast, in grasslands, virtually all
of the above-ground biomass is available fuel under
severe burning conditions.
The fire environment concept can be extended from
its suppression-derived simplicity to a more ecological
construct (fig. 2-6a). Fire behavior varies in time and
space with changes in the terrain, weather, and vegeta-
tive structure and whether or not the area experiences
a head fire, flank fire, or backing fire. As the fire be-
havior changes so do the effects (fig. 2-6b) (from Ryan
2002).The extension of the fire environment concept to
ecological studies requires that fuels be considered in
the broader context of the structure of biomass on the
site. Structure defines the total amount of biomass
that can be burned and, therefore, the total energy
that can be released from all combustion phases in a
fire. The size distribution of the structural components
defines the rate at which energy will be released during
favorable burning conditions. The rates at which fuels
wet, dry (Nelson 2001), and burn (Anderson 1969) are
functions of particle surface-area. These rates can be
approximated from diameter for most dead fuels above
the ground fuel stratum (i.e., above the duff layer)
(table 2-2).
Given that the various components of a fuel bed
have rather unique burning characteristics, fires burn
throughout a continuum of energy release rates and
durations depending on the complexity of fuel elements
present (appendix) (Artsybashev 1983; Rothermel
1991; Rowe 1983; Van Wagner 1983).
Ground fuel includes organic matter below the loose
surface litter including deep duff (fermentation and
humus soil horizons), tree roots, decomposing buried
logs, duff mounds around tree bases, and rodent mid-
dins (fig. 2-4). Peat and organic muck soils are also
ground fuels. Because of the lack of aeration, ground
 (a)
(b)
Figure 2-6Fire environment, behavior, and effects (from Ryan 2002).
fires burn these densely compacted organic soil horizons
primarily by smoldering combustion (fig. 2-7). Such
fires typically burn for hours to weeks, exhibit forward
rates of spread in the range of a few decimeters to a few
meters (feet to yards) per day, and exhibit temperatures
at a point in excess of 300C (572 F) for several hours
(Agee 1993; Frandsen and Ryan 1986; Grishin and
others 2009; Hartford and Frandsen 1992; Ryan and
Frandsen 1991) (e.g., fig.2-8). Burning rates and in-
tensities of organic soils vary somewhat with moisture
content and availability of air. Frandsen (1991a) found
the rate of spread in laboratory analysis of duff fuels
to be on the order of 3 cm (1.2 in) per hour. The condi-
tions necessary for ground fires are organic soil depth
greater than about 4 to 6 centimeters (1.6 to 2.4 in.)
and extended drying (Hawkes 1993; Miyanishi 2001;
Miyanishi and Johnson 2002; Palmer 1957; Reinhardt
and others 1997). Duff thinner than this can actually
30 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
buffer mineral soil (Bradstock and Auld 1995; Valette
and others 1994) and artifacts from significant heat-
ing associated with the passage of the flaming front.
This is because the energy lost from the duff surface
exceeds that produced by burning duff and the fire self
extinguishes after the passage of the flaming front.
The occurrence of ground fires is strongly dependent
on the moisture content of the organic horizon (Brown
and others 1985; Frandsen 1987, 1997; Grishin and
others 2009; Hawkes 1993; Hungerford and others
1995; Lawson and others 1997a,b; Miyanishi 2001;
Miyanishi and Johnson 2002; Reardon and others
2007, 2009; Rein 2009; Reinhardt and others 1991;
Sandberg 1980; Van Wagner 1972). In particular, peat
and organic muck soils fuels, which require extended
drought or disruption of ground water flow, reach mois-
ture contents low enough to burn (Grishin and others
2009; Hungerford and others 1995; Reardon and others
(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Figure 2-7Smoldering combustion in ground fuels (a) creeping surface fire igniting duff mound beneath old growth western larch,
Larix occidentalis in the 2005 Girard Grove prescribed burn, Seely Lake Ranger District, Lolo National Forest, Montana; (b)burnout
of smoldering duff mound in (a); (c) burnout of organic muck soil on the 1994 Fish Day wildfire, Croatan National Forest, North
Carolina; and (d) smoldering duff from squirrel midden in jack pine forest, Northwest Territories, Canada. ,

Figure 2-8Example of temperatures

associated with smoldering ground fire in
western larch Larix occidentalis duff, Lolo
National Forest, Montana. Duff depth =
6.5 cm (2.6 in.), moisture content = 18.3%
(from Hartford and Frandsen 1992).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 31

2007, 2009; Rein 2009; Rein and others 2008). Ground
fuels are good insulators and protect deeper organic
strata and the mineral soil from heating during the
passage of surface and crown fires (fig. 2-9). However,
when ground fuels are dry enough to burn, they are
ignited by the passage of the flaming front. Surface
fire penetrates the litter and fermentation layer where
pine cones, branches, or rotten wood create a localized
hot spot. Once ignition is established in the humus
or peat soil, the fire propagates laterally evaporating
moisture and raising dry organic soil up to combustion
temperatures (endothermic phase) where smoldering
combustion occurs (exothermic phase.) (Grishin and
others 2009; Hungerford and others 1991, 1995; Rein
2009; Rein and others 2008). Ground fuels have a slow
burning rate and burn independently from surface
and crown fires, so most ground fuels are consumed
after the flaming front has passed, often some hours
after passage of the flaming front (Artsybashev 1983;
Hungerford and others 1995; Rowe 1983; Van Wagner
1983). An exception occurs when surface fires are burn-
ing in heavy loadings of coarse woody debris (CWD),
Figure 2-9Schematic of duff burnout (adapted from Hungerford and others 1991, 1995).
32 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
which is a legacy from previous disturbances (e.g.,
logging slash, insect and disease epidemics, or storm
damage). Even in such situations, CWD rarely covers
more than 10 percent of the surface area of the forest
floor, which is small in comparison to that covered by
organic soil horizons such as duff (Albini 1976; Albini
and Reinhardt 1995, 1997; Peterson and Ryan 1986).
Thus burnout of ground fuels is the primary source of
deep heating in mineral soils. When duff is too wet to
burn, heating from above is negligible except under
heavy concentrations of burning CWD.
Surface fuels are those fuels that support surface
flaming: recently fallen, partially decomposed loose lit-
ter (dead leaves and conifer needles), mosses, lichens,
grasses, forbs, low shrubs, arboreal regeneration, fine
woody debris (FWD), CWD, and stumps. The surface
fuel stratum is defined as those being above the ground
fuels (i.e., organic soil horizons) and below the canopy
stratum, and is normally <2.0 m, (~6 ft)) (fig. 2-4b).
The intensity of a surface fire depends on the mass and
type of total fuel and prevailing moisture, wind, and
slope conditions on the site (i.e., the fire environment).
As the vegetative physiognomy of forests, woodlands,
shrublands, grasslands, and wetlands vary across the
landscape surface, fires are likewise highly variable.
Surface fires in light flashy fuels, such as grasslands,
have a broad range of intensities often producing sur-
face temperatures in excess of 300C (572 F), but be-
cause of the high surface-area-to-volume ratio of grass
fuels and the relatively low fuel bed compactness burn
durations last only for 1 to 2 minutes (fig. 2-10). Under
marginal burning conditions, surface fires creep along
the ground at rates of decimeters (~1/3 foot) per hour
with flames less than 5 decimeters (<2 feet) (appendix).
As fuel, weather, and terrain conditions become more
favorable for burning, surface fires become progres-
sively more active with spread rates ranging from tens
of meters to kilometers (yards to miles) per day. The
duration of forest surface fires is on the order of 1 to
a few minutes (Butler and others 2004; Cruz and oth-
ers 2006a,b; Despain and others 1996; Frandsen and
Ryan 1986; Hartford and Frandsen 1992; Vasander
and Lindholm 1985) except where extended residual
secondary flaming (fig. 2-2a) occurs beneath logs or in
concentrations of CWD where flaming combustion may
last a few hours resulting in substantial soil heating

(a) (c)

(d)

(b)

Figure 2-10Surface fire in grasslands (a) backing fire in short-grass prairie (photo M. Lata); (b) strip head fires in short-grass
prairie (note range of flame lengths, fire intensities from the back, flank, and head of the fires) (photo M. Lata); (c) intense head-fire
in heavy grass fuels; and (d) temperatures associated with surface fire a in grass fuel bed (from Ryan 2002).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 33

(Hartford and Frandsen 1992; Monsanto and Agee
2008; Odion and Davis 2000; Werts and Jahren 2007).
If canopy fuels are plentiful and sufficiently dry, surface
fires begin to transition into crown fires (Scott and
Reinhardt 2001; Van Wagner 1977). Given that fine
surface fuels burnout quickly by flaming combustion,
it follows from the fireline intensity equation (eqn. 2,
discussed in the Fire Intensity section), that increas-
ing the available fuel loading (mass per unit area) will
increase the intensity of the fire as reflected both in the
size of the flames and the temperatures experienced
at the soil surface (Stinson and Wright 1969; Wright
and others 1976) (fig. 2-11). The considerable varia-
tion in surface temperatures reported from burning
fine surface fuels (see Wright and Bailey 1982, ch. 2
for review) reflects the complexity of free-burning fires
where local variations in fuel load and wind result in
flames of varying emissivity and, therefore, potential
damage to cultural resources.
Aerial or crown fuels include live and dead burn-
able biomass in the forest and woodland canopy stra-
tum above the surface fuels (>2 m, ~ 6 ft.) (fig. 2-4b):
branches and foliage of trees and tall shrubs, snags,
epiphytes, hanging mosses and lichens (figs. 2-12a,b),
(table 2-2). While surface fires are the dominant type
of wildland fire, ground and crown fires commonly oc-
cur. The prediction of crown fires is an active area of
fire research (see Cruz and Alexander, 2010, for recent
review). Critical gaps in our understanding include
(1)how moisture content affects the fraction of the
crown biomass burned during a crown fire, (2)how to
define crown volume, (3) how to define the distribu-
tion of biomass within that volume, and (4)how to
define the continuity between surface fuels and canopy
fuels. The height, shape, and density of crowns vary
from tree to tree; trees are not uniformly distributed
in natural stands. Surface fuels are of an irregular
height; likewise the base of the crown (i.e., height of
lower branches) varies from tree to tree, thus, the gap
between surface and canopy fuels is often difficult to
define. The following paragraphs are intended to inform
cultural resource specialists about these important
concepts.

Figure 2-11Variation in temperature history (maximum temperatures and

durations) associated with increasing amounts of available fuel in a Texas
grassland. Environmental conditions during the experimental burns were
air temperatures, which varied from 21 C to 27 C (70 F to 80 F); rela-
tive humidity, which ranged from 20 to 40 percent; and wind speed, which
varied from 13 to 24 km/hr (8 to 15 mph) (From Wright and others 1976).

34 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 (a)

(b)

Figure 2-12Crown fire in coniferous forest (a) example of temperatures associated with a crown fire in jack pine (Pinus
banksiana) in the Northwest Territories, Canada. Such fires typically produce temperatures in excess of 1000 C (1832 F)
for about 1minute (from Ryan 2002); (b) photograph of crown fire associated with (a).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 35

 Canopy fuels are predominantly fine fuels and
are quickly consumed. Thus crown fires exhibit the
maximum energy release rate but are typically of
short duration, 30 to 80 seconds (fig. 2-12b). On rare
occasions, under specialized conditions, crown fires
can occur without the support of a surface fire. Such
fires are referred to as independent crown fires
(Van Wagner 1977). More commonly, crown fires are
tightly coupled with the surface fire in a continuous
three-dimensional involvement of surface and crown
fuels advancing as a unified flaming front referred to
as an active crown fire. Commonly, individual trees
and clumps of trees experience torching in association
with the passing of a surface fire. This is referred to
as a passive crown fire (Van Wagner 1977).
As a fire burns across the landscape, it encounters
different communities with varying site productivity
and differing disturbance histories that result in vary-
ing stand structures and flammability (Graham and
others 2004; Peterson and others 2005) (fig. 2-13). For
example, stands with a high open crown (canopy) and
short understory fuels have poor vertical fuel continu-
ity. Such stands will frequently carry a surface fire due
to increased sunlight and wind at the surface (Albini
1976; Kunkel 2001; Stocks and others 1989; Wotton
and others 2009) but have a low crown fire potential
because of the large gap between surface aerial fuels
(Artsybashev 1983; Grishin 1997; Scott 1998; Scott and
Reinhardt 2001; Van Wagner 1977, 1993). In contrast,
forest stands with a dense understory of shrubs or
immature trees have relatively high vertical fuel con-
tinuity. Such stands can support intense surface fires
leading to crowning and torching of the tree canopy
stratum. If the canopy stratum is a patchy over-story,
then the stand has poor horizontal fuel continuity in
the canopy layer. Such stands readily support passive
crowning (torching) and spotting under low relative
humidity, especially when surface fuels are in an

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Figure 2-13Fuel continuity. Increasing stand density on a site as a function of natural succession leading to an increase in
horizontal and vertical fuel continuity. Illustrated are 170 trees per acre (420 trees per hectare) in 1900 (a), 409 trees per acre
(1010 trees per hectare) in 2000 (b), 547 trees per acre (1351 trees per hectare) in 2050 (c), and horizontal fuel continuity from an
overhead view of frames a-c (d). Crown cover is expected to increases to 80 percent by 2050 leading to a significant increase in
crown fire potential (from Smith and others 2000). Simulations were done using FFE-FVS (Crookston and others 2000, i.e., prior
to the 2002 Hayman Fire) with data from Cheesman Reservoir, Pike National Forest, Colorado.

36 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

advanced state of curing. Stands with high vertical
and horizontal fuel continuity are less likely to burn
because of the typically moister microenvironment,
but such stands have the highest crown fire potential
when fires burn under drought, low relative humid-
ity, or high wind conditions (Alexander 1998; Cruz
and Alexander 2010; Finney 1998, 1999; Scott 1998;
Scott and Reinhardt 2001; Van Wagner 1977, 1993).
The availability of fuels varies not only in space, but
also in time with changes in weather (principally rela-
tive humidity, temperature, and drought) (Bessie and
Johnson 1995; Flannigan and Wotton 2001; Johnson
1992; Schroeder and Buck 1970). Spatial variation in
the fire environment leads to varying fire severities
and burn mosaics as fire spreads across the landscape.
Ignition: How Fuel is Ignited Affects Fire Be-
havior and EffectsTaken collectively, the vegeta-
tion structure, weather, and terrain constitute the
biophysical fire environment (DeBano and others 1998;
Pyne and others 1996) (fig. 2-6a), which describes
the potential fire behavior and effects. Actual fire
behavior varies with how the specific area is burned.
Independent of the biophysical environment in which
the fire is burning, major differences in fire behavior
are associated with the location on the fires perim-
eter, that is, whether an area is burned by a heading,
flanking, or backing fire (Catchpole and others 1982,
1992; Cheney and Sullivan 2008; Ryan 2002) (figs. 2-3,
2-6b). The heading portion of the fire burns with the
wind or upslope. The backing fire burns into the wind
or down slope. The flanking fire burns perpendicular to
the winds or slopes axis. The direction of fire spread
is a function of the slope and wind vectors, with the
latter dominating except at low wind speeds (Albini
1976; Finney 1998; Rothermel 1972). The intensity
of both heading and backing fires are dependent on
the strength of the wind and steepness of a slope.
Commonly, fireline intensity in a backing fire is on
the order of 0.1 to 0.2 times that of a heading fire in a
given biophysical environment, while flanking fires are
about 0.4 to 0.6 times the head-fire intensity (Catchpole
and others 1992). Variations in the fire environment
and location on the fire perimeter lead to significant
variations in the fire behavior and effects (fig. 2-6b).
For example, it is common to see fires spread across
a slope running with the wind when the vegetation
structure is not sufficient and continuous enough for
the fire to carry up the slope. Thus the ignition pattern
that is used in a restoration burn can also be expected
to affect the pattern of fire behavior and the resulting
effects.
In summary, fires burn in varying combinations of
ground, surface, and crown depending on the local
conditions at the specific time a fire passes a point.
Changes in surface and ground fire behavior occur in
response to subtle changes in the microenvironment,
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 37
stand structure, and weather leading to a mosaic
of fire treatments at multiple scales in the ground,
surface and, canopy strata. Crown fires are of high
intensity (energy release rate) and of short duration.
Ground fires are of low intensity and long duration.
Surface fires are intermediate to crown and ground
fires and cover a wide range of intensities and duration
depending on the amount of available fuel loading and
its particle size distribution. Heavy concentrations of
coarse woody debris can result in long duration high
intensity heating of the soil. However, such concen-
trations typically cover only a small proportion of the
surface of the ground (Albini 1976; Brown and others
2003; Peterson and Ryan 1986). In most forests, either
duff or peat covers a much greater proportion of the
surface than FWD and CWD combined. The burnout of
these organic soil horizons by smoldering combustion
is the primary source of mineral soil heating. During
crown and surface fires the majority of heat released
by combustion is transferred to the atmosphere and
surrounding exposed surfaces by radiation and con-
vection. During ground fires, much of the heat that
is released is transferred into the soil by conduction.
When crown fires or intense surface fires occur over
dry organic soil horizons these layers can continue to
burn for several hours after the passage of the flam-
ing front leading to high heat release both above and
below ground (fig. 2-14). The practical significance of
ground, surface, and canopy fires to cultural resource
management will be discussed in subsequent sections.
Fire Intensity, Depth of Burn, and
Fire Severity_____________________
Fire intensity and fire severity are terms that are
often used in fire literature; however, there is con-
siderable confusion about their use (see Keeley 2009
for discussion). Part of the confusion in their use
stems from the fact that the terms may be used both
informally, as a normal matter of discourse, or they
may be used formally as terms defined by the user.
Definitions vary somewhat depending on the scale of
the fire being investigated.
Fire Intensity
Fire intensity is used by researchers in the United
States and Canada to describe the amount of energy
released in a given area during the passage of a fire
front (Alexander 1982; DeBano and others 1998;
Kaufmann and others 2007; Pyne and others 1996;
Rothermel and Deeming 1980; Van Wagtendonk 2006;
Wotton and others 2009). This measurement relates the
length and depth of a fire front to the amount of heat
energy being released (Byram 1959) (Equation 2, and
fig. 2-6). In turn, these values are used to understand
 Figure 2-14Temperatures associated with a high intensity, long duration
fire in a whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) stand, Clearwater National Forest,
Idaho. Passive crowning (torching) was followed by sustained flaming in a
cluster of logs.

fire potential and level of fire suppression difficulty
(Alexander and Lanoville 1989; Andrews and others
2011). Byrams (1959) definition of fireline intensity
has become a standard quantifiable measure of inten-
sity (Agee 1993; Alexander 1982; DeBano and others
1998; Johnson 1992; Rothermel and Deeming 1980;
Van Wagner 1983; Van Wagtendonk 2006). Fireline
intensity is the product of the fuel value (i.e., the fuels
heat content, the mass of fuel consumed, and the rate of
spread (m/s)) (Byram 1959). It is a measure of the rate
of energy release per unit width of the flaming front
of the spreading fire. It does not address the residual
secondary flaming behind the front nor subsequent
smoldering combustion (fig. 2-2a) (Alexander 1982;
Albini and Reinhardt 1995, 1997; Johnson and Miya-
nishi 2001; Rothermel and Deeming 1980). Fireline
intensity can be written as a simple equation:
I = HWR [2]
where
I is Byrams (1959) fireline intensity (kW/m/sec or
BTU/ft/sec),
H is the heat content of the fuel (kW/kg or BTU/lb
or of fuel),
W is the weight of available fuel burned in the ac-
tive flaming (spreading) fire front (kW/kg of fuel
or BTU/lb), and
R is the forward rate of spread (m/sec or ft/sec).
Byrams fireline intensity is usually calculated from
empirical observations of the rate of spread (R), weight
of fuel consumed (W) and the heat content (H), which
is normally taken from typical published approximate
values, or it is predicted by fire behavior models (Albini
1976; Alexander 1982; Rothermel 1972; Rothermel
and Deeming 1980). The challenge in managing fire
is to determine how much, and what type of fuel will
burn, and by what type of combustion. In Byrams
(1959) equation (eqn. 2), the value of W is the weight
of fuel consumed in the active flaming phase of the
fire. W approaches the value for available fuel in
fires where only fine dead fuels are consumed (such
as the grass fire mentioned above) (fig. 2-11), or when
coarser fuels are too sparse or wet to be ignited by the
passing flame front. When these conditions are not
satisfied, a portion of the available fuel is consumed
in the secondary flaming and smoldering combustion
phase. The burnout of these residual fuels does not
contribute to the forward propagation of the fire (R
in equation 2), but is often important for predicting
fire effects related to soil heating (Busse and oth-
ers 2005; Hartford and Frandsen 1992; Hungerford
and others 1991; Monsanto and Agee 2008; Odion
and Davis 2000). Figure2-15 illustrates the total con-
sumption of 1-, 10-, and 100-hour time-lag fuels as a
function of fuel moisture content. In practice, because
all combustion phases occur simultaneously (Urbanski
and others 2009), it can be difficult to clearly identify
which portion of the available fuel is burned in the

38 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012


Figure 2-15Fuel consumption and a function of the fuels
fractional fuel moisture content (Mf) and the fractional mois-
ture content beyond which fuels typically no longer sustain
combustion (Mx) except at very high packing ratios. The ratio
mf/mx for 1-, 10-, and 100-hour fuels is 0.73, 0.51, and 0.38,
respectively (from Peterson and Ryan 1985).
active flaming vs. residual secondary flaming and
smoldering, but fuel consumption (Albini and Rein-
hardt 1995, 1997; Albini and others 1995) and smoke
production (Bytnerowicz and others 2008; Sandberg
and others 2002; Urbanski and others 2009) programs
can be used as a guide. Alternatively some field stud-
ies measure flame length (Finney and Martin 1992;
Deeming 1980; Rothermel and Deeming 1980; Ryan
1981; Simard and others 1989) to estimate fireline
intensity (Albini 1981a; Byram 1959; Fernandes and
others 2009; Nelson 1980). Flame length (fig. 2-2)
is proportional to fireline intensity in a spreading
fire and is a useful measure of the potential to cause
damage to aboveground structures (Alexander 1982;
Ryan and Noste 1985; Van Wagner 1973). Actual field
measurement of fireline intensity requires sophisti-
cated instrumentation (Butler and Dickinson 2010;
Butler and others 2004; Kremens and others 2010).
Thus field observers often calculate fireline intensity
from ocular estimates of flame length, simple flame
height sensors (Finney and Martin 1992; Ryan 1981;
Simard and others 1989), or vegetation damage indi-
cators (Norum 1977; Ryan and Noste 1985) and use
known relationships between fireline intensity and
flame length (Albini 1981a; Byram 1959; Fernandes
and others 2009; Nelson 1980). The appendix contains
photographic examples of a range of flame lengths
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 39
associated with fire intensity classes (table A-1, fig.
A-1.1 to A-1.5, appendix) (Ryan 2002).
Rothermel (1972) defined a somewhat different mea-
sure of fire intensity, the Reaction Intensity, which is
the heat per unit area. This is commonly used in fire
danger rating (Deeming and others 1977) and fire
behavior prediction (Albini 1976; Andrews 1986; Scott
1998; Scott and Reinhardt 2001) in the United States.
In contrast, the Canadian forest fire danger rating
system (Stocks and others 1989) and the Canadian
Forest Fire Behavior Prediction (FBP) System (Hirsch
1996; Taylor and others 1996; Wotton and others 2009)
calculate the intensity of surface fires using Byrams
(1959) equation.
Depth of Burn
Although infrequent, fire is capable of burning inde-
pendent of surface fuels. When it moves through the
crown alone (independent crown fire), there is often
little surface and subsurface effect because of the short
burning duration of canopy fuels. More commonly,
crown fires and torching are associated with active
or running surface fires (appendix table A-1). If the
duff is dry, it is ignited by the passage of a surface
fire. Then, duff greater than about 4 cm deep (1.6 in)
can burn independently without continued flaming
in surface fuels (Frandsen 1997; Lawson and others
1997a; Urbanski and others 2009) (fig. 2-16). During
Figure 2-16Illustration of duff consumption, percent of total
duff available (%), as a function of lower duff (humus) moisture
content for common forest conditions where duff is greater than
4 centimeters deep and able to burn independent of a surface
fire if dry enough to burn. Shaded area represents the range of
consumptions found in the literature. Deeper layers and those
with less mineral content tend toward greater consumption for
given moisture content.
glowing and smoldering combustion of surface and
ground fuels, residence time is prolonged. The dura-
tion of smoldering can range from as little as 2 hours
to more than 30 hours in deep organic soil horizons
(Grishin and others 2009; Hungerford and others 1995;
Reardon and others 2007, 2009; Rein and others 2008)
(fig. 2-8). Given longer durations, heat may penetrate
deeply into the soil profile. The term commonly used
to describe the degree to which surface and ground
fuels are consumed is depth of burn.
Ryan and Noste (1985) summarized literature on
depth of burn and charring of plant materials and
developed descriptive characteristics. Their original
descriptions were revised to reflect subsequent work
(DeBano and others 1998; Feller 1998; Moreno and
Oechel 1989; Prez and Moreno 1998; Ryan 2002) and
were published in the Rainbow volume on the Effects
of Fire on Soil and Water (Neary and others 2005). A
description of the characteristics that they developed
is provided for clarification of subsequent discussion
of fire effects. The appendix includes several examples
of depth of burn classes.
Unburned: Plant parts are green and unaltered;
there is no direct effect from heat.
Scorched: Fire did not burn the area but radi-
ated or convected heat caused visible damage.
Mosses and leaves are brown or yellow but species
characteristics are still identifiable. Soil heating
is negligible.
Light: In forests, the surface litter, mosses, and
herbaceous plants are charred to consumed but the
underlying forest duff or organic soil is unaltered.
Fine dead twigs are charred or consumed but larger
branches remain. Logs may be blackened but are
not deeply charred except where two logs cross.
Leaves of understory shrubs and trees are charred
or consumed but fine twigs and branches remain. In
non-forest vegetation, plants are similarly charred
or consumed; herbaceous plant bases are not deeply
burned and are still identifiable, and charring of
the mineral soil is limited to a few millimeters
(fractions of an inch).
Moderate: In forests, the surface litter, mosses,
and herbaceous plants are consumed. Shallow duff
layers are completely consumed and charring occurs
in the top centimeter (0.4 in.) of the mineral soil.
Deep duff layers or organic soils are deeply burned
to completely consumed, resulting in deep charcoal
and ash deposits but the texture and structure of
the underlying mineral soil are not visibly altered.
Deep ash deposits are sometimes confused with
oxidized mineral soil. Ash is fine and powdery when
dry, slick and greasy when wet, whereas oxidized
soil retains pebbles and granularity and feels gritty.
40 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Trees of later successional, shallow-rooted species
often topple or are left on root pedestals. Fine dead
twigs are completely consumed, larger branches
and rotten logs are mostly consumed, and logs
are deeply charred. Burned-out stump holes and
rodent middens are common. Leaves of understory
shrubs and trees are completely consumed. Fine
twigs and branches of shrubs are mostly consumed
(this effect decreases with height above the ground),
and only the larger stems remain. Stems of these
plants frequently burn off at the base during the
ground fire phase, leaving residual aerial stems
that were not consumed in the flaming phase lying
on the ground. In non-forest vegetation, plants are
similarly consumed; herbaceous plant bases are
deeply burned and unidentifiable. In shrublands,
charring of the mineral soil is on the order of 1.0
centimeter (0.4 in.) but soil texture and structure
are not clearly altered.
Deep: In forests growing on mineral soil, the sur-
face litter, mosses, herbaceous plants, shrubs, and
woody branches are completely consumed. Sound
logs are consumed or deeply charred. Rotten logs
and stumps are consumed. The top layer of the
mineral soil is visibly oxidized, reddish to yellow.
Surface soil texture is altered and, in extreme
cases, fusion of particles occurs. A black band of
charred organic matter 1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to
0.8 inches) thick occurs at variable depths below the
surface. The depth of this band is an indication of
the duration of extreme heating. The temperatures
associated with oxidized mineral soil are associated
with flaming rather than smoldering. Thus, deep
depth of burn typically only occurs where woody
fuels burn for extended duration, such as beneath
individual logs or in concentrations of woody debris.
In areas with deep organic soils, deep depth-of-burn
occurs when ground fires consume the root-mat or
burn beneath the root-mat. Trees often topple in
the direction from which the smoldering fire front
approached.
Fire Severity
Fire behavior refers to the manner in which a spe-
cific fire burns the fuel bed (fuel complex) in a given
terrain with the prevailing weather conditions at the
time. Fire behavior prediction is concerned primarily
with the characteristics contributing to the advance of
a free-burning fire. This issue is more directly related
to fireline intensity (Alexander 1982; Byram 1959;
Ryan and Noste 1985). One problem with applying
fireline intensity in ecological studies is that it does
not predict all of the combustion or quantify all of the
energy released during a fire (Johnson and Miyani-
shi 2001; Ryan 2002; Keeley 2009). In contrast, fire
severity is concerned with both the characteristics of
the free burning fire as it spreads across an area and
the characteristics of the stationary fire as it resides
at a site (i.e., duration of burning), because it is the
latters characteristics that primarily determine how
deep into the soil profile fire and heat can penetrate
(Frandsen and Ryan 1986; Hartford and Frandsen
1992; Ryan 2002). Fire severity is a construct that
describes the change in site properties/conditions due
to fire. Fire severity describes the outcome rather than
the process and is thus useful for understanding the
ecological effects of fire on an ecosystem: the amount
of organic matter lost from a location, vegetation
mortality, and soil transformations (Feller 1998; Jain
and others 2008; Kaufmann and others 2007; Keeley
2002; Ryan 2002). The same principles apply when
considering the impacts of fire on cultural resources
found within the soil profile.
Following a fire, researchers are able to better un-
derstand fire dynamics by quantifying fire intensity
and duration (Neary and others 2005; Ryan 2002; Ryan
and Noste 1985). Several authors have quantified the
depth of burning into the ground (DeBano and others
1998; Feller 1998; Jain and Graham 2007; Jain and
others 2008; Morgan and Neuenschwander 1988; Ryan
and Noste 1985), and consumption (fig. 2-15) and depth
of char in FWD and CWD (Albini and Reinhardt 1995,
1997; Costa and Sandberg 2004). When depth of burn/
char measurements are coupled with estimates of flame
length and fire spread direction, it is possible to recre-
ate a fires movement through a stand. By combining
flame length and depth of burn/char measurements,
researchers are able to create a two-dimensional matrix
of fire severity, which may be a useful classification
of the level of fire treatment for comparative analysis
of fire effects within and between fires. For example,
Ryan and Noste (1985) (appendix table A-3) assessed
the effects of fire on tree crowns and ground fuels by
visiting burned sites and measuring scorch heights and
using them to back-calculate fireline intensity using
Van Wagners (1973, 1977) crown scorch model. Depth
of burn/char measurements can be used to estimate
residence time in surface fuels and soils. Wildland
fuels are poor conductors of heat. Due to heat transfer
constraints, fuels burn at relatively constant rates
(Anderson 1969; Frandsen 1991a,b). A fire can be
very intense, as exhibited by long flame lengths, but
its duration within the forest strata most determines
the depth of burn/char. Readers are referred to the
recent review by Keeley (2009) for further discussion
on the topic of fire intensity versus fire severity. A
more in-depth discussion of the differences between fire
intensity and fire severity can be found in the Effects
of Fire on Soil and Water volume (Neary and others
2005), and Ryan 2002. Field guidance on determining
fire severity may also be found in the appendix.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 41
Integrating Fire Severity With
Cultural Resources_______________
In short fire return forests where duff accumula-
tion is restricted, the burnout of CWD is the primary
source of deep soil heating (Monsanto and Agee 2008).
In forests with long fire return intervals, the buildup
of duff covers most of the forest floor surface. Logs,
even at high fuel loadings, rarely cover more than 10
percent of the soil surface area (Albini 1976; Brown
and others 2003; Peterson and Ryan 1986). Thus, the
most common source of deep soil heating is the burnout
of the duff. Equations exist to predict duff consump-
tion in the United States (Brown and others 1985,
1991; Ottmar and others 1993, 2005; Reinhardt 2003)
and Canada (Chrosciewicz 1968, 1978a,b; de Groot
and others 2009; Muraro 1975; Van Wagner 1972).
Predictions are available using both actual measured
moisture contents (fig. 2-16) or more readily available
fire danger rating indices (figs. 2-17, 2-18). Users are
referred to equations in the CONSUME (Ottmar and
others 1993, 2005, accessed November 13, 2009) and
FOFEM (Reinhardt 2003) publications as a means of
predicting expected duff, FWD, and CWD consumption
in wildfires or prescribed fires.
In addition to the burnout of duff and woody fuels,
there are a number of other means by which buried cul-
tural resources can be heated. One of the most common
is the burnout of stumps and dead roots. Commonly at
cultural sites, logs and building materials are buried
Figure 2-17Illustration of duff consumption, percent of total
duff available (%), as a function of U.S. National Fire Danger
Rating System (NFDRS) (Deeming and others 1977) thousand
hour moisture content for common forest conditions where duff
is greater that 4 centimeters deep and able to burn independent
of a surface fire if dry enough to burn (equation from Brown
and others1985).

Figure 2-18Illustration of duff depth reduction (in.) as a func-
tion of varying initial duff depths (in.) and U.S. National Fire
Danger Rating System (NFDRS) (Deeming and others 1977)
thousand hour moisture content based on Brown and others
1985. (1 in. = 2.54 cm.)
or partially buried. Once ignited these burn slowly,
deeply heating lower layers in the soil profile. Another
mode of subsurface heating is when soil is interspersed
with organic material in old middens and dump sites
where fire can freely move throughout the strata. For
further discussion of these unique fire environments
see chapters 6, 7 and 9.
The conceptual model of fire severity developed by
Ryan and Noste (1985) defines severity as the union of
the heat pulse above the site and the heat pulse in the
ground (heat pulse up heat pulse down) (appendix
table A-3). As the mass of fine fuel increases, so does
the potential for a high intensity surface fire or crown
fire. The primary weather factors that determine how
intensely that fine fuel mass will burn are the wind
speed and short-term drying (i.e., low relative humid-
ity). Canopy fuels readily torch at relative humidity
less than 20 percent. As fire intensity increases, so does
the above-ground heat pulse. Likewise, the potential
for fire to damage surface and above-ground cultural
resources also increases. The increased radiant flux
associated with large flames more effectively heats
surfaces at greater distances than is possible with
small flames (see sidebar 2-1). Also, as fire intensity
increases, fires become more uniformly severe as more
surface and canopy fuel is consumed. As the depth of
burn increases the potential to damage surface and
sub surface resources increases. With greater depth of
42 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
burn, more heat is released for a longer period of time
and the distance between the combustion zone and a
buried artifact is reduced as organic soil horizons are
consumed. The primary factors determining the depth
of burn are long-term drying and the depth of organic
material available on the site (fig. 2-19). The primary
factor determining the temperatures reached in the soil
is the depth of burn whether resulting from increased
duff consumption (fig. 2-20) or increased burnout of
coarse woody debris (fig. 2-21). The depth of burn and
the temperatures reached in the soil determine the
damage to subsurface cultural resources.
In their work on classifying fire severity, Ryan and
Noste (1985), Ryan (2002), and Neary and others
(2005) stressed the concept that one needs to look
independently at the heat pulse above the fire as well
as the heat pulse in the ground. For practical reasons,
it is often impossible to adequately instrument a
site in order to get definitive measures of the energy
release characteristics or temperature history across
a burned area of interest. The spatial variability of
fuels and fire behavior within most fires precludes
actual quantification in most cases. Classification of
the level of fire treatment has considerable pragmatic
utility. While remote sensing of fire characteristics is
becoming increasingly common (Kremens and others
2010; Lentile and others 2006, 2007, 2009) and real-
time monitoring from remote platforms such as air-
craft or satellites shows great promise for the future,
most cultural resource specialists will have to rely on
proxy data to reconstruct and classify the level of fire
treatment associated with observed fire effects. In the
case of unplanned fires, ex post facto measures are
all that is available to ecologists and archaeologists
alike. The fire severity matrix (appendix table A-3)
describes a classification of fires in a 6 by 4 matrix
with six classes of heat pulse above the ground and
four classes of depth of burn including the unburned
case. In addition, figures 2-16 through 2-21 can help
inform burning prescriptions designed to manage the
effects of fire on cultural resources during fuel reduc-
tion and ecosystem restoration treatments. Buenger
(2003) presented data and synthesis of the effects
of high temperatures on various archaeological and
historically significant materials. Data are also pre-
sented on temperature effects on ceramics (chapter 3),
lithics (chapter 4), and historic era materials (chapter
6) in this publication. Ryan (2010) summarized these
temperatures and discussed the importance of the du-
ration of exposure to high temperatures (sidebar 2-2).
These temperatures can be compared to representative
temperature histories of fires (e.g., figs. 2-8, 2-10, 2-11,
2-12, 2-14, 2-19, and 2-20) to bound expected fire ef-
fects when planning prescribed burns or post wildfire
rehabilitation and stabilization.
 Figure 2-19Representative temperature histories for fires of varying severity: (a) crownfire/low depth of burn (DOB), (b) crownfire/moderate DOB, (c) ac-
tive surface fire/low DOB, (d) creeping surface fire/moderate DOB. (See text and appendix for fire intensity and DOB descriptions.) Differing combinations of
high temperature and duration of heating lead to fires of different severity. Changes in site variables, including terrain and vegetative structure, and weather
variables lead to fires of differing peak temperature and duration. Broad arrows indicate increasing site and weather potential. Both site and weather conditions
must be met to affect fire severity (adapted from Ryan 2002).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 43

 Figure 2-20Temperature ranges associated with various biophysical fire effects
(top) (modified from Hungerford and others 1991) and cultural resource fire effects
(center) compared to the depth of heat penetration into mineral soil (bottom) for
a crown fire over exposed mineral soil (observed in jack pine Pinus banksiana in
the Canadian Northwest Territories) or for ground fire burning in 5-, 15-, and 25-cm
of duff (predicted by Campbell and others1994, 1995). Conditions are for coarse
dry soil, which provides the best conduction (i.e., a worst-case scenario) (adapted
from Ryan 2002).

44 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Figure 2-21Maximum soil temperatures predicted by the soil heating model in the
First Order Fire Effects Model ( FOFEM) (Reinhardt and others 2005) for varying
loadings of coarse woody debris (CWD (from Brown and others 2003). Solid lines
depicting 1, 3, 5, and 9 cm below the soil starting from top to bottom.

Fire Regime_____________________
In current fire management, the highest spatial and
temporal fire scale of interest is described by the fire
regime (fig. 2-1). Scott (2000) refers to the paleo-fire
trianglean even higher scale represented by atmo-
sphere, vegetation, and climatewhich recognizes that
terrain and atmospheric chemistry are variable over
geologic time frames. This longer term perspective
may not seem too relevant to fire managers; however,
in the study of climate-vegetation-fire relationships
that affected ancient cultures, it is germane to many
reconstructions of archaeological information. Under-
standing climate-vegetation-fire interactions is likely
to become of greater importance in formulating future
fuels treatment and restoration policies under climate
change scenarios (Lovejoy and Hannah 2005).
Fire regime concepts emerged in the fire ecology
literature with the early work of Heinselman (1978,
1981) and Kilgore (1981). In recent years there has
been considerable refinement in fire regime concepts as
ecologists have investigated more ecosystems and have
developed a greater appreciation for how fire regimes
vary over time. At the same time, ecological theory
has matured to recognize the importance of periodic
disturbance to the maintenance of ecological integrity
(Agee 1993; Hardy and others 2001; Morgan and others
2001; Sugihara and others 2006). In the United States,
the use of fire regime concepts has increasingly been
used in the fire ecology and management communi-
ties, particularly in the context of the Coarse-Scale
Assessment of Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC)
(Schmidt and others 2002) (table 2-4) and because its
use is mandated under the Healthy Forests Restora-
tion Act of 2003 (H.R. 1904). Fire regime refers to the
general nature of the type of fire that most commonly
occurred over long time periods (Agee 1993; Brown
2000; Hardy and others 1998; Sugihara and others 2006).
Table 2-4Historical natural fire regimes from Coarse-Scale
Assessment of Fire Regime Condition Class
(Schmidt and others 2001).
Code Description
I 0-35 year frequencya, low severityb
II 0-35 year frequency, stand replacement severity
III 35-100+ year frequency, mixed severity
IV 35-100+ year frequency, stand replacement severity
V 200+ year frequency, stand replacement severity
a
b
Fire frequency is the average number of years between fires.
Severity is the effect of the fire on the dominant overstory vegetation.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 45

 Sidebar 2-2Impact of Temperature and Duration of Heating on Lithics
It is common knowledge that many material transitions occur as complex functions of temperature and duration of
exposure. Such functions are often described by Arrhenius functions (fig. S-2.1) (Ryan 2010). Few time-temperature data
are available (e.g., Bennett and Kunzman 1985; Buenger 2003), and those that do exist are not robust enough to calculate
actual Arrhenius functions but they are adequate to illustrate their potential use. The following example uses data from
Bennett and Kunzman (1985) to illustrate the principle. (Bennett and Kunzmans work is unpublished but widely cited
and sometimes misinterpreted because the results of laboratory muffle furnace results are difficult to extrapolate to field
burning situations.)

General Information:
Type of research: Laboratory experiment
Purpose: Heating experiment was designed to mimic a range of wildland fire situations
Experimental heating of artifacts conducted by Bennett and Kunzman, Western Archeological and Conservation
Center, National Park Service, Tucson, Arizona
Heating description:
Temperature range: 200 to 800 C (392 to 1472 oF)
Duration: 3,000,000 degree-minutes for temperatures between 200 and 600 C (392 and 1112 oF); 1,345,000 and
1,400,000 degree-minutes for two trial runs of 800 C (1472 oF) max temperature.
Equipment used:
Electric thermolyne-type 1400 muffle furnace; temperature measured by a Weelco controller
Temperatures of heated specimens measured by 36 gauge iron-constantan (type J) thermocouples
Perkin Elmer 599 infra-red spectrometer used to measure bound water loss

Procedures:
Peter Bennett and Michael Kunzmann (1985) conducted experimental heating of artifacts in the materials and eco-
logical testing laboratory of the Western Archeological and Conservation Center in Tucson, Arizona. They used a muffle
furnace to assess potential damage to artifacts heated at prescribed burn temperatures. In their experiments, Bennet
and Kunzman examined specimens of chert, flint, chalcedony, obsidian, prehistoric earthenware, and historic to modern
bone, glass and enameled tinware. Separate samples of specimens were heated in the furnace to different maximum tem-
peratures. Duration of heating was measured in degree-minutes. Degree-minutes of heating were equal to the maximum
temperature reached minus 100 C (212 oF) multiplied by the time in minutes: (max. temp. 100 C (212 oF)) (minutes
heated). Duration of heating in degree-minutes was generally kept standard.
Color change and other visual alterations to the surface of items were recorded. Heating effects to artifact structure
were identified in terms of chemically bound water loss and weight loss due to causes other than evaporation of free wa-
ter. Free water evaporation was measured by heating specimens in a drying oven at 100 C (212 oF). Loss of chemically
bound water was determined with the use of an infrared spectrometer on ground-up pieces of specimens before and after
furnace heating. Weight loss not accounted for by free or bound water loss was attributed to other causes.
Specimens were also heated and plunged into cold water to test for thermal shock. The rate of cooling in water was
judged to be greater than 500 C (932 oF) per minute. Although this test was not carefully controlled, a minimal amount
of observed cracking and spalling led Bennett and Kunzman to conclude that thermal shock was not a major concern in
prescribed burns.
Given estimates of the Arrhenius functions for various cultural materials provide a means to compare expected tem-
peratures and durations of fires to assess the likelihood of CR damage. Such assessments require applying knowledge of
the CR material type and its location (for example, exposed above ground versus insulated by unburnable mineral soil),
the combustion characteristics of nearby fuels, and the heat transfer mechanisms coupling fire behavior to the CR. In
practice, many cultural materials including lithics are composed of various elements, often in layers, and each with their
own thermal properties. Rapid heating or cooling can create internal stresses that cause materials to fracture (e.g., pot-
lidding, spalling). Such mechanical failures are difficult to explain with Arrhenius functions; however, time-temperature
relationships help to explain why an artifact of a given material type might display similar damage over a range of fire
behaviors. Likewise, they help explain why two different material types might display very different effects from a given
fire behavior.

46 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Figure S2.1. Time-temperature relationships for four lithic materials (from Bennett and Kunzman 1985).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 47

The actual terms used and the concepts they describe
vary somewhat and this can result in confusion. Fire
regimes include descriptions of the frequency and
severity of the fire. Older literature often referred to
the effects of the fire as intensity but common usage
in current North American literature favors the term
fire severity as a description of the effects of fire (Agee
1993; Brown 2000; Hardy and others 1998; Keeley
2009; Neary and others 2005; Ryan 2002). Readers
are referred to the Effects of Fire on Flora (Brown
2000) for a description of various early uses of the fire
regime concept. There is a large body of more recent
fire regime-related literature, the review of which is
beyond the scope of this chapter. Interested readers
are invited to type the words fire regime into their
favorite internet search engine.
The following terms are commonly encountered in
the fire regime literature. Understory fire regime,
surface fire regime, low severity fire regime, and
non-lethal fire regime are terms used to describe fires
that are generally non-lethal to the dominant vegeta-
tion and do not substantially change the structure of
the dominant vegetation (Brown 2000). Such descrip-
tions apply to forests and woodlands. As originally
defined by Brown (2000), approximately 80 percent or
more of the dominant vegetation must survive to be
deemed non-lethal. In the FRCC field methods used
by Federal land management agencies in the United
States, the cut-off is 75 percent or more (Hann and
Bunnell 2001). In either case, most of the dominant
arboreal vegetation survives. A stand replacement
fire or lethal regime is one that either consumes or
kills 80 percent or more of the above-ground dominant
vegetation (Brown 2000), or 75 percent or more ac-
cording to FRCC field methods (http://www.frcc.gov)
(Hann and Bunnell 2001). Stand replacement fire
regimes apply to forests, woodlands, shrublands, and
grasslands (Brown 2000). In the case of grasslands,
the post-fire community often recovers quickly from
surviving meristematic tissues, such as rhizomes
and bulbs. Intermediate regimes, or those between
understory and stand replacement fire regimes, are
generally referred to as mixed severity fire regimes.
Mixed severity fire regimes can occur due to variation
in space or time. However, some forest types tend to go
through cycles wherein the series of low severity fires
is periodically punctuated with stand replacement fires
as long-term climate trends oscillate between warm-
dry and cool-moist climate periods. Brown (2000) and
several other authors also recognize a non-fire regime
where there is little or no occurrence of natural fire.
This description may be useful in discussions of veg-
etation types where fire is rare. However, upon close
inspection, evidence of past fires is found in virtually
all non-marine vegetation types (Andreae 1991; Bond
48 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
and others 2005; Clark and others 1997; Delacourt
and Delacourt 1997; Levine 1991; Levine and others
1995, 1996a,b; Power and others 2008). Determining
whether or not these fires are natural or were started
by aboriginal people is often problematic (Anderson
2005; Barrett and Arno 1982; Bonnicksen 2000; Boyd
1999; Denevan 1992; Vale 2002). Throughout the
period of human occupation of North America, ab-
original people are widely believed to have extensively
burned the landscape (Bonnicksen 2000; Boyd 1999;
Delacourt and Delacourt 1997; Delacourt and others
1998; Erickson 2008; Gavin and others 2007; Hallett
and others 2003; Jurney and others 2004; Kay 1994,
1998, 2007a,b; Keeley 2002; Leenhouts 1998; Lewis
1989; Moore 1972; Nevle and Bird 2008; Pausas and
Keeley 2009; Stewart 1956, 1982; Williams 2000). Use
of fire by aboriginal people was pervasive (Anderson
2005; Barrett and Arno 1982; Boyd 1999; Kay 1994;
Denevan 1992; Kay and Simmons 2002; Williams
2000). Infrequent fires can have long-lasting effects on
species composition and stand structure (Brown and
others 1999; Frost 1998; Kaufmann and others 2000,
2004).
Fire Planning____________________
The careful planning and implementation of fuel
treatment or restoration projects can go a long way
toward minimizing the potential impacts on cultural
resources (see chapter 9). Well executed projects can
greatly reduce the impacts of subsequent wildfires.
Also integrating fire behavior and effects concepts
with an understanding of how cultural resources are
impacted by fire (fig. 2-20) can aid in the planning and
implementation of post-fire restoration and monitoring.
Planning fuels treatments, restoration projects, or
suppression activities requires that cultural resource
specialists collaboratively plan activities with fire
management personnel (see chapter 9). In addition to
the graphical aids in this chapter (figs. 2-15 through
2-21), there are numerous software decision support
tools, databases, and syntheses available to resource
professionals. There are a number of agency-developed
software programs that can be used to predict fire
behavior and to project probable effects at both the
site and landscape levels. These predictive tools,
used by managers to support planning and decisions,
vary in their inputs, outputs, and uses. The following
discussion identifies a few commonly used by the fire
management community. For more information please
visit http://fire.org, the Fire Research and Management
Exchange System (FRAMES, http://frames.nbii.gov/
portal/server.pt), or use an internet search engine to
search each program individually. Additional resources
are listed in table 2-5.
Table 2-5Annotated list of fire effects resources for planning and evaluating fuel treatment and restoration projects and surveying
and monitoring wildland fire management activities (adapted and modified from Kelly Pohl, TNC Global Fire Initiative,
LANDFIRE Program).
Resource/Tool
Smith, J.K., ed. 2000.
Wildland fire in ecosystems:
effects of fire on fauna.
http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
pubs/4553
Brown, J.K.; Smith, J.K., eds. 2000.
Wildland fire in ecosystems:
effects of fire on flora.
http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
pubs/4554
Neary, D.G.; Ryan, K.C.; DeBano,
L.F., eds. 2005.
Wildland fire in ecosystems:
effects of fire on soil and water.
http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
pubs/20912
Sandberg, D.V.; Ottmar, R.D.;
Peterson, J.C.; Core, J. 2002.
Wildland fire in ecosystems: the
effects of fire on air.
http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
pubs/5247
Zouhar, K.; Smith, J.K.; Sutherland,
S.; Brooks, M.L. 2008.
Wildland fire in ecosystems: fire
and non-native invasive plants.
http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
pubs/30622
Grissino-Mayer, H.D. 2003.
Dendrochronology Literature
Database
http://www.waldwissen.net/themen/
wald_gesellschaft/forstgeschichte/
wsl_jahrringforschung_datenbank_
EN
ESSA Technologies Ltd.
TELSA: Tool for Exploratory
Landscape Scenario Analysis.
http://www.essa.com/tools/telsa/
index.html
ESSA Technologies Ltd.
VDDT: Vegetation Dynamics
Development Tool.
http://www.essa.com/tools/vddt/
index.html
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 49
Type of tool
Fire
ecology Resource Monitoring/
Description resource search Modeling
A volume from the Rainbow Series that X
outlines the effects of fire on North American
fauna.
A volume of the Rainbow Series that outlines X
historical and current fire regimes and fire
effects organized by Kuchler Natural Potential
Vegetation Types.
A volume from the Rainbow Series that X
outlines the effects of soil and water. The
volume: 1) defines fire severity as it affects
soil and water resources, 2) synthesizes
the state of knowledge on the effects of fire
on the physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil; and water quality; and 3)
summarizes erosion models and burned area
rehabilitation practices
A volume from the Rainbow Series that X
outlines the effects of fire on air quality to
assist managers with smoke planning.
A volume from the Rainbow Series that X
outlines the effects of fire on exotic and
invasive weeds
A searchable database of tree-ring literature, X
including many fire history studies. This
literature can provide information about
fire effects, fire history, fire regimes, and
disturbance interactions, among other topics.
A spatially explicit, landscape-level model X
of forest dynamics to help assess the
consequences of alternative management
scenarios. Used with VDDT and ArcView
3.X. Software and training are available upon
request.
Public domain state-transition modeling X
software that provides functions for natural
vegetation succession and natural and
human disturbances. Resulting models
can help create estimates of percent cover
for different vegetation types (states) and
important drivers in landscape change
(transitions). Models are not spatially
explicit and do not account for biophysical
constraints.
Table 2-5Continued
Resource/Tool
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Fire Effects Information System
(FEIS)
http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Fire Effects Information System
(FEIS) Citation Reference System
(CRS)
http://www.feis-crs.org/
U.S. Department of Agriculture &
The Nature Conservancy
Fire Regime Condition Class
Guidebook and Reference
Conditions
http://www.frcc.gov
The Northwest and Alaska Fire
Research Clearinghouse.
FIREhouse
http://depts.washington.edu/nwfire/
Fire Sciences Laboratory
FIREMON: Fire Effects Monitoring
Protocol
http://frames.nbii.gov/firemon
FRAMES: Fire Research and
Management Exchange System
http://frames.nbii.gov/portal/server.pt modeling programs like BEHAVE and
Interagency Research Partnership
Joint Fire Sciences Program
http://www.firescience.gov/
U.S. Department of Agriculture,
U.S. Geological Society, The Nature
Conservancy, U.S. Department of
the Interior
LANDFIRE
http://www.landfire.gov
50 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Type of tool
Fire
ecology Resource Monitoring/
Description resource search Modeling
A complete database of the effects of fire on X
plant and wildlife species and communities
in North America, searchable by species or
Kuchler Potential Natural Vegetation Type.
Contains sections on distribution, botanical
and ecological characteristics, succession,
fire ecology and effects, management
considerations, and case studies.
A searchable database of all of the X
references cited in the Fire Effects
Information System (FEIS). Searchable by
subject, year, author, or any combination
thereof. A complete fire history literature
database!
A standardized, interagency protocol for X X
assessing the departure of current conditions
from historical reference conditions.
Information and methodology are available
at the web address listed. National training
events are held regularly. Reference
Conditions for potential natural vegetation
groups across the U.S. are described,
including reference mean fire intervals and
successional stages.
A web-based data center providing X
documentation and data on fire science and
technology relevant to Washington, Oregon,
Idaho, and Alaska.
Sampling protocol, sources, and forms X
for determining current conditions.
Methodologies can be used directly or serve
as templates.
A suite of software developed for fire X
management professionals, including
FARSITE. Also an information exchange
with bulletin boards and notice pages
that facilitate collaboration among fire
management professionals.
The Joint Fire Science Program (JFSP) funds X X
research and development projects focused
on improving the knowledge available for
management and policy decisions to support
federal, tribal, state, and local agencies and
their partners. JFSP provides access to
reports of past projects and links to related
sites.
LANDFIRE is a wildland fire, ecosystem, and X X
fuel assessment-mapping project designed
to generate consistent, comprehensive,
landscape-scale maps of vegetation, fire, and
fuel characteristics for the United States.
Table 2-5Continued
Resource/Tool
Systems for Environmental
Management
Fire.org: Public Domain Software
for the Wildland Fire Community
http://www.fire.org/
Schmidt, K.M.; Menakis, J.P.; Hardy,
C.C.; Hann, W.J.; Bunnell, D.L.
2002.
Development of coarse-scale
spatial data for wildland fire and
fuel management.
http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
pubs/4590
Tall Timbers Research Station and
Land Conservancy
Tall Timbers Library
http://www.talltimbers.org/info-
library.html
The Nature Conservancy
Global Fire Initiative
http://www.tncfire.org/training_
landfire_techTransfer.htm
Forest Service Research and
Development
Treesearch
http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
USDA Natural Resources
Conservation Service
The PLANTS Database
http://plants.usda.gov/index.html
USDI National Park Service
National Park Service Fire
Monitoring Handbook
http://www.nps.gov/fire/download/
fir_eco_FEMHandbook2003.pdf
Wildland Fire Lessons Learned
Center
http://www.wildfirelessons.net/
Gassaway, L.
Fire Archaeology
http://web.mac.com/linnog/Fire_
Arch/Home.html
Federal Preservation Institute
Historic Preservation Learning
Portal
https://www.historicpreservation.gov/
web/guest/home
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 51
Type of tool
Fire
ecology Resource Monitoring/
Description resource search Modeling
Systems for Environmental Management X
provides downloadable versions of public
domain software for predicting fire weather,
behavior, and effects ass well as links to
other sources of fire information.
A national-scale mapping of fire regime X
data, including potential natural vegetation
groups, current cover types, and historical
and current fire regime condition classes. GIS
data layers are available. Note that this data
is at ecoregional scales and not suitable for
project scale.
A searchable database of literature on fire X
ecology, prescribed fire use, and control of
fires. Has an international scope with a focus
on the southeastern U.S.
A resources site that describes how to use X X X
the ESSA VVDT successional models in the
LANDFIRE Vegetation Model Library, and
contains many other fire resources designed
to help land managers.
A searchable database of all USDA Forest X
Service publications online. Searchable by
author, year, and region.
A comprehensive database that provides X
standardized information on the vascular
plants, mosses, liverworts, hornworts, and
lichens of the US and its territories. PLANTS
includes names, photos, checklists, and
automated tools.
Outlining the National Park Services X
standardized fire effects monitoring protocol,
including setting goals and objectives,
designing pre- and post-burn sampling, and
data analysis. Also includes useful field
forms, checklists, and additional reading lists.
A web-based clearinghouse of information, X
case studies, and lessons learned to
improve performance, safety, efficiency, and
organizational learning in the interagency
wildland fire community.
A site designed to disseminate information X
on the effects of fire to cultural resources,
both historic and prehistoric. Includes
information on protection, policy, and
management.
Portal with information in the field of historic X X
preservation that covers and allows users
to search for laws, policies, literature, news,
case studies, training, and best practices.
Fire Planning Software
Behave-Plus, v 5.0 (Andrews 2008; Heinsch and
Andrews 2010) predicts wildland fire behavior for fire
management purposes. Behave-Plus is used for real-
time fire prediction of fire behavior on a specific site
for a specific set of burning conditions, and as a treat-
ment planning tool. This software uses the minimum
amount of site-specific input data to predict fire for a
given point in time and space. Behave-Plus is useful
for gaming a proposed treatment by allowing users
to quickly test the effect of changes in fuel moisture,
wind, and fuel loading on predicted fire behavior and
effects, thereby allowing the user to hone in on a favor-
able prescription window.
FARSITE (Finney 1998) is a landscape-level fire
growth simulation model for forecasting fire growth and
intensity and requires the input of topography, fuels,
and weather and wind files. This software incorporates
existing models for surface fire, crown fire, spotting,
post-frontal combustion, and fire acceleration in a
two-dimensional fire growth model. It was developed
initially as a tool for managing fires in wilderness areas
where fire often burns for several weeks. FARSITE was
developed to predict how far a fire could spread over
long periods of time under changing fire environment
(fuels, terrain, and weather). Thus it requires land-
scape maps of fuels and terrain along with predicted
weather over the simulation period. In the modeling
framework, fuels are digital representations of fuel-bed
properties using either the Anderson 13 fire behavior
fuel models (Anderson 1982), the 40 Scott and Burgan
fuel models (Scott and Burgan 2005), or user-defined
custom fuel models (Burgan and Rothermel 1984). While
FARSITE does not explicitly require fuels data at any
particular spatial resolution, analyses are typically
at 30-meter pixel (900 m2) (0.22 acre). This spatial
resolution is based on analysis of readily available
LANDSAT TM-7 data. In the United States, FARSITE
fuel and vegetation inputs are freely available through
the standardized LANDFIRE national data product
(www.landfire.gov) (Rollins 2009; Reeves and others
2009; Rollins and others 2006; Ryan and others 2006).
Digital terrain is routinely available from a variety of
sources (e.g., USGS), including LANDFIRE. Weather
input is provided by the user either from predicted
weather or historic climate/weather data. FARSITE
is spatially explicit and predicts fire spread and in-
tensity for every place on the perimeter at every time
step. Thus, as fires grow in size the model becomes
increasingly computationally intensive. Guidance
for inputting fuels data and analyzing potential fire
behavior are contained in Stratton (2006).
FlamMap is a related model that looks at the spa-
tial pattern of fire potential under static, user-defined
weather conditions. Thus it is useful for determining
the fire potential in the vicinity of infrastructure (Cohen
52 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
2000), natural resources, and cultural resource sites.
FlamMap creates raster maps of potential fire behavior
characteristics (spread rate, flame length, and crown
fire activity) and environmental conditions (dead fuel
moisture, mid-flame wind speeds, and solar irradiance)
over the entire landscape. Unlike FARSITE, there is
no temporal component in FlamMap although they
use the same spatial and tabular data as input. This
input includes a landscape file, initial fuel moistures,
custom fuel models, as well as optional conversion
weather and wind files. Many fire behavior models are
incorporated into FlamMap ranging from Rothermels
1972 surface fire spread model to Nelsons 2000 fuel
moisture model. In addition to technical knowledge of
fire, FARSITE and FlamMap may require geographic
information system analyst assistance to obtain spatial
landscape information for input to the program.
FireFamily Plus, v.4 (http://www.firemodels.org/
index.php/national-systems/firefamilyplus, accessed
May 5, 2011) is a software package that quickly sum-
marizes historic weather patterns for local manage-
ment planning in the United States. Fire Family Plus
combines fire climatology and occurrence analysis
capabilities of the PCFIRDAT, PCSEASON, FIRES
and CLIMATOLOGY programs into a single package
with a graphical user interface. This software package
is valuable for designing burning prescriptions that
are operationally feasible by letting the user determine
the frequency and timing of suitable burning weather.
In particular, users can analyze historic drying trends
critical for achieving cultural resource objectives in
prescribed burns.
NEXUS, v. 2.0 (Scott and Reinhardt 2001) is crown
fire hazard analysis software that links to separate
models of surface and crown fire behavior to compute
relative crown fire potential. This software is used to
compare crown fire potential for different stands and
compare the effects of alternative fuel treatments on
crown fire potential. NEXUS updated its previous
model from an Excel spreadsheet to a stand-alone
program in 2003. The information may be combined
with other program output in the future to better
understand crown fire development and behavior.
Operators of this program should be familiar with
BehavePlus (Andrews 2008; Heinsch and Andrews
2010) and be familiar with crown modeling techniques
to fully comprehend the simulations in NEXUS and
their respective meanings.
Behave Plus, FARSITE, and FlamMap are all
meant for users trained in fire planning, behavior,
and effects. This group of users should be familiar
with fuels, weather, topography, wildfire situations,
and associated concepts and terminology. Use of these
programs is strictly intended to provide information
to trained professionals to make educated land and
fire management decisions.
 Prometheus, v. 5.3 (http://www.firegrowthmodel.
com/) is a deterministic fire growth simulation model
(Tymstra and others 2010). It uses spatial fire behav-
ior input data on topography (slope, aspect, and eleva-
tion) and Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Prediction
(FBP) System fuel types, along with weather stream
and FBP fuel type lookup table files. Prometheus
uses the simple ellipse as the underlying template
to shape fire growth, and simulates fire growth us-
ing the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System
(CFFDRS)Fire Weather Index (FWI) and Fire FBP
Sub-Systemsto model fire behavior outputs. It uses
Grid ASCII, Generate files, and Shapefiles. Prometheus
is a national interagency project endorsed by the Ca-
nadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre (CIFFC) and
its members.
The Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Prediction
(FBP) System (http://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/en_CA/
background/summary/fbp, accessed February 5,
2010) (Hirsch 1996) provides quantitative estimates
of potential head fire spread rate (ROS), total fuel
consumption, and fire intensity. With the aid of the
Prometheus elliptical fire growth model, it gives esti-
mates of fire area, perimeter, perimeter growth rate,
and flank and back fire behavior. Descriptions of the
primary outputs follow:
1. Rate of Spread (ROS) is the predicted speed
of the fire at the front or head of the fire (where
the fire moves fastest). It takes into account
both crowning and spotting and is measured in
meters per minute based on the Fuel Type (FT),
Initial Spread Index (ISI), Buildup Index (BUI),
and several fuel-specific parameters, such as
phenological state (leafless or green) in deciduous
trees, crown base height in coniferous trees, and
percent curing in grasses.
2. Total Fuel Consumption (TFC) is the predicted
weight of fuel consumed by the fire both on the
forest floor and in the crowns of the trees. It is
measured in kilograms per square meter of ground
surface and is based on Foliar Moisture Content
(FMC), Surface Fuel Consumption (SFC), and
ROS.
3. Head Fire Intensity (HFI) is the predicted in-
tensity, or energy output, of the fire at the front
or head of the fire. This is one of the standard
gauges by which fire managers estimate the dif-
ficulty of controlling a fire and select appropriate
suppression methods. It is measured in kilowatts
per meter of fire front and is based on the ROS
and TFC.
4. Crown Fraction Burned (CFB) is the predicted
fraction of the tree crowns consumed by the fire
based on BUI, FMC, SFC, and ROS.
5. Fire Type (FT) is a general description of the
fire based on the CFB.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 53
The First Order Fire Effects Model (FOFEM)
(http://frames.nacse.org/0/939.html, accessed May5,
2011) (Reinhardt 2003) is used by managers and plan-
ners to predict and plan for fire effects. FOFEM is used
for impact assessment and for long range planning
and policy development; it helps quantify predictions
needed for planning prescribed fires that best accom-
plish resource needs. FOFEM inputs are divided into
four geographic regions of the United States, thereby
adding resolution through built-in forest cover types.
Outputs include tree mortality; smoke emissions;
consumption of duff, FWD, and CWD; mineral soil
exposure; and soil heating. Users refer to FOFEM out-
put to set upper and lower fuel moisture limits when
writing prescriptions for conducting prescribed burns
to manage vegetation injury and particulate emissions
from a projected fire area. FOFEM can also be used
to assess the effects of wildfire. This information is
potentially valuable for designing post-fire surveys and
rehabilitation projects. The list of output variables are
(1) fuel consumption (percent consumption for these
components: fine woody, coarse woody, and duff); (2)
smoke (kg km2 for these emission classes: PM2.5, CO2,
CH4, and NOx); (3) tree mortality (% mortality); and
(4) soil heating (e.g., depth in cm at which temperature
is 60 C (140 F) for 1 min (lethal) or 275 C (527 F)
(irreversible damage to organics)).
Consume, v. 3.1 (http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/
research/smoke/consume/consume30_users_guide.
pdf, assessed May 5, 2011), (Ottmar and others 2007)
predicts the amount of fuel consumption and emissions
from burning logged units, piled debris, and natural
fuels. The required inputs include weather data, the
amount and moisture content of fuels, and other factors.
Resource managers can accurately determine when and
where to conduct prescribed burns to achieve desired
objectives while reducing impacts on other resources.
This software may be used for most forests, shrubs and
grasslands in North America (adapted from abstract
from Consume 2.0 user guide).
Weather is the most variable element in the fire
environment. While antecedent and current weather
are the primary considerations for predicting or docu-
menting the direct effects of a specific fire on cultural
resources, climate analyses are important for planning
fuel treatment and restoration projects (Cerd and
Robichaud 2009; Neary and others 2005; Pannkuk
and others 2000; Robichaud and others 2007) as well
as in assessing the potential impacts of a fire on sub-
sequent erosion (Johnson 2004a,b). Post-fire erosion
often poses a greater threat to cultural resources than
the direct effects of heat and smoke. The potential for
post-fire erosion increases with increasing fire severity
(Cerd and Robichaud 2009; Neary and others 2005;
Robichaud and others 2007) (fig. 2-22).
 Figure 2-22Site and weather factors associated with increasing fire severity and erosion
potential. Increasing erosion potential increases the risk of damage to cultural resources (from
Neary and others 2005).
Basic knowledge of climate, particularly seasonal
patterns, can be used within shorter term weather
forecasting to refine management prescriptions
(Bowman and others 2009; Brown and others 2005;
Heyerdahl and others 2008; Kitzberger and others
2007; Littell and others 2009; Morgan and others 2008;
Preisler and Westerling 2007; Skinner and others
2006; Swetnam and Betancourt 1990, 1998; Trouet and
others 2009; Wang and others 2010; Westerling and
others 2006). Climate models are used for a variety of
purposes, from study of the dynamics of the weather
and climate system to projections of future climate.
Major recognized weather patterns include the
North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) (Ambaum and others
2001); the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) (McAfee
and Russell 2008), (http://www.atmos.colostate.edu/
ao/introduction.html, assessed May 5, 2011); the
Arctic Oscillation (AO); Madden-Julian 30 to 60 Day
Intra-seasonal Oscillation (MJO); The Indian Ocean
Dipole (IOD), which is linked to the 3- to 7-year El
Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (Izumo and others
2010; Kurtzman and Scanlon 2007); the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation (PDO) with a 20- to 30-year oscillation
(MantuPachauria 2002); a 20- to 40-year Atlantic
Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO); and the Interdecadal
Pacific Oscillation (IPO) with a 15- to 30-year cycle. As
climatologists improve our understanding of global cir-
54 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
culation patterns, recognized patterns emerge. These
patterns, referred to as teleconnections (Dixon and
others 2008; Heyerdahl and others 2008), identify lags
between ocean and atmospheric measurements and
subsequent probable weather in various parts of the
globe. These teleconnections are improving our ability
to predict fire potential for fire planning purposes.
Climate, vegetation/fuels, and fire are dynami-
cally coupled (fig. 2-1); any change in one will lead
to changes in the others (Ryan 1991) with numerous
inherent feedbacks (Running 2008). There is near
universal agreement in the science community that
anthropogenic activitiesprincipally the burning
of fossil fuelsis changing atmospheric chemistry
(Pachauri and Reisinger 2007). These changes are
expected to result in numerous climate-vegetation-
disturbance changes with complex and incompletely
understood interactions (Grulke 2008; Running 2008)
including increased tree mortality (Allen and others
2010; McKenzie and others 2008), major shifts in fire
regimes (Flannigan and others 2009; Krawchuk and
others 2009a,b; Le Goff and others 2009; Liu and oth-
ers 2010; Wotton and others 2010), and complex social
reactions.
The activities of man are strongly tied to regional
climatology. Throughout the development of civiliza-
tion, the people inhabiting the land have responded to
climate-vegetation shifts by changing land practices
and migrating as productivity and disturbance patterns
changed (Carto and others 2009; Dillehay 2009; Gupta
and others 2006; Tipping and others 2008). Evidence
suggests that human activities have strongly influenced
vegetation (Anderson 2005; Betancourt and Van Dev-
ender 1981; Bond and others 2005; Moore 1972; Stewart
1956, 1982; Vale 2002) and likely climate (Ruddiman
2003, 2007), and populations and burning practices
have ebbed and flowed (Carcaillet and others 2002,
Nevle and Bird 2008; Ruddiman 2003, 2007; Ruddi-
man and Ellis 2009) over the millennia. Humans are
dynamically coupled to their environment, climate,
and vegetation. Fire is mans first tool. As we move
forward, cultural resource specialists and fire manag-
ers will need to plan and adapt to meet the challenge
to manage fire and protect cultural resources.
Conclusions_____________________
Vegetation/fuels, climate, and disturbance processes
are dynamically coupled. Any change in one has feed-
backs to the others. The vegetation/fuels on a site reflect
the history of climate and terrain influences as well as
past disturbances. The character of vegetation/fuels
affects the potential occurrence and severity of future
fires. Vegetation has developed throughout time with
fire as a periodic disturbance agent, and fires will con-
tinue to occur, likely at an increased rate under a warm-
ing climate. The human family has developed through
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 55
time closely coupled to the climate and vegetation.
Humans have affected vegetation/fuels through use of
fire as a land management tool. Fires have impacted
cultures for millennia and fire will continue to impact
contemporary cultures as well as the remnants of past
cultures. The challenge is to manage vegetation/fuels
to minimize damage to contemporary cultures as well
as the cultural resources left by those who once lived
on this land. Fires are highly variable both spatially
and temporally, but the principles that govern fire are
well known. Application of these principles can help
to minimize the negative impacts of fuels treatment
and restoration activities as well as inform post-fire
inventory, monitoring, stabilization and rehabilitation
plans. Critical to achieving this is the application of
good local, site-specific knowledge about the combustion
and fire environments juxtaposed to cultural resources.
Currently, the application of fire principles to the
wise management of cultural resources in fire prone
environments is largely qualitative. We can bound
the conditions where problems are more versus less
likely to occur but we cannot predict them with accu-
racy because of the wide variation in field conditions.
Research is needed to improve our ability to predict
energy release and temperature histories associated
with burning of various fuel beds. Improved fire sci-
ence, when coupled with knowledge about the location
and material characteristics of cultural resources, will
lead to refined predictions and improved guidance for
management of cultural resources.
Appendix 2-1A Field Guide to
Fire Severity Terminology and
Classification____________________
Fire Characteristics: Fire Intensity Classes
Fires burn throughout a continuum of energy release
rates (table A-1) (Artsybashev 1983; Rothermel 1991;
Rowe 1983; Van Wagner 1983). Ground fires burn in
compact fermentation and humus layers and in organic
muck and peat soils where they spread predominantly
by smoldering (glowing) combustion and typically
burn for hours to weeks. Forward rates of spread
in ground fires range on the order of several inches
(decimeters) to yards (meters) per day. Temperatures
are commonly in excess of 300 C (572 F) for several
hours (Agee 1993; Frandsen and Ryan 1986; Hartford
and Frandsen 1992; Ryan and Frandsen 1991). The
conditions necessary for ground fires are organic soil
horizons greater than about 4 to 6 cm (1.6 to 2.4 in)
deep and extended drying (Brown and others 1985;
Miyanishi 2001; Reinhardt and others 1997). Surface
fires spread by flaming combustion in loose litter,
woody debris, herbaceous plants and shrubs, and trees
roughly less than 2 m (6 ft) tall. Under marginal burn-
ing conditions, surface fires creep along the ground
at rates of <1 m/hr with flames less than 0.5 m high
(table A-1; fig. A-1.1). As fuel, weather, and terrain
conditions become more favorable for burning, surface
fires become progressively more active with spread
rates ranging on the order of tens of meters (yards) to
kilometers (miles) per day. The duration of surface fires
is on the order of one to a few minutes (Frandsen and
Ryan 1986; Hartford and Frandsen 1992; Vasander
and Lindholm 1985) except where extended residual
burning occurs beneath logs or in concentrations of
heavy woody debris. Here flaming combustion may
last a few hours resulting in substantial soil heating
(Hartford and Frandsen 1992). However, the surface
area occupied by long-burning woody fuels is typi-
cally small, less than 10 percent and often much less
(Albini 1976; Albini and Reinhardt 1995; Dyrness
and Youngberg 1957; Ryan and Noste 1985; Tarrant
1956). If canopy fuels are plentiful and sufficiently dry,
surface fires begin to transition into crown fires (Scott
and Reinhardt 2001; Van Wagner 1977). Crown fires
burn in the foliage, twigs, and epiphytes of the forest
or shrub canopy located above the surface fuels. Such
fires exhibit the maximum energy release rate but
are typically of short duration, 30 to 80 seconds. Fires
burn in varying combinations of ground, surface, and
crown fuels depending on the local conditions at the
specific time a fire passes a given point. Ground fires
burn independently from surface and crown fires and
often occur some hours after passage of the flaming
front (Artsybashev 1983; Hungerford and others 1995;
Rowe 1983; Van Wagner 1983). Changes in surface
and ground fire behavior occur in response to subtle
changes in the microenvironment, stand structure,
and weather, leading to a mosaic of fire treatments
at multiple scales in the ground, surface and, canopy
strata (Ryan 2002).

Table A-1Representative ranges for fire behavior characteristics for ground, surface, and crown fires (from Ryan 2002).
Dominant Flame Fireline
combustion Rate of spread length intensity
Fire type phase General description (meters/minutes) (meters) (kW/meter)
Ground Smoldering Creeping 3.3E-4 to 1.6E-2 0.0 <10
Surface Flaming Creeping <3.0E-1 0.1-0.5 1.7E0-5.8E1
Active/Spreading 3.0E-1 to 8.3E0 0.5-1.5 5.8E1-6.3E2
Intense/ Running 8.3E0-5.0E1 1.5 to 3.0 6.3E2 to 2.8E3
Transition Flaming Passive crowning Variablea 3.0 to 10.0 Variablea
Crowning Flaming Active crowning 1.5E1 to 1.0E2 5.0 to 15b 1.0E4 to 1.0E5
Independent crowning Up to ca. 2.0E2 Up to ca.70b Up to ca. 2.7E6
a
Rates of spread, flame length and fireline intensity vary widely in transitional fires. In subalpine and boreal fuels it is common for surface fires to
creep slowly until they encounter conifer branches near the ground, then individual trees or clumps of trees torch sending embers ahead of the
main fire. These embers start new fires, which creep until they encounter trees, which then torch. In contrast, as surface fires become more intense,
torching commonly occurs prior to onset of active crowning. SI units to English units conversions: meters/minute x 3.28 = feet/minute, meters x
3.28 = feet, kW/meter x 0.2891 = BTU/ft.-s.
b
Flame lengths are highly variable in crown fires. They commonly range from 0.5 to 2 times canopy height. Fire managers commonly report much
higher flames but these are difficult to verify or model. Such extreme fires are unlikely to result in additional fire effects within a stand but are com-
monly associated with large patches of continuous severe burning.

56 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 A number of authors have broken the fire intensity
continuum into classes typically for purposes of clear
communication in the context of fire suppression activi-
ties (Alexander and Cole 1994; Alexander and de Groot
1989; Andrews and Rothermel 1982; Rothermel and
Reinhardt 1983; Roussopoulos and Johnson 1975; Van
Wagner 1982). For similar reasons it is useful to break
the fire intensity continuum into classes for document-
ing and communicating the effects of fire on ecosystem
components (Ryan 2002) and cultural resources. Table
A-1 provides a descriptive classification of fire inten-
sity. Figures A-1.1 to A-1.5 provide a visual reference
for intensity classes. As with all classifications, it is
important to recognize that there is some subjectivity
when placing fires into a class, particularly near class
boundaries. Also, it is important to recognize that
there can be considerable variation in fire intensity
across small spatial distances as elements in the fire
environment change or multiple fire fronts converge.
The appropriate use of a classification depends on the
spatial and temporal scale of concern (fig. 2-1). The
first-order effects on an artifact or feature depend on
the intensity and depth of burn immediately adjacent
to the artifact or feature. The first-order effects to a
site depend more on the modal fire intensity and depth
of burn in the general area. The second-order effects
depend not only on the intensity and depth of burn
at the site (i.e., first-order drivers) but also the modal
condition of the surrounding landscape (e.g., erosion
potential) (fig. 2-22).

A B

Figure A-1.1Fire intensity class 1: Creeping surface fires. Examples include: A. aspen, B. longleaf pine, C. ponderosa pine,
D.black spruce (note: fires often creep in black spruce forests igniting and torching trees leading to localized higher intensity and
spotting but the area is burned predominantly by creeping surface fires until the fire environment becomes dryer or windier).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 57

 Figure A-1.1 (Continued)

58 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 A

Figure A-1.2Fire intensity class 2: Active/Spreading Surface Fires. Examples include: A. southern pine
oak, B. ponderosa pine, C. jack pine, and D. mixed conifer (Douglas-fir ponderosa pine).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 59

 Figure A-1.2 (Continued)

60 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

A

Figure A-1.3Fire intensity class 3: Intense/Running

Surface Fires. Examples include: A. lodgepole pine,
B.mountain big sagebrush, C. Southern pine oak, and
D. pocosin pond pine woodland.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 61

 Figure A-1.3 (Continued)

62 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 A

Figure A-1.4Fire intensity class 4: Passive Crowning/Torching. Examples include: A. black

spruce, B. mixed conifer (lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir), C. individual lodgepole
pine tree torching, and D. clump of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir trees torching.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 63

Figure A-1.4 (Continued)
C

64 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 A

Figure A-1.5Fire intensity class 5:Active Crowning. Examples include A. Douglas-fir,

B.jack pine/black spruce, C. crown-fire in heavy chaparral, and D. black spruce white spruce.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 65

Figure A-1.5 (Continued)

66 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Fire Characteristics: Depth of Burn Classes
Numerous authors have used measures of the depth of
burn into the organic soil horizons or visual observation
of the degree of charring and consumption of plant ma-
terials to define fire severity for interpreting the effects
of fire on soils, plants, and early succession (Conrad
and Poulton 1966; DeBano and others 1998; Dyrness
and Norum 1983; Feller 1998; Johnson 1998; Miller
1977; Morgan and Neuenschwander 1988; Ohmann
and Grigal 1981; Rowe 1983; Ryan and Noste 1985;
Schimmel and Granstrm 1996;Viereck and Dyrness
1979; Viereck and Schandelmeier 1980; Zasada and
others 1983). Depth of burn (DOB) is directly related
to the duration of burning in woody fuels (Albini and
Reinhardt 1995; Anderson 1969) and duff (Frandsen
1991a, b; Johnson and Miyanishi 2001). In heteroge-
neous fuels, depth of burn can vary substantially over
short distances (e.g. beneath a shrub or tree canopy vs.
the inter-canopy area, or beneath a log vs. not) (Ryan
and Frandsen 1991; Tunstall and others 1976). At the
spatial scale of a sample plot within a given fire, depth
of burn can be classified on the basis of visual observa-
tion of the degree of fuel consumption and charring
on residual plant and soil surfaces (Ryan 2002; Ryan
and Noste 1985).
Ryan and Noste (1985) summarized literature on
the relationships between depth of burn and the char-
ring of plant materials. An adaptation of their table 2,
updated to reflect subsequent literature (DeBano and
others 1998; Feller 1998; Moreno and Oechel 1989;
Prez and Moreno 1998) and experience, particularly
in peat and muck soils, is presented in table A-2. This
table can be used as a field guide to classifying depth
of burn on small plots (e.g., quadrats). The larger the
plot area being described by a single class, the more
the rating will approach the modal condition for the
area and the less it will reflect finer scale variation,
which may be important for understanding the fire
treatment effects on a particular cultural feature. A
brief description of depth of burn characteristics is
provided for clarification of subsequent discussion of
fire effects:
Unburned: Plant parts are green and unaltered;
there is no direct effect from heat. The extent of
unburned patches (mosaics) varies considerably
within and between burns as the fire environ-
ment (fuels, weather, and terrain) varies. Un-
burned patches are important rufugia for many
species and are a source of plants and animals
for recolonization of adjacent burned areas. Soil
organic matter, structure, and infiltration rate
are unchanged.
Scorched: Fire did not burn the area, but radi-
ated or convected heat from adjacent burned
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 67
areas caused visible damage. Mosses and leaves
are brown or yellow but species characteristics
are still identifiable. Soil heating is negligible.
Scorched areas occur to varying degrees along the
edges of more severely burned areas. As it occurs
on edges, the area within the scorched class is
typically small (Dyrness and Norum 1983). Soil
effects are typically similar to those in unburned
areas. The scorched class may, however, have
utility in studies of micro-variation of fire effects.
Light: In forests, the surface litter, mosses, and
herbaceous plants are charred-to-consumed
but the underlying forest duff or organic soil is
unaltered. Fine dead twigs up to 0.6 cm (0.2 in)
are charred or consumed but larger branches re-
main. Logs may be blackened but are not deeply
charred except where two logs cross. Leaves
of understory shrubs and trees are charred or
consumed but fine twigs and branches remain.
In non-forest vegetation, plants are similarly
charred or consumed; herbaceous plant bases
are not deeply burned and are still identifiable.
Charring of the mineral soil is negligible. Light
DOB is associated with short duration fires either
because of light fuel loads (i.e., low fuel mass per
unit area), high winds, moist fuels, or a combina-
tion of these three factors. Typical forest-floor
moisture contents associated with light DOB are
litter (Oi) 15-25 percent and duff (Oe+Oa) greater
than 125 percent. Impacts on infiltration and
runoff are typically minimal. Reduction in leaf
area may decrease interception and evapotrans-
piration but, as most soil-stored seeds, rhizomes,
and other underground plant structures survive
(Miller 2000; Ryan 2000), hydrologic recovery is
typically rapid. Other names associated with this
class include low depth of burn and low soil burn
severity. Figure A-2.1 illustrates light depth of
burn characteristics.
Moderate: In forests, the surface litter, mosses,
and herbaceous plants are consumed. Shallow
duff layers are completely consumed and charring
occurs in the top 1.2 cm (0.5 in) of the mineral
soil. Where deep duff layers or organic soils o ccur,
they are deeply burned to completely consumed
resulting in deep char and ash deposits but the
texture and structure of the underlying mineral
soil are not visibly altered. In uplands, trees of
late-successional, shallow-rooted species often
topple or are left on root pedestals. Fine dead
twigs are completely consumed, larger branches
and rotten logs are mostly consumed, and logs
are deeply charred. Burned-out stump holes and
rodent middens are common. Leavesof under
story shrubs and trees are completely consumed.
Table A-2Visual characteristics of depth of burn in forests, shrublands, and grasslands from observations of ground surface characteristics,
charring, and fuel consumption for unburned and light (Part A), moderate (Part B) and deep (Part C) classes (modified from Ryan
and Noste 1985; Ryan 2002; Neary and others 2005).
Depth of burn Class
Unburned
Surface characteristics
Fuel characteristics
Occurrence:
Light
Surface characteristics
Fuel characteristics
Occurrence
Moderate
Surface characteristics
68 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Forests
Fire did not burn on the surface.
Some vegetation injury may occur from radiated or convected heat resulting in an increase in dead fuel
mass.
A wide range exists in the percent unburned in natural fuels. Under marginal surface fire conditions, the
area may be >50%. Under severe burning conditions, <5% is unburned. Commonly, 10-20% of the area
in slash burns is unburned. Unburned patches provide refugia for flora and fauna.
Leaf litter charred or consumed.
Upper duff charred but full depth
not altered. Gray ash soon
becomes inconspicuous leaving
a surface that appears lightly
charred to black.
Herbaceous plants and foliage
and fine twigs of woody
shrubs and trees are charred
to consumed but twigs and
branches >0.6cm (0.2 in) remain.
Coarser branches and woody
debris are scorched to lightly
charred but not consumed. Logs
are scorched to blackened but
not deeply charred. Rotten wood
is scorched to partially burned.
Light DOB commonly occurs on
10-100 percent of the burned
area in natural fuels and 45-
75% in slash fuels. Low values
are associated with marginal
availability of fine fuels whereas
high values are associated with
continuous fine fuels or wind-
driven fires.
In upland forests, litter is
consumed and duff deeply
charred or consumed, mineral
soil not visibly altered but soil
organic matter has been partially
pyrolyzed (charred) to a depth
>1.0cm (0.4 in). Grey or white
ash persists until leached by rain
or redistributed by rain or wind. In
forests growing on organic soils,
moderate DOB fires partially
burn the root-mat but not the
underlying peat or muck.
Vegetation type
Shrublands
Leaf litter charred or consumed,
but some leaf structure is
discernable. Leaf mold beneath
shrubs is scorched to lightly
charred but not altered over its
entire depth. Where leaf mold
is lacking, charring is limited to
<0.2 cm (0.1 in) into mineral soil.
Some gray ash may be present
but soon becomes inconspicuous
leaving a blackened surface
beneath shrubs.
Typically, some leaves and twigs
remain on plants and <60%
of brush canopy is consumed.
Foliage is largely consumed
whereas fine twigs and branches
>0.5 cm (0.2 in) remain.
In shrublands where fine fuels
are continuous, light DOB occurs
on 10-100% depending on fine
fuel moisture and wind. Where
fine fuels are limited, burns are
irregular and spotty at low wind
speeds. Moderate to high winds
are required for continuous
burns.
In upland shrublands, litter is
consumed. Where present,
leaf mold deeply charred or
consumed. Charring 1 cm (0.4in)
into mineral soil, otherwise soil
not altered. Gray or white ash
quickly disappears. In shrub-
scrub wetlands growing on
organic soils, moderate DOB fires
partially burn the root-mat but not
the underlying peat or muck.
Grasslands
Leaf litter is charred or consumed
but some plant parts are
discernable. Herbaceous stubble
extends above the soil surface.
Some plant parts may still be
standing, bases not deeply
burned, and still recognizable
Surface is black after fire but this
soon becomes inconspicuous.
Charring is limited to <0.2 cm
(0.1) into the soil.
Typically, 50 to 90% of
herbaceous fuels are consumed
and much of the remaining fuel is
charred.
Burns are spotty to uniform,
depending on grass continuity.
Light DOB occurs in grasslands
when soil moisture is high, fuels
are sparse, or fires burn under
high wind. This is the dominant
type of burning in most upland
grasslands.
In upland grasslands, litter is
consumed. Charring extends to
<0.5 cm (0.2 in) into mineral soil,
otherwise soil not altered. Gray
or white ash quickly disappears.
In grasslands, sedge meadows
and prairies growing on organic
soils moderate DOB fires partially
burn the root-mat but not the
underlying peat or muck.
Table A-2Continued
Depth of burn Class Forests
Fuel characteristics Herbaceous plants, low woody
shrubs, foliage and woody
debris <2.5 cm (1 in) diameter
consumed. Branch-wood 2.5to
7.5 cm (1-3 in) 90+ percent
consumed. Skeletons of larger
shrubs persist. Logs are deeply
charred. Shallow-rooted, late
successional trees and woody
shrubs typically topple or are left
on pedestals . Burned-out stump
holes are common.
Occurrence Moderate DOB occurs on
0-100% of natural burned areas
and typically 10-75% on slash
burns. High variability is due to
variability in distributions of duff
depth and woody debris.
Deep
Surface characteristics In forests growing on mineral soil,
the litter and duff are completely
consumed. The top layer of
mineral soil visibly altered.
Surface mineral soil structure
and texture are altered and soil
is oxidized (reddish to yellow
depending on parent material).
Below oxidized zone, >1 cm
(0.4cm) 2of mineral soil appears
black due to charred or deposited
organic material. Fusion of soil
may occur under heavy woody
fuel concentrations. In forests
growing on organic soils, deep
DOB fires burn the root-mat and
the underlying peat or muck to
depths that vary with the water
table.
Fuel characteristics In uplands, twigs and small
branches are completely
consumed. Few large, deeply
charred branches remain.
Sound logs are deeply charred
and rotten logs are completely
consumed. In wetlands twigs,
branches, and stems not burned
in the surface fire may remain
even after subsequent passage
of a ground fire.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 69
Vegetation type
Shrublands
Herbaceous plants are consumed
to the ground-line. Foliage and
branches of shrubs are mostly
consumed. Stems <1 cm (0.4 in)
diameter are mostly consumed.
Stems >1 cm (0.4 in) mostly
remain.
Moderate DOB varies with shrub
cover, age, and dryness. It
typically occurs beneath larger
shrubs and increases with shrub
cover. Typically, burns are more
uniform than in light DOB fires.
In shrublands growing on mineral
soil, the litter is completely
consumed leaving a fluffy
white ash surface that soon
disappears. Organic matter is
consumed to depths of 2-3 cm
(0.8-1.2 in). Colloidal structure of
surface mineral soil is altered. In
shrub-scrub wetlands growing on
organic soils deep DOB fires burn
the root-mat and the underlying
peat or muck to depths that vary
with the water table.
In uplands, twigs and small
branches are completely
consumed. Large branches and
stems are mostly consumed. In
wetlands twigs, branches, and
stems not burned in the surface
fire may remain even after
subsequent passage of a ground
fire.
Grasslands
Herbaceous plants are consumed
to the ground-line.
Moderate DOB tends to occur
when soil moisture is low and
fuels are continuous. Then
burns tend to be uniform. In
discontinuous fuels high winds
are required for high coverage in
moderate DOB.
In grasslands growing on mineral
soil, the litter is completely
consumed leaving a fluffy
white ash surface that soon
disappears. Charring to depth of
1 cm (0.4 in) in mineral soil. Soil
structure is slightly altered. In
grasslands growing on organic
soils, deep DOB fires burn the
root-mat and the underlying peat
or muck to depths that vary with
the water table.
All above ground fuel is
consumed to charcoal and ash.
 A

Figure A-2.1Light depth of burn. A. sagebrush-grass (mixture of light depth-of-burn (DOB) beneath sagebrush and unburned
grass), Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest, Montana; B. ninebark mountain shrub community (mixture of light with some
moderate under denser shrubs), Lolo National Forest, Montana; C. pocosin pond pine woodland, Dare County Bombing Range,
North Carolina; D. feather moss, Tetlan National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska (transitions to moderate DOB on left); E. glacier lilies
growing from just beneath lightly charred lodgepole pine duff, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming (lethal heat penetration into soil
<5 mm (0.2 in.) as evidenced by tissue regrowth); F. sagebrush grass, Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming; G. ponderosa
pine (note litter charred but underlying fermentation uncharred; H. following crown fire in jack pine-black spruce in Northwest Ter-
ritories, Canada (note logs not charred on bottom, surface needles blackened but not consumed); I. light logging slash, Mt. Hood
National Forest, Oregon (note logs and surface litter blackened but not deeply charred, much fine woody debris was unconsumed).

70 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Figure A-2.1 (Continued)

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 71

Figure A-2.1 (Continued)

72 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Figure A-2.1 (Continued)

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 73

Figure A-2.1 (Continued)

to yellow. Surface soil texture is altered and, in

Fine twigs and branches of shrubs are mostly con-
extreme cases, fusion of particles occurs. A black
sumed (this effect decreases with height above the
band of charred organic matter 1 to 2 cm (0.4 to
ground), and only the larger stems remain. Shrub
0.8 in) thick occurs at variable depths below the
stems frequently burn off at the base during the
surface. The depth of this band increases with the
ground fire phase leaving residual aerial stems
duration of extreme heating. The temperatures
that were not consumed in the flaming phase
associated with oxidized mineral soil are typical
lying on the ground. In non-forest vegetation,
of those associated with flaming >500 C (>932
plants are similarly consumed, herbaceous plant
F) rather than smoldering <500 C (<932 F).
bases are deeply burned and unidentifiable. In
Thus, deep depth of burn typically only occurs
shrublands, average char-depth of the mineral soil
where woody fuels burn for extended duration
is on the order of less than 1 cm (0.4 in) but soil
such as beneath individual logs or concentrations
texture and structure are not noticeably altered.
of woody debris, and in harvester ant mounds and
Charring may extend 2 to 3 cm (0.8 to 1.2 in)
litter-filled burned-out stump holes. Moisture
beneath shrubs where deep litter and duff were
content of logs >3 in (7.6 cm) diameter is typically
consumed. Typical forest-floor moisture contents
<10 percent. Representative forest-floor moisture
associated with moderate DOB are litter (Oi) 10 to
contents associated with deep depth of burn are
20 percent and duff (Oe+Oa) less than 75 percent.
litter (Oi) less than 15 percent and duff (Oe+Oa)
The depth at which plant tissues are killed and
less than 30 percent. In areas with deep organic
hydrophobic layers are formed increases with
soils, deep depth-of-burn occurs when ground
the depth of the organic horizon, or log diameter,
fires consume the root-mat or burn beneath the
consumed. Ash depth also increases with depth of
root-mat. Trees often topple in the direction
duff consumed. Figure A-2.2 illustrates moderate
from which the smoldering fire front approached
depth of burn characteristics.
(Artsybashev 1983; Hungerford and others 1995;
Deep: In forests growing on mineral soil, the
Wein 1983). Other names associated with this
surface litter, mosses, herbaceous plants, shrubs,
class include high depth of burn, severe burn,
and woody branches are completely consumed.
and high soil burn severity. We prefer the term
Sound logs are consumed or deeply charred. Rot-
deep as it better reflects the physical process
ten logs and stumps are consumed. The top layer
of heat penetration into the soil. Figure A-2.3
of the mineral soil is visibly oxidized, reddish
illustrates deep depth of burn classes.

74 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 The moderate depth of burn class is a broad class.
Some investigators have chosen to divide the class into
two classes (c.f. Feller 1998). In practice we have found
it difficult to do so on the basis of post-hoc examination
of the mineral soil alone, but rely on the preponder-
ance of the evidence, which includes reconstructing
the prefire vegetative structure. The depth-of-burn
characteristics are appropriate for quadrat-level de-
scriptions. At higher spatial scales, logic needs to be
developed for defining fire severity on the basis of the
distribution of depth of burn classes (c.f. DeBano and
others 1998; Ryan and Noste 1985).
Fire Severity Matrix
Ryan and Noste (1985) combined fire intensity
classes with depth of burn (char) classes to develop
a two-dimensional matrix approach to defining fire
severity. The basis for these characteristics is that
fire-intensity classes qualify the relative energy re-
lease rate for a fire, whereas depth-of-burn classes
qualify the relative duration of burning. Their concept
focuses on the ecological work performed by fire both
above ground and below ground. The matrix provides
A
an approach to classifying the level of fire treatment
or severity for ecological studies at the scale of the
individual and the community. The approach has
been used to interpret differences in plant survival
and regeneration (Smith and Fischer 1997; Willard
and others 1995) and to field-validate satellite-based
maps of burned areas (White and others 1996). The
matrix has been used to develop a conceptual model
of post-fire regeneration potential (Ryan 2002) and
potential impacts on soils and watersheds (Neary and
others 2005). The Ryan and Noste (1985) conceptual
model of fire severity can also be used and as a means
of documenting the level of fire treatment in prescribed
fires and wildfires for the purposes of evaluating the
effects of fire on cultural resources (table A-3). Other
investigators have developed similar classifications
(c.f., DeBano and others 1998; Jane and others 2009)
with somewhat different class definitions. However,
they all employ similar logic in that the rate of organic
matter consumption (represented by rate of energy
release in fire intensity classes) and the magnitude
of organic matter consumption (represented in depth
of burn classes) affect numerous ecosystem states and
processes.

Figure A-2.2Moderate depth of burn. A. complete duff consumption aspen-mixed conifer Bridger-Teton National Forest,
Wyoming; B. complete duff consumption aspen, Caribou National Forest, Idaho; C. complete duff consumption beneath white ash,
light DOB in blackened areas, Douglas-fir, Lubrecht Experimental Forest, Montana; D. Sagebrush grass Yellowstone National Park,
Wyoming (moderate DOB mid ground, elsewhere lite DOB and unburned); E-F. following a crown-fire in jack pine black spruce
Northwest Territories, Canada (note litter consumed to white ash but underlying fermentation and humus not altered (light DOB)
except where residual burning of crossed logs (E) resulted in moderate DOB (F) where duff and logs were completely consumed
at their intersection; G. moderate depth of burn on an extremely fragile high elevation site (obsidian-derived soil, no vascular plants
survived or colonized 1 year after 1988 North Fork Fire, a crown-fire/moderate depth-of-burn fire, Moose Creek Research Natural
Area, Targee, National Forest, Idaho); H. Douglas-fir duff mostly consumed but underlying mineral soil not visibly altered and logs
charred, Willamette National Forest, Oregon.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 75

Figure A-2.2 (Continued)

76 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Figure A-2.2 (Continued)

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 77

Figure A-2.2 (Continued)

78 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Figure A-2.2 (Continued)

Figure A-2.3Deep depth of burn class. A. charred, black layer beneath oxidized soil and ash; B. charred, black layer
beneath oxidized soil and ash plus deeply charred log; C. charred, black layer beneath oxidized soil; D. 20 cm (8 in.) duff
pin (nail) documented duff consumption next to a partially rotten log that burned out. Deep ash deposits are occasionally
mistaken for oxidized mineral soil. Ash is fine and powdery when dry and slick and greasy when wet whereas oxidized
soil retains pebbles and granularity. The black zone corresponds roughly with the depth at which 250 C (482 F) was
maintained in the soil profile. E. deeply burned soil and western larch stem resulting from burnout of heavy concentration
of coarse woody debris, Lolo, National Forest, Montana; F. reburned forest (note: second fire consumed logs created by
first fire leading to deep DOB (light color) whereas intervening areas had little residual fuel and less soil heating (dark
color); G. ponderosa pine stump-hole and log burn-out (note: localized deep DOB where stump and log burned out,
otherwise light DOB and unburned except moderate DOB where duff mounds burned-out beneath old pine (not shown).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 79

Figure A-2.3 (Continued)

80 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Figure A-2.3 (Continued)

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 81

Figure A-2.3 (Continued)

82 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Table A-3Fire severity matrix for evaluating and documenting the effects of fire on cultural resources. Fire intensity classes relate
to the heat pulse up and the potential to damage above ground cultural resources (artifacts) and those exposed on
the pre-fire surface of the ground. Depth of burn classes relate to the heat pulse down and the potential to damage
cultural resources in the soil.a
Fire severity matrix for cultural resources
Depth of burn class
Fire intensity
class Unburned Light
Crowning Limited to transition Common occurrence in
zone between early-season fires when
burned and humus is wet (>120%),
unburned. Above in undisturbed wetlands
ground resources with high water table, and
may be damaged in areas with exposed
by radiant heat or mineral soil. Above-ground
combustion deposits and surface CR exposed
(tar, soot, etc.). to high temperatures
for short duration and
combustion deposits.
Damage restricted to
exposed CR and top 1 cm
(0.4 in) in soil.
Torching See above See above. The primary
distinction is in the spatial
scale uniformity of heating
to exposed CR.
Intense See above. Common in fire
running Damaging distance environments where heavy
surface fire from burned edge surface fuel loadings burn
is less due to lower under low humidity and
intensity. moderate to strong winds
and when duff is shallow
(<5 cm [2 in]) or moist
(>120%) and where over-
story stratum is sparse or
vertical fuel continuity is
poor due to high crown
base height. Effect of CR
similar to above except
that height of thermal
damage restricted to < 5
meters (16 feet) above
ground. Damage restricted
to exposed CR and top
1cm in soil.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 83
Moderate
Common occurrence in
forests with moderate
duff depths (5 to 10cm
[2-3.9 in]) and duff
moisture <50%. Above-
ground CR exposed to
high temperatures for short
duration and combustion
deposits. Severe damage
is common to all exposed
CR and artifacts in top
5cm (2 in) of the ground.
See above. The primary
distinction is in the spatial
scale uniformity of heating
to exposed CR.
Common in fire
environments where heavy
surface fuel loadings
burn under low humidity
and moderate to strong
winds and where duff is
moderately deep (5 to
10cm [2-3.9 in]) and dry
(duff moisture <50 %).
Often occurs in head-fires
and on the flanks of crown
fires. Damage common to
exposed CR <5 m (16ft)
above the ground and
artifacts in top 5 cm of
mineral soil.
Deep
Common in forests
with deep duff (>10cm
[3.9in]) or heavy CWD.
High energy release
rate and long residence
time associated with
deep depth of burn
leads to maximum
potential damage to
both above and below
ground CR. Available fuel
approximately equals
total fuel. Damage may
extend to artifacts in top
10 cm (3.9 in) of mineral
soil. Loss of canopy
interception, deep soil
heating, and heavy ash
increase potential for post-
fire erosion.
See above. The primary
distinction is in the spatial
scale uniformity of heating
to exposed CR.
Common in fire
environments where heavy
surface fuel loadings burn
under low humidity and
moderate to strong winds
and where duff is deep
(>10 cm [3.9 in]) and dry
(duff moisture <80 %, once
ignited peat soil and deep
organic soils may burn up
to 120% moisture content),
and beneath rotten logs.
Often occurs in head-fires
and on the flanks of crown
fires. Damage common
to exposed CR <5 m
(16ft) above the ground
and artifacts in top 10 cm
(3.9in) of mineral soil.
Table A-3Continued
Fire severity matrix for cultural resources
Depth of burn class
Fire intensity
class Unburned Light
Actively Edge effect Common in numerous
spreading intermediate fire environments where
surface fire between above and surface fuels support
below active burning. Effects on
CR intermediate to above
and below. Less thermal
effects than above, residue
deposits possible to
exposed CR at the surface
or <4 meters (13 feet).
Thermal damage restricted
to exposed CR near the
surface (<2 meters [6.5
feet] above ground) and
top 1 cm (0.4 in) in soil.
Moderate
Common in numerous
fire environments where
surface fuels support
active burning. Effects on
CR intermediate to above
and below. Less thermal
effects than above, residue
deposits possible to
exposed CR at the surface
or <4 meters (13 feet).
Thermal damage restricted
to exposed CR near the
surface (<2 meters [6 feet]
above ground) and top 5
cm (2 in) in soil.
Deep
Common in numerous
fire environments where
surface fuels support
active burning and duff is
deep (5-to-10 cm deep
(>10 cm [3.9 in]) and
moderately dry (<80%
once ignited peat soil
and deep organic soils
may burn up to 120%
moisture content), and
beneath rotten logs.
Thermal damage common
to exposed CR near the
surface (<2meters [6
feet] above ground) and
artifacts in top 10 cm (3.9
in) of mineral soil.

Creeping Edge effect on Common under marginal
surface fire exposed surface burning conditions due to
artifacts limited to a sparse fine fuels or high
few millimeters. humidity, and in backing
fires. Thermal damage
restricted to exposed CR
near the surface and top 1
cm in soil.
Common under marginal
burning conditions due
to sparse fine fuels or
high humidity, and in
backing fires where duff is
intermediate (5-to 10 cm
deep [2-3.9 in]) and dry
(<50%). Thermal damage
common to exposed CR
near the surface and
artifacts in top 5 cm (2 in)
of soil.
Common under marginal
burning conditions due to
sparse fine fuels or high
humidity, and in backing
fires where duff is >10
cm (3.9 in) deep and
moderately dry (<80%),
and beneath rotten logs.
Thermal damage common
to exposed CR near the
surface and artifacts in top
10 cm of mineral soil.

Unburned No direct effect of NA NA NA

fire on CR at the
fine scale. Isolates
unaffected. The burn
mosaic may alter the
visual character and
experience of the
cultural landscape
a
Typically, the burn- no-burn boundary is mineral soil surface in upland forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands. In wetlands and temperate old-growth forests
with deep organic soils, fires may burn vertically until they reach a moisture limit around 100% on an oven dry basis.

84 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Trisha Rude
Anne Trinkle Jones

Chapter 3:
Fire Effects on Prehistoric Ceramics

In North America, prehistoric pottery is primarily

earthenware (a porous ceramic, fired at a relatively
low temperature). It is not glass-like or dense like
other kinds of pottery such as stoneware and por-
celain (see chapter 6).
Instead of looking at whole vessels (fig.3-1), archae-
ologists often examine broken pieces of pottery called
sherds (fig.3-2) to gain information about people who
lived in the past (Colton 1953; Rye 1981; Shepard
1956). Fire can affect prehistoric ceramics in a variety
of ways. Archaeologists are primarily concerned with
fires effects on the information value of these arti-
facts. Such damages include physical degradations
such as spalling and crumbling, as well as changes
to surface color and design (fig. 3-3). These effects
can hamper identification of pottery types. Fire
may also affect certain laboratory analyses, such as
petrography, and dating by thermoluminescence.
The extent to which sherds are affected by heat
and flame depends on fire intensity, duration, and
a number of environmental factors. The materials
from which ceramics are created, the ways in which
clay vessels are produced, and the uses to which they Figure 3-1Complete, intact pitchers such as this are typi-
are put also affect the reaction of pottery to fire. The cally found in museum settings or archaeological excava-
depositional environment of discarded pottery plays tions and unlikely to be exposed at the surface and subject
a final important role in influencing fires impact. to damage from fire.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 85

 Most research on fire effects on ceramics focuses
on the visual appearance of potsherds. Less work has
been done to determine the range of fire effects on
analytical properties. Most studies are conducted
in the aftermath of wildfires without the benefit
of pre-burn comparative data. Still, work that has
been done suggests that fire can affect the appear-
ance of potsherds without preventing identification.
Fire effects on various technical analyses are not well
understood. More controlled and comparative research
is needed to predict fire effects on the identification
and analysis of various earthenware ceramics.

Materials and Mechanics of Pottery

Construction____________________
To understand the effects fire can have on pottery,
one must consider how pottery is made, what material
it is made from, how it is used, and in what environ-
ment it is eventually deposited. Fire may differently
affect pottery that is made from various clay types or
built and fired by different methods. Certain kinds of
decorative paint may be more vulnerable to fire than
others. Ceramic vessels used for cooking may be dif-
ferently affected than other kinds of pottery. The soil
conditions to which discarded potsherds are exposed
can influence potential fire effects.

Figure 3-2Typical pottery sherds that might be found in

surface deposits and subject to thermal alteration, sootting, or
mechanical damage during fire or fire management activities.

Figure 3-3Pottery sherds including a ladle handle (above ruler) and bowl
fragments found at the surface following the 2002 Long Mesa fire, Mesa Verde
National Park, Colorado (Buenger 2003).

86 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Pottery as Raw Material
The primary raw material of pottery is clay (sedi-
ments eroded from silicate rocks). Clays can be col-
lected as sedimentary rock (shale or mudstone) or loose
sediment. Both types of clay are commonly ground
into a fine powder before being used for pottery. They
can exist in situ, in the area of their parent rock, and
called primary clays (Rice 1987). Clays can also exist
ex situ, carried by wind or water and redeposited in
areas such as riverbeds. These clays are called second-
ary or transported clays (Rice 1987). Clay particles
also can be re-cemented to form sedimentary rocks.
Shales and mudstones are examples of sedimentary
rocks that may contain a percentage of re-cemented
clay sediments.
Clay particles are extremely small in size, generally
less than two microns in diameter. Most clays have
specific mineral structures, categorized as hydrous
aluminum silicates. The mineralogy and small par-
ticle size of clays make them workable (Rice 1987).
This means that, when mixed with water, clays can
be formed to a shape that holds upon drying.
Non-clay materials such as sand, silt, organic matter,
and mineral impurities are generally found mixed with
clay sediments. Organic materials are more common
in transported clays than in primary clays. Primary
clays may contain more coarse-grained fragments of
the parent rock (Rice 1987). A potter may sieve or sort
through the clay collected to remove coarse-grained
sands and gravel, as well as visible organic matter.
Fine-grained sands, silts, organics, and mineral inclu-
sions, however, generally remain with the clay used
for pottery production. These can benefit the pottery-
making process by preventing clays from becoming
sticky and difficult to work. These non-clay inclusions
can also decrease shrinkage upon drying, increase the
strength of a vessel, and provide pottery with color.
Figure 3-4Schematic illustrating the making of a clay pot from ribbons.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 87
Prehistoric potters added sand, ground rock, shell,
or crushed pottery sherds to the clay they used. These
additives, known as temper, had the same benefits
as naturally occurring non-clay inclusions: they mini-
mized stickiness, increased strength, and decreased
shrinkage. Some clays (self-tempered clays) contained
enough non-clay inclusions that pottery makers did not
need to add temper. Variations in clay raw material,
natural inclusions, and the make-up of added temper
are important factors in understanding potterys reac-
tion to heat and open flame.
Vessel Formation and Preparation for
Firing
Shepard (1956: appendix E) discusses prehistoric
methods of vessel formation in North America. She
writes that potters shaped vessels by modeling, mold-
ing, piece building, or a combination of techniques.
Potters wheels were not used prehistorically. Modeled
pottery could be crafted from a single lump of clay or
shaped from one thick clay ring. Molded pottery was
formed by shaping clay around a certain form, such as
an already fired vessel. Piece-built pottery, on the other
hand, was made by adding together coils or patches of
clay (fig. 3-4). Such vessels could be smoothed with a
stone or a paddle-and-anvil tool. Coil-built pots could
be corrugated, their coils left unsmoothed. Vessel-
forming techniques could be combined in a number
of ways. For example, a vessels base could be molded
while its walls were formed with coils. The way in
which pottery was made may affect how it is altered
by fire. For example, fire sometimes separates the coils
in corrugated pottery sherds (Lissoway and Propper
1990; Switzer 1974).
The shape and thickness of vessels varied somewhat
according to the potters intended use. Vessels used for
cooking needed to survive continual exposure to small
cooking fires. Thin-walled vessels were more suited to
the task; they could withstand thermal shock, a stress
caused by heating and cooling (Rice 1987). When ex-
posed to flame, the outer walls of a pot would heat more
quickly than the inner walls and expand at a faster
rate. In thin walled vessels, differential expansion was
minimal and damage less likely to occur. Thin-walled
vessels also conducted heat well and allowed food to
be cooked more quickly. Vessels exclusively used for
storage, however, did not need to withstand continual
thermal shock and could be made thicker. Since sherds
of differing thickness react differently to thermal shock,
fire may affect sherds from storage vessels differently
than sherds from cooking pot ceramics.
Variation in wall thickness may also occur within a
single vessel. This is particularly true of paddle-and-
anvil shaped pottery. Since thermal shock is caused by
differential rates of heating and cooling, paddle-and-
anvil shaped vessels may be particularly vulnerable
to fire.
Variables other than wall thickness may affect pot-
terys vulnerability to fire. Culinary sherds, often more
coarsely tempered than other ceramics, may become
friable when exposed to flame (Pilles 1984).
Decoration
Pottery can be decorated before or after firing with
the use of organic or mineral paint. Organic or carbon-
based paints are generally derived from plant extracts,
while mineral paints include iron oxides, manganese
ores and some clay minerals (Shepard 1956). Pottery
can also be intentionally smudged black with exposure
to smoke. Before firing, a slip (a coating made from a
thin solution of clay and water) can also be added to
the surface of a vessel. Pieces of clay can be attached
to pottery as appliqu designs or to create legs and
handles. Glaze paints (substances that vitrify when
fired and turn to glass) were also used for decoration
prehistorically. Glazes, however, were not used as
sealants to coat vessels.
Fires impact on pottery decoration is of concern to
archaeologists who use decorative design as a criterion
for identifying potsherds. This impact of fire can vary
according to the way in which clay vessels have been
decorated.
Clay Firing
Ceramics are the products of heating clay in an open
fire, firing pit, or kiln. By looking at changes that oc-
cur to clay during heating, one can infer what changes
may later occur to pottery exposed to fire (table 3-1).
The way in which clay is fired determines the at-
mosphere, temperature, and duration of heating to
which pottery is subjected. In open firing (fig. 3-5), the
88 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
amount of available oxygen will fluctuate; temperature
will rise quickly and fall quickly. The heating atmo-
sphere and temperature of pottery fired in a pit are
more constant, and firing lasts longer than it does in
open flame. Kilns, not as frequently used in prehistoric
North America, provide the steadiest, hottest, and
longest lasting firing conditions.
The type of fuel used for firing also influences the
firing environment. Grass, for example, burns more
quickly than most types of wood; wood, in turn, burns
faster than coal. Slow-burning fuels may hold high
temperatures for longer time periods, allowing clay to
react more fully to heating conditions. Depending on
firing methods and fuels used, firing can last as little
as an hour or as long as a week.
The composition of clay material and the proportion
of clay to additives, also influence clays reaction to
firing. In extreme circumstances, clay cannot survive
firing; it will crack, bloat, or spall. This may be caused
by a flaw in the clay material, vessel form, or firing
atmosphere. Changes to pottery, including damaging
effects, occur at certain temperatures, dependant on
clay composition, firing environment, and duration of
heat.
One of the first changes to pottery during intentional
firing is water evaporation, often referred to as wa-
ter smoking. When heated to 100 C (212 F), water
loosely bound to the surface of clay particles begins
to evaporate. Between 300 and 800 C (572-1472 F),
depending on clay type, water chemically bound to
clay molecules also evaporates. If water loss occurs too
quickly, the force of water that escapes as steam may
cause a vessel to crack or explode. Sometimes potters
preheat their vessels to avoid rapid water loss during
open firing (Rye 1981).
The next stage in the firing process is the burning
off, or oxidation, of organic matter in the clay mate-
rial. This reaction, in which carbon joins with oxygen
to form carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gas,
begins to occur between 200 and 350 C (392-662 F).
The length of time it takes for all organic material to
oxidize depends on the temperature, the amount of
carbon present, and the availability of oxygen in the
firing atmosphere. Often some carbon is left unoxidized
by firing. The dark core, known to some archaeologists
as a carbon streak, is visible in cross-sections of
some pottery sherds. It testifies to incomplete carbon
oxidation during intentional firing, although it may
be produced by later wildfires (Ryan, personal com-
munication, 4/4/2001).
Between 400 and 850 C (752-1562 F), clay minerals
are heated nearly to their melting point. During this
stage of firing, water chemically bound to clay is lost
and clay particles ionically adhere to each other. This
irreversible process of adhesion, known as sintering,
causes pottery to become hard and dense. It is the
 Table 3-1Stages of firing and other changes due to heating.
Temp (C) Temp (F) Changes to ceramics
100-200 212-392 Evaporation of loosely bound water.a
200-350 392-662 Decomposition of organics.b
300-800 572-1472 Water chemically bound to clay molecules evaporates. c
350 662 Carbon paint burns off (Bennett and Kunzmann 1985).
400-850 752-1562 Clay minerals undergo sintering.a
500 932 Organic matter oxidizes.c
500-800 932-1472 Minimum temperature for effective firing of pottery
(varies according to clay type).a
573 1063.4 Molecular change: Alpha-beta inversion of quartz,
causing quartz inclusions to expand slightly;
couldtheoretically cause structural damage.c
800 1472 Most iron minerals will oxidize by the time this
temperature is reached.d
750-870 1382-1598 CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) dissociates to form CO2 gas
(carbon dioxide) and CaO (calcium oxide). CaO bonds
with water to form Ca(OH)2 (quicklime).a,c
870 1598 Mineralogical change: Beta quartz becomes tridymite, a
very slow reaction that rarely occurs in clay firing.c
900-1100 1652-2012 Clay begins to vitrify, melting and forming glass. This
process is often aided by fluxing agents. Vitrification
creates loss of pore space and a glassy texture. a,c
Above 1200 Above 2192 Gases formed during vitrification (without fluxing agents)
will restore pore space and may cause bloating.c
a
Rye (1981)
b
Ryan (2001)
c
Rice (1987)
d
Shepard (1956)

Figure 3-5Firing of a clay pot over an open fire.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 89

most essential reaction for making pottery; without
it, clay can regain water and lose its shape. The exact
temperature required for sintering to occur varies ac-
cording to clay type and duration of firing.
If firing temperature exceeds 900 C (1652 F), clay
minerals can melt to form glass. Glass is a material
with no molecular structure, formed from a molten
solid. The process in which clay melts and becomes
glass is known as vitrification; it is often aided by
inclusions that lower clays melting point (Rice 1987).
Such inclusions, known as fluxing agents, are present
in most raw clays and include alkaline earths, alkalis,
and ferrous oxides (Shepard 1956). With vitrification,
ceramics lose their porosity, shrink, and obtain a glass-
like texture. As temperatures increase above clays
melting point, new minerals crystallize from molten
clay (Rice 1987). If very high temperatures are reached,
vitrified pottery can appear bloated or warped, with a
sponge-like texture and blistered surface (Rye 1981).
Firing Effects on Non-Clay
Inclusions_______________________
Firing changes non-clay particles in ceramic mate-
rial. These may be naturally occurring inclusions in
clay raw material, additives, or temper for example.
Common inclusions consist of quartz (often sand tem-
per), calcium carbonate (CaCO3, often crushed shell or
limestone), iron (generally naturally occurring), and
crushed pottery sherds (as temper).
At about 573 C (1053.4 F), quartz undergoes a
change in molecular structure that causes it to expand
by 2 percent volume (Rice 1987; Shepard 1956). This
alteration is known as the inversion from alpha to beta
quartz. Rice (1987) writes that quartz expansion does
not often cause damage to pottery because it occurs
simultaneously with water loss, which creates more
pore space. Damage is more likely to occur during later
cooling when beta quartz reverts to its original form.
As this happens, quartz particles sometimes shatter
and cause tiny cracks within the pottery. These small
cracks decrease the strength of the fired vessel, making
it easier to break.
The temperature required for quartz inversion
(573C, 1063 F) is certainly within the range
obtained by prehistoric firing. However, Shepard
(1956) writes that she never observed shattered
quartz grains in her petrographic analyses of
North American pottery sherds. She suggests that
temperatures were not maintained long enough for
the reaction to occur or that the softness of heated
clay prevented quartz from shattering. Wildfires
may subject pottery sherds to this temperature or
higher, but the duration will most likely be of very
short duration (Ryan, personal communication,
90 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
4/4/2001). Thus, wildfires may cause more damage
to pottery sherds than prehistoric firing of vessels,
but it seems unlikely due to the short duration. This
may warrant some additional research.
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of crushed
shell or limestone, is sometimes added to clay as tem-
per. This mineral also naturally occurs in some clay
deposits. At temperatures between 750 and 870C
(1382-1598F), calcium carbonate disassociates to
form carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and calcium oxide
(CaO). Once this reaction occurs, CaO, also known
as lime, bonds with water to form calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2), a large crystal known as quicklime. The
formation of quicklime may cause miniature spalling
in the walls of a vessel (Rye 1981).
Iron occurs naturally in many types of clay. At about
600 C (1112 F), iron may react with oxygen to form
new compounds that make pottery red in color. This
reaction, called oxidation, occurs only when sufficient
oxygen is available in the firing environment. At about
900 C (1652 F), if oxygen is not significantly present,
iron takes on a reduced form, turning black or gray
(Rye 1981). Post-firing exposure to heat in the absence
of oxygen may cause iron reduction in pottery sherds.
However, this temperature is rarely reached during
wildfire, except under certain conditions (for example,
the burn-out of a stump) (Ryan, personal communi-
cation, 4/4/2001). Post-firing exposure to heat in the
presence of oxygen may cause additional oxidation
and reddening of ceramics.
Pottery Use and Post-Depositional Changes
Once a vessel survived firing, it could be used to
meet a variety of needs. Utility vessels could be used
for cooking food, storing water, keeping dry goods, or
boiling pigment for dye. Ceramic bowls could be used
as dishes, and clay ladles used for serving food. The
specific use of pottery may have changed its appear-
ance. Painted decorations could fade with continual
use. Storage pots accrued traces of the materials they
held. Vessels used for cooking accumulated carbon on
their exterior surface and possibly carbonized food
remains within their interiors (Rye 1981).
Carbonization caused by cooking fires resembles in
tentional smudging for decoration and post-depositional
smudging caused by wildfires and prescription burns.
Decorative smudging may only be distinguished from
other types of smudging if striations caused by the
use of a polishing stone are present on top of the layer
of carbon. Smudging caused by cooking fires may be
indistinguishable from smudging caused by wildfires
or prescription burns.
After pottery is used and discarded, it is exposed to a
variety of factors that cause change (figs. 3-6, 3-7). These
post-depositional changes include the accumulation
 Figure 3-6Corrugated vessel illustrating natural weathering and cracking.

Figure 3-7Neck of a broken vessel naturally weathered.

of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) on the surface of pot-
sherds; whether or not CaCO3 collects within the
pore space of sherds is still debated (Rice 1987). If
wildfires reach temperatures over 750 C (1382 F),
the possible dissociation of calcium carbonate and the
formation of quicklime may cause structural damage
to ceramics.
Exposure to acidic soil and plant roots can cause cer-
tain elements, such as alkali metals, calcium, sodium,
zinc, cobalt, and barium, to leach from ceramics (Rice
1987). In some environments, sherds might also accu-
mulate a layer of adhering salt. These post-depositional
changes to pottery may be the final alterations that
affect wildfires influence.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 91

Fire Effects Research_____________
Research concerning fire effects on ceramics falls
into two categories: fire effects on appearance and
fire effects on analytical properties. Fire can change
the visual appearance of pottery in a number of ways,
including smoke-blackening, spalling, oxidation and
burn-off of decorative paint. Archaeologists are most
concerned with how visual impacts may affect pottery
identification, although lab processing and analysis
may correct for these. Fire effects on analytical proper-
ties may not be visibly noticeable and include effects
to ceramic temper identification, thermoluminescence
(TL) dating, and residue analyses. Archaeologists will
be concerned if ceramic analyses needed to answer
specific research questions are foreclosed by this type
of effect, which cannot be compensated for in the lab.
Literature describing fire effects has mainly con-
sisted of post-fire qualitative observations for which
pre-burn data are not available (Eininger 1989; Pilles
1984; Switzer 1974). Only a small number of studies
(such as Gaunt and Lentz 1996; Jones and Euler 1986;
Ruscavage-Barz 1999) have attempted to quantita-
tively record fire effects on ceramics; few have compared
pre-fire data with post-burn observations,as do Picha
and others (1991).
Fire Effects on Appearance
Burgh (1960) introduced the idea that wildfires may
affect the visual identification of potsherds. Since that
time, most fire effects research on ceramics has focused
on alterations to the visual appearance of sherds (for
example Gaunt and Lentz 1996; Jones and Euler
1986; Picha and others 1991; Ruscavage-Barz 1999).
Fire may visually affect ceramics by causing surface
spalling, altering painted decoration, changing sherd
color, and depositing soot on sherds. The adhesion of a
dark sticky substance is possibly residue from burned
pine pitch. These tar-like substances are sometimes
also noted on burned sherds (Gaunt and Lentz 1996;
Pilles 1984). Ceramic slips and glazes may undergo
cracking and vitrification. Appliqu designs may break
off under the pressure of heating and cooling. Such
changes are significant when the visual characteristics
used to identify pottery are affected.
Depending on the presence of non-clay inclusions
such as iron and carbon, sherds may undergo color
change when exposed to fire (see above). Different
kinds of paint and glaze will also react differently to
fire. Sherds decorated with organic paint are more
vulnerable than ones decorated with mineral paint.
Paints added to ceramics after firing are also likely to
burn off more easily than paints that have survived the
firing process (Shepard 1956). Bennett and Kunzmann
(1985) observe that organic paint begins to burn off
92 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
when heated to temperatures above 350 C (662 F) in
a laboratory experiment; mineral paint requires higher
temperatures to burn off. Shepard (1956) discusses an
oxidation test for distinguishing between black organic
and iron paints on potsherds. In this test, hydrofluoric
acid is applied to loosen the paint from clay. Sherds
are then heated to 800 C (1472 F). According to
Shepard, organic paint will burn off in this test while
iron paint will oxidize and turn red. Wildfires and hot
prescription burns may have similar effects, turning
iron-based paints red and burning off carbon paints
(as observed by Gaunt and Lentz 1996).
Studies of fire effects have found that smoke black-
ening, or sooting, is the most common fire effect on
ceramics. Jones and Euler (1986) note that soot was
the only fire effect they observed on ceramics from the
Dutton Point Wildfire (fig. 3-8). Gaunt and Lentz (1996)
recorded soot on 23 percent of all sherds collected for
the Henry Fire study (57 percent of all burned sherds)
and Ruscavage-Barz (1999) found that smoke blacken-
ing was the most common effect of the Dome Fire on
ceramics.
In the Dutton Point Fire study, smoke blackening
rendered five sherds (21 percent of the sample) un-
identifiable (Jones and Euler 1986). This soot could
not be washed off completely, even with the use of
hydrochloric acid. Observing unblackened sherds at
earlier burned sites in Mesa Verde, Jones and Euler
(1986) proposed that cumulative rainstorms and ex-
posure to the elements would cause soot to eventually
deteriorate. Gaunt and Lentz (1996) found that soot
was easily washed off sherds in the lab and that it
did not impede identification. More permanent smoke
blackening, however, was observed and not recorded
because it was assumed to be a product of earlier
fires. Ruscavage-Barz (1999) noted that most ceram-
ics were still identifiable, even when they had been
fire-blackened over both sides.
In their study of prescribed fire effects, Picha and
others (1991) had no difficulty identifying burned
sherds. The ceramics underwent only minor changes,
exhibiting soot and becoming darker or lighter in color.
After the high intensity Dome Fire, Ruscavage-Barz
(1999) found that most sherds could still be identified.
Gaunt and Lentz (1996) found that the Henry Fire
vitrified a number of sherds that were misidentified
in the field as glazewares. Oxidation, vitrification, and
crackling of slip also hampered field identification of
some Henry Fire sherds. All sherds misidentified in
the field, however, were later correctly identified in
the lab (Gaunt and Lentz 1996). This is not an unusual
occurrence. Even unburned sherds can be misidenti-
fied in the field, and Gaunt and Lentz (1996) do not
indicate whether all sherds at their unburned control
site were identified correctly.
 Figure 3-8Dutton Point fire, Grand Canyon National Park archaeological site burned by
wildfire (Jones and Euler 1986).
A few attempts have been made to correlate fire ef-
fects on ceramics with burn severity. Gaunt and Lentz
(1996) found that fire effects were more severe at heavily
burned sites but the relationship between fire effects to
ceramics and burn severity was not statistically predict-
able. Areas of burned logs in one moderately burned
site caused fire effects to be more severe than those
observed at heavily burned sites (see also chapter 7).
Picha and others (1991) found the effects of grass fire
on ceramics to be minimal in prescribed burn plots;
however, there was a range of severities.
While studies indicate that fire will generally have
minimal impacts on pottery identification, this may
not be the case for all types of pottery. Switzer (1974)
described fire effects to potsherds in the 1972 Moc-
casin Fire at Mesa Verde National Park. He noted
that spalling was quite common and that the coils of
corrugated potsherds became separated. Carbon paint
burned off decorated sherds, and organic matter (called
carbon streaks by archaeologists) within the body
of grayware sherds oxidized, causing these sherds to
turn light gray or white in color. Such dramatic fire
effects may have impeded pottery identification and
affected the durability of potsherds. However, fire
effects such as these have not been recorded in any
controlled study. They occurred primarily to pottery
that was corrugated, carbon painted, and/or made of
paste with a high organic content.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 93
Generally, if potsherds can still be identified after
a fire, visual changes are not of much concern to ar-
chaeologists. The few studies that examine fire effects
on pottery show that most sherds can be identified in
the lab, even after intense wildfires. The most com-
mon effect on pottery is smoke blackening. Soot can
sometimes be washed off (Gaunt and Lentz 1996) and
might otherwise dissipate with exposure to rain and
weather (Jones and Euler 1986). Potential effects on
pottery vary according to fire intensity, environment,
and ceramic type. Practical consideration of local
pottery characteristics should reveal ceramic types
vulnerable to fire damage. Loss of information due
to adverse fire effects may be overcome by increasing
the sample size of sherds collected for archaeological
study.
Fire Effects on Analytical Properties
Fire effects on the analytical properties of ceramics
have been studied less than fire effects on appearance.
Technical analysis of pottery may include microscopic
identification of temper, petrography, analysis of pol-
len or protein residue on ceramics, neutron activation
analysis (NAA) to determine clay source, and dating
by thermoluminescence. The importance of different
analytical properties depends on local research needs.
 Sidebar 3-1Henry Fire Effects on Ceramics
Henry Fire, Holiday Mesa, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, June 2729, 1991
References: Lentz and others 1996

General information:
Elevation: 2,438.4 m (8,000 ft)
Vegetation: second growth ponderosa pine
Topography: mesa top delineated by canyons on three sides
Type of study: post-fire study of surface and subsurface fire effects

Fire description:
Temperature range: 25-28.3 C (77-83 F)
Duration: 3 days
Relative humidity: 14-36%
Fuel: dense ponderosa pine saplings and dry fuels
Type of fire: wildland
Energy release component (ERC): 64-72
Burning index (BI): 55-67

Discussion
The Henry Fire occurred in the Jemez Mountains of New Mexico in June, 1991, burning approxi-
mately 3 km2 (800 acres). After the fire, archaeologists resurveyed the burn area, relocating 45 out
of 52 known sites and encountering nine previously unrecorded sites.
In 1992, archaeologists from the Museum of New Mexicos Office of Archaeological Studies (OAS)
and the U.S. Forest Service conducted fieldwork for Phase 1 of a post-fire study. Their purpose
was to record fire effects on surface and subsurface archaeological resources and to investigate the
relationship between fire effects and fire severity. Their work included preliminary investigations
at seven prehistoric sites and analysis of fire effects on ceramics, lithics, groundstone, architecture,
and obsidian hydration dating. Phase 2 of the project included more detailed research and controlled
experiments, the results of which remain to be published.
The seven archaeological sites investigated during Phase 1 of the study included two lightly burned
sites, two heavily burned sites, two moderately burned sites, and one unburned control site. All sites
had masonry structures made up of volcanic tuff. Surface artifacts were collected from the southeast
quadrant of each site. Test units (1- by 1-m) were then established in the southeast quadrant of each
site and excavated to a depth of 20 cm (7.9 in). Subsurface artifacts were compared to the surface
collection. Additional excavations were conducted in burned log areas within architectural remains.
Fire effects on architecture were recorded in the field while effects on ceramics and stone artifacts
were assessed in a laboratory setting. Categories were developed to identify fire effects on different
artifact types. Fire effects categories for ceramics included portion affected by fire (the percentage
of a sherds surface area), sooting, spalling, oxidation, modification of pigment, and other physical
alterations (Lentz and others 1996). Fire effects on lithics included portion affected by fire, sooting,
potlidding, oxidation, reduction, crazing, and other physical alterations (Lentz and others 1996).
Groundstone fire effects were similar to those for lithics, excluding potlidding and crazing (Lentz
and others 1996).
The study found that most fire effects on artifacts occurred at the surface. A direct relationship
between fire effects and burn severity was established, although dramatic fire effects were observed
in all severities. In lightly burned areas, artifacts near burned logs were highly affected. In Phase 1
of the project, archaeologists recorded fire effects without attempting to measure the loss of archaeo-
logical information. They stressed that not all fire effects recorded could be considered damage. In
Phase 2 of the project, fire damage to archaeological information was to be assessed separately from
general fire effects on heritage resources. Through controlled burn experiments, Phase 2 was also
planned to distinguish the effects of recent fire from impacts of earlier burning.

94 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

In most cases, for example, thermoluminescence dat-
ing is not conducted on ceramics because with fewer
resources we can use design type and cross-dating
materials with known dates to define properties of
the item in question.
Pilles (1984) writes that fire can alter temper, com-
promising its identification. He notes that inability to
recognize temper can make identification of undeco-
rated sherds impossible. Identification of temper is also
important because it provides information about the
origins of materials used to create pottery. Archaeolo-
gists routinely carry out microscopic identification of
sherds for temper identification. Petrography, a spe-
cialized geological analysis of sherds in thin sections,
is a more detailed method of examining temper.
Fire may alter organic temper, calcium carbonate or
shell more easily than some types of mineral temper.
Identification of these types of temper may, therefore,
be more easily compromised by fire. However, no study
has yet investigated fire effects on petrography or on
the routine identification of temper in the lab and
field. Gaunt and Lentz (1996) and Ruscavage-Barz
(1999) do not mention any adverse effects on laboratory
identification of temper in their archaeological studies
of sherds recovered from the Henry and Dome fires.
Microscopic identification of temper was conducted
for archaeological study and not included in the fire
effects studies mentioned above. They do not indicate
whether or not temper could be recognized using a 10X
hand lens, an instrument archaeologists can carry into
the field.
Rowlette (1991) discusses fire effects to thermolu-
minescence (TL) dating of nine potsherds recovered
from the 1977 La Mesa Fire excavations. TL dating
detects the amount of time passed since a crystalline
material was exposed to high temperatures. When a
ceramic vessel is initially fired, its clay releases energy
in the form of light. After firing, this energy begins to
re-accumulate and can be measured by a TL special-
ist to determine how long ago the vessel was made.
Rowlette (1991) writes that TL measurements can be
altered if a material is subjected to heat over 400 C
(752 F). In his analysis of La Mesa pottery sherds he
finds that the fire affected TL readings for ceramics
located less than 10 to 15 centimeters (3.9-5.9 in) below
ground surface. Rowlette (1991) notes, however, that
due to standard procedure for TL dating, materials
located at the surface are routinely avoided.
Animal proteins, blood residue, and pollen found
on ceramics may be altered when subjected to high
temperatures. Identification of these residues can
sometimes yield important information about past
food resources and processing methods. Fish (1990)
observed that fire can make pollen near to the ground
surface unidentifiable. Subsurface pollen located near
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 95
tree roots or logs that conduct heat may also be affected.
Fire effects on blood residue and animal protein have
not been studied.
In summary, fire effects on a number of technical
analyses have yet to be examined. Potential effects
on petrography and visual temper identification are
probably of the most concern to archaeologists. Ar-
chaeological studies of fire effects on less commonly
used analyses such as blood residue and neutron acti-
vation are also called for. The importance of different
analytical properties varies according to local research
needs. Most studies show that subsurface sherds will
be subjected to less heat and be less affected by fire
than surface-level ceramics. Technical analysis of
subsurface ceramics might, therefore, be reliable even
when the analytical properties of surface-level sherds
are held in question.
Conclusions_____________________
Few studies have evaluated fire effects on prehistoric
ceramic artifacts. Most studies are conducted in the
aftermath of wildfire when pre-burn comparative data
are not available. These studies present a problem, as
discussed by Gaunt and Lentz (1996), in distinguish-
ing recent fire effects from the effects of prior burn-
ing. Because fire behavior also affects the impacts to
ceramics, studies need to record fire temperature and
duration of heating to which sherds are exposed.
Experimental studies focus mainly on the visual
impacts of fire on potsherds. Fire effects on analyti-
cal properties of ceramics are less understood. Smoke
blackening of sherds located at the ground surface is
the most common fire effect noted. The permanency
of smoke blackening on sherds remains a significant
research question. Soot that cannot be washed off and
other effects such as spalling, vitrification, oxidation,
and crackling of slip can lead to the misidentification
of some sherds. However, studies have found that
potsherds affected by fire can most often be correctly
identified in the lab.
In the absence of definitive research findings, re-
source managers should consider research needs and
the characteristics of local pottery when evaluating
potential fire effects. Local environment and expected
fire behavior should also be considered (see chapter2).
Managers need to evaluate how differences in clay
paste and temper might influence fire effects. The
different ways pottery was constructed, decorated,
fired, and used by prehistoric people are also important
considerations. Finally, post-depositional changes to
potsherds may influence fire impacts.
Fire impacts on ceramic artifacts will not always
result in loss of archaeological information. Sherds
that are smoke blackened or oxidized might be iden-
tifiable in the lab if not in the field. Loss of analytic
properties for surface sherds may not be of concern if
subsurface sherds are available and can be reliably
analyzed. When a large number of sherds are present
at a site, increasing the sample size in a study may
compensate for damage done to a few sherds. Fire
effects on ceramics are of much higher concern when
sherds are less abundant, subsurface sherds are not
present, high intensity wildfire can be expected, or
local ceramics have properties specifically vulnerable
to heat and flame.

96 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Krista Deal

Chapter 4:
Fire Effects on Flaked Stone, Ground
Stone, and Other Stone Artifacts
Although the action of fire upon building
stones is well understood by engineers and
insurance specialists, it is commonly sup-
posed that its effect upon rocks in nature is
only of minor consequence... on the contrary,
fire is in some regions very important; and,
under suitable conditions, it overshadows
all the other factors [of weathering]combined
(Eliot Blackwelder 1927).
Introduction_____________________
Lithic artifacts can be divided into two broad classes,
flaked stone and ground stone, that overlap depending
on the defining criteria. For this discussion, flaked stone
is used to describe objects that cut, scrape, pierce, saw,
hack, etch, drill, or perforate, and the debris (debitage)
created when these items are manufactured. Objects
made of flaked stone include projectile points, knives,
drills, scrapers, planes, burins, gravers, spokeshaves,
choppers, saws, cores, flakes, fish hooks, hoes, and hand
axes, among others. These were commonly made from
chert, flint, chalcedony, petrified and opalized wood,
slate, siltsone, mudstone, quartz, quartzite, obsidian,
basalt, metamorphic rocks, and vitrified and welded
tuff.
Ground stone distinguishes items used to pound,
mash, crack, pulverize, grind or abrade minerals or
plant and animal products, and includes such objects
as metates, millingstones, manos or handstones,
pestles, portable mortars, abraders, hammerstones,
mullers, polishing stones, and paint palletes. Ground
stone was often fashioned of granite, diorite, gabbro,
gneiss, basalt, andesite, rhyolite, greywacke, steatite,
dolomite, limestone, slate, shale, sandstone, schist and
quartzite, among other types of rock.
All other stone artifacts, including a wide range of
ornamental and utilitarian items made from numerous
material types, are grouped and discussed separately
from flaked and ground stone.
Data and research potentials associated with
flaked stone objects include information related to
technology, subsistence, economic exchange, and site
chronology. Obsidian, basalt, tuff and chert can be
subjected to geochemical analysis to identify their
geographic source of origin, thus yielding informa-
tion on material acquisition, economic exchange and
trade networks. Obsidian and chert artifacts can also

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 97

be dated, providing manufacturing and site occupa-
tion dates. The presence of particular artifact types
or the selection and/or relative frequency of certain
stone material types may reflect social stratification,
or ethnic, linguistic, and tribal affiliations. Plant and
animal residues on stone tools may yield information
about tool function, food processing and consumption.
It has also been speculated that some data resident in
lithic artifacts may be useful in landscape reconstruc-
tions, fire histories, and determining past fuel loads.
Lithic Artifacts and Fire___________
Artifacts made of stone are generally the best pre-
served of all material types in the archaeological record,
often providing the only evidence of where people lived
and worked in the past. Despite its durability, stone
can be affected by fire, as well as by efforts to suppress
wildfires and to rehabilitate burned areas following
fires.
Reported fire effects on stone artifacts include
breakage, spalling, crenulating, crazing, potlidding,
microfracturing, pitting, bubbling, bloating, smudging,
discoloration, adhesions, altered hydration, altered
protein residue, and weight and density loss. Surface
artifacts tend to be altered more than those located
in subsurface contexts, with protection often afforded
by even a few centimeters of soil. Fewer negative ef-
fects are noted in light fuels, with increasing effects
in moderately and heavily fueled fires, or at specific
locations within fires where fuels are heavy, such as
near or under logs. Most researchers suggest that effects
in heavier fuels are a result of the increased amount
of time artifacts are exposed to heat (see, for instance,
Benson 2002; Buenger 2003; Deal 2002; Gaunt and
others 1996; Linderman 1992). In general, the higher
the temperature and the more severely charred the
ground surface, the greater the reported effect.
Some Caveats
Despite the long list of effects that can occur to stone
artifacts in fires, it should be noted that not all effects
are adverse, nor does a single effect, even if adverse,
necessarily limit the recovery of all data resident in
the artifacts. For example, discoloration may hinder
identification of material type, but have little impact on
the recognition of artifact type or other macroscopic in-
formation, such as manufacturing technique. Likewise,
few or no visible effects to artifacts may be present, but
microscopic data associated with these objects, such as
plant protein, blood residue or hydration rinds, may be
altered or destroyed. Some effects can be both adverse
and beneficialfor instance, the increased visibility
afforded after fires can lead to vandalism and illegal
collecting, although for archaeologists, this condition
98 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
often allows more accurate recording of site features
and constituents (Biswell 1989; Blakensop and others
1999; Davis and others 1992b; Hester 1989; Likins,
personal communication, 1999; Moskowitz 1998; Pilles
1982 and 1984; Racine and Racine 1979; Romme and
others 1993; Silvermoon 1987; Switzer 1974).
Overall, relatively little is known or reported in
the literature about thermal effects on most types of
stone artifacts, primarily because most research has
been conducted in the aftermath of wildfires. With-
out pre-fire information on the material affected, or
collection of standardized data concerning the fire
environment, fire history, fire behavior, temperature,
burn intensity, or ground charring, no inferences may
be made about fire-caused damage to artifacts. This
lack of information makes it difficult to compare or
meaningfully summarize effects. The data on effects
that is available is heavily weighted to flaked stone,
and primarily to obsidian and chert.
Another difficulty in assessing fire effects on stone
tools results from reports lacking explicit descriptions
of criteria used to measure effects. Many articles lacked
methodology of both temperature collection and how
specimens were heated, making it difficult to assess
if reported temperatures could be comparable. Other
reports clearly indicated techniques, but were lacking
important fire related information, such as weather
conditions and fuel type. Yet another problem is the
variability of methods used to collect temperature data.
Sayler and others (1989), and Picha and others (1991)
used a suite of temperature sensitive crayons, which
change color according to the maximum temperature.
Some researchers have used temperature sensitive
pellets, lacquers and pyrometric cones (Halford 2002;
Kelly and Mayberry 1980; Solomon 2002) and others
used no temperature measurement at all. Pellets,
lacquers, and crayons generally provide few tem-
peratures per measured plot, present no timeframe
of when the maximum temperature was reached, or
fire residence time within a site. Another problem
with pellets is related to their placement and where
the pellets should be placed to appropriately measure
temperature affecting cultural materials. In Solomon
(2002), pellets were placed below the artifact; whether
the pellet measured the temperature of the artifacts
underside, the heat flux surrounding the artifact or
the soil surface temperature is unknown. In Bennett
and Kunzmann (1985), the team heated artifacts in a
muffle furnace, a controlled and consistent environ-
ment where temperature change is gradual. Several
others (Biswell 1989; Hemry 1995; Solomon 1999)
placed artifacts within a prescribed fire management
area, where heating is rapid, uneven, and temporally
variable. These researchers measured pre- and post-
fire conditions of the pieces and the incongruence be-
tween studies was likely due to burn location, seasonal
weather patterns, fuel composition, and fuel loading
differences. Buenger (2003) assessed effects using
a combination of field-based and laboratory experi-
mentation, combined with a sampling of burned-over
archaeological sites. Buengers prescribed burn experi-
ments were conducted in a variety of fuel types, and his
lab experiments were conducted by heating artifacts
in a muffle furnace, and in wildland fire simulations
within a large combustion chamber/wind tunnel.
Buengers wildland fire simulations, conducted at the
USDA Rocky Mountain Research Stations Fire Sci-
ences Laboratory in Missoula, Montana, are especially
relevant, as he was able to simulate fires of variable
intensities, while recording both time and temperature
data, as well as heat flux data. In addition, Buenger
placed thermocouples, set to record temperatures every
second, on the upper and lower surfaces of artifacts
in order to assess temperature differences on artifacts
as they were burned over (2003). Buengers study and
others using thermocouples and data loggers indicate
that this is at present the best method of temperature
assessment. Temperatures are collected periodically
during heating and provide maximum, average, and
minimum temperatures and duration of heating. The
collection of data is systematic and different studies
may be compared to show variability of effects between
sites and artifacts.
Even when the data collection criteria are stated,
results can be misinterpreted. For instance, one widely
referenced source (Bennett and Kunzmann 1985) states
severe alteration of inorganic materials is not to be
expected at temperatures below 400 to 500 C (752to
932 F). This temperature range has been cited in
training documents and prescribed burn plans as a
critical temperature threshold below which few, if
any, effects are expected. Bennetts and Kunzmanns
(1985) primary criterion for determining effect was a
change in weight, and they qualified their statement
with if [burned for] less than 1/2 hour. Reported
critical threshold temperatures for inorganic materi-
als vary widely, ranging from a relatively cool 200 C
(392 F) (Silvermoon 1987), to 300 C (572 F) (Hemry
1995; Lissoway and Propper 1988), to 400 C (752 F)
(Biswell 1989), to between 400 and 500C (752to
932F) (Bennett and Kunzmann 1985), to 426C
(800F) (Linderman 1992), to a hotter range of 500
to 600 C (932 to 112 F) (Kelly 1981).
In addition to the wide range of temperatures re-
ported, another problem with using the critical tem-
perature approach is that it implies that temperature
alone accounts for the effects, without consideration
of other critical elements, such as heating methods,
temperature measurement mechanisms, burning con-
ditions, fuel loading, or residence time. In fact, if the
duration of heat is extended, some effects can occur
at dramatically lower temperatures, similar to those
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 99
occurring at more extreme temperatures in shorter
periods of time.
Further, many reports cite the critical temperature
threshold for effects without defining exactly what it
is that is being critically altered. For instance, these
reports often lump all lithic items together, and often
without discussions of artifact-stored information
(Bennett and Kunzmann 1985), such as obsidian hydra-
tion, pigments or protein residues. In these instances,
effects statements are based on visual observations
alone, without attempts to discern whether other data
potentials have been affected. In addition, few studies
have looked at the effects of slow versus rapid cooling.
Flaked Stone____________________
Much of the research and available data on thermal
effects on flaked stone has been categorized by toolstone
type, with most research focused primarily on chert
and obsidian.
Chert: Flint, Jasper, Chalcedony, and
Related Silicates
Chert was sometimes deliberately heated during
the prehistoric manufacture of tools in order to im-
prove its flaking characteristics. Researchers have
found that slowly heating chert can improve flaking
characteristics and enhance workability. Replicative
studies of heat-treating techniques have provided
substantial data relating temperatures and duration
of heating to changes in chert (Bleed and Meier 1980;
Griffiths and others 1987; Luedtke 1992; Rick 1978).
The temperature range that improves flaking charac-
teristics for most chert is from 250 C to 450C (482F
to 842F) when heated and cooled slowly, with the
length of exposure to heat varying from 30 minutes to
as long as 72 hours (Luedtke 1992). Several research-
ers report similar effects from heating chert at lower
temperatures for an extended period of time, or from
heating at higher temperatures for a shorter amount
of time (Griffiths and others 1987; Rick 1978). Chert
has a temperature range below which there will be
no improvement to flaking, no matter how long it is
exposed to heat, and above which the chert becomes
unworkable, probably due to impurities, water content,
and grain size (Luedtke 1992). Compositionally dis-
similar chert will react differently to heat.
The most obvious changes to heat-treated cherts
are in color and internal luster. In areas where chert
sources vary by visible characteristics such as color
(seeLuedtke 1992), external color change can make
visual source determinations difficult or impossible
(Perkins 1985), or lead to misidentification as another
type of toolstone (Anderson and Origer 1997). Although
not all cherts change color when heated, most will
change luster on the interior, often going unnoticed when the upper surfaces are precipitously heated to
until a flake is removed after heat treatment. Tem- approximately 550 C [(1022 F)] for 20 seconds, and
peratures at which color and luster are altered vary by when the temperature between the upper and lower
chert source. Color changes have been noted between surfaces approaches or exceeds 60 percent (2003).
240 C (464 F) and as high as 800 C (1472F), and After direct contact with flames, chert can become
luster between 121 C (249.8 F) and 400 C (752 F) calcinated to the point of being easily crushed (Luedtke
(Mandeville 1971; Perkins 1985; Picha and others 1992; Weymouth and Williamson 1951).
1991; Purdy 1974; Purdy and Brooks 1971). Cherts altered in wildland and prescribed fires
Internal change in luster is often the best indication have suffered external color changes, patination,
that artifacts have been thermally altered, although cracking, crenulated breaks, potlidding, fracturing,
distinguishing between deliberate cultural heat exploding, shattering, crazing, reddening, blacken-
treatment and the effects of fires can prove difficult ing, sooting, smudging, and vitrification (see fig.4-1)
(Luedtke 1992; Rogers and Francis 1988; Rondeau (Ahler 1983; Bayer 1979; Benson 1999; Buenger
1995). When heated, the external surfaces of cherts 2003; Eisler and others 1978; Gaunt and others 1996;
tend to become optically dull (that is, non-reflective Katz 1999; Lentz and others1996; Likins, personal
of light). Bennett and Kunzmann (1985) found this communication,1999; Lissoway and Propper 1998;
occurred at temperatures of 600 C to 800 C (1112 F Patterson 1995; Picha and others 1991; Tremaine and
to 1472 F), whereas Buenger (2003) first noted this Jackson 1995). These modifications have occurred
effect at 300 C (572 F). Perkins (1985) suggested the in low to high intensity fires of varying duration,
presence of lustrous and relict dull flake scars on the temperature, and ground surface damage severities.
same piece is a good indication the object was delib- In general, the longer and/or hotter fire burns, the
erately heat-treated, and not subsequently altered in greater the reported damage. Leudtke (1992) reports
a fire. Complete artifacts displaying all optically dull that the most common type of thermal damage to
surfaces, combined with potlidding and crazing, are chert is fracture, either in blocky, angular chunks
likely to have been subjected to a post-manufacturing
fire.
Chert from different sources will fracture at differ-
ent temperatures, although most reportedly fracture
between 350 C and 550 C (662 F and 1022 F)
(Buenger 2003; Luedtke 1992; Purdy 1974; Rick 1978;
Schindler and others 1982). At temperatures between
350 C and 400 C (662 F and 752 F), chert can
become distorted or brittle in as little as 20 minutes
(Luedtke 1992; Purdy 1974). Some chert will explode
when raised to these temperatures rapidly, but not
when temperatures are elevated slowly (Luedtke
1992; Purdy 1974). Impurities in chert can result in
alterations at temperatures as low as 150 C (302 F),
or as high as 650 C (1202 F), with recrystallization
causing chert to coarsen, appear foliated, and take on
a sugary appearance (Luedtke 1992).
Heating or cooling chert rapidly or unequally can
cause fracturing and breakage from thermal shock
(Buenger 2003; Luedtke 1992). Thin flakes are less
susceptible than bulkier cores and cobbles to thermal
shock (Bennett and Kunzmann 1985; Buenger 2003;
Perkins 1985; Picha and others 1991). Once heated,
rapidly cooled chert will break (Luedtke 1992). Fine-
grained cherts become altered at lower temperatures
and suffer more thermal shock than coarse-grained
ones (Mandeville 1971). Chert protected from direct
heat, even if insulated by as little as one to two cen-
timeters of sand or other material, is less susceptible
to thermal shock than unprotected pieces (Flenniken Figure 4-1Potlidding, crazing and cracking on chert ther-
and Garrison 1975; Perkins 1985). Buenger found mally damaged during a heat-treatment replication experiment
that chert nodules were prone to thermal fracturing (sample courtesy of Rob Jackson).

100 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

with no bulbs of percussion, or more distinctively,
in pot lid fractures, which are small, circular,
convex fragments that have popped off flat surfaces
(table4-1).
Other data associated with chert artifacts can be
extracted using laboratory techniques such as protein
residue analysis, sourcing through macroscopic fossil
content and trace element analysis, and dating via ther-
moluminescence (TL) or electron spin resonance (ESR)
spectroscopy (Julig 1994; Luedtke 1992; N ewman
1994). Fire impacts some artifacts to the point where
these laboratory techniques cannot be used, or the
data gathered using these techniques is suspect. TL
and ESR spectroscopy have been used to determine
if chert has been previously heated (Luedtke 1992;
Melcher and Zimmerman 1977; Robins and others
1978). Unfortunately, we do not yet know at what tem-
perature the ability to use these analytic techniques
on chert from different sources are lost.
Obsidian
Obsidian from distinct volcanic flows has unique
chemical compositions, allowing researchers to de-
termine the source of obsidian tools and debris left
on sites in prehistoric contexts (Bowman and others
1973). Few studies analyzed whether fires affect the
sourcing potential of obsidian, but several studies
used X-ray fluorescence and were successful in obtain-
ing source information from surface samples subject
to intense fires (Davis and others 1992b; Keefe and
others 1998; Skinner and others 1995, 1997; Steffen
2002; Tremaine and Jackson 1995). However, Shackley
and Dillian (2002) reported potential problems with
sourcing thermally altered obsidian artifacts, noting
that bonding of melted sand to the obsidian surface
could create sourcing errors. Steffen (2002) observed a
slight increase in trace elemental values with heating,
although none to the extent that sourcing was affected.
Skinner and others (1997) noted problems using X-ray
fluorescence on fire-affected obsidians that had a dark
patina believed to be a silica-based encrustation.
Anderson and Origer (1997) reported the exterior
surface of some obsidian was altered enough to make
sourcing via macroscopic attributes difficult one year
after a wildland fire.
The temperatures and duration of heating reported
to affect obsidian varies widely. It has been sug-
gested that some component of the fire environment
(such as wood ash, soil chemistries, or soil moistures)
may be contributing to observed changes (Deal 2002;
Nakazawa 2002; Steffen 2002; Trembour 1979). Varia-
tion in heating within respective fires (chapter 2) may
explain some of the differences in reported effects. Dif-
ferences in water content in obsidian might be causing
divergent heat effects (Steffen 2002). Some apparent
inconsistencies may be due to observer technique, or the
result of various source materials reacting differently
to thermal environments because of unique chemical
compositions (although Steffen 2002 documented
variations in heat effects on obsidian from the same
source).
Obsidian is thermally affected at varying tempera-
tures and at differing lengths of exposure to heat.
In field and lab fire experiments, obsidian has been
reported to fracture, crack, craze, potlid, exfoliate,
shatter, oxidize, pit, bubble, bloat, melt, become
smudged, discolored, covered with residue, or rendered
essentially unrecognizable (see fig. 4-2) (Anderson
and Origer 1997; Bayer 1979; Buenger 2003; Davis
and others 1992b; Deal 2002; Eisler and others
1978; Gaunt and Lentz 1996; Hull 1991; Johnson and
Lippincott 1989; Kelly and Mayberry 1979; Lentz and
others1996; Likins, personal communication, 1999;
Lissoway and Propper 1988; Nakazawa 1999, 2002;
Origer 1996; Pilles 1984; Rogers and Francis 1988;
Skinner and others 1997; Steffen 1999, 2002; Steffen
and others 1997; Stevenson and others 1985; Traylor
and others 1983; Trembour 1979). Buenger (2003)
found that some of these effects could be produced
when temperatures peaked between 500and 600
C (932and 1112F) within 40 to 50 seconds, and
when the temperatures were sustained within 100 C
(212F) for as little as 5 to 32 seconds. Steffen (2002)

Table 4-1Some reported thermal effects on chert.

Temperature (C) Temperature (F) Effect a
150 302 Impurities may result in fractures
121 - 400 249.8 - 752 Change in interior luster
240 - 800 464 - 1472 Change in color on external surface
350 - 400 662 - 752 Becomes distorted, brittle, or explosive
350 - 550 662 - 1022 Fractures
600 - 800 1112 - 1472 Optical dulling of external surface
a Note: Cherts from different sources react differently to heat. Some effects can occur at lower tempera-
tures if duration of heat is long enough. Not all cherts change color or luster when heated. Temperatures
for other effects summarized in text are unknown, or variable from Luedtke (1992).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 101


Figure 4-2Obsidian flake altered in a prescribed fire
experiment displaying adhesions, smudging, and light
surface pitting.
noted the need for a standardized set of definitions to
describe heat effects to obsidian, and offered (in part)
the following:
Matte finish: A dulling of the surface resembling
weathering or a lusterless patina;
Surface sheen: A metallic-like luster, with a reported
gun-metal sheen attributed to organic buildup on
the surface of obsidian, and a silvery, reflective
sheen attributed to shallow microscopic crazing
and the formation of small bubbles;
Fine crazing: A delicate network of very shallow
surface cracks (similar to, but contrasted with, the
internal crazing observable on fire altered chert)
that form a network of closed polygons, probably
caused by differential thermal expansion and/or
cooling;
Deep surface cracking: Shallow crevices splitting
the surface, probably due to the continued expan-
sion and stretching of finely-crazed surfaces;
Fire fracture: Fracture initiating from within the
object, resembling deliberate reduction, but lack-
ing bulbs of percussion, and often resulting in the
complete fracture of the artifact;
Incipient bubbles: Individual bubbles developing
below the surface; and
Vesiculation: Abundant, interconnected bubbles on
the surface and interior resulting in the puffing
up of thermally altered obsidian; in its extreme
form, vesiculation can transform artifacts into a
frothy, Styrofoam-like mass.
102 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Sidebar 4-1Stone Artifacts
Yellowstone Fires, Yellowstone National Park, 1988
References: Ayers (1988); Connor and Cannon (1991);
Connor and others (1989); Davis and others (1992b)
General Information:
Elevation: about 1,830 m (6003.9 ft) above sea level
Vegetation: mostly forested areas of mixed lodgepole
pine and Douglas Fir
Topography: mountainous
Type of study: post-burn assessment
Fire Description:
Temperature range: 32.2C (90F)+ temperatures
on June 24 and July 21, 25, 26, 30.
Relative humidity: dry
Fuel: high fuel load
Type of fire: wildland (about 8 separate fires)
Energy Release Component (ERC): July, August,
and early September saw ratings of 22 and 23.
Burning Index (BI): values in July and August
reached 90-105
Discussion
In the summer of 1988, a series of wildfires burned
approximately 6070 km2 (1.5 million acres) of Yellow-
stone National Park and surrounding forestland. The
high intensity wildfires created a mosaic burn pattern
of severely burned areas and spots of land that had not
been affected (Connor and Cannon 1991; Connor and
others 1989).
After the Yellowstone fires, researchers from the Mid-
west Archeological Center of the National Park Service
excavated archaeological sites in the burned area and
assessed fire effects to the soil matrix (Connor and Can-
non 1991; Connor and others 1989). Fire was found to
have burned the surface layer of duff, leaving a 5-10 cm
(2-3.9 in) thickness of burned material. The soil beneath
this burned material was generally unaffected. The
researchers also observed heavily oxidized soil beneath
deadfall trees. They noted that similar lenses of burned
and oxidized soil were found in the local archaeological
record and interpreted as cultural features.
In 1989, Montana State University researchers, under
a contract with the National Park Service, conducted
fieldwork at Obsidian Cliff lithic procurement site (Davis
and others 1992b). Two thirds of this lava flow had been
burned severely during the 1988 fires. The researchers
recorded information necessary to nominate the site as
a National Historic Landmark, taking advantage of the
increased ground visibility to record 59 obsidian procure-
ment loci. The researchers observed site erosion caused
by vegetation loss and noted that soil loss had caused
trees to fall and upturn several cubic meters of sedi-
ment. They also described visual fire effects to obsidian
and compared geochemical analyses of obsidian collected
before and after the fire (Davis and others 1992b).
 Minor vesiculation has been reported on obsidian
heated for one hour to 700C (1292F) (Shackley and
Dillian 2002). Obsidian has melted at 760C (1400F)
(Trembour 1979), or suffered extreme vesiculation
between 815C and 875C (1499F and 1607F)
(Steffen 2001, 2002) to 1000 C (1832 F) (Buenger
2003) (figs. 4-3, 4-4). Extreme vesiculation has been
Figure 4-3Bloated and melted obsidian, oven heated
to 800 C (1472 F) (sample courtesy of Anastasia
Steffen).
noted in a backfire, a prescribed fire, and a campfire
(Steffen 2002). Some of the most severe fire effects
have been noted at quarry sites and source areas, such
as those reported from the Dome Fire in New Mexico
(Steffen 1999, 2001, 2002).
Obsidian is particularly valued for its dating poten-
tial. Over time, freshly exposed surfaces on obsidian
absorb atmospheric moisture, creating distinct hydra-
tion bands (Evans and Meggers 1960; Friedman and
Smith 1960; Michels and Tsong 1980). After certain
variables such as the obsidian source, soil moistures,
soil pH, and temperatures have been accounted for,
the thickness of the hydration band can indicate how
long a surface on a piece of obsidian has been exposed
to atmospheric moisture, offering a means for estab-
lishing prehistoric site chronologies and depositional
integrity. A major factor influencing the integrity of
hydration bands is elevated temperature, which forces
resident moisture within the hydrated layer further
into, as well as out of, the obsidian, creating wide,
diffuse bands with unreadable or blurred margins
(Jackson, personal communication 1997; Trembour
1979, 1990).
The percentage of obsidian with measurable bands
recovered after wildland fires varies widely, from a low
of only 9 percent to as high as 71 percent (Jackson and
others 1994b; Pilles 1984; Skinner and others 1995,
1997; Trembour 1990). Obsidian located in lightly

Figure 4-4On right: Extreme vesiculation in obsidian oven heated to 800 C (1472 F);
sample also suffered severe weight and density loss. On left: Unheated obsidian from same
source (samples courtesy of Anastasia Steffen).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 103

fueled areas is more likely to retain hydration than
those burned under moderate or heavy fuels (Benson
2002; Deal 2002; Green and others 1997; Linderman
1992; Origer 1996). Obsidian located on the ground
surface is more likely to be altered, although Skinner
and others (1997) reported that hydration was erased
on obsidian at depths of 6 cm (2.4 in.) in one high in-
tensity fire.
Preliminary results of lab and prescribed fire experi-
ments indicate, even at very low temperatures, extended
exposure to heat can alter hydration bands (Benson 2002;
Deal 2002; Linderman 1992; Solomon 2002). Hydration
bands can become too diffused to accurately measure
after 2 hours at 200C (392F) and after 1 hour at
300C (572F) (Solomon 2002). Hydration bands
have been erased completely after 12 hours at 200C
(392F), and after 1 hour at 400C (752F) and 432C
(809.6F) (Skinner and others 1997; Solomon 2002).
As part of a post-fire hydration study, Skinner with
others (1997) conducted an experiment to determine
heat effects to hydration on obsidian from a single
source. Skinner and others (1997) used a single flake
of obsidian cut into six pieces, with each piece heated
for one hour at temperatures of 100C to 600C
(212F to 1112F), in 100C (212F) increments.
At 100C (212F), the hydration bands were still
distinct. At 200C (392F), band width had increased
slightly, but was still visible and measurable. At
300C (572F), the band was difficult to measure, due
to diffuse and indistinct diffusion fronts. At 400C
(752F), the diffusion front was gone and the band
was not measurable, but a slight bluish tint marked
where the band had been. At 500C and 600C
(932F and 1112F), there was no sign of a hydra-
tion band. Skinner and others (1997) concluded, in
dating obsidian, interpretation problems may occur
in cases of lower temperature exposures when band
width is not completely erased, and the hydration
age may be misread indicating an artifact is older
than it really is. Conversely, with high temperature
exposures, the band may be read to date an artifact
as younger than it is. Similar interpretive problems
have been reported by Trembour (1979, 1990) and
Stevenson and others (1989b).
Steffen (2002) demonstrated that intact hydration
could exist on portions of fire-affected obsidian arti-
facts where hydration was erased from other areas
of the artifacts, when objects were partially buried
during a fire, or various surfaces experienced dif-
ferential exposure to intense heat. She suggests that
better recognition of fire effects to obsidian could aid
in selecting specific surfaces of artifacts on which to
focus hydration analysis. For instance, Steffen (2002)
notes that the surface of artifacts displaying crazing or
vesiculation may have been exposed to heat sufficient
to alter measurable hydration (table 4-2).
Since high temperatures and smoldering fires of
extended duration can destroy hydration bands, Deal
(2002) speculated that intact obsidian hydration data
could be used as an indicator of the absence of fire or
heavy fuel loads in past landscapes. Many areas of the
continent bear evidence of past fire return intervals
shorter than those expected from lightning (Abrams
2000; Agee 1993; Anderson 1993, 1999; Anderson and
Moratto 1996; Barrett 1980; Barrett and Arno 1999;
Blackburn and Anderson 1993; Bonnicksen 2000; Boyd
1999; DeVivo 1990; Hicks 2000; Johnson 1999; Kay
2000; Komarek 1968; Lewis 1973, 1980; MacLeery
1994; Pyne 1982; Olson 1995, 1999; Turner 1999; Van
Lear and Waldrop 1989; Yarnell 1998). In landscapes
with frequent, periodic fires, such as areas that Native
Americans were managing with fire, fuels would have
been reduced to the point that areas burned at fairly
low temperatures with very restricted fire residence
times (Deal 2002). When obsidian is found in these
areas, the presence of numerous hydration readings
from surface settings could help support fire history
reconstructions based on ethnographic accounts of
deliberate burning (Deal 2002). However, if further
research indicates hydration is re-establishing rela-
tively quickly on fire altered obsidian (see Anderson and
Origer 1997), the potential to use obsidian hydration
to date past fires or to indicate prior fuel conditions
may be compromised.

Table 4-2Thermally altered hydration bands on obsidian from a single source; subjected to varying temperatures
for 1hour (source: Skinner and others 1997).
Temperature C Temperature F Change to hydration band a
100 212 Band still distinct
200 392 Band width increased slightly, but still measurable
300 572 Band diffuse and difficult to read
400 752 Band no longer visible; faint blue tint present where band was
500+ 932+ No sign of hydration band
a
Note: Changes in hydration bands can occur at lower temperatures if exposure time is long enough. For instance, hydration
bands have been erased after heating for 12 hours at 200 C (Solomon 2002).

104 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Several researchers have suggested past fire events
are discernible on obsidian through retained al-
terations such as surface crazing, bubbling, partial
vesiculation, diffused hydration bands (Friedman and
Trembour 1983; Steffen 2002), or re-established hydra-
tion bands (Green 1999; Linderman 1992; Trembour
1979, 1990). Some obsidian samples sent to labs for
hydration studies display wide, unreadable, diffuse
bands, with a second distinct, readable band retained
on the surface of the sample (Jackson, personal com-
munication 1997; Origer, personal communication
1997), suggesting that the bands may have rehydrated
after fires. Labs usually note the presence of diffused
bands, and provide a micron reading on the intact,
thinner, secondary hydration band, if one is present
(Jackson, personal communication 1997). This micron
reading may prove to mark a past high intensity fire
event, rather than a past cultural (manufacturing)
event, as has often been assumed. If one could use data
from rehydrated obsidian to determine a site had been
previously subjected to a fire, this could help explain
why other data (pigments, protein residues, organic
material) were missing.
Steffen (2002) makes the intriguing suggestion that
multiple hydration rim measurements from single
specimens may provide the heat exposure history
of the specimen, allowing for reconstructions of fire
histories. Researchers in northeastern California are
plotting the distribution of what are believed to be
rehydrated Archaic points as an indicator of where
fires may have occurred in the past, and are using this
data to reconstruct landscape-level fire histories (Green
1999). Should it prove possible to secure dates for past
fires from obsidian rehydration, these approaches could
potentially extend fire history data well beyond the
limit of several centuries reached when dating fires
from tree cores.
Basalt
Lentz (1996a) noted sooting, potlidding, oxidation,
reduction, crazing, luster changes, and adhesions on
lithic material, including basalt that had been in a
wildfire. Eisler and others (1978) found basalt to be
covered with a shiny, smooth, tar-like, brittle residue,
with basalt boulders fractured into angular chunks,
possibly due to rapid cooling. Tremaine and Jackson
(1995) reported thermal fractures on basalt bifaces.
Tremaine and Jackson (1995) were able to secure
sourcing information on basalts using X-ray fluores-
cence after a high intensity fire (see also Skinner and
others 1995 for similar results from another moder-
ate to severe wildland fire). Blood residue analysis
has been successful on basalt artifacts burnt at high
intensities (Newman 1994; Tremaine and Jackson
1995). Pilles (1984) noted that thermoluminescence
dates from basalt could be as much as 24 percent more
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 105
recent than expected, due to fires (see also Rowlett and
Johannessen 1990).
In lab experiments, Blackwelder (1927) reported 12
periods of rapid heating and cooling of a small piece of
basalt resulted in no effects, although a similar piece,
heated to 300 C (572 F) showing no visible effects,
fractured after being rapidly cooled in cold water only
twice. Another specimen was heated to 300 C (572 F)
for 30 minutes with no visible changes, but when the
temperature was raised to 325 C (617 F), the basalt
lost a few thin flakes... from the sides (Blackwelder
1927). After heating basalt pieces to 375 C (707 F)
for 30 minutes, a fourth sample broke violently into a
considerable number of pieces while still in the oven
(Blackwelder 1927). A block of basalt (presumably a
cube about 7.6 cm (3 in) to a side) was heated to 150C
(302 F), with no visible changes. The temperature was
then raised to 400 C (752 F), and after 10 minutes,
flakes began to spall off, continuing until the block
was almost wholly reduced to fragments. Another
7.6cm (3 in) basalt cube was placed in a furnace at
600C (1112 F), resulting in small scales breaking
off after 3 minutes, and continuing for another 10 min-
utes (Blackwelder 1927). Blackwelders experiments
suggest that basalt may be extremely susceptible to
thermal damage in fires.
Quartz, Quartzite, Mudstone, Rhyolite,
Siltstone, Slate, and Vitrified and Welded Tuff
Very little data is available on other kinds of tool-
stone. Quartz is an excellent thermal conductor and
expands first in one direction, then another, which
adds stress to the rock and leads to fractures (Luedke
1992). Thermal expansion in quartz crystals, compared
as a percent increase from the volume recorded at
20 C (68 F), is noted as a 0.36 percent increase at
100 C (212 F), 0.78 percent at 200 C (392 F), 1.9
percent at 400 C (752 F) and 4.5 percent at 600 C
(1112 F) (Dane 1942). Quartz undergoes changes in
crystalline structure at 573 C (1064 F), and liqui-
fies beyond the range of temperatures experienced in
wildland fires, at 1723 C (3133.4 F) (Luedtke 1992).
In lab experiments, Bennett and Kunzmann (1987)
detected no weight loss to cryptocrystalline quartz at
temperatures of less than 500 C (932 F), and Purdy
(1974) found only 0.01 percent weight loss in a quartz
crystal after 24 hours at 350 C (662 F). In areas with
moderate to severe ground charring within one fire in
the Sierra Nevada Mountains, milky and crystalline
quartz was often covered with a black, shiny residue
on all surfaces except those in contact with the ground,
making it extremely difficult to identify material type
during post-fire archaeological investigations (Deal
1995, 2001; Tremaine and Jackson 1995). In less severe
cases, quartz was blackened and discolored.
 Lentz (1996a) reported wildland fire effects (soot-
ing, potlidding, oxidation, reduction, crazing, luster
changes, and adhesions) to several different toolstone
materials, including rhyolite, quartz, and quartzite
sandstone. Most of these effects occurred on sites that
experienced moderate and heavy charring. Fracturing,
spalling, sooting, discoloration or oxidation has been
reported on mudstone, quartzite, rhyolite and vitric
tuff (Buenger 2003; Deal 1995; Hemry 1995; Lentz
and others 1996). Surface-collected vitric tuff artifacts
from a high intensity fire were successfully sourced
using X-ray fluorescence (Jackson and others 1994b),
and were found to retain immunological data in the
form of protein residues (Newman 1994).
fire-affected mano and millingstone. Buengers ex-
periments showed sandstone blocks exhibiting color
change and minor surface spalling at 200 C (392 F),
with spalling becoming more extensive in the 400 to
500 C (752 to 932 F) temperature range (2003).
Outcrops and boulders containing mortars and mill-
ing features have been blackened, sooted, cracked,
spalled, and exfoliated as a result of wildland fires
(figs. 4-7, 4-8, 4-9) (Deal 1995, 2001). High fuel loading
around boulders and rock walls has been reported to

Ground Stone____________________
As discussed in the introduction, ground stone objects
were used to pound, mash, crack, pulverize, grind or
abrade minerals or plant and animal products. Little
information regarding thermal effects to ground stone
artifacts or the effects of fire on use-wear patterns is
available in the literature (Adams 2002), although
field observations and experiments indicate that ob-
jects manufactured of different materials will react
differently to heating and cooling. For instance, Pilles
(1984) reported sandstone manos that were severely
cracked in wildfires, where basalt manos were only
blackened. Lentz (1996) indicated that all five metates
in a wildfire were affected by sooting, spalling, dis-
coloration and/or adhesions, but the single mano was Figure 4-6Millingstone altered in a wildland fire; note discol-
not altered. Portable mortars were rendered nearly ored areas and potlidded milling surface.
unrecognizable due to extreme fracturing in one se-
vere wildfire (Likins, personal communication, 1999),
and in another, trough metates were broken in half
(Jones and Euler 1986). Effects noted to pestles have
included spalling, and blackening and discoloration
to the point of obscuring material type identification
(Deal 1995, 2001; Foster 1980; Tremaine and Jackson
1995). See figures 4-5 and 4-6 for illustrations of a

Figure 4-7White granitic bedrock mortar outcrop showing

Figure 4-5Granitic mano partially buried in
soil within an area of intense ground charring
from a wildland fire. Upper portion of mano is
covered with a black, baked-on residue.
discoloration and spalling following a wildland fire. Spalling
can be severe at rock outcrops where the fuels are heavy and
allowed to radiate heat for extended lengths of time. This is
graphically illustrated by the damage underneath the 24-inch
dbh ponderosa pine that fell and smoldered on this bedrock
mortar outcrop.

106 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 contribute to extensive damage (Blakensop and oth-
ers 1999; Hester 1989). In one fire, major impacts on
mortar outcrops resulted in the exfoliation of large
sheets of rock from the intense heat (Deal 1995).
Blackening of mortar rock outcrops often hampered
positive identification of the material type, although
soil in mortar cups protected the grinding features from
damage (Deal 1995, 2001). Additional effects expected
at bedrock milling features would probably be simi-
lar to those reported elsewhere for boulders and cliff
faces (Blakensop and others 1999; Eisler and others
1978; Gaunt and others 1996; Hester 1989; Johnson
and Lippincott 1989; Noxon and Marcus 1983; Roger
1999; Romme and others 1993; Switzer 1974). Rock
faces at petroglyph and pictograph panels can also be
extensively damaged by spalling in fires. Removing
fuels near rock outcrops and rock art panels can help
Figure 4-8Note that the burning in the thicker butt-end of the
limit these types of effects.
log shown in figure 4-7 caused the most damage.

a b

Figure 4-9(a) Heavy brush (manzanita) growing at the base of this granite face resulted in severe localized spalling. (b) Spalled
fragments remaining attached to this granite face were easily removed by the touch of a finger.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 107

 Thermal shock, reportedly from as little heat as that
generated by sunlight, and particularly when coupled
with the freezing of water in cracks and pores of rock,
can lead to fracturing, exfoliating and degrading of
granite, basalt and limestone (Schiffer 1987). Based
on field observations and experiments, Blackwelder
(1927) concluded that in many forested areas of the
western United States, fire was the primary agent of
fracturing, spalling, and weathering in boulders and
rock outcrops, rather than diurnal changes in tempera-
ture. Blackwelder defined fire weathering features at
boulders and outcrops as resembling curved wedges,
plates or scales, 1 to 5 cm (0.4-2 in) thick, which often
taper to a thin edge (1927). Based on experiments,
Blackwelder (1927) reported many igneous rocks (ba-
salt, andesite, porphyry) will withstand rapid heating
and cooling up to 200 C (392 F) without any damage,
but will begin breaking and fracturing when cooled after
being heated to higher temperatures, while granites
and quartzites tolerate slow temperature changes to
as high as 800 C (1472 F).
Pollen, phytolyths, starches, ochre and other pig-
ments, and protein residues from plants and the blood
of small mammals have been detected on ground stone
(Johnson 1993; Mikkelsen 1985; Traylor and others
1983; Yohe and others 1991). These remains can be
used to infer tool function, as well as the time of year
a site was occupied. Fire and fire retardant can be ex-
pected to negatively impact these data types, although
Tremaine and Jackson (1995) retrieved a granitic
handstone from the surface of a severely burned site
that yielded positive residue reactions for cat and acorn.
Several other ground stone objects from this fire tested
positive for acorn, deer, and rabbit (Newman 1994).
Animal proteins can survive temperatures to at least
800 C (1472 F) (Thoms 1995). Pollen is destroyed
at temperatures over 300 C (572 F) (see Lentz and
others 1996; Romme and others 1993; Timmons 1996).
Thermal Effects on Rock Used as
Heating or Cooking Stones________
Stone slabs were sometimes placed over fires or
hearths and used for cooking. The slabs were often
shaped, and sometimes prepared by the application of
oil onto the cooking surface (Adams 2002). With use,
cooking slabs became oxidized and blackened; with
repeated heating and cooling, some slabs became
friable and sloughed off on the underside (Adams 2002).
Adams (2002) reports that the oil-saturated surfaces
are sometimes the only part of these cooking stones
recovered in archaeological sites. Stone pot rests used
to support cooking vessels in fires and hearths also
became blackened and fractured from heat (Adams
2002).
108 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Occasionally, ground stone was used as cooking
stones in stone-boiling, which often led to discoloring,
cracking or fracturing (although some pieces may have
already been broken and only served a second career as
a cooking stone; Johnson 1993). Conditions for stone-
boiling are similar to burning situations in wildland
or prescribed fires where fuels are heavy, the duration
of heat is extended, and cold water, foam or retardant
is dropped on heated stone. Post-fire studies in Mesa
Verde National Park (Corbeil 2002) have shown that
surfaces on porous rock like sandstone are vulnerable
to damage from retardant and gel; phosphates in re-
tardant can penetrate the rock and crystallize, turning
the surface into a fine powder, and gel can dry and peel
grains off of rock surfaces. In addition, retardant and
gel entrap or absorb water, which can contribute to
spalling. Distinguishing stone that has been fractured
by wildland or prescribed fires from those previously
fractured during stone-boiling or cooking hearths has
proved problematic (Lentz and others 1996; Tremaine
and Jackson 1995). Several researchers have suggested
ways to differentiate between cultural heating and
natural burning based on fracture patterns, location
within particular fuel loading situations, analysis of
organic residue, or luminescence analysis of mineral
constituents (Hemry 1995; Kritzer 1995; Picha and
others 1991; Rapp and others 1999; Seabloom and
others 1991).
Experiments with rock types used in stone-boiling,
roasting and oven pits, hearths, and sweat lodges have
produced information concerning how various stone
behaves when subjected to heat (Brink and others
1986; Kritzer 1995; McDowell-Loudan 1983; Pierce
1983, 1984; Wilson and DeLyria 1999;). Topping (1999)
found that granitic rocks used to line fire pits cracked
along the axis parallel to the fire, while those embed-
ded in the soil did not crack. Of the rocks that cracked,
those with multiple breaks were subjected to the most
violent temperature shock, whereas those subjected
to the least amount of temperature shock were only
cracked roughly in half (1999). Blackwelder (1927)
reported that a 2.7 kg (6 lbs) cobble of andesite, rapidly
heated to 200 C (392 F) in an electric furnace, then
rapidly cooled nine separate times, suffered no visible
effects. A greywacke river pebble 7.6 cm (3 in) thick
had thin slabs split off along almost imperceptible
planes of stratification while still in the oven at 350C
(662 F) (Blackwelder 1927). Heating a piece of fine-
grained granite slowly for 2 hours to a temperature
of 880 C (1616F), and then cooling it slowly for 10
hours, resulted in a darkening of its pink shade, and a
single small crack on the surface (Blackwelder 1927).
Wilson and DeLyria (1999) determined that andesite
and basalt rocks were more durable than quartzite
in replicative studies with camas ovens/roasting pits.
During three successive firings, several rocks exploded
within the first hour at temperatures between 150 C
and 425 C (302 F and 797 F). Most damage to the
rock occurred during the initial firing, with each suc-
cessive firing resulting in additional damage. Rocks
in the oven were fractured by spalling off thin flat
potlids, or by breaking into blocky chunks, with block
breakage more common to quartzite than to igneous
rocks, probably due to bedding planes in quartzite.
How certain rock reacted to different rates of heat-
ing and cooling was undoubtedly well known by people
in the past, as particular types of stone were selected
for different thermal applications. Pierce (1983, 1984)
found that quartzite cooking stones heated quickly,
boiled water quickly, fractured often when heated,
but rarely fractured when placed in water. Sandstone
also heated rapidly, did not fracture when heated,
but became so friable that large quantities of sand
were dislodged from the exterior of the stone (Pierce
1983), and the more often sandstone was heated, the
more it crumbled. Vesicular basalt took longer to
heat, requiring twice the fuel of either quartzite or
sandstone, but retained heat longer than either stone
(Pierce 1984). Basalt tended to fracture when heated,
more often than when cooled rapidly. Due to these
different capacities for the storage and transfer of
heat, as well as the friability of various rock types
when heated, Pierce concluded that certain stones
would more likely be selected for stone-boiling foods,
while others, such as sandstone, were more suitable
for hearth stones (1983).
Other Stone Artifacts
Vessels, cooking pots, lamps, clubs, atlatl weights, net
weights, loom weights, digging stick weights, pump drill
weights, plummets, bolas, pipes, gamestones, chunkey
stones, charmstones, pendants, ornaments, balls,
beads, earspools, lip plugs, rings, bracelets, gorgets
and effigy figurines are found in various archaeological
contexts throughout North America. Relatively little
research has been conducted on thermal effects on these
objects, although it can be expected that they would
be affected much like ground stone, as they were often
fashioned of the same materials. In addition, plant,
animal and mineral residues on any of these could be
affected by fire.
Some additional stone material types used to make
the above objects include agate, alabaster, aragonite,
argillite, azurite, calcite, catlinite, chalk, fluorite,
galena, gypsum, hematite, jasper, jade, kaolinite, mag-
nesite, malachite, selenite, serpentine, slate, steatite
and turquoise. Of these, agate and jasper, which are
varieties of chert, can be expected to react to fires in the
same manner described previously for chert. Steatite
can be heated to high temperatures; it stores heat and
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 109
releases it slowly, making it a good choice for cooking
stones and cooking vessels. Steatite has been success-
fully sourced using instrumental neutron activation
analysis (Truncer and others 1998), the accuracy of
which might be impacted by high temperature fires.
Catlinite, kaolinite, and chalk, used to make pipes or
cooking vessels, have limited effects at low tempera-
tures, often only discoloring and hardening. Little is
known about the effects of fire on artifacts made of
the other material types, although physical constants
have been recorded for some with respect to thermal
expansion, density at high temperatures, thermal
conductivity and diffusivity, weight loss from heat-
ing, melting and transformation temperatures, heat
fusion, and heat capacity (Birch and others 1942; Dane
1942). Some of these materials turn color when heated.
For instance, azurite and malachite turn black when
heated, slate often whitens, gypsum becomes cloudy
and opaque, magnesite turns a pinkish-brown or cream
color (and was deliberately heated in the past to make
beads more colorful), and turquoise turns white (Miles
1963; Mottana and others 1977). Magnesite bubbles
and releases gases prior to decomposing at 1000 C
(1832 F), and calcite dissociates at 1000C (1832F)
(Mottana and others 1977).
Coal is a sedimentary rock, vulnerable to fire and
readily combustible. In some areas in the past, coal was
ground and polished into a variety of shapes including
bear teeth, elk teeth, bird heads, bird claws, animal
effigies, gorgets, beads, ornaments, pendants and dis-
coidals (Cowin 1999; Fogelman 1991; F undaburk and
Foreman 1957; Graybill 1981; Griffin 1966; Redmond
and McCullough 1996; Turnbow 1992). Cannel coal is
highly volatile, ignites easily, burns with a luminous
flame, and was once used as a substitute for candles
(Bates and Jackson 1984; Yarnell 1998). Lignite, a soft
brownish-black coal that becomes pasty when heated,
and jet, a dense, black lignite that can be highly pol-
ished, were used as inlay on shell (Miles 1963), or made
into animal forms. In the ground, coal veins ignited
during wildfires can smolder for years after ignition
(Wettstaed and LaPoint 1990), and several coal mines
have been burning for more than a century (Maclean
1999; Pyne 1997).
Minerals such as mica and copper were also used
prehistorically. Sheet mica was cut and crafted into
spectacular shapes, such as bird talons, serpents,
hands and bear claws, and was overlain decoratively
on a variety of ornaments (Jennings 1974; Prufer 1964;
Peschken 1998). Some mica objects were decorated with
incising and painting; fire can smudge and destroy
pigments on these delicate objects. When heated, mica
loses water, becoming more friable and less flexible.
Although little else is known about fire effects to mica,
the thermal expansion of muscovite mica has been
measured at increasing temperatures. Compared to its
size at 20 C (68 F), it expands 0.03 percent at 100C
(212 F), with expansion to 0.15 percent at 200 C
(392F); 0.37 percent at 400 C (752F); 0.66 percent
at 600 C (1112 F); 1.3 percent at 800 C (1472 F);
and 1.55 percent at 1000 C (1832F) (Dane 1942).
Expansion can lead to exfoliation of mica.
Native copper melts at 1082 C (1979.6 F) (Mottana
and others 1977). Copper was quarried prehistorically,
and in some regions, fire and cold water may have
been used to separate copper from the surrounding
rock overburden (Quimby 1960), after which it was
cold-worked and heated prior to shaping (Farquhar
and others 1998; Jennings 1974). Copper nuggets were
hammered into thin sheets, which were beaten together
to make thicker objects, and shaped by abrading (Lewis
and Kneberg 1958) into awls, punches, chisels, flakers,
harpoons, spear points, knives, adze bits, panpipes,
bells, plaques, rings, effigies, breastplates, beads, ear
spools, headdresses and hair ornaments. Copper was
also used to overlay wooden and shell objects such as
gorgets, pendants and earspools. Thin sheets were
sometimes embossed by pressing the copper over a
carved wooden die, painted, or decorated with feathers
or fabric (Burroughs 1998; Fundaburk and Foreman
1957; Lewis and Kneberg 1958; Prufer 1964). Fire can
be expected to distort, obscure or destroy decorative
elements on copper.
Corrosion and oxidation often provide a protective
surface on copper at archaeological sites, unless heating
cracks the corrosive film and allows it to grow inward
(Schiffer 1987). As temperatures increase, corrosion
rates increase, with wood ash accelerating corrosion
(Schiffer 1987). Copper used in modern applications
discolors with a dark red or black oxide that thickens
under higher heating conditions and with longer heat
exposures (NFPA 1998). Prior to melting, copper
blisters, exhibits surface distortions, and forms blobs
and drops on its surface (NFPA 1998). After melting,
the copper re-solidifies, forming irregularly shaped
and sized globules that are often tapered or pointed
(NFPA 1998). Several techniques have recently been
used to source copper, including neutron activation
(Julig and others 1992), X-ray fluorescence (Wager
and others 1998), and thermal ionization mass spec-
trometry (Woodhead and others 1998). It is probable
that fire would affect the accuracy of these analytical
techniques.
Native American objects made with smelting and
casting techniques adopted from French, English, and
Spanish colonists include lead, pewter and brass pipes;
silver bow guards and other silver work; and steatite
and catlinite pipes inlaid with pewter and lead. These
would be thermally altered in fires in the same man-
ner as materials described in the chapter on historic
artifacts (chapter 6). These objects date from the late
1600s through the present (Furst and Furst 1982).
110 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Implications for Cultural Resource
Protection and Fire Planning_______
The key factors that seem to affect the nature and
extent of fire damage to archaeological resources,
including lithic artifacts, are fire intensity, duration
of heat, and penetration of heat into soil (Traylor and
others 1983). Research shows that as temperatures
increase, so do effects, and that effects increase as the
length of time exposed to heat increases; if exposure
time is long enough, effects can occur to stone tools
even at reduced temperatures. Buengers fire simula-
tions show that the two most important components
of the fire environment resulting in thermal effects to
surface artifacts are fuel loads and wind velocity (2003).
Increased fuel loads offer longer heating times, and
increasing winds bend the flames closer to the ground
where surface artifacts are located. Insulation from
heat, even with a few centimeters of soil or incompletely
consumed fuel, is often adequate in reducing impacts
(Anderson and Origer 1997; Buenger 2003; Lissoway
and Propper 1988; Picha and others 1991; Pilles 1984;
Seabloom and others 1991). The mass of lithic artifacts
is another factor determining the nature of thermal
effects. More massive artifacts are more susceptible
to fracture from thermal shock than thin ones, due to
uneven heating and cooling (Bennett and Kunzmann
1985; Luedtke 1992; Perkins 1985).
Surface artifacts generally suffer the most damage in
fires, although many will often retain data potentials,
even on sites burned numerous times in the past, or that
have recently been subjected to wildfires or prescribed
burns. Some lithic and ground stone scatters, as well as
other types of archaeological sites, are strictly limited
to surface contexts, due to shallow soils or depositional
history. These sites are obviously more threatened by
fire than those with deep subsurface deposits. Since
even shallow soils offer some protection to artifacts,
one can conclude that subsurface materials will gener-
ally retain the most data potential following wildfires.
However, the surface of a site at any given point in
time can change as a result of numerous agents,
including deflation, erosion, deposition, windthrown
trees, animal burrowing and human activities. These
alterations in site stratigraphy are often not obvious,
even when the site is excavated. In areas of the country
where bioturbation and windthrown trees commonly
mix soil deposits, the material on the surface has often
been found to reflect the full temporal range of site oc-
cupation, providing a snapshot of the sites chronology
(Jackson 1999; Jackson and others 1994a).
Prescribed burning will result in some predictable
loss of various types of data associated with stone
artifacts. Losses can be anticipated to be the greatest
for prescribed burns planned in areas that have not
had prior fuels management projects. However, if
fuels can be reduced on sites prior to burningeither
through hand removal of downed fuels or hand thin-
ning (Siefkin 2002), or by mechanical means when
appropriate (see Jackson 1993; Jackson and others
1994a)data loss will be reduced. Collecting surface
samples prior to burning would secure the data pos-
sibly impacted by the prescribed burn. However, in
many areas, fuels are now so dense that the pres-
ence and nature of surface artifactual materials are
unknown. Burn prescriptions can also be designed
to reduce potential effects. For example, a head fire
might cause fewer effects to artifactual materials
on the ground surface than a cooler, slower-moving
backing fire, due to the increased fire residence time
of the latter (Smith 2002).
Since fire suppression and exclusion began, many
areas of the country have lost numerous fire cycles.
These lost fire cycles represent a tremendous fuel
buildup, with a resultant increase in fire intensity,
burn times, and fire severity (USDA 1995), and in-
creased threats to cultural resources (Benson 1999;
Blakensop and others 1999; Gaunt and others1996;
Hester 1989; Kelly 1981; Kelly and Mayberry1980;
Lentz and others 1996; Lissoway and Propper 1988;
Pilles 1984; Siefkin 2002; Wettstaed and LaPoint
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 111
1990). Since fire suppression activities usually result
in the greatest disturbance and data loss on sites, it
is imperative that we work toward removing fuels
proactively to reduce these effects. It is ironic that in
many cases, and for several artifact classes including
stone tools, frequent past burning may have helped
preserve certain types of data resident in artifacts,
while todays wildland fires and prescribed burns are
impacting and destroying the same data, because of
higher fuel loading.
Future studies need to explicitly state what criteria
are being used to determine effects, and what is not
being analyzed. Attempts should be made to standard-
ize data related to effects, including fire environment
and fire severity, as well as alterations to artifacts.
Prescribed fire experiments need more stringent
methods for monitoring and reporting burn tempera-
tures, relative humidities, fuel and soil moistures, fuel
loading, fire intensity, fire severity, ground charring,
and the length of time that various surface and buried
artifacts are subject to heat. Effects that now appear
inconsistent or contradictory might be found to align
more closely, if we can understand how the variables
present in the fire environment affect lithic artifacts
and other cultural resources.
Roger E. Kelly
Daniel F. McCarthy
Chapter 5:
Fire Effects on Rock Images and
Similar Cultural Resources
Introduction_____________________
Throughout human global history, people have
purposely altered natural rock surfaces by drilling,
drawing, painting, incising, pecking, abrading and
chiseling images into stone. Some rock types that
present suitable media surfaces for these activities are
fine-grained sandstones and granites, basalts, volcanic
tuff, dolomites, and limestones. Commonly called rock
art, depiction of patterns, images, inscriptions, or
graphic representations might be considered today
as artistic as is Old World Paleolithic cave art for in terms of placement, pictorial content, and variety
example, but most of those early originators attached
different cultural values to these expressions. Historic
rock inscriptions made by literate persons are also of
high value as documents.
Images on rock are subject to natural weathering
by several processes: freeze/thaw, wet/dry, heat/cold,
wind-carried erosion materials, natural salts and min-
erals, ultraviolet rays, direct moisture and atmospheric
conditions (fig. 5-1). Vandalism to these resources is a
very serious threat in many areas (fig.5-2). Rock sur-
faces may also exhibit numerous small, shallow pits or
cupules, formed by pecking, chipping or abrading, or
pecked curvilinear nucleated cupules (PCN) (fig. 5-3).
The cupules may be in clusters or patterns on vertical
or horizontal rock surfaces. Accessible rock surfaces
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 113
may also be worked to produce bedrock mortars (BRM)
and concave milling surfaces for processing food mate-
rials. Stones may be moved to form images, patterns,
complex designs or mounds. Some researchers use
the term geoglyph to refer to these human changes
to ground surfaces, often as very large and striking
images when visualized from above (fig. 5-4). In arid
lands, stony ground surfaces were altered to achieve
a contrasting image to lighter colored soils below dark
desert gravels. These cultural activities are best consid-
ered as patterned behavior, not aimless or haphazard
through time and space. Important evidences of image
chronologies may result from re-use of rock surfaces,
re-painting, and younger designs superimposed over
earlier ones (Hedges 1990).
We distinguish between pictographs (painted expres-
sions using mineral colors or charcoal, often with a
binder material) and petroglyphs or images made by
pecking, carving, abrading, scratching, and incising, or
combinations of these methods. Petroglyphs are usu-
ally created with these methods to remove darkened
appearance of naturally weathered stone surfaces to
expose lighter colored rock matrix to achieve a con-
trasting image. Both types of images may occur in
mixed expressions or only one technique may appear
dominant.
 Figure 5-1Natural weathering processes in action. Top: Exfoliation on granite. Bottom: Natural
spalling at the Tate Site, Lincoln National Forest (photos, Forest Service, Lincoln National Forest).

114 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

a c

b d

Figure 5-2(a,b) Natural weathering and vandalism at Inscription Canyon, San Bernardino County, California, 1971. a) Lichen
growth beginning to obscure petroglyphs. b) Vandalism, attempt to remove the petroglyphs. (c,d) Vandalism, defaced petroglyph
panel at Keyhole Sink on the Kaibab National Forest (photos, Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Kaibab National Forest).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 115

Figure 5-3Cupule boulders, both examples from Riverside
County, California.
Setting and Placement
The setting and placement of these cultural resources
are often away from customary habitation and may
be seen at almost any location. Rock images may be
within caves, rock shelters, or overhanging cliffs where
vegetation may flourish as potential fuels. Images or
patterns may be on above-grade outcrops, vertical sur-
faces, or at-grade horizontal locations, on expanses of
exposed bedrock found along drainages, ridgelines, or
topographic features related to water sources. In some
locations, pecked handholds, steps, or trail markers
may exist with modern hiking trails and other access
routes. Since bedrock-milling mortars are associated
with food gathering and processing, evidence of tem-
porary camping may also be present in surrounding
mineral soils.
116 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Figure 5-4Examples of intaglios or geoglyphs. Top: Blythe
(California) Intaglios along the Colorado River at site CA-
RIV-14. Bottom: Close-up of one of the figures.
Many examples of complex rock images are asso-
ciated with topographic features, such as canyons,
draws, and ridges that support growth of potential
fuels today and provide access routes across terrain
into higher elevations. Some examples will be found
in isolated spots, often with a landscape view, but oth-
ers are within modern urban/suburban environments
(Bostwick 1998). In some western States, circular rock
alignments indicate temporary shelters and would not
be called geoglyphs. Images or inscriptions on tree
trunkssometimes called dendroglyphsare unique
historic resources documenting historic land uses in
timbered regions (chapter 6; Coy 1999). Recognized
historic trails are sometimes documented by travel-
ers names and dates on trees or rocks that may be
absent in historical records but may be accompanied
by historical archaeological materials at campsites.
Heritage and Research Values______
Heritage and research values of rock images, geo-
glyphs, and other associated prehistoric or historic
visual depictions are characterized by the following
values that justify active preservation and conserva-
tion management:
Cultural values for contemporary tribal com-
munities as spiritual places where ancestral
practitioners conducted necessary ceremonies,
noted astronomic observations, or recorded past
tribal events (for example, Writing-on-Stone
Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada; Saddle Rock
Ranch Pictograph Site within the Santa Monica
Mountains of California illustrating Spanish
horsemen; Cave of Life petroglyphs in Petrified
Forest National Park, Arizona).
Design elements indicate past land use by
ancestral social units who marked places on
customary lands by producing visual signs (for
example, Newspaper Rock petroglyphs of Hopi
clan symbols in Petrified Forest National Park,
Arizona; Hawaiian ahupuaa or land use unit
boundaries (Cox and Stasack 1970)).
Rock image elements distributed over an area or
region indicate connections by past native peoples
to lands their descendants may not occupy today.
Traditional leaders who attribute sacred values
to lands as witnessed by rock art sites consider
these resources as very special identifiers. Such
places are included in the May 1996 Presidential
Executive Order 13007 Sacred Places, directing
Federal agencies to preserve such locations as
public heritage values to all citizens.
Most serious researchers use non-destructive
and detailed photographic and other methods of
recording, assessing, and describing rock images
and geoglyphs, which recognize the complexity
and variety of these cultural expressions over time
and space (Bock and Bock 1989). American Rock
Art Research Association (ARARA) members,
affiliated local interest groups, and professional
researchers need to follow high standards of
field work and publications. Previous methods
such as chalking, rubbings, crayon use, castings
or applications of latex coatings, even kerosene
washes and other embellishments should always
be avoided (Labadie 1990; Lee 1990; Whitley
1996a).
Use of ethnological information by some leading
researchers has produced innovative studies that
link stone images to native belief systems, phi-
losophies of life, individual expressions, and past
intergroup events (Crotty 1990; Robbins 2001;
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 117
Whitley 1994, 1996b). Rock art sites and obsidian
artifacts are potential sources for collaborative
ethnographic studies regarding Native American
uses of fire for manipulation of environments
(Arguello and Siefkin 2003; Keeley 2002; Loyd
and others 2002; Underwood and others 2003;
Williams 2001).
Native and non-native inscriptions, trail mark-
ers, and food preparation stations have values for
interpreting environmental history, landscape
change, travel prior to modern methods, and ad-
aptation of subsistence practices by inhabitants
through changing land use patterns.
Inclusion of rock image resource in Federal or
State historic property registers as significant
public heritage sites denotes official recognition
that triggers specific preservation compliance ac-
tions required by legislation, as well as defining
public education values (Marymor 2001).
Dating of rock art through scientific methods
depends on assessing the integrity of the resource
in terms of contamination, physical damage and
presence of datable organic materials. Notable
successes have been developed to give radiocar-
bon age determinations as numerical values as
well as relative (older than or younger than)
ages (Chaffee and others 1994; Dorn 1994, 2001;
Francis 1994).
Fire Effects______________________
Some major rock image examples and related ar-
chaeological resources clustered together on public
land areas may be described or formally documented
in existing technical reports, electronic or paper
archaeological site inventory records, or summaries
of resources in a protected status (Labadie 1990; Mc-
Carthy 1990). But often, essential information about
location, characteristic, and existing condition is not
readily available during emergency situations. Field
crews will probably encounter isolated, poorly known,
or undocumented rock art on vertical or ground sur-
face outcrops that may also include bedrock mortars
or grinding surfaces. Protection actions such as those
suggested in the Mitigation and Protection section
should be taken in these situations, under guidance
from a fire management trained Cultural Resource
Specialist. Some effects are short term while others
are longer duration; temporary changes such as soot
deposits may be removed naturally. Untrained persons
should not attempt direct conservation measures.
Rock shelters, overhangs, and vertical rock faces
containing rock image panels may suffer two types
of damage from wildland fires: thermal effects from
energy (heat) absorbed and depositional damage from
exposure to smoke, soot, ash, smudging, and tars as
combustion products (Loyd and others 2002). The
energy may result from either radiation or convec-
tion but higher temperatures are associated with the
former (chapter 2). Common results are discoloration,
exfoliation or spalling, and heat absorption (fig. 5-5).
Smudging occurs when combustion products precipi-
tate on or adhere to exposed rock surfaces. Chemical
and physical changes are probably caused by heat
penetration and charring of organic pigment binder
materials of painted elements. Spalled or pot-lidded
surfaces or the forming of minute cracks in fine grained
rock types occur when normally absorbed moisture
becomes heated, causing rock grains and moisture
molecules to expand and lose normal adhesion.
118 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Illegal campfires in spaces such as rock shelters or
caves 30.5 meters (100 feet) or less from images can also
produce extensive spalling, sooting, or other damage
to natural rock surfaces, but restoration is possible in
some cases (fig. 5-6). Prevention of such illegal camping
should be a management and enforcement priority.
Wildland and prescribed burn suppression activi-
ties including use of heavy equipment has resulted in
severe damage to ground level rock art made upon
exposed bedrock formations (fig. 5-7, 5-8, 5-9). Foam,
fire retardant, or water applied during mop up opera-
tions to still hot rock surfaces can also cause spalling.
Organic materials in some retardant gels remain on
image surfaces or fertilize micro or macro-plant growth.
Figure 5-5Spalling and exfoliation caused
by fires. Top: Spalling of rock art following
the 2003 Hammond Fire, Manti LaSal NF,
Utah (Johnson 2004). Pictograph damaged
by heat from forest fire (photo Clay Johnson,
Ashley NF). Bottom: Typical exfoliation of
granitic rock where fuels are nearby and
burning very hot. No cultural features were
affected.
 Figure 5-6Examples of graffiti and illegal campfire built at the base of a rock painting
at site (CA-RIV-45) in Tahquitz Canyon, Riverside County, California.

Figure 5-7Fire-damaged petroglyph in Hawaii.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 119

 Figure 5-8Fire-affected milling equipment noted after the Louisiana Fire Incident in 2002. Top: Granite
handstone. Note most of the upper worn, polished surface has weathered away. Bottom: Schist metate
surface with only small worn and polished areas remaining.

120 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Figure 5-9Cupule boulder damaged during the Louisiana Fire Incident in 2002. Top: View showing
the north rock exposure. Cupule Panel 1 shown by arrows and extent of damage to rock surface.
Bottom: Detail of damage to panel.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 121

Certain types of lava flows are thinly covered by frag-
ile silica coatingswhich native peoples removed to
produce petroglyphsthat are very easily damaged
by foot traffic, hose lines, or hand tool use. Stone ar-
rangements or geoglyphs can also receive damage
from machinery, hand lines, fire camps, heliopads,
and vehicle parking.
Field Examples__________________
Over the past two decades, at least 20 examples of
rock art resources impacted by wildland fires or van-
dalism have been reported within several States (Kelly
and McCarthy 2001, 2002). While these examples are
only a few from an unknown number of rock art re-
sources impacted by fires, they illustrate fire-generated
impacts on different rock types and images, issues of
fuel loading near archaeological resources, and post-
fire observations.
Hawaii
On the Island of Hawaii, brush firefighting in March
1990 included zig-zag dozer tracks over aa lava flows
122 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
with numerous native Hawaiian petroglyphs, de-
stroying and severely damaging scores of unrecorded
elements (Lee and Stasack l999). Burning of private
sugar cane fields prior to harvesting resulted in gen-
eration of high heat from long flame length fires and
accumulation of ash and soot on rock art examples
(J. Mikilani Ho, personal communication; NPS 1999);
the use of bulldozers for this activity also resulted in
damage to basalt outcrops with rock art. Examples of
increased visibility for rock art, as well as covering by
fresh flows, ash, or acidic moisture are documented for
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (Edward and Diane
Stasack, personnel communication, 1999).
Arizona
Within Coconino National Forest, the Deadman Wash
locality contains 48 rock art sites, which were partially
subjected to a wildland fire in 1996 (fig. 5-10) (Kolber
l998). One site was heavily damaged by high heat on
basalt surfaces, causing exfoliation and substantial to
total loss of element clusters (fig. 5-11).
Figure 5-10Lava flows on the Island
of Hawaii are often exposed to damage
from fire, fire suppression, and other
cultural practices (a) Puuloa Petroglyphs
(b) Puuloa Petroglyphys; (c) Puako
Petroglyphs.
 Figure 5-10(Continued)

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 123

 Figure 5-11Heavy fuel accumulation and consumption around basalt outcrops at the Deadman Wash
site Coconino National Forest, Arizona.
Texas
Hueco Tanks State Historical Park near El Paso
contains spectacular American Indian rock art dating
from Archaic period to historic Mescalero Apaches, Kio-
was, and Comanche tribes. Guided visitor tours and a
management program, including conservation projects,
are positive steps ensuring preservation and study of
these well-known examples. Soot coatings and sprayed
graffiti at one site were treated with mixed results, but
more elements were revealed after smoke blackening
was removed (Ronald Ralph, personal communication,
2000). A recent fast-moving fire at the Alibates Flint
Quarries National Monument near Amarillo caused
spalling of dolomite outcrops and boulders, some of
which contained rock art; no images were damaged.
Whether high heat caused micro-fracturing of stone
surfaces near petroglyphs or not is unclear but may
increase deterioration of the images in the future (Dean
1999).
124 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
California
Within Cleveland National Forest, a single picto-
graph panel of an anthropomorphic figurea rake
patternand other images were subjected to a high
temperature fire from nearby fuels (Cavaioli 1991).
Only two elements were undamaged and red hematite
elements were discolored and altered from rock sur-
face spalling and high temperatures. In 1982, another
rock art site was damaged from spalling due to burn-
ing of heavy fuels nearby and target shooting later.
At Vanderburg Air Force Base, burning of brush in
proximity to a major rock image site caused spalling of
rhyolite surfaces and loss of painted design elements
(Hyder and others 1996). In the 1999 Willow Fire
in San Bernardino NF, intense heat caused blistering
of two unrecorded painted panels and loss of details
(McCarthy 2000).
In the southeastern California Mojave Desert, Bu-
reau of Land Managements Black Mountain locality,
fast-burning grass fires did not alter rock art on basalt
outcrops but did result in greater visibility and light
smudging, which faded with time. An intentional
campfire set in the early 1990s near a small rock art
panel on local granite resulted in significant spalling
and blackening, which faded later. Damage to rock
art on granite surfaces depends on fire heat, nearby
fuels, and rate of ignition (Sally Cunkleman, personal
communication, 1999).
Colorado
Mesa Verde National Park contains superlative
ancestral Pueblo rock art associated with village com-
munities occupied between the 12th and 14th centuries.
During the 1996 Chapin 5 wildfire (Sidebar 5-1), three
panels on the sandstone of Battleship Rock sustained
discoloration and extensive spalling (Cole 1997; Floyd-
Hanna and others 1997-98). This significant rock art
site had been documented several times since 1989 by
chalking, photography, and written descriptions, trac-
ings, and replication for Visitor Center display. Of the
three major panels, two sustained extensive damage
as compared to earlier documentation. Standing trees,
brush, and considerable duff fuel loading indicated
absence of fire until 1996 in the vicinity of Battleship
Rock. A monitoring program has been instituted to
watch further changes since Park management, in
consultation with local tribal authorities, decided not
to attempt stabilization or restoration of damaged
surfaces (Desert News Archives, AP: December 1,
1996).
A 9,000-acre fire occurred in 1996 within Comanche
and Cimarron National Grasslands, near La Junta.
A Volunteer in Time project revisited 19 of 77 sites
to assess any fire damage (Mitchell l997). About 16
unrecorded rock art panels were observed but only
two sustained damage. Close proximity of standing
trees as fuels to rock surfaces (0.3 to 0.6 meters [1 to
2 feet]) accounted for spalling of sandstone rock faces,
fortunately without images. Spot fires and light ground
fuels resulted in minimal damage to sites and rock
art panels but exposed additional sites for recording
(Mitchell 1997).
Utah
In 1981, Canyonlands National Park sustained a
200-acre wildland fire named for a petroglyph panel
called Four Faces (Noxon and Marcus l983). While not
damaging the four elaborate anthropomorphic figures
directly, nearby sandstone exposures sustained smoke
blackening and extensive exfoliation due to moisture
expansion within the local type of sandstone. Pinyon-
juniper fuels in quantity and short distances from the
Four Faces panel provided sufficient heat source for
convection transfer to sandstone cliff faces at a height
of 12.2 meters (40 feet) above ground surfaces.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 125
Sidebar 5-1Rock Art
Chapin 5 Fire, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado,
August 1724, 1996
References: Floyd-Hanna and others (1997); Ives and
others (2002)
General Information:
Elevation: 2,078.7 m (6,820 ft) at the south
end canyon to 2,561.8 m (8,405 ft) in the north
rim of the mesa
Vegetation: Ranges from shrub communities,
to pinyon-juniper woodland, to semi-desert
vegetation on shale outcrops at the lower
south end of the mesa; riparian vegetation in
canyon bottoms
Topography: Chapin V Mesa slopes from north
to south and is cut by canyons
Type of study: Post-fire assessment
Fire Description:
Temperature range: 15.5-29.4 C (60-85 F)
Duration: 7 days
Relative humidity: 23-85%
Intensity: 23% of area burned at high intensity,
55% at moderate burn intensity, and 18% at
low burn intensity; 4% unburned area
Type of fire: wildland
Energy Release Component (ERC): 39-70
Burning Index (BI): 19-67
The Chapin 5 fire occurred in August of 1996 and
burned 19.3 km (4,781 acres) of Mesa Verde National
Park. Red-carded archaeologists worked closely with
firefighters and monitored fire suppression impacts to
heritage resources. About 150 sites, including 75 previ-
ously unknown sites, were encountered during suppres-
sion activities. About 295 sites were known to exist in
the burn area and an additional 366 unrecorded sites
were located after the burn (USDI 1999). Sites included
numerous masonry pueblos, 27 cliff dwellings, pithouse
complexes, agricultural features, burial sites, historic
summer shelters, hogans, and sweat lodges (USDI 1996).
The fire burned two of the four Battleship Rock petro-
glyph panels, causing extensive damage (figs. 5-S1, 5-S2).
Following the fire, the ground surrounding the petroglyph
panels was covered with ash. Spalling and discoloration
(reddish, black, and gray areas were noted) affected some
glyph elements to the point that they could not be recog-
nized as complete forms. Fragments of spalled sandstone
lay at the base of panels (Ives and others 2002).
 Immediately after the fire, a Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) team assessed the extent of burn dam-
age. They submitted an emergency treatment plan in September of 1996 and fieldwork began shortly thereafter. Teams
of archaeologists and hydrologists worked for over three field seasons to assess archaeological sites and establish erosion
control. They adapted new methods of damage assessment from methods established at Bandelier National Monument
after the 1996 Dome Fire. Hazard trees were cut down, water-bars constructed and excelsior strips laid over the ground
to prevent soil erosion and promote vegetation growth. Much of the burned area was also seeded with grass. A 1999
assessment (USDI 1999) found the project successful. Significant damage to sites had been avoided, 661 sites had been
assessed and 333 had been treated to prevent damage.

a b

Figure 5-S1Direct effects of the 1996 Chapin-5 Fire, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado on the Battleship Rock petroglyph;
Panel 3R, before (1989) (a) and after (2006) (b) (compliments of S.J. Cole).

a b

Figure 5-S2Direct effects of the 1996 Chapin-5 Fire, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado on the Battleship Rock petroglyph
Panel 2L, before (1989) (a) and after (2006) (b) (compliments of S.J. Cole).

126 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Washington
In 1997, Horsethief State Park at Dallesport, sus-
tained a fire caused by a train spark. Images on basalt
outcrops along the northern shoreline were damaged
and the glassy or silica-like surfaces were exfoliated
by heat.
Kentucky
In Daniel Boone National Forest, a wildland fire
extensively damaged one rock art site (site number
15Ja234).
Nevada
In eastern Nevada, a rock art site composed of sev-
eral panels within a series of overhangs at Reed Cabin
Summit was totally destroyed by brush fueled fires.
Rhyolite rock surfaces exfoliated, spalled, and were
smoke-blackened, obscuring or rendering the images
destroyed. Some informal documentation had been
done earlier but was not systematic. An arson fire
in Condor Gulch also impacted known rock art sites
in similar ways (Mark Henderson, Bureau of Land
Management, personal communication, 2001).
Field Examples: Observations
Major fire damage to these resources and natural
stone used in the production of the cultural images
is usually left untreated and unrestored. Decisions
not to carry out conservation or restoration actions
seem based on assumed lack of fiscal resources,
incorrectly assuming that such damage cannot
be treated or restored, and that loss of resource
integrity is an acceptable consequence of a natural
process for wildland fires. Some technical studies
on chemical and physical applications to damaged
rock art show that conservation and treatment
are possible (Dean 1999; Grisafe and Nickens
1991a, b; Ralph 1990; Silver 1982). Funds for
mitigation of fire damage to cultural resources
are included in the Burned Area Emergency
Response (BAER) program. Reprogramming of
fiscal year funds to meet specific cultural resource
preservation needs should be considered. In some
cases, a professional conservators assessment to
let natural processes clean images temporarily
obscured may be the best decision.
Some reported field examples describe post-fire
characteristics of a rock image resource, without
comparison to pre-fire condition or estimates of
convection-radiation energy levels reached, or
other fire behavior data at the location. Those
field reports that offer a before and after com-
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 127
parison show extensive discoloration, exfoliation,
and greater exposure of the cultural resource for
potential vandalism. When heat levels or duration
times were comparatively mild, soot deposits were
successfully removed and the resource returned
to pre-fire condition.
Sandstone, granite and rhyolite parent rock types
suffered damage from high levels of energy re-
leases from nearby fuels and fire behaviors, but
images on basalt or lava rock types sustained
only light soot deposits and temporary increase
to visibility. Rock art on Hawaiian lava flows,
however, often sustains considerable damage
from ash, toxic moistures, soot deposits from
fresh flows, and use of fire-fighting equipment
during periodic field fires (fig. 5-12) (Kelly and
McCarthy 2001).
Useful site inventories of rock art resources ex-
ist at some institutions (for example, Rock Art
Archive of UCLAs Institute of Archaeology; Sink
1998) and compiled bibliographies have been
annotated (McLane l993). Specific management
plans for rock art resources are few but offer better
stewardship regarding public access, fire man-
agement, preservation, and research (Labadie
1990; Lee 1990; Marymor 2001; Whitley 1996b).
Preservation strategies such as removal of poten-
tial fuels, documentation of major at-risk sites by
skilled specialists, and use of GIS overlay maps
during a suppression campaign by Incident Com-
mand staff are recommended. NPS Pacific West
Region archaeological staff works with prescribed
fire specialists to conduct pre-burn terrain and
archival records checks to avoid inadvertent
impacts to undocumented sites (Malony and
Zimpel 1997).
Mitigation and Protection__________
Specific fuel removal will lessen potential smoke
damage and heat impacts to rock surfaces (fig. 5-13).
Black line, protective foam barriers, fire resistant
tarps, hand-lines, and hose lays around known sites
or fire resistant tarps can be deployed with resource
advisors participation. Technical documentation by
skilled specialists can establish a photographic, video,
narrative, and graphic record prior to a local fire event;
this record provides a baseline condition assessment
for monitoring activities later. Increased visibility may
also prompt unwanted visitation.
Preventing loss of color, design elements, complexity
of panel or cluster relationships to outcropping con-
figuration may be impossible. Through documentation
using ARARA accepted techniques and approaches we
may preserve rock art characteristics (Dean 1999).
 a

Figure 5-12Sooting (a) and exfoliation (b) of rock art images on basalt outcrops at the Deadman
Wash site Coconino National Forest, Arizona.

128 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

a b

Figure 5-13Vegetation surrounds cultural features, posing a threat from fires. Top: Example of a bedrock mortars surrounded
by grasses, at risk from a fire. Bottom (a,b): Fire effects after Piute Fire (photo, Mark Howe 2008). Many milling features are likely
in poor condition due to past fires dispelling the notion that stone artifacts are not perishable. Repeated fires over time along with
seasonal freeze and thaw cycle contribute to destruction of milling features uncommonly faster by accelerating exfoliation of the
rock layers.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 129

Prescribed fire plots may include rock art sites, so
management of nearby fuels would be required in the
burn plan. Malicious damage during fire suppression is
subject to law enforcement, either using Archeological
Resources Protection Act l979 (amended l988), Code of
Federal Regulations regarding Federal property dam-
age, State resources codes, or local county ordinances.
Post fire suppression reports, rehabilitation plans, and
other incident reports should include details regarding
rock art and other archaeological sites within burned
terrain. Expert advice from an experienced conserva-
tor will be necessary.
Restoration and Stabilization_______
Major damage to significant rock art, geoglyphs,
or related modifications of natural stone is often left
unrestored. Pioneering studies of chemical stabiliza-
tion of porous stone types such as sandstone have been
performed (Grisafe and Nickens 1991a, b; Turner and
Burke 1976). These authors used experimental stone
samples to determine effectiveness of various chemi-
cal materials to artificially strengthen weakly bonded
stone without changing color, porosity, or permeability.
Grisafe and Nickens (1991a) studied a Kansas rock
art site and found stone samples taken nearby were
strengthened by an organo-silicon compound dissolved
130 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
in a ketone fluid medium. Bonding of sand grains with
no change in appearance or permeability resulted from
their experiments. Turner and Burkes (1976) study
used stone samples from Davis Gulch in Lake Powell
near known rock art sites and from Natural Bridges
area of northern Arizona. The most successful mate-
rial was a polymerized methyl methacrylate, applied
in a wet method to sandstone samples. These early
efforts may not be allowed in current times because of
recognized hazardous nature for some chemicals used
and absence of monitoring data over time regarding
weakening or disintegration of applied materials.
Resources Available______________
The American Rock Art Research Association website:
www.arara.org.
University of California, Los Angeles Institute of Archeology
Rock Art Archive. Information available: http://www.sscnet.
ucla.edu/ioa/rockart/.
International Newsletter on Rock Art (INORA), sponsored
by UNESCOs International Council on Monuments and
Sites (ICOMOS). Information available: http://icomosdocu-
mentationcentre.blogspot.com/2009/01/inora-international-
newsletter-on-rock.html.
Charles Haecker
Chapter 6:
Fire Effects on Materials of the
Historic Period
In a literal sense historical artifacts and historical
sites are all artifacts and sites dating after the intro-
duction of written history in any region. For example,
in New Mexico, these would be sites dating after AD
1540, the year of the first Spanish entrada into what
would later become the State of New Mexico. In many
instances, historical sites can also include those sites
created by American Indians who possessed at least
some Euro-American objects, and/or whose methods
of construction were influenced to some degree by
Euro-Americans. The National Historic Preservation
Act defines antiquities as over 50 years old; therefore,
even late 20th century historical sites may be considered
eligible to the National Register of Historic Places.
(It is important to note that only cultural resource
specialists can make a determination regarding the
eligibility of a cultural resource to the National Register
of Historic Places; see chapter 1.) Given this time depth
and regional/ethnic diversity there exists a wide variety
of historic architectural designs made of materials such
as adobe, sod, logs, planks, firebrick, formed concrete
and, quite often, combinations thereof. Artifacts pres-
ent at even the most humble of historical sites can
number into the thousands; virtually anything listed
in a nineteenth century mail-order catalog could be
found on a frontier ranch.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 131
There are countless historical sites that have been
continuously occupied up to present-day, resulting
in an even greater variety of building materials and
artifacts of varying degrees of combustibility. For ex-
ample, a cabin built in 1870 might have the original log
walls exposed in the interior rooms, its exterior walls
lined with turn-of-the-century clapboards, which in
turn are overlaid by aluminum siding installed in 1955.
The nearby trash dump might contain fragments of ca.
1870 whiskey bottles, parts from a ca. 1900 wood stove
alongside 1930s automobile tires, all capped over by a
1968 Avocado Green refrigerator. A grass fire might
not affect the house, but the 1930-vintage tires could
catch fire, resulting in destruction of the historic dump.
A review of the literature regarding effects of fire on
cultural resources indicates an explicit bias in favor of
studying the effects of fire on prehistoric resources, as
opposed to studying these effects on historic structures
and artifacts. Consequently, the following information
is based in part on unpublished, anecdotal observa-
tions, conjoined with empirical data obtained from
experiments conducted by arson investigators. The
latter data contain a wealth of information that should
be consulted by cultural resource managers and fire
managers when considering the effects of fire on the
wide array of historic period materials.
Types of Fire Damage_____________
Distortion happens when materials change shape,
temporarily or permanently, during fires. Nearly
all materials expand when heated, affecting the
integrity of solid structures when they are made
from several materials. If one material expands
more than another material, the difference in
expansion can cause the structure to fail.
Spalling is a condition associated with masonry
plaster and concrete building materials and some
artifacts. The primary mechanism of spalling is
the expansion or contraction of the surface while
the rest of the mass expands or contracts at a dif-
ferent rate. Spalling of concrete, masonry, or brick
usually occurs due to high temperatures from an
accelerant, for example, creosote-soaked railroad
ties used as building material (NFPA 1998). An
example of spalling on artifacts occurs when the
colorless glaze on historic ceramics separates
from the underlying ceramic paste.
Charring is the carbonization of a fuel during
heating or burning. The rate of charring is non-
linear and varies with wood density, a property
that varies with species and growing conditions,
and with the duration of heating. An often-quoted
simple rule of thumb for pine is that charring
occurs approximately at the rate of 3.5 cm (1.4
in) per hour at 750 C (1382 F) (DeHaan 1991).
Calcination refers to the various changes that oc-
cur in cement- and gypsum-based plasters during
a fire. Calcination involves driving the chemically
bound water out of the plaster, turning it into a
crumbly solid (NFPA 1998). Charring of organic
binder, if present, will also weaken the plaster.
Build-up of hazardous, highly flammable vegeta-
tion within abandoned/collapsed structures is a
common occurrence at historic sites. Collapsed,
rotted roof beams can catch fire quickly, especially
if dry vegetation, for example, tumbleweed, has
piled up within or adjacent to the structure.
Once ignited, the building materials become the
primary fuels that will dictate severity of the fire
and the resulting effects on its contents.
Fighting the fire may cause some site damage. For
instance, use of water to fight a fire on a historic
trash dump could crack super-heated artifacts;
use of a fire rake over a trash dump could damage
the artifacts; and chemical fire retardants may
alter the surface appearance of artifacts.
Removal of vegetation by a fire may result in ero-
sion of the site, and exposure of surface artifacts
might lead to site vandalism.
132 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Historic Structures_______________
Native Materials Structures
American Indians traditionally used readily ob-
tainable raw materials from the land around them,
fashioning structures from wood, bark, leaves, grass,
reeds, earth, snow, stone, skin, and bones. Their
principal types of construction were (1) tensile or bent
frame with covering for example, wigwam, wickiup;
(2) compression shell, for example, hogan, tipi; and (3)
post-and-beam wood frame with various walling mate-
rials, for example, earth lodge, plank house (Nabokov
and Easton 1989). Such structures usually were not
conceived as articles of permanent craftsmanship;
once abandoned they quickly deteriorated. However,
aboveground remnants of late prehistoric and historical
periods combustible structures exist in the arid and/
or high-elevation regions of the United States and
Canada.
American Indians sometimes incorporated build-
ing materials of Euro-American origin since at least
the mid-19th century. Such a structure might follow
the traditional building form yet be constructed of
an amalgam of native and Euro-American building
materials. Euro-American building materials are
intended to last for many years even after structural
abandonment and collapse; therefore, such objects as
firebrick, milled lumber, and corrugated roofing may
also be the surface indicators of an American Indian
historical site.
AdobeSoil for the making of adobe bricks or for
use in rammed earth walls is available in virtually
unlimited quantities almost everywhere. Proportions
of sand, silt, and clay vary in the ground. If these
proportions are unsuitable, the soil is tempered or
balanced by the addition of another material, such as
straw, hay, or other fibrous vegetal matter. Earth-wall
structures can be found from high mountain passes to
the humid lowlands of the eastern seaboard. Its basic
form of construction consists of a solid, load-bearing
wall built up of sun-dried bricks molded into flat lay-
ers, with adobe mud used as mortar (fig. 6-1). Surfaces
are then smoothed with adobe plaster, which is a thin
mixture of water and clay mixed with gypsum (calcium
sulfate). For roof construction, closely spaced beams in
the form of round logs are laid transversely on the tops
of the walls. Thin branches, sticks, or reeds, laid in a
dense mass over the logs, support a thick blanket of
clay that makes a durable roof slightly pitched toward
drain spouts outside the walls.
Susceptibility to Fire: Walls of an intact, well-built
and maintained adobe structure will resist damage
from an external fire source. Fire damage, however, can
 Figure 6-119th century Hispanic structure, New Mexico; constructed of sandstone,
adobe plaster, and log roof beams.

occur from even a low temperature fire if (1) vertical

wooden support posts and lintels are in an advanced
state of decay; (2) the wooden roof support posts have
collapsed, exposing the vegetal roof material; or (3) the
roofless structure contains an accumulation of dry and
decayed material that is highly flammable. Gypsum
plasters will calcinate when exposed to sufficient heat,
resulting in spalling. Plaster spall, in turn, may expose
otherwise protected vertical posts, which may also burn
when exposed to fire. Adobe bricks, mud mortar, and
plaster may be weakened by fire if the straw binder
burns.
Hogan, Tipi, WickiupThe hogan, a traditional
Navajo dwelling, is susceptible to fire. Thousands have
been recorded as historic archaeological features; 4,510 Figure 6-2Remains of a 17th century Navajo Hogan, New
hogans have been recorded in New Mexico alone, with Mexico. These wood remains were later collected by fuel
thousands more in Colorado, Arizona, and Utah. It was, wood gatherers.
and still is, a permanent single family house, built to
retain heat in the winter and to keep cool in the sum-
mer (fig. 6-2). Earlier hogans began as a framework
of five heavy poles set up in a cone shape, like the tipi
(fig. 6-3), but with a small vestibule entrance. It had in part, the log technology of Euro-American pioneers
a smoke hole and was insulated with a heavy layer of to build the hogan walls. But furniture arrangement,
sod. It was known as the forked stick hogan because roof construction, lighting, interior functioning, and
of the shape of the poles that held up the structure. the overall shape of the building remained the same.
The surface remains of 389 forked-stick hogans have Other American Indian combustible structures in-
been recorded in New Mexico. Some of these remains clude Shoshone semi-standing log structures in eastern
date as early as A.D. 1550, up to the early 1800s. Nevada (Simms 1989), tipi-like structural remains in
Eventually, stone-walled hogans and the present- eastern California (Bettinger 1975, 1982), and brush
day log wall hogan evolved because of the influence wickiup (fig. 6-4) remains in Death Valley National
of Euro-Americans. By 1850 the Navajo had adopted, Monument (Deal and DAscenzo 1987; Wallace and

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 133

 Wallace 1979). Other combustible features sometimes
found on historical period American Indian sites are
ramadas, which are sun shades constructed of verti-
cal posts with a pole-and-brush roof; livestock pens
constructed of brush and poles; and firewood piles.
Susceptibility to Fire: Hogans have been and are
constructed of a variety of materials, including adobe
and logs (see Susceptibility to Fire for adobe and
log cabins). Sandstone is a common hogan building
material. When exposed to sufficient temperatures,
the surface of sandstone oxidizes, turns color, and
spalls. The remains of forked stick hogans are espe-
cially susceptible to fire since the wood can be quite
oldsome have been dated to over 350 years oldand
very dry. Many of these remains have the appearance
of firewood piles and are in danger of being burned or
hauled out by prescribed fire burn crews and firewood
cutters. Given their construction materials and col-
lapsed appearances, wickiups, tipi poles, forked-stick
hogans, and ramadas are likewise in danger of being
mistaken for hazardous fuel loads.
MonumentsThis category includes grave mark-
Figure 6-319th century tipi poles, Yellowstone National Park.
ers, shrines, and cairns, the latter defined as a pile
These poles were later destroyed in a forest fire.
of stones used to denote a specific location. Varieties

Figure 6-4Remains of an early 20th century wickiup, Death Valley, California.

134 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

of materials are used to construct
grave markers, ranging from
commercially manufactured and
inscribed marble or cement slabs,
crossed pieces of wood, or simply
upright boards and unmodified
stones. Although typically grouped
within a community cemetery,
grave markers can be found in
association with homesteads, and
even alongside roads and trails
(fig.6-5). Shrines usually incor-
porate an icon or symbol that is
typically, but not always, religious
in nature. Like grave markers,
shrines may be constructed from
a variety of materials, and also
can be found virtually anywhere.
Cairns, which are of ancient origin
in concept and are easily con- th
structed, can demarcate boundary Figure 6-519 century Russian grave, Nelson Island, Alaska. Note potential fuel load
corners, a trail route, a place of of cured grasses that surround the grave.
significance in history or prehis-
tory, a cache of trade goods, or a burial. Some cairns
hold significance that is sacred to American Indians;
therefore, cairns should be given consideration as
cultural resources, unless identified otherwise.
Culturally Modified TreesCulturally modified
trees in various regions of the western United States
and Canada are important archaeological and ethno-
graphic resources (White 1954). As examples, there
are bow stave junipers in the Great Basin (Wilke
1988); bark peel ponderosa in Montana and New
Mexico (fig. 6-6) (Swetnam 1984); and Northwest red
cedars, from which bark was harvested for making
containers (Schlick 1984), or planks extracted from
still-living trees (Hicks 1985; Stewart 1984). These
culturally scarred trees are part of the landscape and
are important cultural resources and, as such, should
be given the same regard as hogans, wickiups, monu-
ments, etc.
Log CabinSwedes who settled along the Delaware
River in 1638 introduced the log cabin in America. It
was not until around 1700 that non-Swedes built log
cabins (fig. 6-7). By the mid-1700s, the log cabin had
become the standard frontier dwelling, inhabited by
all nationalities, as well as by American Indians. The
log cabin had many features desirable to the early
settlers and later pioneers moving westward. It was
quickly built from indigenous materialstrees and
rocks cleared from land to be used for farming. It
was easy to build because it did not require an extra
framework to hold up the walls. The fireplace was Figure 6-6Ponderosa bark peel tree on a Mescalero
made of large stones and the chimney of sticks lined Apache camp site, Guadalupe Mountains National Park,
with mud. The floor was tamped earth and the roof Texas.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 135


Figure 6-719th century log cabin, Colorado.
split cedar shingles. Early log cabins were sometimes
erected close to each other inside a log palisade to make
a protected community.
Susceptibility to Fire: It is safe to say there is a
close correlation between the presence of historic log
structures and the abundant availability of trees.
There are numerous examples of forest fires that have
destroyed such structures. The primary cause of fire
damage to a log structure is the general fire regime
of the region, not of the logs themselves. All cabins,
when made of the same materials, essentially have the
same flammability potential. Yet there are also some
contributing factors to consider as well: condition of
the logs, for example, dry rot; average relative humid-
ity of the region (log cabins in the Northwest Coast
region have a far less chance of burning than cabins
found in the Southwest high desert); flammability of
roofing material (wood shingles versus corrugated steel
roofing); and accumulation of flammable materials
such as moss, pine litter, vegetative growth, and any
chemical accelerants that may be within and around
the cabin.
Baled Hay and SodThe High Plains prairie lacks
trees, stone, or fuels for firing bricks. Euro-American
settlers may first have lived in quickly-built dugouts
carved from small ravines or south-facing hills. Like the
American Indians who constructed lodges from earth,
the pioneers also used wild grasses and domestic hays
baled into large building blocks to construct substan-
tial, well-insulated homes. The front of the dugout was
usually walled with sod bricks into which a door and
window were cut. Baling machines were introduced in
the 1850s and, by 1890, settlers were using hay bales
as a construction material for houses and barns. Fire
was a particular hazard to the baled hay house and
136 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
extreme care had to be taken with cooking and heat-
ing. Plastering is a necessity for a hay bale structure,
perhaps less so with a sod structure. A cement-based
plaster was commonly used to protect the hay from
moisture and as a fire retardant.
Sod bricks were made from ground plowed into 30.5
to 35.6 cm-thick (12 to 14 in) strips. These strips were
cut into two-foot lengths and then placed lengthwise
with the green grass facing down, making a wall two
feet thick. When the desired height was reached, huge
cedar ridge pole and cedar rafters were placed on the
top of the walls to support a willow brush matting and
sod roof. More affluent settlers built their sod houses
with a wood frame roof covered with sheeting boards
and tarpaper to support the sod.
Susceptibility to Fire: Due to their high organic dust
content, hay bales are far more susceptible to fire than
the straw bales commonly used today. If the plaster
of a historic hay bale structure is partly missing, then
the fire hazard is much greatereven a minor grass
fire or an ember could ignite the structure.
Structures Using Manufactured Materials
As compared with structures of native materials,
structures of this category include a much greater
variety of construction materials. For example, a
homestead might have fieldstone floor support columns,
cement-mortared log walls, a stick-and-mud chimney,
milled wood rafters, and corrugated steel roofing.
Metal fasteners such as nails, bolts, and wood screws,
are also present in relative abundance. Each of these
building materials has its own rate of decomposition/
oxidation, with a concomitant variation to its suscepti-
bility to fire. As another example, a cement-plastered,
adobe-walled structure could have creosote-soaked
railroad ties employed as corner posts. If the plaster
has spalled off from the railroad ties due to differing
expansion rates, the structure is in much greater
danger of burning from even a low-temperature grass
fire. This is because creosote, used as a preservative on
railroad ties, is an accelerantand if the railroads tie
has dry-rotted, the fire hazard would be even greater.
Frame StructuresWood was the obvious choice
for most early buildings and bridges. The introduction
of the nail- and spike-cutting machines after 1790
and of the power-driven circular saw in 1814 greatly
increased the production of boards and heavy timbers.
Mass production of cut nails by the early nineteenth
century permitted the development of light, or bal-
loon frame building construction during the 1830s.
Such inexpensive structures could be built where
wood was not abundant, for example, the prairie and
desert region of the American West. The advance of
the railroad network throughout the West after the
Civil War greatly increased the availability of milled
lumber. This building material provided an alternative
to native materials such as adobe, sod, and logs.
Susceptibility to Fire: A strong likelihood exists that
a dilapidated, unoccupied historic frame structure
eventually will be destroyed by fire. A dry-rotted
frame structure, especially one in close proximity to
an abundance of wildland fuels and other flammable
materials (for example, Russian thistle, manure, ac-
celerants such as rubber tires, and creosoted railroad
ties), can quickly burn. Corrugated sheet metal,
introduced as a fire retardant during the late 19th
century, may still protect the historic structure when
used as roofing and wall sheathing. However, if the
structure is on piers, a grass fire could spread under
it and ignite any dry-rotted floorboards.
ShacksThese structures are small, temporary,
and crudely built, with walls perhaps made from tree
limbs, recycled boards, doors, and railroad ties; the
roof might be made of large pieces of bark, tar paper,
corrugated metal, tarpaulin, rubberized cloth and, by
the mid-twentieth century, sheet plastic (fig. 6-8).
Susceptibility to Fire: Being of an impermanent
nature, shacks as archaeological features are usually
totally or partially collapsed. Wood, when present, is
in various stages of decomposition, with other building
materials, for example, tarpaper, also deteriorated.
Even low temperature grass fires can ignite and de-
stroy these remains. The building material might be
especially combustible due to accelerants, for example,
creosote-soaked railroad ties, and glue used to make
plywood.
Cement-Mortared Fieldstone, Firebrick, Cin-
der Block, Cement AggregateStructures utiliz-
ing these building materials are, in varying degrees,
resistant to fire. Fieldstone, that is, unmodified native
rock, is most resistant to fire damage. Firebrick is a
common building material if good clay and fuel sources
Figure 6-8Late 19th century homestead, South
Dakota. Note heavy grass fuel load.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 137
are locally available, or acquired from manufactur-
ers. Cinder block has been a building material since
around 1920. Cementmade of crushed and slaked
limestone or crushed and slaked oyster shell, the
latter used along the coastal regions of southeastern
United Stateshas been a common building material
mainstay for hundreds of years in the United States
and Canada.
Susceptibility to Fire: Low-fired, relatively porous
firebrick, which is typical of non-commercial, locally
made brick used at many historical sites, can weaken
and crumble if the fire is hot enough. Lime-based mortar
can be affected by fire. It can calcinate and crumble
under sufficient heat, thereby loosening the firebrick
and, if not replaced, causing the brick wall to eventu-
ally collapse. Cinder block and masonry surfaces may
spall, which appears as distinct lines of striation and
loss of surface material resulting in cracking, breaking,
chipping, and formation of craters on the surface.
Historic Artifacts_________________
The great majority of historic artifacts can be as-
signed to three materials categories: glass, metal, and
ceramic. A fourth materials category of Miscellaneous
Materials includes objects of leather, rubber, wood,
plastics, bone and shell.
Glass
Glass is a combination of soda, lime, and silica, a
composition that appears colorless. Glass color is the re-
sult of several factors, including both intentionally and
unintentionally added chemicals in the glass formula.
Glass articles and fragments constitute a significant
portion of most historic artifact collections. These items
represent common household foods, beverages, medi-
cines, cosmetics, cleaners, windows, and lamps. Their
evolution includes many manufacturing changes, some
of which are useful dating aids. Period of use/disposal
and function of a glass container can be determined
by its shape, color, method of closure and, if present,
its label, the latter made of paper, enamel paint, and/
or raised lettering. If present, alpha/numeric codes on
glass containers can also provide the year and place
of manufacture, and the company that manufactured
it, as opposed to the company that sold the contents
of the container. Windowpane fragments are clues
regarding the architectural layout of a structure, and
the socioeconomic status of the original owners of the
structure. In addition, the mean thickness of a window
pane fragment can be used to derive a relatively ac-
curate initial construction date for a dwelling (Moir
1987).
Susceptibility to Fire: Glass can be affected by heat
buildup, smoke, and flame. Smoke staining and melt-
ing of glass items tend to occur in direct relation to
the heat buildup, the intensity of the fire, the speed of
fire spread, and nearness to the fire. Soda lime glass
contains a mixture of alkali and alkaline earth to make
it more durable and easier to produce. For hundreds of
years this family of glass has been used for containers,
window glass, pressed- and blown-ware, and lighting
products where exceptional chemical durability and
heat resistance is not required. Its melting temperature
is 695 C (1283 F). Lead glass contains lead oxide
(and, sometimes, lead silicate) and melts easily. Solder
and glazes for decorating enamels on tableware are
based on these low melting lead glazes. Their melting
temperature is 380 C (716 F).
An increase in the temperature of a glass object
causes a proportional increase in that objects molecular
activity. The hotter the object the greater the molecular
activity on its surface, which inhibits the amount of
smoke staining that will form. A glass object heavily
stained by smoke and soot was, therefore, cooler than
one with a light buildup of soot. A heavy soot buildup
on a glass surface suggests that the item was far from
the fires point of origin. However, a light soot buildup
suggests that the item may be at or near the point of
origin.
Checkering of glass refers to the half-moon shapes
that are sometimes seen on the surface of glass
items. These half-moon shapes result after drop-
lets of water (usually from fire fighting) land on
a heated surface.
Crazing refers to the cracking of glass into smaller
segments or subdivisions in an irregular pattern.
The extent to which a glass object (for example,
window pane, soda bottle) will crack or craze is
related to the type of glass involved, its thickness,
the temperature range to which it was exposed,
and its distance from the point of origin. Craz-
ing into small segments or pieces suggests that
the item was subject to a rapid and intense heat
buildup. It also suggests that the items may be
at or near the point of fire origin (NFPA 1998).
On historic archaeological sites, glass artifacts,
usually in the form of fragments, are commonly con-
centrated within domestic trash dumps. Occasionally
there is evidence indicating that the trash dump had
been purposely burned during the period of site oc-
cupation. Where such trash burning occurred, there
is sometimes evidence that glass artifacts melted or
shattered. Fire temperatures can easily be reached that
would craze and/or heavily soot glass. Enamel paint
labels could oxidize, causing colors to change and the
paint to flake off. It is less likely that a low temperature
fire, such as a grass fire, would reach the melting point
of glass, although whole objects, for example, bottles,
might crack or even shatter from the heat. Fires hav-
ing heavy fuel loads can reach temperatures that are
138 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
hot enough to melt glass artifacts into unrecognizable
lumps.
Ceramics
Ceramic materials from the historic period have long
been used by archaeologists for a variety of purposes,
from dating the period of a sites occupation to under-
standing the role played by a sites occupants in a wider
socioeconomic network. There is a vast body of infor-
mation that deals with the various historic ceramics
pastes, glazes, decorations, and shapes (Majewski and
OBrien 1987); however, little quantifiable information
exists regarding the effects of fire on historic ceramics,
relative to the fire studies conducted on prehistoric
ceramics.
Ceramics can be divided into four primary categories
that are based on the character of the ceramic fabric,
or body, of the object:
Unrefined Earthenwarethe body is made of
coarse-grained clays; fired between 500-900C
(932-1652 F); body is easily scratched and
broken, absorbs moisture; body is thick relative
to refined earthenware. Unrefined earthenwares
may also be glazed using powdered tin as a flux
in the glazing process. These ceramics, called
majolica, faience, or delft, are typically found on
North American sites dating prior to circa 1780,
and were quickly replaced in popularity by white-
bodied refined earthenwares.
Refined Earthenwarefine-grained clays;
fired between 1100-1500 C (2012-2732 F);
stronger, thinner body relative to unrefined
earthenware; surface is sealed and protected
with a translucent glaze. White-bodied refined
earthenware is the ceramic most commonly found
on nineteenth and twentieth century sites. These
ceramics are durable, inexpensive, and come in a
wide variety of shapes and decorations.
Stonewarecoarse-to-medium grained clays;
fired between 900-1100 C (1652-2012 F),
becoming non-porous; body is strengthened by its
thickness and (usually) vitreous glaze. Popular
throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, stoneware was usually reserved for
making utilitarian vessels such as crocks, jugs,
and ale bottles.
Porcelainsuperfine-grained clays; fired be-
tween 1250-1450 C (2282-2642 F); vitreous,
translucent, extremely hard body. This is a high
status ceramic, thus rare on historic sites rela-
tive to the other ceramic types.
We will make the assumption here that all unglazed,
unrefined earthenware Euro-American ceramics, for
example, a flowerpot, have essentially the same chemi-
cal and physical properties as prehistoric ceramics. All
unglazed, unrefined Euro-American earthenware that
are exposed to wildfire, therefore, should exhibit
essentially the same physical and chemical transfor-
mations exhibited by unglazed prehistoric ceramics.
Susceptibility to Fire: All earthenwares are af-
fected by fire to varying degrees, depending on the
characteristics of the paste, glaze, painted decoration
if present, and temperature of the fire. The alkaline
glaze that is typically used on high-fired refined white
earthenwares (also known as ironstone, hotel ware,
and semi-porcelain) can crackle even in a low tem-
perature fire, and the underlying ceramic body of the

Sidebar 6-1Cultural Landscape Restoration

Prescribed burn experiment, Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site, North Dakota
Oct. 15th, 1988 and Nov. 2nd, 1988
References: Picha and others 1991

General Information:
Elevation: 506-572 meters (1660-1878 feet)
Vegetation: prairie grassland
Topography: level plains
Type of study: prescribed burn experiment

Fire Description:
Temperature range:
oo Maximum temperature reached: 316 to 399 C (600-750 F)
oo Soil temperature (recorded by Tempilstick crayons)
oo Plot 1-3 soil temp: 6.1 C (43 F) pre-burn, 8.8 C (48 F) post-burn
oo Plot 4 soil temp: 14.1 C (57 F) pre-burn, 18.0 C (64 F) post-burn
Duration: Plot 1-3: 1 minute; Plot 4: 30 sec.
Relative humidity: Plot 1-3: 54%; Plot 4: 78%
Fuel:
oo 2 plots = mixed grasses and buckbrush
oo 1 plot = mixed grasses with much less buckbrush
oo 1 plot = mixed grasses, buckbrush and added clippings
Type of Fire: Prescribed burn

Discussion
In 1991, researchers conducted a prescribed burn experiment at Knife River Indian Villages Na-
tional Historic Site in North Dakota (Picha and others 1991). They recorded effects of prairie fire
on a variety of artifact material types. Specimens included non-flint cobbles, chunks and cobbles
of knife-river flint, flaked flint, potsherds, cow rib-bone fragments, mussel shell fragments, wood,
charcoal, lead pieces, and glass beads.
Researchers placed specimens in four adjacent burn plots, each measuring 10 m2 (12 y2). Fire
temperature was measured with heat-sensitive crayons, and soil temperature was recorded by use
of a temperature probe before and after each burn (Picha and others 1991:16). Specimens were
placed at the surface of two plots (one with light fuel and one with heavy fuel) and 2 cm (0.8in)
below the surface of the other two (one heavy and one light fuel) plots. No unburned control and no
replication of burn plots were included in this study. The maximum fire temperature reached during
the experiment was 399C (750 F), and heating duration was estimated to be about 1 minute.
The specimens were collected after the first precipitation and examined for change in color, shape,
and size. No effects to charcoal could be observed. Pottery and large natural cobbles were only mini-
mally affected. Most fire effects occurred to items that had been at the surface. All material types
besides charcoal exhibited some color change due to smoke blackening or scorching. Other effects,
such as fracture and deformation, were most severe to small thin items. Organic materials were
found specifically vulnerable to fire.
Several of the observed effects to surface artifacts represented potential loss of archeological infor-
mation. Flaked stone and animal bone were altered to resemble intentionally heat-treated flint and
bone exposed to cooking fire. Mussel shell disintegrated and the wooden objects partially combusted.
Glass beads were partially melted and discolored by soot, and small pieces of lead had melted.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 139

softer-paste white earthenwares can oxidize and turn
yellowish brown. Majolica glaze is fragile; its body is
soft and porous, and can absorb water. Thus, majolica
glaze will crackle and spall even in a low temperature
fire (Haecker 2001).
If the ceramic decoration is an overglaze paint,
that is, lying on the surface of the glaze, the paint
will be damaged to some degree. If the fire reaches
temperatures higher than that used to manufacture
the ceramic it is possible that the glaze will oxidize or
burn, and the whole vessel or vessel fragment (sherd)
might split laterally in places. Water droplets hitting
the surface of a super-heated ceramic can crack and
shatter it (Haecker 2001). Porcelain melts at around
1550 C (2822 F) (NFPA 1998). If its paint decoration
lies on the surface of the vessel, the paint could become
discolored and/or burn off at temperatures much lower
than this.
Metal
The melting of certain metals may not always be
caused by reaching their melting points. Instead, it
may be caused by alloying. During a fire, a metal
having a relatively low melting point may drip onto
or come into contact with other metals that do not
often melt in fires. This phenomenon can also occur
when component parts of a heated object are in contact
with each other. That mixture (alloy) will melt at a
temperature less than the melting temperature of the
higher-melting-temperature metal and, in some cases,
less than that of either metal. Examples of relatively
low-melting-temperature metals are aluminum, zinc,
and lead (table 6-1). Metals that can be affected by al-
loying include copper and iron (steel). Copper alloying
is often found, but iron (steel) alloying might be found
in only a few cases of sustained fire. Even if the metal
object does not melt it can warp out of shape (NFPA
1998).
Cans represent one of the more common types of metal
artifact found on post-1850 sites. Like glass contain-
ers, cans have been intensively studied by historical
archaeologists and, like glass containers, are most
useful in dating sites and providing evidence about
subsistence and life ways. Information regarding date
and contents can be determined by the dimensions and
shape of the can, the techniques used to manufacture
the can, and by the enamel paint or paper labeling.

Table 6-1Melting points of materials commonly found on historical sites (derived in part from NFPA 1998:28).
Material Temp.a (F) Temp.a (C) Artifacts

Plastics 167-509 75-265 Disposable containers, toys

Solder (tin-alloy) 275-350 135-177 Patch repair work on brass and iron objects
Tin 449 232 Kitchenwares, toys, can lining, building materials
Pot metal (copper-lead alloy) 572-752 300-400 Flatware, pots, faucets
White pot metal 572-752 300-400 Kitchenwares
Lead 621 327 Bullets
Zinc 707 375 Plating for iron objects, e.g., cans
Glass 1100-2600 593-1427 Bottles, window pane
Unrefined earthenware 1112-1832 600-1000 Flowerpots, some marbles, prehistoric ceramics
Aluminum 1220 660 Kitchenwares
Brass (yellow) 1710 932 Cartridge cases, military buttons and insignia
Silver 1760 960 Coins, jewelry
Stoneware 1832-2192 1000-1200 Crocks, jugs, ale bottles
Gold 1945 1063 Coins, jewelry
Copper 1981 1082 Kitchenwares, building materials, coins
Refined earthenware 2192-2912 1200-1600 Dinnerware ceramics
Cast iron 1920-2550 1350-1400 Kettles, Dutch ovens, wood stoves
Steel (stainless) 2600 1427 Eating utensils, kitchenwares
Nickel 2651 1455 Plating
Steel (carbon) 2760 1516 Heavy machinery parts
Iron 2795 1535 Tools, nails, horseshoes, cans, corrugated roofing
Porcelain 2822 1550 Dinnerware ceramics
a
Temperatures are approximate.

140 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Since cans are made of rolled tinned steel, they will
eventually deteriorate if deposited in a moist, humid
environment. In the dry Southwest, however, cans
found on historic sites over one hundred years old may
lack labels but are often in relatively good condition,
albeit rusted.
Occasionally, there is archaeological evidence indicat-
ing can/trash dumps were burned by the sites historic
occupants, as evidenced by layers of wood charcoal
found within the dump. These wood fires would have
been hot enough to destroy the labels; however, the
shape of the can usually remains the same. An exception
might exist regarding fire damage on 19th and early
20th century lead-soldered cans (fig.6-9). Since solder
melts at 135-177 C (275-350.6 F), it is likely that such
cans would be damaged by low temperature fires. The
resultant alloying of the solder with the tinned steel
also could cause the latter to become fire damaged at
lower-than-normal temperatures. The tinned surface of
the can may also burn off, thereby increasing the rate
of oxidation of the steel body and ultimately the loss
of diagnostic information (for example, can diameter,
stamped lettering).
Kitchenware includes an extensive array of objects
that can be found on the surface of historic sites and
can be affected by fire:
Cast iron objects such as kettles, pans, Dutch
ovens, and wood stoves can crack if exposed to
temperatures above 1050 C (1922 F). Even at
temperatures lower than this, if water is applied
to these objects, such as during the fighting of a
fire, cast iron can crack from the sudden cooling.
Enameled ironware (also known as agate iron-
ware) objects such as plates, coffeepots, and
Figure 6-9Lead soldered cans in a test fire using straw as a fuel
load. Note beads of melted solder.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 141
kettles, have been popular household items since
the late 19th century. Such objects are susceptible
to damage by low temperature fires: some of the
enamel can craze and/or pop off, exposing the
underlying rolled metal to oxidation. Partial loss
or discoloration of the enamel, however, should
not affect the ability to date the artifact.
Steel utensils that are plated with tin, brass, or
silver will have their surfaces discolored and
possibly burned off in a fire (table 6-1).
Construction, transportation, and agricultural/
ranching hardware items made of metal are often
present on historic sites. Such items are typically made
of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, and, due to their
sturdy construction, usually impervious to most fires.
However, their surfaces might become pitted; paint
surfaces, if present, can blister and/or burn off; and
enhanced oxidation of the surface of the object may
occur if water used to extinguish the fire also rapidly
cools the artifact.
Copper and brass objects on historic sites are less
common relative to steel and iron objects. Typical brass
artifacts found on historic sites are ammunition car-
tridge cases that have been fired; sometimes unfired
cartridges are also found. Cartridge cases are useful
in dating a site, with data obtained from the objects
dimensions and, if present, from its headstamp. Nor-
mally, cartridge cases are not seriously affected by fire,
given the relatively high melting point of copper and
brass; discoloration might occur but dating information
is still present. However, there is one reported instance
where fire has destroyed such artifacts. This occurred
on the Little Bighorn Battlefield when, in 1983, a grass
fire burned over this site. Several unfired cartridges
associated with the battlefield exploded. Also, several
lead bullets found on the surface had partially melted
as a result of this grass fire (Richard Harmon, personal
communication, 1999).
The burn-off of vegetation on a historic battlefield is
an atypical situation. One must keep in mind, however,
that even a low-temperature grass fire could detonate
unexploded cannon ordnance, perhaps injuring mem-
bers of the fire crew.
Miscellaneous Artifacts
Leather is a material that is sometimes found on
the surface of historic sites. Such objects as shoes,
belts and horse tack become dry and brittle over
time. Leather will char in a grass fire, and will
be completely consumed at hotter temperatures.
Rubber and rubberized objects are present on
many historic sites, some dating to the Civil War
period and even earlier. Rubber can be ignited and
completely consumed at low temperatures such
as those reached by grass fires (Haecker 2001).
Plastics can appear on historic sites that date to
the early 20th century, but is most common after
circa 1950. Plastics have been used to manu-
facture a wide variety of objects such as toys,
buttons, tool handles, and containers. Various
plastics have varying melting points but most
plastic objects would be affected to some degree
by a low temperature fire.
Of course, artifacts made of wood are quite com-
mon on historic sites, and can include everything
from buckboards and Model T car seat frames,
to ox yokes and axe handles. When present on
a site and in the open they usually have some
rot, increasing their susceptibility to destruction
by fire.
Bone, especially if dry and porous, will char in a
grass fire, and will be completely consumed in a
high temperature fire (Haecker 2001).
Shell buttons will become discolored, flake
and split laterally along the laminations, and
eventually turn to powder if subjected to a high
temperature fire (Haecker 2001). This will also
occur at lower temperatures if the buttons are
very small and thin.
142 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Summary_______________________
Historical sites that are eligible to be included in the
National Register of Historic Places usually include
a variety of materials not found on prehistoric sites.
These materials vary widely in their susceptibility
to fire effects. To date, there is little empirical data
regarding the effects of fire on historic period materi-
als. This dearth of information is offset somewhat by
data derived from arson investigations, which should
be consulted by cultural resource managers and fire
managers.
Types of fire damage include distortion, spalling,
charring, and calcination. Heat can be transferred
within a structure by metal fittings such as nails
and bolts. The chemicals used in manufacturing cer-
tain building materials (for example, plywood glues,
creosote-soaked railroad ties) are accelerants, which
increase the risk of fire damage even when the fire
source is of relatively low temperature, such as a grass
fire.
Artifacts are typically assigned to four material
categories: glass, ceramics, metal, and miscellaneous.
Glass can be affected by heat build-up, smoke, and
flame. Examples of low-temperature fire damage to
glass include the loss of paper and enamel paint la-
bels, soot staining, and shattering of glass containers.
All ceramics are affected by fire to varying degrees,
depending on the physical characteristics of a given
ceramic, and temperature of the fire. A fire may result
in crazing of glazes and spalling of the ceramic body,
burn-off of some types of designs and, if the fire is hot
enough, cause calcination, even melting. Sufficiently
high temperatures may not always cause the melting
of certain metals. Instead, alloying may cause it. A
low-temperature fire can completely destroy artifacts
made of such miscellaneous materials as rubber, plas-
tics, shell, and bone.
Exposure of a historic structure or object to fire,
regardless of the temperature that is generated, does
not necessarily equate with destroying its value as a
cultural resource. For instance, a low-temperature
prescribed fire that burns over a trash scatter may
discolor fragments of ceramics and glass; however, the
diagnostic aspects of these artifacts, such as decoration
and vessel shape, may still be recorded with accuracy.
Elizabeth A. Oster
Samantha Ruscavage-Barz
Michael L. Elliott
Chapter 7:
The Effects of Fire on Subsurface
Archaeological Materials
Fire and Cultural Sites____________
In this chapter, we concentrate on the effects of fire
on subsurface archaeological deposits: the matrix
containing post-depositional fill, artifacts, ecofactual
data, dating samples, and other cultural and non-
cultural materials. In order to provide a context for
understanding these data, this paper provides a sum-
mary of previous research about the potential effects
of fire on subsurface cultural materials.
As a case study, the results of recent archaeologi-
cal testing at six Ancestral Puebloan sites located in
Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, are pre-
sented. The tested sites are all prehistoric structural
sites dating to the period A.D. 1200-1500. The specific
focus of the study was to define the extent of alteration
to subsurface deposits when archaeological materials
experienced different burn severities. The results are
discussed in terms of the current status of knowledge
about fire effects to buried cultural materials.
Investigation of the nature and extent of fire-related
alteration of cultural materials represents a significant
cultural resources management concern. Wildland fires
can be expected to occur naturally wherever there are
sufficient fuels. A field researcher could expect that a
given archaeological site in a fuel-rich area has been
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 143
burned over one or more times in the past. This fact
leads some to conclude that the impacts wrought by
contemporary wildland fires are negligible, ignoring
a crucial element of the contemporary fire scenario
fire exclusion. Since the nineteenth century, most
natural fires occurring in rural landscapes have been
suppressed as quickly as possible, while in the more
distant past most fires were allowed to burn out natu-
rally. Fire suppression has led to large accumulations
of fuels and drastic alterations of vegetation patterns.
These factors, in turn, support fires that burn faster,
more intensely, and potentially wreak more damage to
cultural sites and materials than fires of the past. The
impacts of contemporary wildland fires on archaeologi-
cal sites are potentially profound.
Available data, though scant, indicate that in addi-
tion to causing the destruction of important sources of
information, such as organic materials, the catastrophic
wildland fires of the modern era may confound chro-
nometric assays, technological analyses of ceramics
and lithics, and more. Understanding the role and
function of wildland fires in ecosystems past and
present has broad implications for the interpretation
of data from archaeological sites located in all areas
suspected to have been affected by fire. For managers
of cultural resources, evaluating the degree to which
buried archaeological materials have been adversely
impacted by wildland fire is an essential part of post-
fire assessment and treatment.
For purposes of this discussion, the term surface is
used in the manner commonly employed by archaeolo-
gists. The surface of an archaeological site is generally
assumed to be the contemporary soil layer, generally
the uppermost stratum at which evidence of human
activity can be detected. Architectural stone, items such
as sherds and lithics, and other cultural materials are
frequently present on a site surface and are considered
part of the sites contents. Vegetation, accumulations of
soil and plant debris such as duff, and other materials
deposited on the human activity surface following site
abandonment may obscure the archaeological surface
and frequently must be removed before the site can
be mapped or further studied. An archaeological site
surface is thus more-or-less analogous to the mineral
soil surface as the term is used by the fire community.
Frequently, reports of archaeological survey include a
discussion of the percentage of ground surface visible
at the time the fieldwork was conducted, specifically
describing the portion of the contemporary soil layer
unencumbered by duff, snow, grass, or other materials
that could obscure features and artifacts.
Fire Effects and Subsurface Cultural
Resources: Previous Research_____
Previous investigations of the effects of fire on
cultural resources have included both post-fire and
experimental studies. Post-fire studies are conducted
following a fire (either prescribed or wild), and involve
collecting data from features and/or artifacts located
within the burn perimeter. Experimental studies have
been conducted in field settings as well as laboratory
environments. Field experiments generally involve
burning a parcel of land or a smaller locationsuch
as piles of slashand recording the effects on cultural
materials, surrounding soils, etc. In laboratory envi-
ronments, fire effects studies involve heating different
artifact types (or raw materials) to varying tempera-
tures and recording thermally induced alterations.
Experimental studies of the first type are primarily
concerned with replicating the effects of prescribed or
natural fires on surficial and buried archaeological
materials, an endeavor with significant implications
for archaeological formation processes. Laboratory
research addresses fire effects from two perspectives:
(1) the effects of post-occupational fires on archaeologi-
cal materials, and (2) the effects of human fire use to
modify materials.
144 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Sidebar 7-1Subsurface
Long Mesa Fire, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado,
July 823, 1989
References: Eininger (1990); Fiero (1991); Fish (1990);
Kleidon and others (2007)
General Information:
Elevation: 2,438.4 m (8,000 ft)
Vegetation: pinyon-juniper
Topography: northern 6.44 km (4 miles) of Long
Mesa and portions of adjacent canyons and
drainages
Type of research: post-burn site assessment
Fire Description:
Temperature range: hot and fast burn with variable
intensities; 25.532.2 C (7890 F) range
Duration: 15 days
Relative humidity: 1585%
Fuel: high fuel loads with continuous ladder fuels;
fire occurred after the dry season in pinyon-juniper
vegetation interspersed by grassy clearings
Type of fire: wildland
Energy release component (ERC): 3970
Burning index (BI): 1967
Discussion
The 1989 Long Mesa Fire occurred in Mesa Verde
National Park, consumed about 12 km (3,000 acres) of
land and burned uncontrolled for 15 days. Damage as-
sessments of known archaeological sites in the burn area
were conducted directly after the fire. Twenty-three new
sites were located and assessed; 165 of the 194 known
sites were successfully relocated.
Field crews recorded the percentage of each site that
was affected by fire and described burn severity. They
also noted vegetation loss and impacts to architectural
materials and artifacts. Suppression activities caused
minor damage to only two sites. This was due largely
to the work of archaeological monitors who assisted fire
crews in avoiding damage to archaeological sites and to
the fact that bulldozers and heavy equipment were not
used.
Fire effects on archaeological sites were ranked as low,
moderate, or high. High impacts included spalling and
oxidation of architectural stone, scorching of artifacts
and complete loss of vegetation. Sites with low impacts
exhibited little or no observable fire effects; these sites
were either burned only over a small section of the site
area or subject to low burn intensity. Of the 188 sites
evaluated, 139 (74%) were burned; 36 (19%) were highly
impacted, 32 (17%) were moderately impacted and 71
(38%) exhibited only low impacts (Eininger 1990).
 Grab samples of fire-affected and archaeologically
important artifacts were collected during site assessments
(Eininger 1990). The samples included 674 sherds and
172 lithics. Fire effects on these artifacts included fire-
blackening, cracking, change in luster, potlidding, and
color change. None of these effects appeared to affect the
artifacts information value (Eininger 1990).
Soil samples were collected from excavated test units
at two of the burned archaeological sites; a few test units
were also excavated in non-archaeological burned and
unburned areas to provide control for analysis of fire
effects on pollen (Eininger 1990; Fish 1990). Site reha-
bilitation, including erosion control, water diversion, and
ruins stabilization, was conducted during 1989 and 1990
(Fiero 1991).
Dome Fire, Bandelier National Monument and Dome
Wilderness, New Mexico, 1996
References: Ruscavage-Barz (1999); Ruscavage-Barz and
Oster (1999); Steffen (2005)
In 1997, Bandelier National Monument conducted a
study of subsurface heating effects (SHE) on archaeologi-
cal resources affected by the Dome Fire. Between May
13th and August 7th, archaeologists excavated five burned
sites. Burn severity at each site had been recorded dur-
ing earlier assessments. Two of the sites were heavily
burned, one was moderately burned and two were burned
severely. A sixth site, excavated for emergency data
recovery during June of 1997, was also included in the
study. Data recovered from excavation of the unburned
portion of this site were used for statistical control.
Subsurface artifacts, botanical specimens, pollen
samples, and faunal remains were collected during exca-
vations and analyzed to assess fire impacts. Researchers
examined the extent and depth to which fire affected
these subsurface cultural materials and analyzed data
to determine whether subsurface impacts reflected burn
severity. Subsurface fire effects were found only to be
significant near to burned roots and to be independent
of fire severity.

General Information:
Elevation: 1,7822334 m (5,8477,658 ft)
Vegetation: pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine
Topography: Pajarito Plateau, on the east flank of
the Jemez Mountains
Fire Description:
Temperature range: 10.526.7 C (5180 F)
Duration: 9 days
Relative humidity: 314%
Fuel: The fire burned on the Pajarito Plateau, and
in dissecting canyons, through pinion, juniper wood-
lands, ponderosa pine, and mixed conifer forests.
Energy release component (ERC): 4957
Burning index (BI): 3972
Type of fire: wildland
The 1996 Dome Fire1 started on April 25th and burned
more than 66.8 km (16,500 acres) of Bandelier National
Monument and the Jemez District of the Santa Fe National
Forest before it was controlled on May 3rd. Assessments
of archaeological sites were conducted immediately after
the fire in 1996 and in 1997. Sites were assessed for burn
severity and potential heritage resource damage. Of the
515 sites assessed, 276 were impacted by fire. No sites
had been disturbed by fire suppression activities. Direct
and indirect effects of fire included spalling, cracking,
and oxidizing of stone architecture, and soil erosion due
to vegetation loss.
1
This case study refers only to the 1996 Dome fire, not the
1993 Dome Fire that occurred in the same area.
Post-Fire Studies of Archaeological Sites
Post-fire studies conducted in the aftermath of a
natural or wildland fire comprise a major focus of
research addressing fire effects on cultural resources.
A limited number of rigorous post-fire studies of sub-
surface archaeological materials and contexts affected
by wildland fire events have been conducted prior to
the research reported here (Connor and Cannon 1991;
Connor and others 1989; Duncan 1990; Eininger 1990;
Fiero 1991; Fish 1990; Hull 1991; Lent and others
1996; Rowlett 1991b; Traylor and others 1990). In
general, these studies tend to describe subsurface
heating effects as negligible below certain depths.
These statements are typically framed, however, in
terms of visible evidence of fire damage to subsurface
archaeological materials in comparison with surface
materials. A subset of the post-fire studies do not deal
with archaeological sites, but instead focus on particu-
lar archaeological material types such as ceramics,
lithics, etc.
The post-fire studies of burned sites reported here
suggest that heating generally does not affect materi-
als at depths greater than 15 centimeters (6 inches)
below the ground surface, even at heavily burned sites.
The exception to this, as indicated by the subsurface
heating effects study described below, is the burnout
of tree roots, which can penetrate well below 15 cen-
timeters (6 inches) depending on the size of the root
(and the amount of available oxygen) and serve as a
conduit to carry heating effects to strata deep within

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 145

sites (also see Hvizdak and Timmons 1996; Timmons
2000). Fire may also burn longer and deeper below
the ground surface in organic sediments (including
cultural deposits), which contain more fuel.
An additional issue of concern is whether fire creates
pseudo features that could be mistaken for cultural
features (Connor and Cannon 1991; Conner and others
1989; Timmons 2000). Fire-created features can result
from burning deadfall, which causes soil oxidation in
a pattern resembling a hearth or fire pit. In profile,
these stains are crescent-shaped, with the thickest
part of the crescent forming immediately underneath
the deadfall. Treefalls can also leave basin-shaped im-
prints or displaced piles of rocks that resemble cultural
features. Differentiating fire-generated features from
cultural features is particularly important for studies
that deal with the earliest use of fire by humans (James
1989), and some researchers are developing methods
toward this end (Bellomo 1991).
Post-fire data particularly germane to the case study
results discussed below were collected from various
prescribed fire burn units on the Kootenai National
Forest in Montana from 1996 to 1999 (Timmons and
others 2000). Monitoring data document a variety of
potential and actual fire effects on cultural materi-
als and indicate that severity of effects results from
the interplay of many factors, including material
composition, provenience, fuel loads, duration and
intensity of fire, moisture levels, and degree of heat
penetration. Most important for consideration here
were data relating to stump burnouts, where the
most dramatic effects from the Kootenai monitoring
projects were observed. In the Dodge Creek prescribed
burn unit, massive Douglas fir stumps that burned out
left holes in approximately 0.4 percent of the burned
area, resulting in numerous stump cavities up to 1.5
meters (5 feet) in diameter and depth, with root cavi-
ties extending out 5 meters (16.4 feet) (Timmons and
others 2000). Within the boundaries of one 16-acre site
approximately 688 stumps were estimated to be pres-
ent. The Kootenai data also indicated that the age of
the stumps affected their susceptibility to fire. In the
Green Basin prescribed burn unit, the older and drier
stumps were found to be more likely to burn out in a
single event, while green stumps only burned partially
(Hemry 1996).
Experimental Studies Dealing with the
Effects of Heat on Artifacts, Ecofacts, and
Datable Materials
Experimental studies of fire and heating effects
can be divided into laboratory and field experiments.
The latter can be further subdivided into those that
attempt to replicate the conditions found in prescribed
146 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
fires, and those that attempt to replicate the condi-
tions found in wildland fires. Instances of the latter
are extremely rare due to the danger of an experi-
ment running out of control and becoming an actual
wildland fire. For this reason, such experiments are
rarely conducted. The only case of an experimental
wildland fire documented in the literature was car-
ried out in a grassland environment, where the grass
was cut and the soil surface was exposed in an area
surrounding the burning experiment to prevent its
uncontrolled spread (Bellomo 1991). Such procedures
are less practical in forested areas, and experimental
studies conducted under these conditions, while still
very useful, inevitably produce results that reflect the
more sustained heat and longer burn times created
by slash piles (Sackett and others 1994), and may not
actually reflect the conditions occurring in a wildland
fire, except possibly in cases where large fuel loads
have accumulated.
Both experimental and post-fire studies have dealt
with the effects of fire on various artifact types. The
goal of the post-fire studies is simply to understand
and recognize the effects of wildland and/or prescribed
fires on these materials. The goals of the experimental
studies, however, are not limited to the study of ef-
fects from these two types of fires, but rather extend
their breadth of inquiry to include understanding and
recognizing the effects of intentional heat treatment
on archaeological materials. Flaked stone represents
the most common focus of the latter type of study, as
researchers have attempted to establish the means
for differentiating intentional from unintentional heat
treatment and also to understand how heat treatment
changes the workability of particular types of stone.
Most experiments mimicking prescribed burns have
attempted to replicate low-intensity fires rather than
the high intensities characteristic of wildland fires.
Comparisons of impacts between the two types of fires
are valid. When considering subsurface materials,
however, one must remember that soil serves as an
insulator to mitigate the effects of fire, even fires of
very high intensity. For this reason, even high-intensity
wildland fires may not impact subsurface deposits
except in certain instances. Fires ranging from low to
high intensity could yield similar subsurface effects
due to this insulation.
Five experimental studies dealing with the effects
of subsurface heating are particularly important for
consideration. One dealt specifically with prairie fires
(Picha and others 1991), two dealt with burning slash
piles (Hartford and Frandsen 1992; Sackett and others
1994), and one dealt with moderate and high intensity
fires (Pidanick 1982). The results of the prairie fire
indicated negligible effects to subsurface artifacts be-
cause of only minimal heat penetration to subsurface
deposits. The subsurface ground temperature showed
a 2 to 4 C (35.6 to 39.2 F) increase during the fire,
which would not be enough to damage archaeological
materials or soils.
A study by Hemry (1996) in the Green Basin pre-
scribed fire unit attempted to assess the effects of
prescribed light intensity fire on groups of historic and
prehistoric materials at varied depths and with expo-
sure to a variety of combustible surface materials. The
historic materials were placed in test holes designed to
simulate a historic dump, while the prehistoric items
(consisting of replicated mudstone and quartzite tools,
and antler) were placed in small groups at four differ-
ent depths and on the surface. A variety of fuel types
were located on or over the cultural materials. Post-fire
surface observations and excavations documented a
variety of fire effects on items located on the ground
surfaces and within the first 4 to 5 centimeters (1.6
to 2 inches) below the surface. The most severe effects
were noted where a stump had burned out completely,
to a depth of 80 centimeters (31.5 inches). A week after
the experimental fire, a tree root was observed, still
burning, approximately 3 meters (10 feet) away from
its stump (Henry 1996).
Thermal Alteration of Cultural Materials
and Features
Both experimental and post-fire studies have inves-
tigated the effects of fire on various types of artifacts
and raw materials. Post-fire studies generally focus on
documentation and explanation of the effects of natural
or prescribed fires on these materials. While providing
data that are useful in the interpretation of naturally
induced fire effects, experimental studies also include
investigation of the effects of intentional heat treat-
ment. Flaked stone, in particular, has been a primary
focus of many experimental studies, as researchers
have attempted to differentiate intentional from
unintentional heat treatment and also to understand
how heat treatment changes the workability of par-
ticular raw materials. The results of previous studies
that have considered the effects of heat on ceramics,
chert, obsidian, ground and architectural stone, bone,
paleobotanical materials, and chronometric samples
are briefly reviewed below.
CeramicsGiven that ceramics are produced by
exposure to heat, any subsequent refiring of ceramic
materials may change attributes of appearance and
technology. Refired ceramics may be difficult to analyze
due to fire-induced changes.
Studies of thermal alteration to prehistoric and
historic ceramics are thoroughly discussed in chapters
3 and 6, respectively. Post-fire studies that have con-
sidered ceramic materials describe sooting or smoke
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 147
blackening as the most common fire effect (Eininger
1990; Jones and Euler 1986; Lent and others 1996;
Lissoway and Propper 1988; Picha and others 1991;
Pilles 1984; Schub and Elliott 1998; Traylor and oth-
ers 1990). Those studies with a subsurface component
note that subsurface ceramics are minimally affected
by fire (Lent and others 1996), and that, in general,
only those ceramics located immediately below the
surface are impacted. The studies suggest that surface
ceramics have the greatest potential for fire damage,
and exhibit a range of effects including sooting, spall-
ing, cracking, and oxidation.
The direct effects of heating are not the only factors
to consider with regard to damage to ceramic artifacts.
Chemical retardants are often used during fire sup-
pression, and can have an effect on ceramic artifacts.
Oppelt and Oliverius (1993) carried out a study of the
effects of Firetrol on prehistoric ceramics. Firetrol
is a foaming detergent used to extinguish forest fires;
it is not the same chemical used in slurry. Ceramic
sherds were placed in experimental fire plots and
covered with pine duff. As the plots burned, they were
sprayed with different concentrations of the foam. The
results indicate a negligible effect to sherds from the
foam. Sherds were primarily blackened from oxygen
depletion, which caused a reducing atmosphere. How-
ever, the duff covering, and not the foam, may have
caused this condition. Sherds sprayed with a 1 percent
concentration of foam exhibited heavier smudging
than those sprayed with a 0.3 percent concentration.
Sherds in the 1 percent foam group exhibited carbon
impregnation to depths of 0.5 millimeters (0.02 in.)
into the sherds. The only potential problem with the
use of foam is that it may give some ceramics the ap-
pearance of being smudged, which could be mistaken
for a product of the original firing process.
ChertChert has been the subject of numerous
experimental studies, particularly because of its
abundance at many archaeological sites, its desirable
flaking qualities, and the frequency with which it was
intentionally heat-treated by prehistoric peoples. The
effects of heating on chert are discussed in detail in
chapter 4. Post-fire studies that have considered lithic
materials generally do not differentiate chert from
other lithic materials. These studies have, however,
produced some interesting observations that are ap-
plicable to chert as well as other stone tool source
materials. Discoloration, fire blackening, and luster
appear to be the most common fire effects that have
been noted on lithic artifacts (Lent and others 1996;
Schub and Elliott 1998). Patina develops on some
materials (Traylor and others 1990), while other
thermally altered materials exhibit crenated (potlid)
fractures and crazing. Obviously any of these effects
could compromise interpretations of intentional ther-
mal pre-treatment.
 ObsidianThe effects of prescribed and natural
fires on obsidian have recently become a hot topic due
to the concern with the reliability of obsidian hydration
as a dating technique. Thermal alteration of obsidian
artifacts that have been through a fire is discussed in
chapter 4, including the implications of fire-damaged
obsidian for obsidian hydration. Unlike chert or other
cryptocrystalline silicates, thermal pretreatment of
obsidian does not improve its workability. Thus any
thermal effects observed on obsidian artifacts are pre-
sumed to be unintentional, resulting from accidental
exposure to a heat source.
Ground Stone and Architectural StoneThe
appearance of ground stone and masonry can be signifi-
cantly altered by fire. These materials may take on the
appearance of fire-cracked rock (FCR), which results
when rocks are naturally or culturally exposed to high
temperatures resulting in thermal alteration, including
spalling, fracturing, and discoloration. Concentrations
of archaeological FCR are often interpreted as thermal
features such as hearths, stone boiling middens, or
roasting pits. Ground stone or masonry thermally al-
tered by an intense fire may be mistaken for FCR from
thermal features. Stone from thermal featuressuch
as hearths or stone boiling featuresor other types of
features may also be displaced due to the creation of
holes or pits resulting from stump burnouts.
Ground stone and masonry have been the subject
of a limited number of experimental studies. Those
that have been carried out, however, provide general
information regarding temperature thresholds for
damage and visible effects of fire. If the rocks contain
sufficiently high natural iron content and the right
chemical composition, oxidation of their outer layers
by fire may produce a reddish halo effect (Peter Ben-
nett, personal communication 1997). This effect may
be observed by breaking the rocks open, or by examin-
ing rocks already broken by thermal shock caused by
exposure to heat. Evidence of thermal shock such as
spalling and cracking is also an index of fire alteration
(Lissoway and Propper 1988). Damage of this type
apparently does not occur until temperatures exceed
300 C (572 F) (Pilles 1984).
A number of post-fire studies have documented
thermal alteration to ground stone and architectural
stone attributable to fire (Eininger 1990; Elliott and
others 1998; Lent and others 1996; Lissoway and Prop-
per 1988; Schub and Elliott 1998; Traylor and others
1990). Fire effects include smoke blackening, spalling,
cracking, discoloration, and oxidation of surface mate-
rials. For architectural stone, the combination of fire
effects and erosion may confound identification feature
type and number of features from surface observation
(Lent and others 1996).
An experimental study conducted by archaeologists
from the Center for Environmental Archaeology and
148 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Texas A&M University investigated fire effects as site
formation processes on artificial rock features in sev-
eral different settings on the Kootenai National Forest
(Thoms 1996). Subsurface basin, platform, and pile
features intended to simulate thermal features typi-
cal for cultural sites on the Forest were built around
both young (10-centimeter [3.9-inch] diameter) and
maturing (30+ years old) ponderosa pines; each feature
contained stream-worn cobbles and pseudo artifacts.
Surface observations following the treatment of the
sites by fire included the creation of a tree well or hole
where one of the older trees burned. Field observations
collected several months after the fire documented that
rocks from the experimental feature were collapsing
into the hole where they were redeposited in a pile
some 40 centimeters (15.7 inches) below the surface.
The archaeologists interpreted their preliminary re-
sults as indicating that rock-rich features adjacent
to burning trees or stumps may become disarticulated
and redeposited as reconstituted features that may,
however, retain potential information (Thoms 1996).
BoneStudies that address the effects of heat on
bones, both human and animal, are usually geared
toward understanding the changes that occur in bone
at different temperatures. Bone is significantly affected
by heat, even at relatively low temperatures (Bennett
and Kunzmann 1985). Old bones (i.e., those likely to
be encountered at archaeological sites) exhibit a slight
darkening of the edges at 300 C (572 F), acquire a
chalky appearance at 400 C (752 F), and become
severely chalky at 500 C (932 F), resembling bone
exposed to arid conditions for a great length of time.
Shipman and others (1984) have noted changes in color,
microscopic morphology, crystal structure, and shrink-
age in bone exposed to fire. All three color components
(hue, value, and chroma) become progressively more
diverse as temperatures increase; changes in low and
neutral values begin to occur at 400 C (752 F).
Because post-depositional processes can also affect
bone color, changes in color cannot stand alone as
indices of the temperature to which archaeological
bone has been heated in the past. Fortunately, how-
ever, structural changes may be documented. When
examined microscopically, bone tissues appear normal
at temperatures below 185 C (365 F). An increase in
tissue roughness occurs by 285 C (545 F), with tissue
becoming glassy by 440 C (824 F). Tissue becomes
frothy by 800 C (1472 F), and the frothy areas co-
alesce into smooth-surfaced nodules by 940C (1724
F). Bone heated to temperatures higher than 645 C
(1193 F) tends to exhibit larger crystals than bone
heated to temperatures below 525 C (977F). The
most ambiguous results occur for shrinkage, where the
mean percent shrinkage is not constant at different
temperatures.
 These data indicate that heat effects on bone range consumption (as with any organic material, but less
from minimal to extreme. The rate of temperature likely in below-ground contexts) as well as thermal
increase also affects how quickly bone is broken down. alteration.
The more rapid the temperature increase, the faster Macrobotanical specimens analyzed by archaeolo-
bone is hydrolized, chemically altered, and destroyed. gists are preserved portions of plants. These can
One can infer from these studies that subsurface bone include pieces of formerly cultivated species such
probably will not be significantly altered due to the as corn, beans, squash, amaranth, and sunflowers,
insulating effects of the surrounding sediments. as well as other vegetative materials that were
economically important (such as fibers used for
Pollen and Other Botanical RemainsAnalysis
cordage, matting, and clothing). Such specimens
of fossil pollen grains, or palynology, can be used to
are extracted from soil samples collected during
reconstruct the vegetation history of an area. It thus
excavation, preferably from undisturbed features.
provides information about paleoecology that can be
The soil samples are processed by combining them
extremely useful for both cultural and natural resources
with water. The heavier soils and rock fragments
managers. It is also sometimes used for archaeological
sink, while the floating light fraction is skimmed
cross-dating (Michels 1973).
off with a strainer, placed on cheesecloth to dry, tied
Pollen analysis takes advantage of the fact that
off, and bagged in paper. Once drying is complete,
wind-pollinated species of trees, shrubs, and grasses
the specimens are classified according to species. In
release large quantities of tiny pollen grains (0.025-
some cases, the heavy fraction is screened and any
0.25 cm [0.01-0.1 in] diameter, less than 10-9 grams
identifiable botanical fragments are also identified.
in weight). The grains are propelled by winds up to
Macrobotanical specimens damaged by fire can be
distances of 100 to 250 kilometers (62 to 153 miles).
consumed or so altered by exposure to heat and soot
Throughout the year but especially during flowering
that identification is difficult or impossible.
season, pollen grains from the composite vegetation
of a region accumulate on the ground as pollen rain, The few fire studies that have been conducted on
depositing several thousand grains per square centi- botanical samples have documented minimal damage
meter. Stratified sediments of pollen rain constitute to subsurface materials (Fish 1990; Ford 1990; Scott
recoverable records of past vegetation and, considered 1990). Palynological analysis of subsurface samples
from the 1977 La Mesa Fire in Bandelier National
in sequence, can sometimes provide a relative dating
Monument indicates that pollen grains in these con-
technique for archaeological sites. Regional climatic
texts are not affected by even the most intense
change leaves traces in the pollen sequence by chang-
ground fires (Scott 1990). Fishs (1990) pollen study in
ing the relative composition of key floral species, thus
the wake of the Long Mesa Fire also attests that fires
each period in a pollen chronology has a signature
have minimal effects (if any) on subsurface pollen.
that can be compared to the regional pollen spectrum.
Although Fish concludes that the Long Mesa Fire
Archaeologists collect samples for pollen extrac-
event did not affect subsurface pollens, she provides a
tion during excavation. First, a control sample of soil
useful discussion of methods for evaluating potential
containing modern pollen rain is collected from a site
fire effects on pollen samples. According to her inter-
surface for comparative purposes. Subsurface pollen
pretations, intense heat can damage pollen grains to
samples are collected from undisturbed loci with clear
the point that their diagnostic morphological features
archaeological contexts, such as within defined features
are unrecognizable, thus analysis should include a
or beneath fallen building stones. Within stratified
calculation of the proportion of grains too damaged for
sites, samples are collected from each stratum or level,
identification. Fire-altered pollen grains may take on
highest to lowest, as pollen columns. Occasionally,
a dark yellow-brown color, will not absorb the stain-
artifacts such as metates are given a pollen wash to
ing agent (thus obscuring morphological attributes),
secure a sample.
and will have thickened or swollen walls. Finally,
In order to type pollen grains, numerous attributes
pollen samples from fire-affected sediments may ex-
of the size, color, and the precise shapes of the walls of
hibit high ratios of charcoal fragments, as occurred in
the grains are examined under binocular microscopy,
Fishs study. It is possible that charcoal generated by
at magnifications from 200 to 1000x. In the laboratory,
post-occupational fires may be indistinguishable from
samples are prepared for analysis in a variety of ways,
charcoal resulting from prehistoric cultural activities
depending upon the kinds of pollen anticipatedsome
as reflected in archaeological pollen samples.
species are more fragileand the kind of soil matrix
Fords (1990) study of subsurface flotation samples
the pollen is extracted from. Generally, the pollen is
from the La Mesa Fire sites demonstrates that these
sieved, washed, and stained. In order to be useful,
samples were not damaged by the fire, even though
pollen grains must be identifiable as to genus and,
the site surfaces had experienced intense heating.
if possible, species. Fire effects to pollen can include

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 149

Ford also notes that archaeological charcoal may be
more friable than recent charcoal, a characteristic that
could potentially be used to differentiate fires result-
ing from prehistoric activities from those occurring as
post-occupational natural fires.
Dendrochronology_______________
Tree-ring dating, or dendrochronology, is a chrono-
metric technique that has been applied with great suc-
cess in the Southwestern United States and elsewhere
(Michels 1973; Smiley and others 1953). Because the
method involves counting the annual growth rings
and matching them to the known master sequence
for their species, the consumption of wood by fire may
make it difficult or impossible to tabulate the rings.
Robinson (1990) concluded that the La Mesa Fire did
not significantly affect either of two tree-ring samples
submitted for analysis from subsurface deposits. Un-
less a wood specimen is sufficiently damaged by fire,
it still has the potential to yield an accurate date.
Radiocarbon Dating (14C)__________
This dating technique is one of the most common
and useful in archaeology. Although charcoal is not
the only material that yields radiocarbon dates, it is
certainly one of the most frequently available; other
suitable materials include bone, shell, wood, and iron
(Michels 1973). Destruction of perishable materials is
the most harmful effect that fire can have on radio-
carbon samples. Charcoal is often very fragile when
recovered from archaeological contexts, thus it is more
likely to be totally consumed during a later fire than
other materials. As noted in Fishs 1990 study, however,
mixing of modern and archaeological charcoal may
occur at fire-damaged sites. This mixing could result
in erroneously young dates for particular contexts if
charcoal from a post-occupational fire is submitted
for radiocarbon dating. Alternatively, contamination
of the archaeological sample with modern charcoal
could simply confound the radiocarbon assay.
Stehlis study of radiocarbon dates from sites burned
over during the La Mesa Fire was inconclusive because
no control samples from unburned sites of the same
age were available for comparison (Stehli 1990). One
of three radiocarbon dates run on archaeological char-
coal collected from one of the burned sites appeared to
be erroneously young (A.D. 1910). Without unburned
control samples, Stehli could not determine whether
this date reflected effects of the La Mesa Fire. The
charcoal in the sample may, of course, have resulted
from a post-occupation fire event.
150 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Archeomagnetic Dating___________
This technique relies on the known variance of the
earths magnetic field through time (Michels 1973).
The magnetic minerals in clays orient according to
the polarity of the earths magnetic field when clay
is heated to a sufficient temperature, and retain this
orientation when the material cools. This magnetic ori-
entation is compared to an independently established
known variation curve to derive a date for the sample,
thus it is important to record the sample orientation
before collection, and to collect the sample from a non-
portable object (Rice 1987). Clay linings or hearth rocks
containing magnetite and hematite in archaeological
hearths or kilns and burned wall or floor plasters are
ideally suited to this chronometric technique. The date
obtained from the archeomagnetic assay reflects the
last time that the sample was heated. The assumption
for archaeological samples is that the last heating of
the material took place sometime during the occupation
of the site, and that the date obtained thus represents
the date that pertains to the occupational history of the
site. Reheating clay-containing features at sufficient
temperatures during post-occupational fire events
will reorient the magnetic minerals, thus significantly
compromising the interpretive value of archeomagnetic
samples taken from features in burned-over sites.
Results from archeomagnetic dating of material from
hearths excavated after the La Mesa Fire indicated that
although an erroneously young date was obtained from
one set of samples, the problem could be compensated
for, and an apparently accurate date was obtained
from a second set of samples from the same feature
(DuBois 1990). The subsurface heat probably did not
reach a temperature that compromised the potential
of the hearth to yield a reliable archeomagnetic date.
Obsidian Hydration_______________
Of all the dating techniques discussed thus far, ob-
sidian hydration (OH) has received the most attention
in terms of fire effects. Although OH is not a heat-
dependent dating method like archeomagnetism, the
results can still be significantly affected by fire. This
dating method measures the thickness of the hydra-
tion layer or band (sometimes referred to as a rind)
on the surface of obsidian artifacts, where water has
been absorbed through a freshly broken surface (Beck
and Jones 1994; Skinner and others 1997). The rate
at which the hydration layer forms is influenced by
several factors including chemical composition of the
obsidian, temperature, and relative humidity (see Beck
and Jones 1994 and Friedman and Trembour 1983
for a discussion of the effects of these variables). The
band can be measured and used to provide relative or,
more rarely, estimated chronometric dates for obsidian
artifacts1. It is, however, extremely vulnerable to the
effects of fire.
Several experimental studies have examined the
temperatures at which obsidian hydration bands are
modified in order to understand the effects of fire on
band width (Bennett and Kunzman 1985; Green 1997;
Skinner, Thatcher, and Davis 1997; Trembour 1990).
Trembours (1990) work with obsidian after the 1977
La Mesa Fire is one of the earliest studies to address
the problem. He notes that the hydration band on
obsidian becomes increasingly diffuse when heated,
starting at about 350 C (662 F), and eventually is
lost at about 430 C (806 F). Although the band may
eventually reappear after cooling, it apparently does
not return to its original thickness, remaining deep
and somewhat diffuse. Other studies of the effects of
heat on hydration bands have yielded similar results
(Green 1997; Skinner and others 1997).
Obsidian artifacts deposited on or near the ground
surface are the most vulnerable to thermal alteration.
Previous studies considering the effects of fire on hydra-
tion bands in subsurface contexts have recorded minor
damage, if any. Subsurface artifacts with damaged
hydration bands have generally been recovered from
strata occurring from 5-10 centimeters (1.97-3.9 in)
below the ground surface (Skinner and others 1997).
Deal (1997) examined the effects of prescribed fire
on obsidian hydration bands in an innovative field ex-
periment. Using obsidian artifacts that had previously
been sourced and hydrated, she placed specimens at
and below the ground surface in a variety of contexts
with respect to the fuels present (light, woody, and
log) in two different prescribed burns. Temperature
and duration of heat were measured throughout
each fire event. Following the burns, the samples
were resubmitted for hydration measurements at
the same lab where the original measurements were
taken. The results indicated that both exposure to
elevated temperatures as well as long duration of heat
exposure, even at relatively low temperatures, affect
obsidian hydration bands in similar ways. For the fall
burn, which had particularly significant results, Deal
recorded a maximum ground surface temperature of
523 C (973.4 F) 2-1/2 hours after the flaming front
passed over the obsidian specimens. The temperatures
for this sample declined slowly, finally reaching 46 C
(114.8 F) after 44 hours.
1
An estimated date is derived from the width of the hydration
band combined with the rate of band expansion.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 151
Case Study: Investigation of
Subsurface Heating Effects at
Bandelier National Monument,
NewMexico_____________________
The Dome Fire of 1996 at Bandelier National
Monument provided an opportunity to investigate
the impacts of catastrophic fire effects on subsurface
archaeological materials. The timing and duration of
the wildland fire event were known. The severities at
which affected sites were burned were calculated using
information collected during the post-fire assessment
of sites within the perimeter of the burn. These data,
in turn, were used to select a sample of sites burned
at varying severities (as well as an unburned control
site) for testing through excavation. The Subsurface
Heating Effects (SHE) study examined the extent to
which fire impacted subsurface archaeological materi-
als, and whether burn severities were reflected in the
subsurface archaeological record.
The examination of subsurface materials from sites
systematically documented as affected by different
burn severities marked a significant departure from
previously reported subsurface fire studies. Data from
the post-fire assessment that began immediately fol-
lowing the 1996 Dome Fire allowed for classification of
burned sites into light, moderate, and heavy categories;
archaeological and ecosystemic data were collected
and used in making site assessments. These data,
in turn, were used to select sites for testing. Specific
characteristics (such as stump burn-outs) that could
have particularly serious implications for archaeologi-
cal sites were also examined. Tested loci within the
Dome Fire perimeter included one unburned control
site, one lightly burned site, one moderately burned
site, and two heavily burned sites. In addition, a site
that had been through a recent prescribed fire (as well
as several natural fires) outside of the Dome Fire area
was selected for purposes of comparison.
The SHE study investigated a number of catego-
ries of information related to thermal alteration of
subsurface cultural resources:
1. Thermal alteration of soils and other ecofacts, ar-
tifacts, and cultural features, including variations
of observable changes at different intensities.
2. Correlation between measurable heating effects
on archaeological materials and visible changes
in soil or rocks or other materials with which they
are associated.
3. Degree to which the subsurface heating effects
observed in the wake of a wildland fire correspond
to those reported from experiments that mimic
prescribed burns.
4. Datable materials compromised by thermal
alteration.
 5. Potential for detecting ancient fires in archaeo- Fire-affected samples were primarily recovered from
logical excavations by visible correlates and/or the upper fill of excavation units. Even though more
consistent heating effects that may skew the charred remains were found in samples from the upper
results of materials analyses. fill of moderately and heavily burned sites, however,
6. Correspondence of surface and subsurface burn these same samples still yielded fairly high proportions
severity data. of uncharred remains.
Faunal data were recovered from two of the project
Thermal Alteration of Ecofacts and sites. One site was unburned and served as the control
Cultural Materials site. The most severely burned bone in the project as-
semblage was recovered from the unburned site, and
Investigation of changes in soils, artifacts, ecofacts, most likely resulted from contact with either burned
and other cultural materials began with examination of roof material or a cooking fire.
the stratigraphic profiles from each excavation unit to At the second site (LA 3840), Dome Fire effects were
determine the depth of heat penetration from the Dome confined to the upper stratigraphic profiles, although
Fire. The fire, represented by Stratum I in all of the the site had been heavily burned. Faunal material was
soil profiles from the burned sites, was characterized first encountered 16 centimeters (6.3 inches) below
by a distinct layer of ash, charcoal, and burned organic the ground surface, well below the levels affected by
materials. The thickness of the burned layer for each the fire. Fire effects were noted on faunal materials
excavation unit varied from 2 to 15 centimeters (0.8 from this site, but they are attributable to contact with
to 5.9 inches), but exceeded 8 centimeters (3.2 inches) either burned roof material or a cooking fire.
at only one site, which also exhibited a small burned
stump.
Ceramics recovered from the burned strata exhibited
various degrees of sooting, spalling, oxidation, and
crackled slips. Flaked stone artifacts exhibited soot-
ing, spalling, crazing, luster changes, and residues.
All of the ground stone artifacts affected by the fire
were sooted except for one, which was oxidized. The
heaviest fire effects recorded for ceramics and flaked
stone were observed on artifacts recovered from LA
115152, a site that was moderately burned during the
Dome Fire (fig. 7-1). An alligator juniper growing inside
the structure at this site was completely consumed by
the fire, including the root system. The burning roots
allowed the fire to penetrate into subsurface deposits,
affecting subsurface archaeological materials deep
within the site.
Ecofactual data examined for the SHE study included
pollen, faunal, and macrobotanical samples. Exami-
nation of pollen samples from burned and unburned
contexts indicated that burned samples tend to have
higher percentages of degraded pollen compared to
unburned samples. A corresponding loss of pollen or a
bias to specific pollen types were not apparent, however,
in the burned samples. It was not possible to evaluate
whether surface pollen was completely consumed by
the Dome Fire because the surface pollen samples were Figure 7-1Burn-out of stumps leads to subsur-
collected 1 year after the fire, which allowed sufficient face damage on culturally sensitive sites. 1996
time for natural pollen to accumulate on the surfaces Dome Fire, Bandelier National Monument site
of the tested sites. LA 115152. Heavily burned site due to burn-out
of an alligator juniper stump. Effects noted more
Subsurface macrobotanical samples also exhibited
than 1 meter below ground surface (bgs): artifact
fire effects. The introduction of charred modern materi-
damage-smudging, etc., soil matrix oxidized
als into the archaeological record for macrobotanical and contaminated with modern charcoal, dating
materials was the primary effect of both the Dome Fire methods compromised, pollen and macrobotani-
and the prescribed fire. Samples from burned contexts cal specimens damaged (Ruscavage-Barz and
also exhibited higher frequencies of vitrified charcoal. Oster 1999).

152 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Correlation Between Heating Effects on
Archaeological Materials and Visible
Changes in the Surrounding Matrix
The matrices surrounding the cultural materials
recovered during the SHE study were examined to
determine whether observable fire effects could be cor-
related with effects on associated non-archaeological
materials, such as soil and rock. Comparison of burned
archaeological and non-archaeological materials
from the tested sites indicated some correlation
between the two categories of materials in terms of
fire effects. Spalling and cracking of natural rock
generally accompanied spalling and cracking of
architectural material; fire-affected archaeological
materials tended to co-occur with ashy soil, burned
vegetation, and charred trees. Such co-occurrence
vegetation and archaeological material damage is
common throughout the Southwest (fig. 7-2).

Figure 7-2Examples of spalling of sandstone due to heating during the 2002 Long Mesa Fire,
Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado: (a) panorama, (b) close up (from Buenger 2003).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 153

 Subsurface cultural materials and corresponding
matrices in the sample investigated for the SHE study
generally exhibited fire effects within the first 10 to
15 centimeters (3.9 to 5.9 in.) of fill. Root and stump
burnouts were the exception because they allowed the
fire to penetrate subsurface deposits and burn deep
underground. In these cases, the full range of fire ef-
fects were observed, including spalling and sooting of
rocks, accumulations of ash deposits in root pipes, and
damage to associated archaeological materials.

Correspondence Between SHE Study Fire

Effects and Effects Noted in Experimental
Fires
The results of the SHE study are consistent with
other post-fire studies that have determined that fire
effects are rarely found below the first 10 centimeters
(3.9 in.) of fill at archaeological sites (Conner and oth-
ers 1989; Hemry 1996; Lent and others 1996; Thoms
1996; Traylor and others 1990), unless a burned root
mass or stump is present. As described above, fire
effects were noted on materials within the first 10 to
15 centimeters (3.9 to 5.9 in.) of fill.
One site, LA 115152, proved the exception because
the root system of an alligator juniper burned into a Figure 7-3LA 118345, Bandelier National
structure during the Dome Fire (fig. 7-3). Fire effects Monument site LA 115152. Site burned during a
prescribed fire (Ruscavage-Barz and Oster 1999).
on natural and archaeological materials were noted
throughout the structure, with the burned root sys-
tem and ashy soil continuing well below the limits of
the excavation. The site (LA 118345) affected by the
prescribed fire, described in more detail below, also
provided evidence of deep subsurface penetration by The only samples for archeomagnetic dating were
fire, again due to the fact that an alligator juniper obtained from a hearth at LA 3840, located approxi-
provided a conduit. mately 1.11 meters (3.6 feet) below the ground surface.
Very few fire-affected artifacts were observed overall, Since the Dome Fire was evident only in the first 5
with most found on the surface. Most of the burned centimeters (2in.) of fill for this site, any anomalies in
subsurface artifacts from the SHE sites cannot attri- the archeomagnetic dates were not attributable to the
bute their alteration to the Dome Fire because they Dome Fire.
were recovered from levels too far below the ground Wood samples were collected from two sites for den-
surface to be impacted by natural or prescribed fires. drochronology. Two wood samples from one site were
Instead, these artifacts probably attained their burned recovered from deep levels unaffected by the Dome Fire.
appearance as a result of contact with burned roof The samples from the other site, located outside the
materials or hearths. Dome Fire perimeter but affected by a low-intensity
prescribed burn, were recovered from the lower fill of
Alteration of Datable Materials the structure and, likewise, were not impacted by the
prescribed fire.
Four different dating methods were tested for this Radiocarbon (14C) dates were obtained for four of the
project: archeomagnetism, dendrochronology, radio- project sites. The radiocarbon dates from three sites
carbon, and obsidian hydration. The results obtained were somewhat consistent with the ceramic dates, and
from these methods were compared with the ceramic were thus considered to provide reliable indications of
data to determine whether the dates obtained from the the approximate dates that the sites were occupied.
various methods are accurate or have been affected by The remaining site did not yield any ceramics, thus
the Dome Fire (or other post-depositional processes). the reliability of the radiocarbon dates could not be

154 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

assessed. Most significant, even where modern charcoal
had been mixed with archaeological deposits inside of
a structure, the radiocarbon dates did not appear to
have been compromised.
Twenty obsidian artifacts were submitted for ob-
sidian hydration (OH). Although no chronometric
dates were obtained from the samples, the widths
of the hydration bands were compared to site dates
obtained from ceramics and 14C assays to determine
whether hydration band width was consistent with
site dates. The OH results are somewhat ambiguous
and in most cases do not agree with site ages based
on other chronological data. Band widths obtained for
the samples range from 1.1 to 8.9 microns, which is
a very wide range considering that most of the sites
date to the A.D. 1300s and 1400s.
Band widths greater than five microns for obsid-
ian artifacts from three of the sites suggested that
the flaked edges of the samples were manufactured
thousands, not hundreds, of years ago (Thomas Origer,
personal communication 1998). If the obsidian samples
were affected by the Dome Fire, band widths should
have been thinner rather than thicker or the hydra-
tion bands would be missing (Green 1997; Skinner
and others 1997; Trembour 1990).
Results obtained from dateable samples from the
project sites indicated very little impact to these ma-
terials from the Dome Fire. Reliable dates, with the
exception of obsidian hydration, were obtained from
most samples, including those derived from extremely
disturbed contexts. Thus the Dome Fire did not com-
promise the various dating methods employed, because
most of the samples came from subsurface contexts
that were below the zone of effect for the Dome Fire.
Potential for Detecting Ancient Fires,
and Correspondence of Surface and
Subsurface Burn Severity Data
To address the issue of detecting ancient fires in ar-
chaeological excavations, a structural site (LA 118345)
located in an area for which a 200-year fire history was
available was included in the SHE study sample. This
site had been burned over during a prescribed fire in
1994.
The stratigraphic profile of LA 118345 was examined
for evidence of earlier fires. No evidence of previous
fires was apparent in either of the test units outside
the structure. Within the structure, however, an oxi-
dized soil layer containing burned duff below a level
of clean unburned fill was encountered. This burned
layer was encountered 20-26 centimeters (7.9-10.2 in.)
below the ground surface, while the effects attribut-
able to the prescribed fire effects ended 7 centimeters
(2.8 in.) below the ground surface. The lower burned
layer was therefore assumed to represent an earlier
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 155
fire event. Two 14C samples were collected from the
earlier burned layer, producing calibrated dates of
A.D. 1025-1290 and A.D. 1290-1425, respectively.
These dates indicated that the fire event was not part
of the 200-year sequence already known but instead
represented a much earlier fire event.
Based on the stratigraphic position discussed above,
the fire event appeared to have occurred after the
structure collapsed. This interpretation conflicted
somewhat with the radiocarbon dates because the
dates from the fire event pre-dated radiocarbon dates
obtained from materials near the structure floor below
the roof fall level. The later fire event was not visible
in the stratigraphic profile, and no other fire events
were evidenced above the level of the roof fall.
The limited data from the SHE study suggested that
ancient fires are difficult to detect from archaeological
contexts. No ancient fires were detected either during
excavation or in stratigraphic profiles at the other
study sites, and perhaps the only ancient fires poten-
tially recognizable in archaeological contexts would be
catastrophic wildland fires rather than low intensity
periodic fires like those believed to have characterized
the landscape prior to the late A.D. 1800s.
The second question considers whether the level of
burn severity determined by surface observations is
reflected in subsurface deposits. The answer is no. The
depths of penetration are similar at all sites, whether
lightly or heavily burned. The only exceptions are
attributable to the root burnout that occurred within
one structure, and near another.
At LA 115152, there was no clear break between
Dome Fire debris (e.g., ash, charcoal, burned organic
materials) and archaeological sediments. This condi-
tion was a direct result of the burning root system,
which carried the fire underground. If the root system
had not ignited, then it is likely that only the surface
of the site would have been impacted, similar to an-
other SHE site (LA 3840) that was heavily burned on
the surface but did not exhibit any fire damage to the
structure interior. The evidence from LA 3840 indicates
that surface burn severity is not reflected in subsurface
archaeological contexts absent a root burnout.
Summary and Conclusions________
One of the important lessons of the SHE study is
that a significant difference exists between potential
fire effects to surface versus subsurface materials. The
effects that fire can have on surface archaeological
materials ranges from negligible to extreme depend-
ing on the severity and residence time of the fire on
the site. This contrasts sharply with the range of fire
effects on subsurface deposits, which appear to be
relatively protected from fire effects below the first
few centimeters except when a burning stump and/or
root system provide a conduit for heat penetration to
subsurface cultural deposits.
The potential for damage caused by such burnouts
was exhibited at two of the Bandelier SHE study sites
impacted by wildland fire and prescribed fire, respec-
tively. In both cases, the stumps and roots of large
junipers ignited and burned underground causing
significant damage to subsurface deposits. An alliga-
tor juniper growing in a structure at LA 115152 was
totally consumed during the Dome Fire. The burning
stump carried the fire into the root system inside the
structure, heavily impacting the structure fill. Most
of the root system was completely consumed, leaving
root cavities lined with ash and charcoal that later
collapsed, resulting in mixing of archaeological fill
and modern ash/charcoal.
A less severe root burnout resulting from a prescribed
fire occurred at LA 118345. The root system of a cut
juniper stump ignited, even though the stump had been
cut to minimize fire effects to the site. The root cavity
extended well below the level of the structure floor.
Fortunately, the stump was adjacent to the exterior
structure wall and, when it burned, did not impact
the structure interior. The evidence from this site
demonstrated that prescribed fires, as well as wildland
fires, can significantly impact subsurface archaeologi-
cal contexts. Even though the stump had been cut to
minimize potential fire impacts, it had been left as a
stub rather than being flush-cut and/or treated to
prevent ignition (for example, by covering with soil).
The evidence from the SHE study, and other fire
effects studies discussed here, has significant implica-
tions for the interpretation of archaeological data from
156 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
sites suspected to have been burned over in the past, as
well as the management of cultural resources. Depend-
ing on the kinds of cultural materials and fuels present
at a given siteas well as the specific characteristics
of the fire or fires that have passed over itnot only
the integrity of the site but the information potential
of its contents may be destroyed or altered. Given
the right conditions, severe fire effects may include
heavy damage to subsurface deposits, long thought
to be insulated from thermal and other fire-caused
alteration.
The accumulations of fuels on contemporary land-
scapes have reached historically unprecedented levels,
thanks to decades of aggressive fire suppression and
exclusion. The potential for fires to destroy or seri-
ously compromise the interpretation of the archaeo-
logical record has correspondingly increased. Cultural
resources managers and field archaeologists would
be well advised to include consideration of regional
fire histories in environmental reconstructions, and
data analyses. Understanding the role of fire as a
site formation process is essential for every cultural
resources specialist working in landscapes that have
been touched by fire.
Postscript
These studies will be more than a decade old by the
anticipated publication date of this volume. We believe
that the results of this work stand the test of time quite
well. We are proud of this pioneering effort. We hope
it will be useful to future pyroarcheologists.
John R. Welch
Chapter 8:
Effects of Fire on Intangible Cultural
Resources: Moving Toward a
Landscape Approach
Long before the Secretaries of the Departments of
Agriculture and Interior signed the Federal Wildland
Fire Management Policy in 1995, most land and re-
source professionals in the United States had recog-
nized unprecedented fuel accumulations in western
forests as management priorities. The Policy, its 2001
revision, the 2003 Healthy Forests Restoration Act, and
the sequence of costly fire seasons that spurred these
developments made it clear that fuels reduction would
remain the driving issue in forest management in the
United States for the foreseeable future (Franklin and
Agee 2003). The central message embedded in this
policy shift is that the foregoing century of fire suppres-
sion and other management practice has disrupted the
balance among land, resource conditions and values,
as well as the people who rely on public and Indian
lands for livelihood, raw materials, and senses of place
(see Karjala and Dewhurst 2003; Moseley and Toth
2004).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 157
As the implications of enabling fire to reclaim its
roles in wildland ecosystems continue to unfold, we
are learning about how we value, view, and treat
public lands, forests, fire, archaeological and historical
sites, and associated human communities. The forest
and fire management reorientation underway in the
United States opens a window for looking at whether
commonly applied standards and protocols for cultural
resource conservation are adequate.
This chapter examines intangible cultural resources
that are defined as conceptual, oral, and behavioral
traditions providing the social context for artifacts
and sites. Often derived from time-tested associations
between ecosystems and human communities, intan-
gibles are the fragile and often threatened or neglected
linkages among geography, cultures, forests, trees,
and people. Thus, intangible cultural resources war-
rant careful consideration in all stages of forest and
heritage policy and practice, including wildland and
prescribed fire and other fuels reduction programs.
Fire Policy and Standard Practice in
Cultural Resource Management_____
Translating fire management policy into effective
and balanced practice requires detailed understanding
of local and regional ecosystems (Franklin and Agee
2003) as well as associated historical and prospective
human roles. Initial implementations of the 1995 Fire
Management Policy (updated in 2001) recognized the
need for better coordination and collaboration with
the local communities directly affected by fire pro-
grams on public lands (http://www.nwcg.gov/branches/
ppm/fpc/archives/fire_policy/index.htm, accessed
March30,2011). By 2010, thousands of communities
had completed wildfire protection plans developed in
collaboration with government agencies. These plans
generally emphasize short- and mid-term fuels
reduction and incident management. Although
there are notable exceptions in the form of in-depth
consultations concerning landscape-level fire effects
assessments as well as fire management planning
(see Burns and others 2003), there are few indications
that consultation has widely permeated protocols and
practices for re-establishing or sustaining fire-land-
community relations.
The lack of sustained or widespread consultation
regarding local communities uses and values of
forests limits our understanding of the varied ways
in which human communities relate to wildland fire
and public land management. Factors affecting rela-
tionships among communities, fire, and management
range from ecosystem processes, global timber mar-
kets, and national policies to fuel models, community
politics, and local patterns of forest utilization (Burns
and others 2003). These relationships are becoming
more complicated in western North America because
of diminishing commercial timber reserves, increasing
fuel loads, surging human occupation in and use of
forests, global climate change, and escalating claims
by Native Americans to government-to-government
consultation rights and other recognitions of sov-
ereignty (Field and Jensen 2005). This interplay of
people, places, politics, lands, values, dynamics, and
fire is attracting attention by researchers, managers,
local community advocates, and leaders throughout
the world (for example, South Africa National Parks
2006; Yibarbuk and others 2001).
For cultural resources, the most immediate and appar-
ent result of the policy shift has been a substantial increase
in the number of acres slated for clearance (that is, proj-
ect compliance with relevant statutes and regulations)
in preparation for fuels reduction by prescribed burning,
hand, or mechanical thinning. Relevant measures are
difficult to come by, but the 2007 Healthy Forests Re-
port indicates that fuels reduction treatments have been
applied to more than 138,000km2 (34 million acres)
158 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
from the period of 2001 through 2009 (http://www.for-
estsandrangelands.gov/resources/reports/documents/
healthyforests/2009/FY2009HFAccomplishments.
pdf, accessed March 30, 2011. Through one of the doz-
ens of Healthy Forests Restoration Act subprograms, as
of early 2006, one region of the U.S. Forest Service had
awarded about 130 stewardship contracts for fuels reduc-
tion and other treatments on 665 km2 (162,000 acres)
in the southeastern United States. Plans call for the
expansion of this and other HFRA programs as technolo-
gies and markets are developed to utilize the surfeit of
smaller diameter trees being removed through thinning.
For the foreseeable future, legions of archaeologists will
be engaged in cultural resource surveys covering terrain
likely to be affected by forest and fuels treatments.
What are survey teams looking for and what are we
finding? More to the point, what are we failing to seek
and what are we missing? There are slight variations
from region to region and agency to agency, but the
general protocol for addressing cultural resources
threatened by land alterations have remained much the
same for the last three decades: identify, document, and
avoid or minimize effects. Tools for finding, recording,
and limiting impacts to tangible cultural resources have
become more sophisticated in the digital era (Banning
2002). Legal, ethical, and practical developments
have made it clear that intangible cultural resources
deserve and require consideration (UNESCO 2006;
Wild and McLeod 2008). Nonetheless, on-the-ground
efforts to integrate wildland fire management and
the conservation of intangible cultural resources have
been limited and isolated.1 Fire policy has shifted em-
phatically away from knee-jerk fire suppression. Most
archaeologists and many other resource professionals
recognize that artifacts and built features are merely
the tangible manifestations of the cultural traditions
and community values that are our ultimate concerns.
Standard cultural resource management practice,
however, continues to equate to finding, document-
ing, and providing limited protection for the physical
dimensions of cultural resources. In other words, the
importance of intangible cultural resources and the
closely related needs for in-depth consultation are,
except in a few isolated instances, being either down-
played or overlooked in a rush to reduce fuel loads
and accommodate other policy mandates. Most land
managers have started to see the forests through the
trees; however, to extend the metaphor, only a few
have caught glimpses of the cultures through the sites
(fig. 8-1).
1
USFS operations in California may qualify as an exception to
this general claim, but publications documenting these innovations
have yet to appear.
 Figure 8-1Tangible cultural resource threatened by fire.
Approach, Scope, and Goals
This chapter suggests that we can and should do
a better job of considering the full range of cultural
resources in fire-related management contexts and
offers some suggestions in this regard. The discussion
considers communities and landscapes as the sources
and repositories for values that drive management
decisions and social systems. Communities and land-
scapes, along with the specific places and associated
intangible cultural resources from which we derive our
distinctive and sustaining identities, are the primary
cultural resources that deserve foremost management
consideration.
Cultural resources, the objects, places, and tradi-
tions significant in culture and history, exist in both
tangible and intangible forms. Tangible cultural re-
sources include sites, structures, districts, artifacts,
and documents associated with or representative of
cultures, processes, and events. Tangible cultural
resources also include plants, animals, and other
environmental elements as well as physical features,
such as caves, mountains, springs, forest clearings,
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 159
dance grounds, village sites, and trailsparticularly as
these may be associated with deities, spirits, ancestors,
or ceremonies. Intangible cultural resources include
conceptual, oral, and behavioral traditions, most of
which overlap and are interdependent. Most tangible
cultural resources are finite and irreplaceable if lost
or destroyed; intangible cultural resources, although
often vulnerable, are produced by each generation.
Intangible cultural resources may be renewed and
expanded through intergenerational transmission and
various forms of creative endeavor (http://www.nps.
gov/dsc/d_publications/d_1_gpsd_4_ch4.htm, accessed
July21, 2010). Most or all tangible cultural resources
have intangible components in the form of associations
and significance; many intangible resources have
tangible components.
Implicit in the above definitions, however, is the
truth that many cultural resources, especially intan-
gibles, cannot be identified, fully documented, or have
their significance assessed by archaeologists or other
professionals without engaging representatives of the
source culture (fig. 8-2).
 Figure 8-2Cultural resource protection crew assigned to the Cradleboard incident command team, White
Mountain Apache Tribe lands, Arizona.
Fire effects on cultural resources, tangible or in-
tangible, may entail consequences for personal and
communal identities and their spiritual health. In-
formation exchange is clearly implicated. Sustained
institutional and interpersonal relationships are an
essential basis for recognizing intangible cultural re-
sources, determining the best and most appropriate
means for their conservation and, perhaps most im-
portantly, understanding these resources both in their
own terms and in terms of management implications.
Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has justifiably
attracted most of the research attention directed toward
the linkages among intangible cultural resources, fire
ecology, and management (Berkes and others 2000;
Raish and others 2005; Turner 1999). Identifying the
full spectrum of cultural resources associated with a
project area and assessing the full range of effects on
cultural resources potentially associated with a project
or program requires knowledge available only from
160 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
the culture or cultures that create, use, and maintain
connections to the resources.
No systematic attempt is made here to review previ-
ous studies on this subject. The reason for this is the
broad range of relevant issues and subjects including, in
addition to those already mentioned, American Indian
philosophy and pre-contact environmental stewardship
(Pyne 1982, 1995; Williams 2000), disaster sociology
(Quarantelli 1998; Stallings 2002), community forestry
(Baker and Kusel 2003), cultural property law (Hutt
and others 2004), etc.and the paucity of previous
research focused on how and why fire mediates ties
between people and place.
Instead of attempting to survey this vast terrain of
concepts, practices, and policies, the primary objective
of this chapter is to offer a framework of ideas and tools
for supporting constructive interaction among repre
sentatives of local and management communities
groups that care about and have distinctive, yet often
complementary perspectives on this and other land
management issues. The discussion focuses on how
to approach the effects of fire on intangible cultural
resources by engaging local communities in identifica-
tion and assessment. The ultimate goal is to enhance
and expand land and fire management programs and
policies respectful of and responsive to all pertinent
cultural resources, as well as to the social, spiritual,
scientific, economic, practical, and aesthetic values.
Community consultations concerning intangible cul-
tural resources provide an excellent point of departure
for broader agency/tribe/public discussions of common
goals, long-term plans, and best management practices.
Why Consider Fire Effects on
Intangible Cultural Resources?_____
There are at least two broad reasons for considering
the full spectrum of cultural resources in the context
of land and fire management: (1) statutes and regula-
tions most familiar to the management community;
and (2) common sense, ethical concerns, and human
rights issues. Legal mandates, especially as they relate
to the complex relationships among Federal agen-
cies and Indian tribes, were the original impetus for
including a chapter on intangible cultural resources
in this volume. Numerous Federal, tribal, State, and
local statutes, regulations, court decisions, and policies
recognize cultural resource values and set standards
for their protection. These authorities generally require
the identification and assessment of cultural resource
values in the course of project planning and decision
making (chapters 1, 9). The procedural requirements
boil down to looking (and consulting) before you leap,
rather than specific protections (Zellmer 2001).
Through four decades of experience with the National
Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), the National En-
vironmental Policy Act (NEPA), and other pertinent
authorities, the parties involved in Federal land modi-
fication (legislators, applicants, land managers, over-
sight agencies, tribes, stakeholders, and courts) have
negotiated widely recognized procedural standards
in order to expedite projects and program deliveries.
Although there are many good reasons for the use
of standard protocols, one drawback is the difficulty
of effecting positive change once standardization is
in place. In the case of the identify, document, and
avoid or minimize effects protocol, the uniformity has
given rise to a checklist approach to cultural resource
management that generally discourages individual and
organizational sensitivities to novel or complicated
situations. Streamlining environmental and cultural
resource compliance processes too often results in
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 161
steamrolling the often cumbersome issues linked to
intangible cultural resources (Welch and others 2009b).
The second reason derives from common sense,
ethical concerns, and human rights issues. If these
concerns seem at first beyond the scope of a NEPA
analysis or NHPA compliance process, it is worth
recalling Congress explicit purpose for NEPA: to use
all practicable means and measures to foster and
promote the general welfare, to create and maintain
conditions under which man and nature can exist in
productive harmony, and fulfill the social, economic,
and other requirements of present and future genera-
tions (Sec. 101 [42 USC 4331]). Similarly, NHPAs
first section aptly addresses tangible cultural prop-
erties as the physical manifestations of that which
NHPA was created to protect. To paraphrase NHPAs
core principles (www.achp.gov/nhpa.html, accessed
July21, 2010):
History and culture are the foundations for na-
tional spirit, direction, and orientation.
Cultural resources deserve conservation as a vital
element of living communities.
Preservation of irreplaceable cultural heritage
serves national, educational, aesthetic, scientific,
and economic interests.
Collaborative partnerships among governments
at all levels, corporations, institutions, and in-
dividuals are required to expand and enhance
cultural heritage conservation.
When management decisions affect cultural re-
sources, they also affect people and local communi-
tiessometimes in direct and damaging ways. A
combination of bureaucratic expediency and market
forces has redirected NHPA purposes toward a compa-
rably sterile cultural resource management emphasis
on buildings, sites, objects, and undertakings (King
1998:6-19). Nonetheless, cultural resourcesespecially
those linked to or reflective of the spirits and vitalities
of distinctive communitiesdeserve protection, or at a
minimum, careful consideration before being burned,
altered, or appropriated for new uses. NHPA was
not created specifically to protect intangible cultural
resources, but the view that conceptual, oral, and be-
havioral traditions may be disregarded in the course
of government-sponsored projects and programs is
similarly indefensible. Both NHPA and NEPA provide
conceptual and practical foundations for collaborations
to address intangible cultural resource issues and
concerns (table 8-1 lists pertinent Federal authorities
requiring tribal consultations in the context of land
and fire management).
 Table 8-1Some Federal authorities requiring tribal consultation in relation to land and fire management
program planning and implementation.

Federal authorities

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966

(P.L. 89-665; 80 Stat. 915; 16 USC. 470; 36 CFR 800)NHPA Section 106 mandates
Federal agency consideration of effects of projects on historic properties (places,
structures, objects with historical significance). Requires Federal agencies to consult with
potentially affected tribes on the areas of effect of undertakings, on the identification of
properties, on whether an undertaking will affect a property, and on plans for avoiding or
reducing adverse effects. 1992 amendments recognize rights of tribes to assume State
Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) functions for Indian lands and sites of cultural and
religious significance as historic properties.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

(P.L. 91-190; 83 Stat. 852; 42 USC 4321; 40 CFR 1500, et al.)NEPA establishes
national policy for the protection and enhancement of the environment, including the
Statutes and Regulations

preservation of important historic, cultural, and natural aspects of our national heritage.
Requires Federal agencies to communicate with tribes on the significance of the impacts
of projects and programs on tribal lands and communities. NEPA is often overlooked as a
viable link between project planning, the human environment, and trust responsibility.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978

(P.L. 95-431; 92 Stat. 469; 42 USC 1996)AIRFA establishes federal policy for
preservation of American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut, and Native Hawaiian right of freedom to
believe, express, and exercise their traditional religions, including access to and use of
sacred sites and objects.
Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979
(P.L. 96-95; 93 Stat. 721; 16 USC 470; 43 CFR 7.5; 25 CFR 260)ARPA requires
Federal agencies to consult with tribes that may have cultural or religious ties to a site or
other resource that may be affected by issuance of an ARPA permit.

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990

(P.L. 101-601, 25 USC. 3001)NAGPRA requires issuance of ARPA permit for intentional
excavation of cultural items from Federal or Tribal lands and Indian involvement in permit
decision; Requires tribal involvement in event of inadvertent discovery of cultural items.

EO 13007 (5-24-96)Indian Sacred Sites

Requires Federal land managing agencies to (1) accommodate access to and
Executive Orders and Other Authorities

ceremonial use of Indian sacred sites by Indian religious practitioners and (2) avoid
adversely affecting the physical integrity of such sacred sites. Further requires tribal
consultation on policies and implementation.

EO 13175 (11-06-00)Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal

Governments
Establishes Federal policy of Regular and meaningful consultation and collaboration
with Indian tribal governments in the development of regulatory practices that affect
their communities and the avoidance of imposing unfunded mandates upon tribal
governments;
Requires Federal agencies to (1) be guided by principles of respect for Indian tribal
self-government and sovereignty, for tribal treaty and other rights, and for responsibilities
that arise from the unique legal relationship between the Federal government and
Indian tribes; and (2) maintain an effective process to permit elected officials and other
representatives of Indian tribal governments to provide meaningful and timely input;

162 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Cultural Resources in Local and
Management Community
Context_________________________
Recognizing and understanding the diverse values
embedded in and ascribed to cultural resources is a
critical first step in providing for their protection and
appropriate use. Putting this proposition into effect
requires communication and cooperation among the
individuals and communities concerned with one or a
group of related cultural resources. Communities are
defined here as groups of people who share interests
and places. Two general community types merit dis-
tinction, definition, and discussion.
Local Communities
Local communities are most American Indian tribes
and other place-oriented groups that derive elements of
their world view, identity, and value systems through
long-standing and ongoing attachments to their re-
gion of current or previous occupation or use. Local
communities deserve attention because of growing
recognition of management guidance and other ben-
efits derived from collaboration with those willing to
share knowledge of intergenerational experience with
particular ecosystems. The place-based communities
most relevant to this discussion are typically enclaves
with variably porous boundaries defined by legal status,
ethnicity, religious orientation, or some combination.
Prominent examples include tribes, Hispanic villages,
and communities defined by participation in irrigation
systems or religions.
Management Communities
Management communities are clusters of offices
and individuals having designated regulatory, policy,
program, and trust responsibilities for ecosystems,
public and Indian well-being as well as cultural
resources. This community includes researchers,
decision makers, and implementation and enforce-
ment teams. Community is a useful and appropriate
referent because these groups often have substantial
interestspersonal as well as professionalin es-
tablishing and sustaining constructive relationships
both within their clusters and among people, forests,
fire management, and cultural resources in specific
geographical settings. Many biologists, hydrologists,
archaeologists, foresters, soil scientists, enforcement
officers, and decision makers develop and maintain
long and deep individual a ssociations with particular
regions that complement their professional associations
(Welch 2000; Nicholas and others 2007). A culture
of professional stewardship is especially prominent
within the U.S. National Park Service and the U.S.
Forest Service. Both agencies are staffed by highly
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 163
trained and skilled professionalsmany of whom are
following in their parents footstepswith profound
personal attachments to public landscapes (Gartner
1999:2). These ties serve as powerful performance mo-
tivators for stewards and should not be trivialized. On
the other hand, they should not be confused with the
sense of place or connection experienced by American
Indians and others to whom land and landscapes are
inherited birthrights rather than acquired affinities.2
Differences in perspectives and interests frequently
constitute barriers to communication and collabora-
tion between local and management communities
(Burns and others 2003). For better or worse, most
communication opportunities occur in the context of
management community planning driven by govern-
ment program mandates and policies. The compliance
checklist emphasizes quick planning and early project
implementation. This expedited process may not al-
low sufficient time to define the full range of cultural
resources or examine long-term means to safeguard
their values, much less to integrate management and
community interests.
Most chapters in this volume reflect the materials
science approach that has dominated discussions on
the effects of fire on cultural resources. The discussion
here seeks to highlight prospects for transcending both
the compliance and the materials science emphases.
Although prioritizing consultation and collaboration
holds promise, it does not, by definition, predetermine
outcomes. A local community, for example, might see
prospective fire effects on a sacred site or other cultural
resource with crucial intangible values primarily in
terms of threats to cultural traditions (Welch 1997).
This perception could, depending on the values at
stake, translate into preferences that fire either be
excluded from the site in perpetuity or allowed to
play its natural ecosystem role without regard to site
contents or boundaries. Either approach would pose
management challenges. Decision makers might see
the issue primarily in terms of the proposed treat-
ments compliance checklistwhat needs to be done
to satisfy regulatory requirements? Researchers in the
management community might view the situation as
an opportunity to either learn more about the cultural
traditions or, if inclined toward materials science,
about the physical and chemical impacts of fire on
artifacts, petroglyphs, or other site elements.
2
Another discussion might include issue-oriented communities
as a third community type, defining these as individuals and orga-
nizations that derive their commonality from advocacy for one or
more stewardship goals or practices. Although issue communities
are important stakeholders in resource management, advocacy
for both preservation and consumptive use is beyond the scope of
further discussion here.
 Much work remains to be done if we are to balance
the compliance and materials science approaches to
fire effects with community-oriented efforts to manage
for the full range of fire effects on the full spectrum
of cultural resources. One low-cost starting point is
attention to vocabulary used in communications with
local communities. Bureaucratic and compliance jar-
gon such as undertaking, area of potential effect,
and mitigation impede free flow of information from
non-specialists. Common binary terminologysuch
as: site vs. non-site, prehistory vs. history, nature vs.
culturehas persisted beyond most analytic utility
and also often hinders collaboration between manage-
ment and local communities. These false dichotomies
and their underlying concepts tend to constrain rather
than enhance relationships between managers and
landscapes, landscapes and local communities, de-
scendent communities and cultural resources, etc. Any
language or program that defines cultural resources
independently from local communities increases the
likelihood of misunderstanding and conflict (Welch
and others 2009a).
It is difficult to assess the depth or breadth of this
terminological issue, and many proactive fire manage-
ment programs are engaging local communities to
achieve in-depth understanding of cultural resource
issues. Nonetheless, two extensive bibliographies of
fire effects on cultural resources (Halford 2001; Rude
and Jones 2001) compiled into a joint publication of the
Bureau of Land Management (Halford 2001) contain
no uses of or references to intangible, sacred or tradi-
tional ecological knowledge (TEK). Only one reference
was made to tribal communities and two were made to
traditional fire use. The point is that neither the details
of agency procedures for complying with statutes and
regulations, nor the degree of pitting, cracking, and
spalling on pot sherds are generally of interest to local
communities. At the risk of oversimplification, what
local communities care most about is the continued
use and enjoyment of important places. In contrast
to compliance and materials science, however, project
and program planning are often important to local
communities. Planning initiatives provide the basis
for local community outreach on issues ranging from
the protection of sacred sites to individual employment
prospects. Landscape concepts and consultation pro-
vide good points of departure for engaging local and
management communities interests and goals along
with those of multiple stakeholders (Burns and oth-
ers 2003). It bears mentioning, however, that in the
absence of decision maker willingness to terminate or
modify a project or program that threatens intangible
cultural resources, consultation cannot be expected to
either satisfy a community concerned with the protec-
tion of the resources or lay the foundations for future
collaboration.
164 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Landscapes as Common
Ground_________________________
In accord with Haecker (chaper 6), a landscape ap-
proach to fire effects provides a flexible framework
for identifying and evaluating the significance of
diverse cultural resources in ecological, historical,
and community context. Landscapes are defined here
as constellations of physical elements and symbolic
associations with earth surfaces. Landscapes are cul-
turally constructed and thus constitute one type of
intangible cultural resource (Ashmore and Knapp
1999). This definition is distinct from the common use
of landscape in forest and fire management planning
contexts to refer simply to regions or groups of timber
stands (Finney 2001). As is true for cultural resources
in general, landscapes do not exist independently from
local communities. In other words, without reference
to historical and conceptual associations, landscape is
space rather than place (Tuan 1977).
Because the identification of landscapes requires
local community engagement, the landscape approach
invites detailed considerations of how people have
interacted with lands, plants, and animals through
systems of meaning as well as through behavior and
technology. Linkages among tangible cultural resourc-
es, local communities, ecosystems, and management
initiatives, such as the Wildland Fire Policy, often seem
elusive. Landscapes provide literal and figurative com-
mon ground (Zedeo and others 1997). Concepts and
vocabulary underlying landscape approaches achieve
greater coherence and relevance when related to local
community perceptions and values. Many cultural re-
sources are intangible, and most occupy or play roles
in landscapes. A landscape approach thus provides
tools for organizing and understanding intellectual
and practical issues engaged by the topic of fire effects
on cultural resources.
Zedeo and others (1997:126) suggest that landscapes
are defined and characterized by three dimensions:
formal, historical, and relational. The formal dimension
is what can be seen, heard, tasted, or feltthe physical
characteristics and resource properties of a landscape.
The historical dimension is what has happened on and
with a landscape through timethe sequential asso-
ciations among places, resources, and communities.
The relational dimension is what links material and
conceptual realitiesthe social and symbolic connec-
tions that make landscapes meaningful and useful.
Thinking about landscapes in terms of formal, histori-
cal, and relational dimensions complements the more
straightforward notion of landscapes as compilations of
spatial-temporal-symbolic layers that change through
time in terms of formal and relational characteristics.
This historical or developmental approach, which
has become increasingly useful through geographic
i nformation systems (GIS), seeks to identify each layer
in terms of places, resources, characteristics, values,
and meanings as they represent local community per-
ceptions and interests (Corbett and others 2006). More
than one layer may be required to portray a landscape
for a single community having evolving interests (for
example, pre-reservation vs. late 20th century formal
and relational dimensions). In the context of land and
fire management, geography and local community-
based mapping offers the common ground required
to highlight connections among resource classes, local
community resource uses, and prospects and limita-
tions for fuel treatments and other disturbances (Lewis
and Sheppard 2006). If cultural resources are to endure
as functional pillars of community spirit and identity,
their values (religious, social, economic, educational,
and management) must be recognized, incorporated
into planning frameworks, and engaged in pursuit of
common ground objectives (Welch and others 2009a,b).
The fact that landscapes appear to easily accommo-
date cultural, historical and management perspectives
may also be a prospective stumbling block: landscapes
are difficult to define and delimit. Although never infi-
nite, landscapes often eschew specific boundaries. This
limitation raises philosophical questions, but these are
often easily, if not exhaustively addressed in landscape
approaches to land and resource management. In these
contexts, geographical boundaries for plans, programs
and actions are rigorously defined by pre-established
jurisdictional and budgetary frameworks. If potential
conflicts between local community landscape defini-
tions and management community programs can be
resolved, then applied research employing landscapes
to integrate resources, communities, and values con-
tribute to landscape theory, as well as more immediate
management objectives (Karjala and Dewhurst 2003).
Beyond Compliance and Materials
Science_________________________
Applying a landscape approach to cultural resource
issues in fire management requires a departure from
previous emphases on mitigation of fire effects on
cultural resources in which effects and resources are
defined primarily by the management community.
Changes in laws, public opinion, and professional eth-
ics have highlighted the inadequacies of compliance
and materials sciences approaches for addressing
local community concerns. The statutory and policy
mandates relevant to these concerns reflect a growing
responsiveness to issues raised and emphasized by
American Indians and other local community repre-
sentatives. Gaps are likely to persist between statutory
possibilities and management realities. Regardless
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 165
of where one turns for help, consultation with local
community representatives remains one answer to
pressing questions. Core subjects include the effects
that land management programs and projects may
have on cultural resources, as well as general interests
in building understanding and partnerships in public
land and resource management contexts.
Previous and ongoing research into the role of fire in
the American West prior to the establishment of land
and fire management agencies and policies has pushed
fire effects on cultural resources discussion beyond the
compliance and materials sciences approaches (Dods
2002). Investigations of local communities uses of
burning and accommodations to wildfire (Blackburn
and Anderson 1993; Pyne 1982; Raish and others 2005)
have highlighted the intimate links among cultures,
landscapes, and fire. For example, according to Wuk-
chumni scholar Hector Franco (1993:19), landscape
burning was integral to the Yokuts economic and
religious life: Indian people, we talk to fire. Weve
learned through religious teachings that fire lives
inside of us. Fire was thought of in a very reverent
manner. The abundant literature on American Indian
use of fire also underscores the important point that
landscapes are not today, and never have been in the
past, static entities that can be preserved without major
losses of resilience. Like the cultural resources they
contain and sustain, the survival of many landscapes,
including wilderness areas, as healthy and meaningful
entities is dependent on respectful and considerate use
by the communities of which they are a part.
The Sonoran Desert oases of Quitovac and Quitoba
quito are good examples of complex habitats sustained
by and integral to American Indian communities.
Through burning, flood-irrigating, transplanting,
and seed-sowingOodham families have nurtured a
diversity of plant and bird species far greater than that
for any areas of comparable size. Yet after the last
Oodham left Quitobaquito in the 1950s, a park super-
intendent decided to deepen the oasis pond, eliminate
burning and irrigation for pastures and orchards, and
halt any replanting of cottonwoods, willows, or other
wild plants, native or non-native. As the oasis lost its
dynamic nature, biologists began to notice declines in
the endangered pupfish and mud turtle populations
there.Whereas disturbance was once equated with
threat by most conservation biologists and wilderness
advocates, it is now recognized that some wild plants
and animals require a certain level of exposure to
fires, floods, or loosened soils (Anderson and Nabhan
1991: 29-30).
This account would be even more sobering if it included
discussion of the effects of the disrupted management
regime on the Oodham community for whom the oases
are critical elements of group identity and history.
 Careful consideration of the pre-management roles
of fire in American Indian, Hispanic, and early Anglo
communities is required for several reasons. First,
use of fire reflects culturally based conceptions of
landscapes, fire, stewardship, and of the links among
them. Such conceptions must be included in manage-
ment vocabularies as bases for communications with
local communities and, perhaps more importantly,
to afford glimpses of landscapes from distinctive,
time-tested viewpoints. Second, pre-industrial use of
fire has, in many world regions, profoundly shaped
ecosystems, landscapes, and community and inter-
community relations (table8-2 lists uses of fire). It
should not be a surprise, then, that management
community restrictions on burning have angered
local communities, alienated them from landscapes,
and affected vegetation regimes, habitat, and other
important resources. Management communities need
to know the full range of factors that have shaped cur-
rent conditions and must, as complements to relevant
research (for example documentary, tree ring, and land
use studies) consult local community representatives.
To focus and extend this line of argument, the history
of Federal land management is too often a history of di-
viding people from places and resources critical in their
material and spiritual lives. There is value in building
upon many excellent examples of local-management
collaborations through holistic approaches to land
and resource conservation. Decision makers and re-
searchers who think that local communities cannot
be trusted stewardship partners are encouraged to
review and emulate instances of community-focused
efforts to sustain ecosystem health while providing
for human needs (Agrawal and Gibson 1999; Berkes
2004; Coconino National Forest 1999; Maines and
Bridger 1992; Netting 1993). Even where elders and
cultural specialists holding location- or issue-specific
knowledge or training are unavailable or unwilling
to consult with management communities, local com-
munity interests are valid sources of management
recommendations. The bottom line is that Federal
and State lands are public lands, and wetrustees
and beneficiaries alikeare obliged to seek better
ways to balance, maintain, enhance, and perpetuate
the diverse values embedded in these lands.
Steps and Stumbling Blocks in
Inter-Community Collaboration_____
Each step in a landscape-oriented approach to the
identification and assessment of links between fire
management and cultural resources involves, at a
minimum, an exchange between local and management
communities. Generalized steps in the Federal land
management compliance process are outlined below
in terms of opportunities to recognize interests shared
by local and management communities and to engage
a landscape approach for exploring common ground
and reaching agreement on management issues.
Several principles that serve to facilitate and enhance
communications and collaborations deserve restate-
ment. Each local community is unique, existing in its
particular place and time because of historical processes
operating on distinctive cultural and geographical
substrata as well as current interests and goals. For
this reason and because of the often contentious his-
tory of relationships between local and management
communities, there is ample potential for improved
collaborations based on the specification of common in-
terests. Community forestry studies provide examples
and discussions of the needs and benefits of refocusing

Table 8-2Non-domestic uses of fire in pre-industrial communities (Raish and others 2005).
Non-domestic uses of fire

Clear land for agriculture fields and pastures

Replenish soil nutrients in agricultural fields
Kill woody species in rangelands and encourage grass growth
Increase wild seed production
Stimulate shoot formation the production of straight shoots for basketry and other implements
Improve growth of both wild and cultivated tobacco and other plants
Kill and control varmints, vermin and flying insect pests
Drive and hunt game
Create diversions to facilitate raiding of or escape from enemies
Destroy enemies food stores, agricultural fields, homes, hiding places

166 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

land and resource management through attention to
the interests and goals of local communities (Baker and
Kusel 2003; Gibson and Koontz 1998; Henderson and
Krahl 1996; Kelly and Bliss 2009; Kleymeyer 1994).
Consultation is defined here as an exchange of in-
formation and views as part of a good faith effort to
reach agreement. Many specific issues associated with
fire effects on cultural resources and landscape-level
analyses have yet to be addressed. Stoffle (1998) pro-
vides a nine-step consultation program developed in
the context of Department of Defense efforts to engage
Indian tribes in processes prescribed by the Native
American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of
1990 and the executive order on Sacred Sites (13007).
Burns and others (2003) offer a model for engaging
diverse stakeholders, developing shared understand-
ings, achieving a convergence of goals relating to how
fire-dependent landscapes should look and function,
and launching collaborations in pursuit of the goals.
In November 2008, the Advisory Council on Historic
Preservation (ACHP) released Consultation with
Indian Tribes in the Section 106 Review Process: A
Handbook, http://www.achp.gov/regs-tribes2008.pdf
(accessed August 2, 2010). This addition to NHPA guid-
ance includes issue-by-issue interpretations as well as
four summative recommendations and numerous use-
ful suggestions. The four principal points are Respect
Is Essential; Communication Is Key; Consultation:
Early and Often; Effective Meetings Are a Primary
Component of Successful Consultation. The National
Association of Tribal Historic Preservation Officers
(2005) prepared Tribal Consultation: Best Practices
in Historic Preservation, which provides specific ap-
proaches and tools for working with tribes within a
NHPA framework. On the basis of these works and
experience linked to forest and fire management, the
suggestions here may be useful to representatives of
management and local communities. Communication
and the prospects for constructive collaboration can be
enhanced by understanding and employing the follow-
ing principles in consulting or otherwise interacting
with local communities:
People First
Build trust through respectful relationships. Even
in the context of government-to-government rela-
tions, consultation occurs between individuals;
there is no substitute for genuine personal atten-
tion to other participants and their perspectives.
On the other hand, a professional, transparent,
and respectful atmosphere for consultation
based on a history of mutual trust is often more
important than either the individuals involved
or whether communications are face-to-face
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 167
(NATHPO 2005:26). Without a combination of
personal and community investment, consulta-
tion is usually unsustainable.
Establish clear and open communications with at
least one duly designated representative from po-
tentially affected or interested local communities.
Prioritize communications with representatives
of those communities most affected by the proj-
ect or program. In an ideal world, these will be
the representatives most interested in and well
informed about the consultation topic.
Empower representatives to help set the defini-
tions, priorities, times, places, media, and agenda
for consultations. Document information for circu-
lation to all consulting parties with a request for
assistance in assuring that the record is faithful
to the proceedings.
Designate at least one individual who is not an
official community representative to serve as the
official keeper of consultation records and notes.
One Local Community at a Time
Recognize commonalities and divergences among
local communities and consider employing these
to structure consultation processes.
Make it possible for representatives of distinctive
communities to have the exclusive attention of
researchers and decision makers. Provide equal
time for each local community in such settings.
Avoid use of one community representative to
assess or address issues of potential interest to
a second, separate community.
Avoid pursuit or engagement of multiple points
of contact in order to identify individuals or or-
ganizations more likely to provide sensitive or
accommodating information. It is reasonable to
expect, encourage, and even insist upon a single
official position on a particular issue from each
involved community.
Deal Face Up
In advance of face-to-face consultation, identify
and respect the authorities, responsibilities, and
goals of those participating in the communica-
tions. Avoid face-to-face meetings prior to the
disclosure of the purpose and scope of the consul-
tation, including policy and schedule mandates
or limitations.
Establish a respectful, but rigorous mutual
understanding of mandates and prerogatives as-
sociated with the consultation process and likely
outcomes. Acknowledge the costs associated with
consultation and collaborate on means to reduce
and share the financial and time commitments.
 Facilitate stakeholder access to all data being en-
gaged in the decision process and in understand-
ing the full range of issues and values at stake.
Avoid the creation of any obligation on the part of
stakeholders to assume agency duties or respon-
sibilities without compensation, or to otherwise
participate in the interactions if they are not
ready or willing to do so.
Provide for the appropriate acknowledgement
typically from the head of the agencyfor any
individual or community that assumes duties that
contribute to the achievement of management
community goals or mandates.
The Sooner the Better
Engage stakeholders as early as possible in proj-
ect planning or decision making. Avoid eleventh
hour notifications and short time frame response
deadlines.
Request local community representatives assis-
tance in establishing procedural time lines and
in anticipating likely contingencies.
If the consultation requires additional time and
a schedule extension is a possibility, collaborate
in developing a new consensus-based schedule.
Until consultation is completed, make sure that
all parties are aware of the schedule for the next
steps and of what actions will facilitate these
steps.
Go to the Source
Create opportunities for stakeholders to provide
first-hand accounts of the cultural resources they
care about, especially through the definition and
description of landscapes. Knowledgeable lead-
ers or technical specialists should be engaged
as full partners or hired to assist in meeting the
responsibilities of management communities in
relation to large, complicated, or controversial
programs or activities.
Visits to project areas and other landscapes are
useful contexts for consultation.
Avoid privileging publications, experts not rec-
ognized by the local community, and stereotypes
about the local community over group memory,
self-perception, and self-representation.
Get help as necessary, through training in cultural
sensitivity or conflict resolution. If mistrust or
conflict persists to the point of impeding com-
munications, consider changing the focus of a
consultation to procedural matters, such as the
use of a professional facilitator or dispute media-
tor known or acceptable to the local communities.
168 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Respect Tribal Sovereignty
Recognize tribes rights and privileges, recognized
statutes, court decisions, and executive orders.
Acknowledge Federal trust responsibility for the
welfare and advancement of individual Indians
and Federally recognized tribes. Federal agencies
do not have special fiduciary responsibilities to
State-designated tribes.
Honor tribal requests for government-to-
government communications. A tribes elected
leadership may designate its representation and
insist upon documented delegations of authority
from the head of the management or program
agency. A Federal agency designee may, in turn,
request documentation for the delegation of
authority from the tribes governing authority.
Consider the benefits of developing memoranda
of understanding or other agreements to guide
consultations.
The adoption and application of these principles
entails substantial investments in communications.
Available resources may be inadequate, and any limit-
ing factors should be disclosed to the consulting parties.
On the other hand, such communication promises to
provide significant and largely unprecedented benefits
to those contributing to the dialogues, as well as to the
ecosystems potentially affected by proposed programs
or actions. Experience and study of consultation ap-
pears to be converging on the general formula that
respect leads to trust, trust to collaboration, collabo-
ration to success, and success to additional success
(NATHPO 2005; Welch and others 2009b).
Summary and
Recommendations_______________
Approaching intangible conceptual, oral, and behav-
ioral traditions as cultural resources requires open and
sustained consultations between land managers and
local communities having substantial experience with
the lands under management. Proper consultation can
facilitate identification of a full spectrum of values and
their associated cultural resources, thus enabling the
definition of landscapes and the assessment of fire ef-
fects on regional, site, and artifact levels. The broader
and deeper understanding produced by consultation of
this sortperhaps in conjunction with participatory
GIS or other forms of community mappingpromises
to improve the planning basis for the conservation and
treatment of forests and woodlands where fire plays
a role.
Although much of this chapter may read like an
ambitious recommendation, the following ten points
summarize the discussion and offer specific guidance management plans, prescribed burn plans, best
for addressing the effects of wildland fire on intangible management practices for fire suppression, etc.).
cultural resources. Additional guidance concerning landscape-level
approaches to the identification and consideration
1. Unlike wildland fire, which exists independently
of cultural resources is available in National
from humans, intangible cultural resources at-
Register Bulletins 30 (Guidelines for Evaluating
tain definition and value only through and with
and Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes) and
groups that rely on them. The alteration or loss
38 (Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting
of cultural resourceswhether through fire or
Traditional Cultural Properties).
another agentcan have profound and deleteri-
4. Decision makers and researchers should em-
ous effects on the resources themselves, as well
brace opportunities to serve local communities
as on groups and individuals deriving elements
in addition to scientific truths or management
of their identities and senses of place from these
objectives. Many of the sacrosanct and vitalizing
resources. It bears mention that many local
practices and meanings that once bound people to
communities regard wildfire effects on cultural
their lands and to one another have been lost or
resources as natural and often even preferable
degraded as local communities have been obliged
in comparison to prescribed burning or other
to interact with their lands according to alien and
management actions or land alterations. This
alienating rules and concepts imposed by man-
perspective acknowledges fire as a powerful
agement communities. Approaching fire effects
planetary element that demands respect and, in
on cultural resources through emphasis on either
many instances, deference. Human endeavors
compliance checklists or materials science typi-
and institutions, especially management com-
cally results in self-limiting perspectives, criticism
munities, seldom receive comparable deference
from local communities, and heightened potential
from local communities.
for conflict. The results of this alienation, coupled
2. A landscape approach offers potent and flexible
with global climate change, continental-scale pest
means for consultation, research, and planning
problems, and ever-increasing population pres-
in the broad context of fire effects. Applicable in
sure, are seen in the widespread disintegration of
both planning and post-fire incident scenarios,
ecosystems, local communities and links among
the landscape approach is intended to foster
them. Local communities and landscapes deserve
broadened, community-oriented consultation con-
consideration as management priorities.
cerning the conservation of cultural resources in
5. Wildland fires often create unique opportunities
the context of public land management in general
in cultural resource science, management, conser-
and fire and fuels management in particular (see
vation, and inter-community collaboration. These
Field and Jensen 2005). Management communi-
opportunities are typically short-lived, as fire
ties should make the most of landscapes and
and its indirect effects often elevate and escalate
other common ground with local communities.
the potential for vandalism and theft, watershed
The land and its health provide excellent points
destabilization and loss due to rehabilitation activ-
of departure and goals for stewardship collabora-
ity. In general, the more recently created or used
tions. One visionary collaborative model involves
the cultural resource, the greater the potential
local communities reclaiming their intrinsic roles
effects that fire may have on the resource. This
as creators and sustainers of cultural resources;
is true both because a more recently created or
research communities gathering information to
used site is more likely to contain fire-sensitive
assess ideas and provide new perspectives; gov-
items and features and because such a site is more
ernance communities of decision makers working
likely to be valuedin its immediate post-use or
for the long-term interests of their constituents;
pre-fire conditionby individuals and communi-
and land managers serving liaison roles by fos-
ties. This is not to suggest that truly ancient sites
tering beneficial ties among these communities
are disrespected by local communities or should
and the ecosystems that are the ultimate source
be disregarded by managers.
of our health, wealth, and happiness (Kelly and
6. The embeddedness of cultural resources in land-
Bliss 2009).
scapes is true both literally and figuratively.
3. Federal land managers statutory, regulatory and
Tangible cultural resources are very often located
trust obligations are generally met and exceeded
within, and sometimes fully encapsulated by,
by a common sense, good neighbor policy of com-
soil systems. Soil systems are components of wa-
munication and collaboration concerning the con-
tersheds, and watersheds are almost invariably
sideration of the full range of cultural resources
affected by post-fire processes involving sediment
and potential effects in the course of planning
relocations. Activities associated with wildland
for programs and projects (for example, forest

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 169

 fire suppression, especially heavy equipment
operations, often have direct, indirect and cumula-
tive effects on cultural resources, the consequences
of which too often include additional alienation
between places, people, and the cultural resources
that connect them.
7. There is value and unrealized potential in in-
tegrative consultations and studies focused on
particular landscapes and ecosystems. Especially
encouraging are efforts to connect or re-connect
local communities to historical and manage-
ment issues through research, education and
outreach efforts focused on fire history, ecology,
and management, as well as community response
to catastrophe. Research has been completed on
the use of fire by local communities, and this line
of inquiry should be expanded to examine the
impacts of fire on local history and culture.
8. Local and descendent community connections
to cultural resources should be fostered and
conserved for their intrinsic value, as well as for
prospective management applications. It is argu-
able that local communities and the intangibles
that give them identity and vitality are more
important than the artifacts and features that
many of us think of as cultural resources. Local
communities are often endangered and require
support and conservation. Without people who
care about and sustain cultural resourcesinclud-
ing landscapesmanagers and researchers are
concerned with the relatively sterile enterprises
of minimalist compliance, materials science, and
management driven by either internal value
systems or second-hand interpretations of local
community interests and public values. The inclu-
sion of local communities and other stakeholders
as partners in public land and fire management
opens the door to a search for understanding
and truths regarding the critically important
relationships among landscapes, history, culture,
and management.
9. As one means for integrating practical and legal
mandates, fiduciary principles espoused by insti-
tutional and financial trustees offer a guide for
expanding considerations of fire effects on cultural
resources beyond basic management and pro
forma compliance, toward true stewardship. All
employees of public land management agencies
share the burden of upholding the public trust,
the doctrine of fiduciary responsibility for the
maintenance and improvement of the terrain
and resources under their control (Dunning
2003). In addition to general duties as public
trustees, all U.S. Federal officials share specific
fiduciary responsibility for the welfare of Ameri-
can Indians (Chambers 1975; Welch and others
170 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
2009b). American Indian communities and
individuals often depend on land-linked cultural
heritage for everything from raw materials re-
quired for religious practices to the foundations
of group identity and moral guidance (Basso
1996; Friedlander and Pinyan 1980). This truth
also applies to most place-based non-American
Indian communities.
10. NEPA, NHPA, and fiduciary principles converge
on the mandate for public land managers to
harmonize their programs with local interests
and long-term ecosystem health. One criterion
for assessing land management is the degree to
which policies and practices strengthen land-
linked communities and enhance their ties to
lands and other resources. A second criterion is the
degree to which a management policy or practice
results in the maintenance or enhancement of
the value of lands as trust assets, as evaluated
by the beneficiaries. Fiduciary obligations to the
public at large and American Indians in particular
suggest the need for long-range planning and the
identification and evaluation of all significant
cultural resources potentially affected by man-
agement decisions and actions. There are, of
course, many regional and agency interpretations
of what these obligations mean, and it is useful
for practitioners to understand both legislative
intent and the political and bureaucratic forces
that have shaped actual practice.
Concluding Thoughts_____________
Fire is a unique and powerful element of the Universe,
existing as both tool and symbol in all cultures. Given
our interests in understanding the world, protecting
ourselves, and harnessing fire, the enduring fascination
with fire is little wonder. Nonetheless, in the face of
countless lessons learned about fires destructive force,
and innumerable billions spent on subjugation cru-
sades, fire continues to defy mastery. Fire thus serves
as a catalyst for change and a sometimes cataclysmic
reminder to local and management communities of the
mandate to seek harmony with ecosystem processes.
Many local communities have heeded this reminder,
incorporated fires lessons into cultural resources, and
embedded themselves in fire-dependent landscapes
and ecosystems since time immemorial. Management
community representatives and researchers are urged
to consider the benefits of protecting local communi-
ties and their landscapes as cultural resources. Once
people and the places they care most about are safe,
the possibilities increase for learning what lessons
they may offer concerning ecosystem disturbance,
resilience, and balance, as well as the consequences
when these are disregarded or exceeded.
Rebecca S. Timmons
Leonard deBano
Kevin C. Ryan
Chapter 9:
Implications of Fire Management
on Cultural Resources
It is not what you find, but what you find out.
David Hurst Thomas
Previous chapters in this synthesis have identified
the important fuel, weather, and fire relationships
associated with damage to cultural resources (CR).
They have also identified the types of effects commonly
encountered in various fire situations and provided
some guidance on how to recognize damages and mini-
mize their occurrence. This chapter describes planning
processes and actions that can be used to manage the
effects on cultural resources in different fire and fire
management situations.
Three reoccurring themes have emerged in this
synthesis: the need to identify, evaluate, and mitigate
the impacts of fire and fire management activities
on cultural resources. The most critical point of this
approach is the need to identify the values at risk.
The previous chapters have provided a clear idea of
the scope of cultural resource elementsboth tangible
and intangiblethat could be lost if not properly pro-
tected and what may cause the most harmful effects to
each. This report has assessed fires effects on cultural
resources of many types, but for fire managers there
may still be questions about what is actually at risk.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 171
Each resource was discussed in detail, identifying
not only its physical properties but also its cultural
significance. The values of these resources were identi-
fied through field surveys, georeferencing techniques,
and consultations with local community members and
tribal liaisons (chapter 8).
What determines the value of each element? Through
evaluation, using the matrix process detailed later
in this chapter, we are able to define not only the
physical properties or significance of each element but
also management and inventory techniques. These
evaluations also often provide a context for future
desired conditions for the site as well as the priority
for comparison to other elements. Specifically, the
matrix identifies values at risk versus fire behavior
and management actions. The Risk Management sec-
tion below and also the Introduction (chapter 1) define
direct and indirect effects of fire and operational ac-
tivities on cultural resources. Other chapters allude to
operational effects through examples. Simply stated,
operational effects are effects on cultural resources
caused by fire suppression activities such as digging
line, dropping retardant, cutting down trees, or other
tactics. In fire management activities, particularly fuel
treatments and restorations, the evaluation process
involves a number of iterations where expected fuel
consumption and fire behavior are evaluated for their
potential impacts on CR and prescriptions are modified
to minimize adverse effects and the need for subsequent
mitigation.
Mitigation is the final step in managing cultural
resources because it is not possible without identifi-
cation and evaluation. Careful planning and advance
knowledge of the types of cultural resources commonly
encountered on a management unit can minimize nega-
tive effects to CR. However, new cultural resources are
often discovered following fire. If we do not know what
is there, we cannot create a means to evaluate what is
important to preserve, or plan how to best protect these
resources from damage or destruction. Mitigation, in
this context, are the preventative measures that both
cultural resource specialists and fire managers can
use to limit direct and indirect effects of both fire and
fire management activities. Mitigation of fire and sup-
pression effects on CR has been discussed in previous
chapters and is discussed in the sections below as an
essential step for both planned and unplanned fires.
The objective of this chapter is to provide an inte-
grated summary of the potential impacts for fire-related
activities within a framework useful for managers.
It presents additional information for both cultural
resource specialists and fire managers to help them
understand the resources they are trying to preserve,
how they are damaged, and to create processes to bet-
ter preserve them.
Planning________________________
The management of cultural resources is becom-
ing an increasingly important concern for managers
of Federal, State, and tribal lands. Numerous laws,
regulations, policies, and guidelines that address
cultural resource management have been developed
over the last 100 years. Section 106 of the National
Historic Preservation Act (P.L. 89-665, as amended,
P.L. 91-423, P.L. 94-422, P.L.94-458 and P.L. 96-515),
along with its regulations (35CFR800), require cultural
sites to be evaluated for their potential to be eligible
for listing in the National Register of Historic Places.
The law also directs Federal agencies to assess the
effects of a proposed project on any eligible proper-
ties. Past and potential fire impacts to artifacts and
features are critical in assessing both eligibility and
effects. Managers must, therefore, be able to integrate
the application of an existing regulatory framework
with the knowledge of potential impacts to these ir-
replaceable cultural resources.
Effective cultural resource management begins with
strong management commitment, good inventory data,
solid planning, and effective monitoring. General or
land and resource management plans (LRMP) define
172 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
the mission and strategic direction for a unit of land.
These broad-scale plans typically identify the pertinent
laws and authorities associated with the creation of the
management unit, its geographical location, roles and
responsibilities, stakeholders and partners, important
laws governing the management of the unit (e.g., in
the United States: National Forest Management Act,
Federal Land Policy and Management Act, Endangered
Species Act, Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, National
Historic Preservation Act, etc.), the resource goals to
be promoted by the plan, the values at risk, and the
sources of those risks (fig. 9-1). Ideally, LRMPs also
clearly describe the types of vegetation, the role of fire
regimes, and the historic and prehistoric uses of the
land. Similarly, cultural resource management plans
(CRMPs) identify the pertinent laws and policies gov-
erning the protection of historic and prehistoric heritage
resources, roles and responsibilities, and key contacts
such as the State Historical Preservation Officer and
indiginous community leaders. They also identify the
cultural resources (CR) including cultural landscapes;
the types of sites; known or probable resources and
their location, as appropriate; as well as the threats
or risks to the CR. Some sites may be well known
(lookouts, ranger stations), while locational informa-
tion of other sites (prehistoric camp sites) is exempt
from public disclosure to protect the resource from
vandalism (Christensen and others 1992). CRMPs also
identify the state of knowledge and the CR practices
and standards for inventorying, monitoring, stabiliz-
ing, and restoring resources as well as measures for
minimizing and mitigating negative impacts associ-
ated with other management activities. Likewise, fire
management plans (FMPs) define pertinent laws and
policies, authorities and responsibilities, goals, op-
tions, and constraints facing fire management. FMPs
typically include descriptions of historic role and use
of fire in the management unit; elements of the fire
environment including vegetation/fuels, terrain influ-
ences, and historic fire weather; fire occurrence and
behavior; the values at risk; and resources protected.
The standard focus of FMPs includes public and fire
fighter safety; natural, air, and cultural resources;
infrastructure, and wildland urban interface. FMPs
describe appropriate actions for fuels treatment, res-
toration, and wildfire suppression based on current
knowledge and practices. Both the cultural resource
management plan and the fire management plan pro-
vide direction to the LRMP and draw direction from it.
All three are part of an integrated approach to effective
planning and stewardship of natural and cultural re-
sources. Fire management and cultural resource plans
are integrated with land and resource management
plans to form the basis for proposed activities. Actual
activity plans require interdisciplinary integration of
other resources and processes. Assessment of actual
 Figure 9-1Schematic of the planning process as it relates to cultural resource (CR) protection.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 173

and potential impacts on CR following action (fire)
requires inventorying, monitoring, and interdisciplin-
ary assessment. These support critical evaluation of
preexisting plans and procedures, documentation of
lessons learned, and refined knowledge in support of
adaptive management.
Well written integrated LMPs, CRMPs, and FMPs
provide a foundation for designing and implementing
projects that achieve their shared-collective goals.
Integrated project planning addresses the effects of
proposed actions on flora (Brown and Smith 2000;
Steffan and others 2010; Zouhar and others 2008),
fauna (Engstrom 2010; Smith 2000), air (Sandberg and
others 2002), soil and water (Neary and others 2005),
cultural resources (chapter 1), communities (Aplet and
Wilmer 2006; Daniel and others 2005; Jakes and oth-
ers 2007; Shlisky and others 2007; Wells 2009), and
infrastructure. Integrated project planning involves
an iterative process of evaluating trade-offs between
competing goals and objectives to arrive at the best
alternative for a multiple of resources (fig. 9-1). It
is an interdisciplinary collaborative effort involving
stakeholders (Jakes 2008; Kaufmann and others 2009;
McCaffrey 2006; Sturtevant and Jakes 2008). Fire
managers need to consider all significant and sensitive
CR and to be proactive to minimize potential damage.
Active involvement of CR specialists in the planning
and conducting of fire management activities is integral
to meeting CR goals and objectives (table9-1).
Following fire, CR specialists need to evaluate the
fires severity and its impacts on the cultural resources.
(Chapter 2 provides guidelines for evaluating fire
severity.) Fires impacts may be the direct result of
heating or the deposition of chemicals released during
the combustion process (soot, tars, adhesions, etc.).
Other chapters in this publication provide guidance
on determining the direct effects of fire on ceramics
(chapter 3), lithics (chapter 4), rock art (chapter 5),
materials of the historical period (chapter 6), and
subterranean structures (chapter 7). Evaluation of the
effects of fire on CR requires that the CR specialists
consider the combustion environment, i.e., the local
small-scale environment juxtaposed around each site
or artifact as it is at this scale that the direct effects
occur (chapter 2).
In addition to evaluating the direct effects of fire on
cultural resources, CR specialists need to evaluate the
impact of fire management activities (fig. 9-2b) (bro-
ken bedrock mortar) and the potential for second- and
third-order effects such as the potential for post-fire
erosion (Allen 2001; Lesko and others 2002; Johnson
2004; Kelly and Mayberry 1980; Neary and others
2005) and for vandalism (Christensen and others
1992; Davis and others 1992a,b; Downer 1992; Higgins
1992), respectively. Erosion potential is a function of
the terrain, geologic parent material, fire severity, and
expected post-fire weather, principally precipitation
(Neary and others 2005). Effective evaluation of ero-
sion potential and the need for post-fire stabilization
and rehabilitation requires an interdisciplinary effort.
Following planned (e.g., fuels treatment, restoration,
prescribed burning, etc.) and unplanned (e.g., wildfire

Table 9-1Advance planningpreparedness: A U.S. Federal lands example.

Proper cultural resource planning is the best way to respond to any planned or unplanned
fire. There are several steps that can prepare for making decisions about cultural properties:

The Cultural Resource Specialist prepares a GIS layer with locations of known eligible
and unevaluated properties, where wildfire management decisions dictate necessary site
protection.

The Cultural Resource Specialist prepares a GIS layer based on the likelihood of cultural
properties using a predictive site model. In lieu of a GIS layer, the Forest will utilize a hard
copy map of site probability.

The Cultural Resource Specialist, in cooperation with a Fire Specialist, prepares Site
Protection Plans (SPPs) that identify the appropriate protection measures for various cultural
property types. As these plans are developed, they can be provided to the appropriate
Historic Preservation Office, either the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) or the Tribal
Historic Preservation Office (THPO) for their review and comment.

The Cultural Resource Specialist provides instruction during any forest Wildland Fire
Decision Support System (WFDSS) training on the Federal laws and Forest Service policies
regarding the protection of cultural resources. The training will include the procedures for
cultural resources protection.

174 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

suppression) actions, a formal review of the prescrip-
tions, plans, and execution should be conducted. Les-
sons learned should be formally documented to provide
a basis for a formalized adaptive management process
that leads to improved management of future projects
(fig. 9-1).
Risk Management________________
Cultural resource and fire managers should assess
potential risks when evaluating the effects of wildland
fire, prescribed fire, fire use and fire suppression on
cultural properties. These risks include the direct, first
order impacts from the fire itself as well as suppres-
sion activities, and the indirect effects such as erosion
potential (chapters 1 and 2).
Direct effects that occur as a result of the fire itself
include the combustion of burnable cultural materials
(wood, shells, paints, glazes) and physical and chemical
Figure 9-2Dozer cat line on the 2001 Highway
88 Fire near Ione, California; (A) exposed unknown
bedrock mortar; and (B) damaged bedrock mortar
(photos by Sharan A. Waechter, Far Western Anthro-
pological Research Group, for CalFire).
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 175
changes in materials (spalling, charring, calcification,
crazing, melting, heat and chemical alteration). Direct
effects are the result of the physical and chemical
processes associated with combustion. In contrast,
indirect effects occur as a consequence of the direct
effects, and are of two types: human responses and
biophysical responses (chapter 1). For example, from
April to June, 2007, a series of fires collectively named
the Bugaboo Fire burned over 600,000 acres (2,400 km2)
in the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, Osceola
National Forest, and adjacent lands. Hundreds of miles
(kilometers) of fireline were dug by tractor-plow and
hand crews, exposing and damaging numerous CR sites
and features. Over 100 new sites were discovered on
407 kilometers (253 miles) of fireline on the Osceola
National Forest alone (Lydick and Donop 2009). Cul-
tural resources may be affected directly by suppression
activities (hand and mechanical fire line construction
(figs. 9-2, 9-3), retardant use (Reed and others 2007)
A and rehabilitation activities. It is generally concluded
that fire suppression activities during wildland fires
and post-fire site rehabilitation treatments present the
most consistent adverse impacts and pose the great-
est risk to cultural properties. The indirect effects of
fire include exposure of surface cultural properties
to erosion and to increased visibility. The removal of
vegetation and surface litter can expose cultural prop-
erties formerly not readily visible to the eye, therefore
making them more vulnerable to looting (Christensen
and others 1992). Post-fire erosion on steep slopes of
severely burned areas can occur after intense wildland
fires have destroyed most of the pre-fire vegetative
canopy, causing the horizontal displacement of surface
cultural materials (Allen 2001; Johnson 2004; Lesko
and others 2002; Timmons and others 1996). A fire can
leave standing vegetation that becomes vulnerable to
blow down and can impact both surface and subsurface
cultural properties.
The elements of risk for adverse impacts to cultural
properties can only be assessed in a rather detailed
analysis that takes into account multiple factors. One
set of factors relates to the type of cultural features and
artifacts (elements) involved and the relative location
of those cultural properties on the landscape. Often the
locations of features or sites are known before hand.
Often such CRs are discovered through pretreatment
or post disturbance surveys,
B Usually the types of resources
to be expected in an area can
be anticipated, (sidebar 9-1),
but sometimes new discover-
ies are made. Another set of
factors relates to the interac-
tion of the environment with
fire. As the previous chapters
describe, not all cultural
properties will respond to
fire in the same way. How a
cultural property will react
to fire depends on its mate-
rial composition (organic/
inorganic), its provenience
(surface/subsurface), exist-
ing fuel loads (grasses/heavy
deadfall), fire intensity (high/
low), duration of heat, soil
heat penetration, and fuel,
soil, and duff moistures.

Figure 9-3(A) Fireline on 2007 Bugaboo Fire, Osceola National Forest; (B) Pottery
sherds impacted by tractor-plow fireline construction.

176 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Sidebar 9-1Observing and Conserving Cultural Features
Archaeologists become familiar with the types of resources in their particular area: the known sites, common features,
types of artifacts, and the raw materials used in their geographic area. When CR specialists are deployed on fire assign-
ments to new areas they need to come up to speed quickly by interacting with local specialists. Wildland fire suppression
forces commonly get deployed all around the country where they encounter historic and prehistoric cultural resources.
Old buildings, rock art panels, railroad trestles and other highly visible features are easily recognized as such and alert
firefighters to the need to take special caution and solicit input from CR specialists. However, many CR are subtle and
not easily recognized by the untrained eye. There have been instances where fire crews have collected artifacts and a
number of examples where CRs were inadvertently damaged. Education and training can minimize these damages. Line
scouts and crew bosses need to learn to spot features and minimize potential damage. The following examples illustrate
the types of CR one may encounter.

Figure 9S-1aPrehistoric hunting blind (photo

by Becky Timmons, USFS Kootenai National
Forest). The linear structure and stacked-rock
nature of this feature identify it as a cultural
resource.

Figure 9S-1bArchaic stone hearth (note circular pattern of rocks) revealed by for-
est floor consumption during prescribed burning (photo by Becky Timmons, USFS
Kootenai National Forest).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 177

 C

Figure 9S-1cA slab-lined basin (prehistoric

cooking pit), normally with just the tips of the
walls above the surface. Erosion post-fire par-
tially deflated the feature. The 2002 Mustang
Fire burned up to the edge of the feature, which
is now undergoing further deflating (lower right
area in photo) (photo by Clay Johnson, USFS
Ashley National Forest).

Figure 9S-1dTrash dumps are commonly

found in rural locations and may indicate a
historic site such as this garbage dump site
from a World War II prisoner of war camp near
Monticello, Arkansas (photo by Don Bragg,
USFS Southern Research Station).

Figure 9S-1eFeatures such as this hand-dug

well on an old homesite near Monticello, Arkan-
sas, are easily recognized as man-made. In old
mining districts such shafts are also common
features that should be avoided for both safety
and CR reasons but should alert fire fighters to
be aware that other CR may be near-by (photo by
Don Bragg, USFS Southern Research Station).

Figure 9S-1fThis rock circle on the south flank

of Grand Mesa in western Colorado was one
of three such rock circles on a very low ridge in
the pinyon-juniper. Rocks were cleared on this
lava rock ridge to make a circular space. An
excavation nearby showed occupation going
back about 5,000 years. One flake was found in
the interior (photo by Sally Crum, USFS Grand
Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest).

178 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 G H

Figure 9S-1gOverhanging rock shelves such as this overhang-

ing sandstone on the Uncompahgre Plateau rock often formed
rock shelters for native people. Care should be taken to minimize
soil disturbance without guidance from a CR specialist (photo by
Sally Crum, USFS Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest).

Figure 9S-1hWickiups are common features through-

out the western United States. What may at first glance
appear to be a random jack-straw of natural fuels may
be an archaic hunting camp site (photos by Sally Crum,
USFS Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest).

The previous examples are but a few of the near infinite things fire managers may encounter in the field. The first and
foremost rule of fire is safety first. Next comes protecting the resource, including cultural resources. A few simple rules
can guide actions:

If it looks like a good place to camp then someone has likely camped there in the past, perhaps for hundreds of years.
If there is a majestic view, you are not the first to marvel at it.
If something looks out of place or unnatural, it may deserve greater scrutiny.

However, non-specialists should not pick up, overturn, dig at, or otherwise disturb suspected CR. Important archaeo-
logical information can be lost just by picking up an artifact, even if it is put back down afterward. There is a good chance
that he or she is on a previously recorded cultural site, where the artifacts have been recorded and are being monitored;
these sites also should not be disturbed. There is also a good chance that the site is previously unrecorded. It is common
to find previously unknown CR following a fire. If you find something that looks interesting:

Leave it right where it is;

Get a GPS location if possible;
Take a photograph if possible; and
Contact the local resource advisor or cultural resource specialist assigned to the fire.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 179

Wildland Fire Management from the direct onslaught of the fire. MIST (Minimum
Impact Suppression Techniques) suppression methods
Recommendations_______________ can help to minimize suppression activity impacts:
The protection of cultural resources during wildland
Cold trail and wet line versus mechanical and
fire is more challenging than for a prescribed burn.
hand line construction
Treatment options available to mitigate the direct
Alternative mechanized equipment (rubber tired
impacts from wildland fire include use of water,
skidders versus tracked skidders)
retardant, and fire shelter material. Retardant and
Minimal scraping and tool scarring during mop-
water drops on sensitive cultural sites are possible;
up activities
however, the use of retardant has some effects on
No piling of burned and partially burned fuels
cultural properties that should be considered (Reed
Avoidance of camping in meadows and along
and others 2007) (sidebar 9-2). Some areas can be
streams or lakes, as there is a high probability
protected by judicious backfiring operations that are
for buried cultural properties
designed to protect designated cultural properties

Sidebar 9-2Effects of Fire Retardants on

Cultural Resources
Fire retardants, particularly those dropped by aircraft, are an integral
tool in fire management. While retardants can be critical to fire suppression
success (fig. 9S-2a), they pose a threat to cultural resources (Reed and oth-
ers 2007) (fig. 9S-2b,c; table 9S-2.1). Retardants are fertilizer-based salts
(commonly diammonium phosphate or ammonium sulfate) that contain
corrosion inhibitors and, typically, iron oxide, which can be absorbed on
porous surfaces leaving long-term staining. The salts can alter moisture
relations causing shrinking and swelling that can damage the surface.
Phosphates in some retardants can affect archaeological analysis of
prehistoric occupation of a site. The fertilizer salts are corrosive to many
metals.

Figure 9S-2aAerial view of Mesa Verde National Park Head-

quarters and retardant drops (reddish area) used to protect cultural
resources and park infrastructure.

180 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 B

Figure 9S-2bSpruce Tree House, Mesa

Verde National Park, illustrating effect of re-
tardant on sandstone cliff-face, note Burned
Area Emergency Rehabilitation (erosion mats)
to protect cliff dwelling from water and debris
coming over the overhanging edge of the alcove.

Figure 9S-2cClose up of sandstone wall,

showing the coverage of slurry coating. Dried
slurry is hard, difficult to remove, long lasting,
and accelerates weathering.

Table 9S-2.1Summary of findings on rehabilitation of sites impacted by fire retardant.a

Retardant cleaning procedures
Begin with least invasive method
Recommended NOT Recommended
Dry brushing Power washing
Hand brushing w/ water Sandblasting
Hand brushing w/blkaline surfactants Acid based washes
Poulticing
Sandstone Painted wood Metals, glass
Pre-soak w/ water Pre-soak w/water Wipe or sponge w/ mild detergent
10% borax solution (surfactant) Brushing w/ mild detergent Wipe dry
Gentle circular brushing w/ natural fiber Rinse
Rinse w/ water
Repeat where necessary
Summary of retardant investigations Strategies for retardant impacts mitigation
Retardants pose potential risks to health, safety & cultural Assess impact - resource type, retardant type
properties. Research retardant type and MSDS
Retardants will not wash off naturally; they require intervention to Evaluate risk to resources
remove, particularly on vertical surfaces Mitigate impacts where necessary
Mitigative measures were tested that effectively removed Map affected areas
retardants without further damage to cultural resources Establish monitoring system
Consider integrating potential suppression impacts
into Fire Management Plan
a
Corbiel, Don. 2002. After the fire: Investigating fire suppression impacts on historic resources. Lessons learned from the Long Mesa Fire
of 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. PowerPoint presentation. 59 slides. Online: http://
www.blm.gov/heritage/powerpoint/Fire_Corbeil/Impacts%20to%20Historic%20Resources_2_files/frame.htm.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 181

In particular, some suppression tactics should be care-
fully considered in areas of known cultural properties
as they have a greater potential for adverse impacts,
such as:
Use of fire line explosives
Allowing the burning of trees, snags and stumps
Repair of soil compaction by scarification
Disturbance by fire suppression activities can be
mitigated to some extent by conducting pre-fire cultural
resource surveys and careful planning of fire suppres-
sion strategies in areas of cultural properties. Fire
Management Plans are designed to analyze specific
management areas/response zones in order to identify:
Appropriate management response strategies
for each fire management unit or fire manage-
ment area;
Acceptable fire suppression tactics;
Strategic priorities;
Resource values and suppression cost factors;
Must meet criteria;
Fire intensity, size, duration, and seasonal
constraints;
Areas/conditions where firefighter safety is
compromised;
Objectives/desired conditions/standards and
guides; and
Risk analysis process and parameters.
It is vital to integrate cultural resource values into
these plans by providing management level information
about cultural properties. Some general information
to include in Fire Management Plans might be:
Identification of significant cultural resource
values at risk on large-scale maps, along with
their National Register eligibility status;
Assessment of risks to cultural properties;
Options to reduce risks to vulnerable cultural
properties, such as reduction of fuel loads, careful
construction of fire lines, etc.;
Benefits and impacts on local cultural properties
as outlined in any fire guidelines, such as MIST,
that may exist;
Tribal communications protocol to be used during
wildland fire suppression;
Documentation of known issues as compiled with
interested stakeholders;
Identification of training courses recommended
for cultural resource specialists that would pre-
pare them for fire positions such as fire line loca-
tors, heavy equipment supervisors, rehabilitation
team members, and resource advisors;
Outlining cultural resource training for site
protection issues for fire suppression personnel;
182 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
During fire suppression activities, several steps
can be taken to further protect significant cultural
properties. For example, in the United States when a
fire has been declared on Federal land a wildland fire,
a Wildland Fire Decision Support System analysis is
prepared. This document addresses how specific fire
suppression tactics will meet the guidance provided in
the Fire Management Plans, including the following
recommendations:
Using any cultural property information avail-
able (GIS) to determine the cultural properties
within and adjacent to the fire. Identify and map
the location of significant cultural properties at
risk for field reference. The status of eligibility
for each site should be tracked. Traditional cul-
tural properties should also appear on the map,
if possible.
Immediately assigning trained cultural resource
specialist to fires where there are known cultural
properties so that they can get out ahead of any
large equipment.
Organizing cultural resource specialist teams
that are made up of qualified archaeologists and
tribal representatives.
Using the local cultural specialists to advise the
archaeologist assigned to the fire if they are not
local.
Considering the location of fire camps to assure
that cultural properties are not impacted.
Including cultural resource information as part
of the Wildland Fire Decision Support System.
Encouraging cultural resource specialists to work
with large equipment operators and line scouts.
Encouraging cultural resource specialists to brief
suppression crews and other field personnel.
Ensuring that cultural resource specialists keep
detailed notes on areas covered and cultural
properties located and damaged.
Consulting with State historic preservation offices
following the protocol agreed upon.
Prescribed Fire__________________
Prescribed fire is used to manage both vegetation and
fuels for the purpose of restoring ecosystem processes,
with several goals in mind: (1) biomass reduction, (2)
site preparation for regeneration of conifers and shrubs,
(3) rejuvenation of shrubs and grasses, (4) enhancing
germination and growth of forbs, and (5) suppression
of in-growth species. Prescribed fire may also be used
to reduce fuels that could endanger buried cultural
resources in the event of a wildland fire.
Prescribed fire severity varies depending on the
prescription (such as, whether the fire is intended
to be non-lethal, mixed-severity, or stand-replacing;
light, moderate, or deep depth of burn). An earlier
section of this publication (chapter 2) describes the
physical process of combustion, the effect of different
severities of burning on damage to vegetation, heat
transfer to the soil surface, the subsequent transfer
of heat downward into the soil, and potential impacts
to cultural resources. It is the combustion process;
along with the subsequent generation of heat, that
directly damages cultural properties above, on, and
below the soil surface. Above-ground materials may
be directly consumed or irreversibly altered by the
heat produced by the fire. Cultural materials found on
the soil surface are exposed and vulnerable. Cultural
resources within the soil are less likely to be changed
unless heavy accumulations of surface fuels or organic
soil are burned. Assessment of risks involved when
using prescribed fires includes not only the potential
damage of the fire to the cultural material, but also
the trade-offs with other resources and the potential
for escaped fires.
Cultural properties with heavy fuel loads in the
form of coarse woody debris (deadfall, stumps, logging/
thinning slash), thick dry duff, and dense standing
vegetation may be at risk from prescribed fire. All
fuel elements in the fuel bed should be considered for
their potential to cause damage. For example, rotten
and partially rotten logs easily sustain combustion
at moisture contents well above those of solid fuels.
In a study of fire in lodgepole pine forests in eastern
Oregon, Agee (1981, as cited in Agee 1993) noted that
even under moderate fire weather, partially decayed
logs (decay class 3-4) can be the primary corridors for
fire spread. Even logs with relatively high moistures
(40%) will serve as corridors to carry a ground fire. The
depth of heat penetration varies with the volume of
coarse woody debris, whether combustion is primar-
ily by flaming versus smoldering combustion and soil
moisture (chapter 2). Temperatures associated with
flaming are often two- to three-hundred degrees higher
than those of smoldering, and high soil moisture pres-
ents a barrier to high heat penetration (Campbell and
others 1994, 1995). In one study research, Agee (1993)
found that a log smoldering for 3 hours registered a
temperature of 100 C (212 F) at the mineral surface
while the temperature of the soil under the log at 5cm
(2 in.) was only 50 C (122 F).
The most dramatic effects from fire will occur around
stumps (sidebar 9-3). Thermocouple measurements
confirm high temperatures from burning stumps at
1500C (2732 F) (Traylor and others 1979). In one
study Timmons and others (1996) observed burning
stumps in the Green Basin Prescribed Burn in north-
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 183
western Montana. Stumps that were 30 years old did not
burn, but the 45-year-old stumps burned completely.
The older/drier the stump was, the more likely it was
to burn out in a single event, whereas the green stumps
only partially burned (Timmons and others 1996). In
another study, observations at a prescribed burn in
northwestern Montana revealed many of the Douglas-
fir stumps left from 80 years of logging were rotted
and massive in size. In a 1-acre sample plot placed in
a relatively open forested landscape, 43 stumps were
counted. Around 688 stumps were estimated within
the boundary of a 16-acre (0.06km) buried prehistoric
site. Even in the light intensity spring burn conducted
on the site, approximately 20 stumps within the 1-acre
plot burned out. The results were stump cavities as
large as 1- meters in diameter and depth, with root
cavities extending out 5 meters (16.4 ft). If there were
hearth or stone-boiling features that intermingled
with the roots, the feature would collapse and artifacts
dropped in the profile (fig. S-3b,c). Holes created by
the burned out stumps comprised approximately 0.4%
of the burn area.
In a field experiment, simulated fire-cracked rock
features were placed next to stumps in a prescribed
burn area. The lithic features located adjacent to
burned out stumps were disarticulated and redeposited
(Timmons and others 1996). It is also quite possible
that an artifact could be thermally altered if located
directly against the stump. However, as little as 0.8
centimeters (2 in.) of soil between the artifact and the
stump would likely insulate it from the heat given off
from the burning stump. While we cannot rule out
the possibility of artifacts or even features being ad-
versely affected by a burning stump, we have greater
control of the percentage of stumps that are burned in
a prescribed fire than we would if wildland fire burned
through the accumulation of heavy fuel loads. Not only
would wildland fire impact a greater percentage of the
site, but would also increase the severity of impacts
to the artifacts (fig. S-3b,c).
A slow, creeping fire, smoldering in thick duff also
has potential to adversely affect cultural properties,
as does heavy accumulations of standing vegeta-
tion. Total removal of duff may also expose surface
features and artifacts to erosion and vandalism, due
to increased visibility. Careful planning and monitor-
ing of prescribed burns will reduce the potential for
adverse effects and identify the need for subsequent
rehabilitation measure, like those used following
wildfires. Mitigation measures, such as mulching or
concealment may be required to reduce the potential
for erosion and vandalism, respectively.
 Sidebar 9-3Stump Burn-Out: Feature Damage
Stratigraphy, the laying down of layers over time, is an important factor in archaeological interpretation; undisturbed
artifact or feature depth is related to time since the cultural resource was last used or deposited. Trees often grow in close
association with cultural resources. Midden soils and wind-blown loess soils create favorable habitats for establishment
and growth of woody plants, which eventually die. Wind-throw trees can result in ripping the root ball out of the ground
creating a mound and depression microsite and redistributing cultural materials. The stump, whether occurring naturally
or because of historical logging, eventually decays (fig. 9S-3a) leading to a fuel capable of sustained flaming and smoldering.
The subterranean character of stump holes and root channels (fig. 9S-3b) creates the opportunity for sustained extreme
heating potentially damaging surface and subsurface artifacts and features. This can be a confounding site formation
effect for archaeologists (chapter 7; Conner and Cannon 1991; Conner and others 1989; Timmons and others 1996). The
residual hole left after burning can collapse, redistributing cultural materials (fig. 9S-3c). Mop-up during fire suppression
poses additional hazard to artifacts through rapid quenching or mechanical disturbance.

C
A

Figure 9S-3aRotten stump 40 years after partial cutting

of the forest.

Figure 9S-3cStump burn-out and cultural resource dam-

age. Trees commonly grow in or adjacent to features as in
this illustration of an archaic hearth. Root expansion during
the trees life can displace artifacts. Subsequent burn-out of
Figure 9S-3bBurned-out stump hole revealing collapsed
the stump and roots can cause collapse and redistribution
rocks.
of artifacts as well as affect dating techniques.

184 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

Prescribed Fire Management
Recommendations
The risk of negative impacts from prescribed fire
to eligible or potentially eligible cultural sites can be
minimized through proper planning. The planning,
implementation, and monitoring of prescribed burns
are best accomplished through applying a team approach
of cultural resource specialists and fire managers.
Cultural Resource Specialists:
Conduct project inventory to identify cultural
properties and obtain the necessary clearances
(legal compliance) for the proposed burn area in
order to assess project effects to cultural proper-
ties. The inventory should include ethnographic
(tribal) information about cultural properties (as
associated with cultural sites) and treaty rights-
related resources (as associated with plants, etc.).
Consider all cultural sites with surface artifacts
or features as sites at risk and design specific
protection measures accordingly.
Provide cultural information (location, prove-
nience, site description, areas of high potential
for resources).
Consult with American Indian Tribes and First
Nations regarding the project intent and dates.
Fire Managers:
Determine the type and loading of fuels in order
to obtain estimates of potential fuel consump-
tion and surface and subsurface temperatures
and work with cultural specialists to determine
how these combinations could affect cultural
materials.
Identify the fuel models and vegetation types to
help determine the potential heat that may be
generated under different fuel moisture, weather
variables, and ignition patterns.
Formulate a burning prescription and work with
cultural specialists to ensure that all significant
cultural properties are protected. Carefully
consider burning strategies that might reduce
potential effects. For example, a head fire might
cause fewer effects to artifacts on the ground
surface than a cooler, slower moving backfire
with a longer residence time (chapter 2).
List all burn preparation needs in the burning
plan and ensure that they are implemented
before burning.
Brief all fire support personnel on the objectives
of the burn and engage the cultural specialists to
discuss the proper protection of cultural proper-
ties and materials.
Removal of heavy fuels is the most useful preventive
measure for lessening the impacts of fire on surface
cultural materials. This includes deadfall, snags, and
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 185
heavy brush, all of which have the potential to burn
hot. Light fuels such as grasses and thin duff will
usually produce low heat and residence time result-
ing in minimal impact on the surface. Under common
prescribed burning conditions grass fires typically
result in smoke-blackened artifacts and features,
which retain their interpretive potential after they are
affected. While heavy fuels are the greatest threat to
surface cultural materials, stumps and roots present
the greatest potential source of heat penetration into
undisturbed sub-surface cultural deposits. A trained
cultural resource specialist should determine the best
treatment measures, which might include:
Avoid burning heavy fuel accumulations; if
present, remove the concentrated fuels from the
sensitive sites. Trees, snags, and large shrubs
should be removed from cultural resource sites
when they are identified as having the potential
to adversely impact the resource. Particular care
should be directed to the location and burning of
any slash piles.
Hand removal of any fuel source may be neces-
sary. Some resource types such as pictographs,
petroglyphs, bedrock mortars, and milling fea-
tures may be damaged by the presence of even
light fuels.
Treat stumps by wrapping them with fire
resistant-reflective fabric; application of water,
retardant, or foam; or bury stumps with soil, rocks,
or similar material to prevent ignition during
a fire. Accelerating stump decomposition with
substances designed to accelerate decomposition,
or mechanical treatment of stumps by drilling
or scoring may be helpful. However, physical
removal of a stump by mechanical means could
have as much or more impact than the fire itself.
Remove standing, dead trees from sensitive cul-
tural resource sites to prevent tree tip-up.
Isolate vulnerable cultural properties from the
fire by creating foam barriers, building carefully
prepared hand lines, and establishing hose-lays.
Remove deadfall from sites, particularly from
surface features. When planning for prescribed
fire, it is in the best interest of the resource to
minimize the ignition of trees, deadfall, and
stumps.
All trees, shrubs and brush growing in and near
cultural features should be assessed and removed
as appropriate. Planning for removal of live veg-
etation should include consideration of whether
erosion would be accelerated when trees and
large shrubs are removed or whether exposure
of the feature to looting outweighs any potential
benefits. It would not be appropriate to worsen
erosion or looting hazards while attempting to
control potential fire impacts.
Fire Rehabilitation________________
Fire rehabilitation activities following the fire should
receive the same level of attention as that used in
designing the implementation of a prescribed burn
(sidebar 4). A cultural resource specialist should be
involved in the development of rehabilitation plans to
identify site-specific mitigation measures for cultural
properties. Mapping the location of post-fire treatment
areas and specific rehabilitation activities for cultural
sites will help assure avoidance of any further damage
to resources. Individual cultural resource site records
should be updated to reflect any changes that occurred
as a result of the rehabilitation activities.
Fire Rehabilitation Recommendations
Caution should be exercised when implementing
post-fire treatments (Robichaud 2009; Robichaud and
others 2000) to avoid damage to cultural resource sites.
Physical treatments common as rehabilitation mea-
sures include aerial or ground application of mulches,
straw wattles, reseeding (preferably with native spe-
cies), mechanical revegetation, construction of contour
trenches, and water barring. Recommendations for
mitigating potential adverse effects during rehabili-
tation should be specific to cultural sites, outlined in
formal Determinations of Effects, and reviewed by the
State historic preservation office or the tribal historic
preservation office. Recommendations should be imple-
mented as soon as possible to prevent resource loss
due to erosion and looting. Some recommendations to
consider are:
Backfilling stump cavities to prevent collapsing of
sediments around features. The locations should
be carefully documented for reference by future
cultural resource specialists.
Reseeding of devegetated areas with vegetation
that does not contribute to vertical displacement
of buried cultural materials.
Installing log diverters to redirect the flow of
water away from vulnerable areas of a site.
Removing standing, dead trees inside of features
to prevent tree tip-ups caused by falling and pos-
sible later ignition by fire.
Consulting with a rock art conservation specialist
to assist in identifying appropriate treatment.
In the United States, recommendation options may
be compiled and agreed to by the agency, the State
Historic Preservation Office, the Advisory Council on
Historic Preservation, and interested tribes in a Pro-
grammatic Memorandum of Understanding (PMOA).
A PMOA can be negotiated on a local forest or regional
level as tiered to any national PMOA. At present there
is a multi-agency effort to produce a national PMOA on
Wildland Fire Management and Cultural Resources.
186 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
Fire Use________________________
In the United States, some naturally ignited fires are
allowed to burn under specified, prescriptive conditions
in order to meet resource objectives. As such these
fires pose some challenges that are somewhat unique.
Such fires are typically in more remote areas and of-
ten within legally designated wilderness areas where
mechanized fire suppression is limited. In contrast to
wildfires that are suppressed as quickly as practical,
such resource benefit fires may be allowed to burn
for weeks or months. In such situations planning for
cultural resource protection is more similar to that of
a prescribed fire in that there is a greater opportunity
for planning and coordination. The remoteness of the
resource changes the risk factors, such as those posed
by heavy equipment, but also changes the monitoring
and rehabilitation opportunities requiring both fire
managers and the cultural resource specialists to
adapt their practices (sidebar 9-5).
Fire Use Recommendations
The use of cultural resource data to support wildfire
planning has traditionally been a management issue.
The disclosure of cultural resource data has typically
been such that the release or exchange of information
with wildfire staff is cumbersome and at times non-
existent. Protection of cultural site location information
is mandated by the Archaeological Resource Protection
Act. It is exempt from public disclosure, but can be made
available to other agency personnel on a need-to-know
basis, which includes information needed to protect a
cultural site. The lack of information including site
location, site probability, and fire susceptibility can
impact planning for wildfire decisions and prescribed
fire projects.
CR data, along with other datasets, are needed on
an interagency basis to support national applications,
planning, and wildfire suppression efforts. To facilitate
the collection and standardization of these datasets, the
Federal agencies are developing a wildfire geodatabase
(Wildland Fire Distributed Information System) that
would pull cultural resource data from various sources
and make it available for wildfire response teams. This
is not intended to store or create a national dataset
of site specific locations but provide generalized loca-
tions that include material types (for information on
susceptibility to fire) and site depths.
In the United States, an application that will use
these data is the Wildland Fire Decision Support
System (WFDSS) (Noonan-Wright and others, in
press). WFDSS runs Finneys fire spread probability
model (FSPro) (Finney and others 2011) that calculates
the probability that a given area will burn based on
thousands of simulations of historic fire weather. This
probability layer is then intersected with multiple data
 Sidebar 9-4Protecting Cultural Sites From Erosion
Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) is frequently used to protect cultural sites from further damage from
erosion. Fire management agencies have guidelines for BAER practices, which often need modification in cultural resource
areas. BAER teams working in CR areas should have CR specialist on the team to direct rehabilitation efforts and site
documentation for future monitoring.

A C

Figure 9-S4.aBurned Area Emergency Rehabilita-

tion work to protect a rock shelter following the 2002 Figure 9-S4.cHand mulching with straw was effectively
Mustang Fire, Ashley National Forest, Utah. Straw used to protect an archaic pueblo site burned over in the
wattle (foreground) was used as a runoff barrier to 2002 Rodeo-Chediski Fire, Apache-Sitgreaves National
protect the rock shelter from water coming in from the Forest, Arizona (photo courtesy of Barbara Mills, University
side, which could result in erosion damage. An ero- of Arizona).
sion blanket (brown patch in mid-ground) was used to
protect the floor of the rock shelter from water flowing
off of the overhanging ledge (Johnson 2004a,b) (photo
August 2002, by Clayton Johnson, USFS Ashley Na-
tional Forest).
B D

Figure 9-S4.bA prehistoric rock shelter shown in

figure S4.a with treatments to reduce further erosion.
Protection for archaeological sites must be designed to
keep erosive and debris flows away from the site, and to Figure 9-S4.dThe mulching was successful, as observed
reduce erosion on the site without further disturbing the in 2004 at the pueblo site, shown in figure S4.c, 2 years after
features. Log erosion barriers are not recommended on the Rodeo-Chediski Fire (photo courtesy of Barbara Mills,
a cultural site as they raise the risks additional damage University of Arizona).
due to mechanical disturbance and future fire damage.
Note deposited sediments against straw wattle erosion
barrier (lower right corner of photo) 10 months after BAER
placement (Johnson 2004a,b) (photo May 2003, by Clayton
Johnson, USFS Ashley National Forest).

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 187

 Sidebar 9-5Structure Protection
Many cultural sites consist of stone, adobe, or wooden structures (log cabins, old barns, mining buildings, historic look-
outs, etc.). There are three main mechanisms whereby such structures may be damaged in wildland fires: ignition from a
wind-blown ember (fig. 9S-5a,b), flame contact from the burning of surface fuels too close to the structure (fig. 9S-5c), and
radiant heat from an intense surface or crown fire (fig. 9S-5d,e). Spotting distance increases with the intensity of the fire
and wind (chapter 2). Spotting up to a kilometer is common and spotting up 2 kilometers occurs under ideal conditions.
Sprinkler systems, fire retardants, and wrapping (fig. 9S-5f) are routinely used, often in combination, to protect historic
structures (fig. 9S-5g).

A B

Figure 9S-5aHistoric cabin burned from ember-caused Figure 9S-5bOn the evening of July 29th, 2002, historic
ignition. residences burn during the Long Mesa Fire, Mesa Verde
National Park, Colorado. On the evening of July 29th, em-
bers from the blaze landed on rooftops and entered into
attic spaces. Three residences were lost along with other
infrastructure.

Figure 9S-5cDamage to a sandstone wall caused by direct flame contact

during the 2002 Long Mesa Fire, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado.

188 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

D

Figure 9S-5dThe radiant flux from

an intense crown fire decreases expo-
nentially with distance. Correspond-
ingly, the exposure time to ignition
increases exponentially with distance
from the flame-wall. Because fine can-
opy fuels burn out quickly (<2 minutes),
peak intensities can not be sustained
long enough to ignite wooden struc-
tures at a distance greater than about
30 meters (~100ft.) (Cohen 2000).

Figure 9S-5eModeling can be

used to predict the distance from
a structure that fuels need to be
treated to protect structures from
direct flame ignition.

Figure 9S-5fCrews commonly wrap back country Figure 9S-5gLittle Snowy Lookout following foil-
structures with fire shelter cloth to minimize structure wrapping and pretreatment with aerial retardants.
ignition.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 189

layers such as structures, roads, ownership, and other
significant values at risk in the Rapid Assessment of
Values at Risk model (RAVAR) (Calkin and others
2008, 2011; Thompson and Calkin 2011). A report is
generated detailing the probability that these resources
will be impacted by the spreading fire. The fires risk
to a cultural resource feature class can be a compo-
nent of this report. To support the WFDSS analysis,
the cultural resource layer will consist of several at-
tributes that provide basic information about sites so
that fire staff will have a basic understanding about
the condition of the site, the fire sensitivity of the site,
and possible management mitigations or avoidances
to better protect the site.
Another tool for fire planning is a decision-making
matrix, developed for the National Park Service that
is being used as a planning tool to convey essential
information regarding cultural resources, their con-
texts, values, and the activities needed to identify and
manage them within fire situations. Inventory strate-
gies, management objectives, and treatment options
can be designed to plan for fire events by defining
cultural resources and their components. This allows
specialists to see, at a glance, a summary of what re-
sources are present and how they may be effectively
managed and protected. By looking at the historical
context of a landscape, surveyors are able to examine
historic techniques that may influence management
tactics for the future. By using generalized language
to describe resource types, security can be maintained
to protect actual site content while still giving enough
information to allow for effective management deci-
sions within and around the resource sites.
In addition to categorizing resources, the matrix
places resources in multiple contexts; defining what
elements are at risk, what needs protection, and the
integral characteristics to be preserved. Creating a
risk matrix also compels administrators to identify
190 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
possible risks directly or indirectly caused during and
after management, ranging from artifact displacement
to complete obliteration in some cases. The matrix also
calls for inventories of sites and suggestions of future
inventory methodology, associating temporal data
with each resource. After compiling what resources are
within the specified area, land management decision
makers and cultural resource specialists collaborate to
create appropriate management objectives to achieve a
desired condition. When the objectives are established,
several treatment options are proposed to obtain the
desired conditions, and managers use the best research
available to choose the best treatment alternative to
implement. Table 9-2 is a specific example of the matrix
provided by Great Smokey National Park where cul-
tural resources from both the prehistoric and historic
periods and major resources which must be preserved
in fire and vegetation management activities.
Summary_______________________
A large amount of data is becoming available
concerning various dimensions of cultural resource
management. These data include detailed informa-
tion on the different cultural resource materials and
how they are changed by fire. The behavior of fire and
associated combustion processes are well understood,
as are impacts of fire on vegetation, soil, and water.
The direct and indirect effects of activities associated
with wildland fire have been well defined. There is
immediate need to bring together the wide array of
information into a format that managers can use
while fighting wildland fire or for planning burns. The
information should be synthesized into a workable
set of guidelines for protection of cultural resources.
Integration of cultural guidelines with Fire Manage-
ment Plans, MIST Standards, emergency discovery
plans, and fire management handbooks is critical.
 Table 9-2Matrix for evaluating potential impacts of fire management activities on cultural resources. Example from the Great Smokey National Park. Matrix developed by Robert J. Jackson, Pacific
Legacy.

Historic Resource Inventory method Management objective Treatments

a b c d e f
context type Properties at risk Elements Risk conditions proposed desired condition alternatives/options
Documents search, predictive Map, maintain site stability
Res. procurement Lithic scatters/flaked Displacement from modeling, shovel tests in low and data potential of site
Archaic Prehistoric camp stone Chert ground disturbance slope areas and gaps components Remove heavy fuels

Breakage from Documents search, predictive

heavy equip./ modeling, shovel tests in low
Base camp Ground stone Quartz heating slope areas and gaps Maintain cool surface temp Reduce duff consumption
Confounding of Line w/o mineral soil
Fire cracked rock Granite thermal dating Avoid crushing artifacts disturbance

Mistaken raw
material
Charcoal Sandstone type/discoloration Maintain context No heavy equipment
Contamination from
Steatite vessels Steatite new charcoal Map locations Reduce subsurface burning
Displacement from
Charcoal erosion Avoid charcoal contamination Post burn stabilization

Houses, furniture and

household goods, Wood, stone, metal, Remove adjacent fuels,
outbuildings, apple rubber, plastic, maintain greenways, burn
houses/storage, glass, brick, cloth, 20 of the 30 known Case by case assessment during high soil moisture
yards, springhouses, cement, ceramic, Breakage from homesteads have been due to high number of sites season, engine nearby and
ornamental/food leather, living exotic heavy equipment/ recorded. The last 10 should and different mgt. objectives monitor during burn,
Euro American farming Homesteads plants, trash plants heating be revisited and recorded. by park district sprinklers, wrap in fs cloth
Case by case assessment
Fences, rock walls, Wood, stone, metal, due to high number of sites Mow and wet line fences,
cultivated species, rubber, living exotic Artifact displacement and different mgt. objectives monitor during burn and
Fields/Pastures trash plants from erosion by park district extinguish.
Wood, stone, metal,
rubber, plastic, Case by case assessment
Earthwork features, glass, cement, Loss of features/ Historic maps checked to due to high number of sites
rock walls, vehicles, ceramic, leather, Ground disturbance determine roads that have not and different mgt. objectives Fuel removal or monitor on
Roads bridges, trash living exotic plants
and erosion been recorded. by park district case by case basis
Case by case assessment
Fruit and nut trees, Wood, stone, metal, due to high number of sites
wooden fences, rock glass, living exotic Loss by burning of and different mgt. objectives Rake around trees, monitor
Orchards walls plants cultivated plant spp. by park district during burn

a
Historic contexts are the themes, activities, events or time periods that are represented by cultural properties.
b
Resource types are categories of physical objects or properties that share common attributes, elements, and usually functions.
c
Properties at risk are those that have cultural value and are likely to be damaged by fire activities.
d
Elements are the basic building blocks or constituents that make up a resource.
e
Risk conditions or activities are the project actions that could damage elements of resource types.
f
Inventory method is the manner in which these properties should be located and recorded or revisited.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 191

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 Glossary
adaptive management. The process of implementing policy decisions as scientifically
driven management experiments that test predictions and assumptions in management
plans. Adaptive management provides for scientifically based decisions when the results
of management actions are uncertain.

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. (United States) An independent Federal

agency with statutory authority to review and comment on Federal actions affecting proper-
ties listed in or eligible for the national Register of Historic Places, to advise the President
and the Congress on historic preservations matters, and to recommend measures to coor-
dinate activities of Federal, State, and local agencies. Its members include Cabinet-level
representatives from Federal agencies and presidential appointees from outside the Federal
government.

anthropology. The scientific study of the human condition, past and present, including
cultural, biological and physical adaptations over time and in various natural and social
environments. Anthropology includes the specializations of archaeology, cultural anthropol-
ogy (including ethnography, ethnology, and applied anthropology), linguistics, and physical
anthropology. An anthropologist is a scientist with advanced training in any of these sub
disciplines.

archaeological resource. Any material remains or physical evidence of past human life
or activities that are of archaeological interest, including the record of the effects of hu-
man activities on the environment. They are capable of revealing scientific or humanistic
information through archaeological research.

archaeological site. Any place where there is physical evidence of past human occupa-
tion or activity. Physical evidence may consist of artifacts, features such as agricultural
terraces and hearths, structures, trash deposits, or alterations of the natural environment
by human activity.

archaeological survey or inventory. Type of fieldwork used to discover and record sur-
face remains of cultural resources.

archaeology. The scientific study, interpretation, and reconstruction of past human cultures
from an anthropological perspective based on the investigation of the surviving physical
evidence of human activity and the reconstruction of related past environments. Historic
archaeology uses historic documents as additional sources of information. An archaeologist
is a scientist professionally trained to conduct such studies. Archaeology is a sub-discipline
of anthropology.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 (ARPA). Established antiquities

permit system for excavation of archaeological resources, and civil and criminal penalties
for illegal excavation.

artifact. Any object used or manufactured by humans. Archaeologists study artifacts cre-
ated or used by people who lived in the past.

aspect. The cardinal direction that the slope of a land surface faces.

association. The relationship between a historic event, activity, or person and a cultural
resource.

back fire. A fire set in front of an advancing wildfire intended to remove fuels meeting
management objectives to stop, turn or control the advancing front of the wildfire.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 209

 biomass. The total quantity at a given time of the living or dead organisms on a unit land
area; often used synonymously to refer to the harvestable woody vegetation, especially when
considering the harvest of small diameter trees to be used as chips for fuel.

blackening. the presence of carbon deposits on the surface of a specimen formed as a by-
product of the pyrolysis and combustion of organic materials. Generally appears as fine
carbon particles adhering to the surface of a specimen giving it blackened appearance.

building. An enclosed structure with walls and a roof, consciously created to serve some
residential, industrial, commercial, agricultural, or other human use.

calcination. Loss of water of crystallization caused by heating resulting in reduction,

oxidation or desiccation by strong heat.

canopy. (1) The more-or-less continuous cover of branches and foliage formed collectively
by the crowns of adjacent trees in a stand or forest. (2) The stratum containing the crowns
of the tallest vegetation present (living and dead).

charring. Carbonization of fuel or organic artifacts during heating or burning; to make or

become black by burning, scorching.

color change. An observable color change of a specimen from original, pre-fire, color. Gener-
ally due to an alteration in the mineral composition of a specimen during exposure to heat.

combustion. The rapid oxidation of fuel in which heat and usually flame are produced.
Combustion in wildland fuels can be divided into four phases. pre ignition, flaming, smol-
dering, and glowing.

community values. Beliefs held in common by a group of people.

compactness. Spacing between fuel particles, fuel bed density.

compliance. The process of fulfilling ones legal responsibilities.

component. Culturally homogeneous stratigraphic unit within an archaeological site.

conduction. A heat-transfer mechanism through movement of gasses and liquids. Sub-

stances become heated and cooled through mixing or fluid motion.

context. The environment within which things (artifacts, archaeological sites and even
cultures) are found or within which they operate. Includes variables of time, space, and
human activities.

convection. A heating-mechanism through movement of gases and liquids. Substances

become heated and cooled through mixing or fluid motion.

cover type. The designation of a vegetation complex described by dominant species, ages
and form.

crazing. The presence of fine, non-linear or latticed cracks on the surface of a specimen.

creeping fire. Slow spreading surface fire with low flames; limited by fuel availability
either because of limited biomass on the site or limiting high moisture conditions.

crown. The upper part of a tree carrying the main branch system and foliage.

210 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 crown fire. A fire that advances through the canopy of trees or shrubs independently of a
surface fire, usually ignited by a surface fire, common in coniferous forests and chaparral
shrublands.

CR. see Cultural Resource.

cultural landscape. Associated with a historic event, activity, or person or exhibiting

other cultural or aesthetic values. A geographic area, including both cultural and natural
resources and the wildlife or domestic animals therein. There are four general kinds of
cultural landscape, not mutually exclusive. historic site, historic designed landscape,
historic vernacular landscape, and ethnographic landscape.

cultural resource (often abbreviated CR). An aspect of a cultural system that is valued
by or significantly representative of a culture or that contains significant information about
a culture. A cultural resource may be a tangible entity or a cultural practice (see tangible
cultural resource). Traditionally, this term refers to the physical evidence of past human
occupations archaeologists use to reconstruct the past. This term has also come to signify
objects, locations and landscapes that play a significant role in the cultural traditions of a
group of people. Artifacts, for example, pottery sherds, are one type of cultural resource.
Certain grasses used for traditional American Indian basketry are another. The remains
that compose our nonrenewable heritage from the past, including both the archaeological
and the historical records.

cultural resource management (CRM). Management and conservation of sites and

artifacts preserving their value for further generations.

cultural resource management. The range of activities aimed at understanding, pre-

serving, and providing for the enjoyment of cultural resources. It includes research related
to cultural resources, planning for actions affecting them, and stewardship of them in the
context of land and resource management. It also includes support for the appreciation and
perpetuation of related cultural practices, as appropriate as well as the conservation and
selective investigation of prehistoric and historic remains; specifically, the development of
ways and means, including legislation, to safeguard the past.

Cultural Resource Specialist. A person professionally trained in one of the cultural re-
source fields. Included are anthropologists (applied cultural anthropologists, archaeologists,
ethnographers, and ethnohistorians), architectural historians, architectural conservators,
archivists, curators, historians, historical architects, historical landscape architects, land-
scape historians, and object conservators.

culture history. See cultural chronology.

culture. A system of behaviors (including economic, religious, and social), beliefs (values,
ideologies), and social arrangements; the socially transmitted patterns of learned behavior;
a human means of adaptation.

data. Relevant observations made on objects, serving as the basis for study and discussion.

data potential. The ability of an artifact or resource class to provide data relevant to par-
ticular research objectives. Artifacts and other cultural resources might be affected by a
process or activity with, or without, loss of potential data. For instance, fires may discolor or
break artifacts without altering their data potential while other classes of materials may lose
their data potential with these types of alterations (e.g., technology involved in manufacture
of stone tools may still be present, even if the tools are broken or discolored; discoloration
of pottery sherds, however, may lead to their misidentification and loss of data potential).

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 direct effects: Those effects caused by fire and its byproducts, such as smoke and ash. Direct
effects result from the physical state of the fire environment (fuels, weather, and terrain)
and the ignition pattern (heading-fire, flanking-fire, or backing-fire). Direct effects are the
result of combustion and subject to all the laws of physics and chemistry, specifically heat
transfer mechanisms and physical chemistry.

documentation. Drawings, photographs, writings, and other media that depict cultural
and natural resources.

duff. The layer of partially and fully decomposed organic materials (leaves, pine needles,
etc.) lying below the new forest litter and immediately above mineral soil. It includes the
fermentation and humus layers of the forest floor (02 soil horizon or alternatively in some
classifications Oe + Oa horizons).

ecofact. Geological, biological, or botanical evidence used in deciphering the natural envi-
ronment of an archaeological site. It may involve inorganic material (minerals, soils, etc.)
or organic material (animal parts, such as bone, teeth, and antlers; plant parts, such as
pollen, seeds, and leaves; and human remains, such as bone, teeth, coprolites, and quids).

ecosystem. The living organisms of an area, the physical environment in which they live,
and the interactions between them; interrelated living entities, including humans, and
their physical environment.

ecosystem management. The use of an ecological management approach that blends

the needs of people and environmental values in such a way that the National Forests and
Grasslands represent diverse, healthy, productive and sustainable ecosystems. Healthy
ecosystems are those that maintain biological diversity, biotic integrity and ecological
processes over time.

edge. (1) The area where plant communities meet or where seral stages or vegetative
conditions within plant communities come together. (2) The boundary between two fairly
distinct fuel types.

effects. Changes incurred to resources as a result of exposure to heat or from activities

undertaken to prescribe burn, or to suppress fires and rehabilitate burned areas. Effects
may be adverse, beneficial, significant, insignificant, actual, potential, short or long term,
unavoidable or irreversible. In NEPA (United States) documents, effects are usually analyzed
in three categories direct effects (First-Order), or those occurring at the same time and
place as the triggering action; indirect effects, or those removed in time or distance from the
triggering action; and cumulative effects, which includes an assessment of the past actions
coupled with the proposed action and any reasonably foreseeable (i.e., planned) actions in
the area in the future.

ethnic. A group or category of people who share or believe they share similar characteristics
based on, for example, ancestry, language, and religion.

ethnographic group. Historically documented group or culture, usually meaning an

American Indian group or other group sharing a common history.

ethnographic resource. A site, structure, object, landscape, or natural resource feature

assigned traditional legendary, religious, subsistence, or other significance in the cultural
system of a group traditionally associated with it.

excavation. The scientific examination of an archaeological site through layer-by-layer

removal and study of the contents within prescribed surface units, e.g., square meters.

212 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 feature (archaeological). Nonportable object, located in an archaeological site, not re-
coverable from its matrix without destroying its integrity. Examples are rock paintings,
hearths, post holes, floors, and walls.

feature (historic). (1) A prominent or distinctive aspect, quality, or characteristic or a

historic property; (2) a historic property.

feeling. A propertys expression of the aesthetic or historic sense of a particular period of

time.

fire. Rapid oxidation of biomass accompanied by the evolution of energy in the form of
sensible heat and light.

fire front. The moving region within which continuous flaming combustion occurs along
the fire perimeter (see flame depth).

fire intensity. Used in this volume as equivalent to fireline intensity.

fire regime. Description of the patterns of fire including the frequency, occurrences,
intensity, predictability size and seasonality of burns for a given location or ecosystem.
Information from the historic record is used to schedule fuel reduction treatments and
predict probably effects.

fire return interval (fire cycle or fire turnover time). The number of years between
fires in a given location.

fire severity. A relative term used to describe the effect of the fire on a sites biophysical
properties or cultural features; dependent on fireline intensity and residence time.

fireline. A constructed area around a fire that is dug to mineral soil to remove fuels and
thereby, control the fires spread. In general, for a fireline to be effective, it should be 1.5
times as wide as the height of the fuel that is burning. When fire lines are cut by crews
using hand tools, they are often referred to as handlines; when cut by equipment such as a
bulldozer, they are called dozerlines.

fireline intensity. The rate of heat energy released per unit length of the fire front, usu-
ally expressed as BTU/second/foot. Fire intensity or fireline intensity, is a meausre of the
difficulty of suppressing a fire, and helps project a fires potential for torching, spotting
and crowning.

First-Order Fire Effects. Biophysical changes that occur directly as a result of the fire
such as fuel consumption, smoke production, vegetation mortality, or soil heating; pro-
cesses modeled in the First-Order Fire Effects Model (FOFEM) (Reinhardt et al. 2007). See
Second-Order and Third-Order Fire Effects.

flame length. The length of flames in the propagating fire front measured along the slant
of the flame from the midpoint of its base to its tip. Mathematically related to fireline in-
tensity and the height of scorch in the tree crown, whereas flame height is not.

flaming combustion phase. Luminous oxidation of gases evolved from the rapid decom-
position of fuel. This phase follows the pre-ignition phase and precedes the smoldering
combustion phase, which has a much lower combustion rate. Water vapor, soot, and tar
comprise the visible smoke. Relatively efficient combustion produces minimal soot and tar,
resulting in white smoke; high moisture content also produces white smoke.

flank fire. Fire artificially created to achieve management objectives moving at right angles
or obliquely to the direction taken by the head fire, usually. Lines of fire set into the wind
that burn outward at right angles to the wind.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 213

 forb. Any non-grasslike plant having little or no woody material on it. A palatable, broad-
leaved, flowering herb whose above ground stem does not become woody and persistent.

forest cover type. A classification of forest land referring to a group of timber stands of
similar development and species composition.

fracturing. The fracturing of a specimen into multiple pieces and/or the presence of frac-
tures or fissures that penetrate deeply into a specimen.

fuel bed. The entire biomass, live and dead, that is available to burn.

fuel continuity. A qualitative description of the distribution of fuels both horizontally and
vertically. Continuous fuels readily support fire spread. The larger the fuel discontinuity,
the greater the fire intensity required for fire spread.

fuel loading. The oven-dry weight of all existing fuels (may be available fuel or total fuel)
in a given area. Loading is further analyzed by fuel size. Loading or mass per unit is usu-
ally expressed in tons per acre.

fuel treatment. The rearrangement or disposal of natural or activity fuels to reduce fire
hazard or to accomplish other resource management objectives (e.g. lopping, chipping, pil-
ing, burning and crushing).

Fuels. (Wildland fire) Any living or dead vegetation that can be ignited and is capable of
sustaining or carrying a wildland fire. (Other) Chemical compounds capable of releasing
usable energy.

goal. In land planning, a goal is a concise statement that describes a desired condition to
be achieved sometime in the future. It is normally expressed in broad, general terms that
are timeless in that there is no specific date by which the goal is to be achieved.

ground fire. Fire that burns in the organic material below the litter layer, mostly by smol-
dering combustion. Fires in duff, peat, dead moss, lichens, and partly decomposed wood are
typically ground fires.

habitat. The sum total of environmental conditions of a specific place occupied by an organ-
ism, population, or community of plants and animals.

head fire. The fires most rapidly advancing edge; the forward movement of a flaming front.

heritage resources. A term adopted by the US Forest Service, more inclusive than the
traditional term, cultural resources. Heritage resources include objects, locations and land-
scapes that play a significant role in the cultural traditions of a group of people. Heritage
resources also include physical materials, such as artifacts, that may provide information
about people who lived in the past.

historic. The time period after appearance of written records. In North America, this period
begins with Spanish contact, after A.D. 1500. The wide-ranging influence of inter-cultural
contact during the historic period represents significant changes to the archaeological record.

historic landscape. A cultural landscape associated with events, persons, design styles,
or ways of life that are significant in American history, landscape architecture, archaeol-
ogy, engineering, and culture; a landscape listed in or eligible for the National Register of
Historic Places.

historic property. A district, site, structure, or landscape significant in American history,

architecture, engineering, archaeology, or culture; an umbrella term for all entries in the
National Register of Historic Places.

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 historic site. A landscape significant for its association with a historic event, activity, or
person. (Cultural Resource Management Guideline Glossary: 1997, p. 179 the site itself
possesses historical, cultural, or archaeological value apart from the value of any existing
structure or landscape); see cultural landscape.

historical archaeologist. Scientist with advanced training in historical archaeology and

in the use of historical documents in the reconstruction of the past (see anthropology).

historical archaeology. Sub-discipline of archaeology concerned with the remains left

by literate societies (in contrast to prehistoric archaeology, although the distinction is not
always clear-cut). In the United States, historical archaeology generally deals with the evi-
dences of Euro-American societies and of aboriginal societies after major cultural disruption
or material change from Euro-American contact.

history. Study of the past through written records, oral history, and material culture.
Evidence from these is compared, judged for veracity, placed in chronological or topical
sequence, and interpreted in light of preceding, contemporary, and subsequent events.

identification. Process through which cultural resources are made known.

indirect effects: Those fire effects that are derived from or dependant on the fires
occurrence, but that are not caused by the biophysical process of combustion. If the fire had
not occurred indirect effects could not occur. Indirect effects are of two types: biophysical
processes acting on the fire-altered environment and human responses.

infiltration. The passage of water through the soil surface into the soil.

integrity. the authenticity of a propertys historic identity, evidenced by the survival of

physical characteristics that existed during its historic or prehistoric period; the extent to
which a property retains its historic appearance.

intangible effects. The effects of natural disturbance, e.g., fire and epidemics, or active
management, e.g., fuels treatment and restoration on humans spiritual or emotional sense
of well being (sense of place).

inventory. A list of cultural resources, usually of a given type and/or in a given area.

Location. The place where the historic property was constructed or the place where the
historic event(s) occurred.

landscape. A region that includes a variety of plant and animal communities and environ-
ments.

litter. The top layer of the forest floor (01 soil horizon, alternatively the Oi horizon in
some classifications); includes freshly fallen leaves, needles, fine twigs, bark flakes, fruits,
matted dead grass, and a variety of miscellaneous vegetative parts that are unaltered by
decomposition. Litter also accumulates beneath rangeland shrubs. Some surface feather
moss and lichens are considered to be litter because their moisture response is similar to
that of fine dead fuel.

management area (MA). A contiguous area of land used in planning to which one or more
management prescriptions are applied. These areas have similar characteristics, similar
capability and common management direction. Management areas do not vary between
alternatives; however, the prescriptions applied to them may vary.

management practice. A specific activity, measure, course of action, or treatment.

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 Management Prescription. Management practices and levels of intensity selected and
scheduled for application on a specific area to further forest goals and objectives.

mass transport (spotting). The dominating fire-propagating mechanism for high inten-
sity fires where burning embers are moved through the air far ahead of the flaming front
via surface winds.

material. The physical elements that were combined or deposited to form a property. His-
toric material or historic fabric is that from a historically significant period, as opposed to
material used to maintain or restore a property following its historic period(s).

midden. Layers of soil mixed with prehistoric or historic trash including broken pottery,
animal bones, discarded shell, charcoal, etc. ; an accumulation of debris, resulting from hu-
man disposal behavior, removed from areas of manufacturing and use; it may be the result
of one-time refuse disposal or long-term disposal resulting in stratification.

mitigation. Actions to avoid, minimize, compensate, reduce, eliminate, or rectify the ad-
verse effects of a management practice. Mitigation measures can include efforts to educate
governments, businesses and the general public on measures they can take to reduce loss
and injury and are often informed by lessons learned from prior incidents.

mechanical fire suppression. The use of machinery such as bulldozers to control and
extinguish fire following detection by removing available fuel and creating large lines of
exposed mineral soil.

mineral soil. The soil layer directly below the litter and duff layers composed of sand,
silt, clay and less than 20% organic matter. Its properties are predominantly determined
by inorganic matter.

mitigation. Actions to avoid, minimize, compensate, reduce, eliminate, or rectify the ad-
verse effects of a management practice.

moisture content. The amount of water contained by a fuel in relation to the weight of
the particle. Fuel moisture is directly correlated with fire propagation and is essential for
predicting expected fire behavior on a site.

monitoring. The formal evaluation, on a sample basis, of management practices to determine

how well objectives have been met, as well as the effects of those management practices on
the land and environment; a critical component of adaptive management.

mortality. Dead or dying vegetation resulting from forest fire, insects, diseases, climate
or other factors.

museum object. A material thing possessing functional, aesthetic, cultural, symbolic, and/
or scientific value, usually movable by nature or design. Museum objects include prehistoric
and historic objects, artifacts, works of art, archival material, and natural history specimens
that are part of a museum collection. Structural components may be designated museum
objects when removed from their associated structures. Large or immovable properties, such
as monumental statuary, trains, nautical vessels, cairns, and rock paintings, are defined
as structures or features of sites.

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA)

(United States). The Act provides for the inventory and return of human remains, associ-
ated and unassociated objects from burial contexts, sacred objects, and items of patrimony
to the descendents. Cultural affiliation is to be determined by the Federal government.

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 National Register of Historic Places (United States). The comprehensive list of districts,
sites, buildings, structures, and objects of national, regional, state, and local significance
in American history, architecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture kept by the NPS
under authority of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966.

Native American. Pertaining to American Indian tribes or groups, Eskimos and Aleuts,
and native Hawaiians, Samoans, Chamorros, and Carolinians of the Pacific Islands. Groups
recognized by the Federal and State governments and named groups with long-term social
and political identities who are defined by themselves and others as Indian are included.

natural fuels. Fuels resulting from natural processes and not directly generated or altered
by management activity. This includes fuels that have accumulated because of deliberate
fire exclusion.

objective. In land planning, an objective is a concise, time-specific statement of measur-

able desired condition that responds to pre-established goals. An objective forms the basis
for further planning to define the precise steps to be taken and resources used in achieving
identified goals.

oxidation. The process in which an atom or ion combines with oxygen. Oxidation of iron
may cause pottery to turn red in color and metal to rust. The oxidation of pigment (organic
or mineral) on decorated ceramic specimens. Alterations can include a change in color from
the original pigment black to red), or the combustion of the pigment entirely. Oxidation of
carbon creates carbon dioxide gas.

patination. An alteration of rock surfaces by molecular or chemical change; cherts and

flints develop weathered surface.

pitting. Formation of depressed scars.

potlidding. The process of flakes popping off leaving irregular, pitted scar; result of dif-
ferential expansion of heated rock. It is similar to spalling, but specific to lithic artifacts
manufactured from cryptocrystalline silicate rocks such as chert. The fracture is character-
ized by a circular pit on the surface of the specimen. The pit represents the area in which the
original portion of the surface has been exfoliated due to differential heating and pressure
release. The exfoliated section is generally circular, flat on the dorsal side, and convex on
the ventral side (resembling the lid of a cooking pot).

potsherds. Broken pieces of ceramic vessels. Archaeologists collect data from potsherds to
learn about the lifeways of past peoples.

prehistoric. The time period before the appearance of written records. In North America,
the prehistoric period ends with Spanish contact.

prehistory. The course of events in the period before recorded history.

prescribed burn. Intentional use of fire under predetermined weather and fuel conditions
to achieve specific objectives, e.g., disposal of slash, control of unwanted vegetation.

preservation. The act or process of applying measures to sustain the existing form, integ-
rity, and material of a historic structure, landscape or object.

protection. Action to safeguard a historic property by defending or guarding it from further

deterioration, loss, or attack or shielding it from danger or injury. In the case of structures
and landscapes such action is generally of a temporary nature and anticipates future
preservation treatment; in the case of archaeological sites, the protective measure may be
temporary or permanent. Protection in its broadest sense also includes long-term efforts to
deter or prevent vandalism, theft, arson, and other criminal acts against cultural resources.

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 217

 provenience. The location of an artifact or structure described in terms of horizontal loca-
tion, distance and direction from a known point on a topographic or plan map and vertical
locations, e.g., surface or subsurface.

radiation. A heat transfer mechanism that relies on energy transmission through waves
or a stream of particles where though the energy is traveling through space, only the object
is heated and not the surrounding space.

Radiocarbon Dating (14C dating). An absolute or chronometric dating technique for

organic material applied by comparing its amount of 14C, a radioactive carbon isotope, to
that present in living material.

records. refers to all information fixed in a tangible form. Used by the National Archives
and Records Administration to refer to official records (q.v.).

rehabilitation. The act or process of making possible an efficient compatible use for a
historic structure or landscape through repair, alterations, and additions while preserving
those portions or features that convey its historical, cultural, and architectural values.

relative humidity. The ratio of the actual water vapor pressure at a given time to the
vapor pressure saturated air at the same ambient temperature is capable of carrying when
saturated; expressed as a percentage. The airs ability to hold moisture increases with air
temperature increasing.

repair. Action to correct deteriorated, damaged, or faulty materials or features of a struc-

ture or landscape.

restoration. Interventive treatment action taken to return an object to its original or former
appearance by removing accretions and later additions and/or by replacing missing elements:
(1) The act or process of accurately depicting the form, features, and character of a historic
structure, landscape, or object as it appeared at a particular period of time by means of the
removal of features from other periods in its history and reconstruction of missing features
from the restoration period; (2) the resulting structure, landscape, or object.

residence time (duration of fire). The length of time that combustion occurs at a given
point. Relates closely to downward heating and fire effects below the fuel surface, as well
as heating of tree boles above the surface. Also known as residence time.

return interval. The mean time between disturbances on any given piece of ground (some-
times known as a cycle or the turnover time). Fire return interval is the length of time
between fires.

risk. potential danger as measured by the probability of damages or losses and the mag-
nitude of the consequences.

Second-Order fire effects. Fire effects that result from the combined effects of post-fire
influences, e.g., drought, erosion, insect and disease attack acting upon the fire-altered
biophysical system.

Section 106 (United States): The section of the National Historic Preservation Act, as
amended in 1992, that requires consultation between an agency and the SHPO or THPO
when ground disturbance may occur on a Federal project or on any project that uses Federal
funding. Also requires Native American consultation. Term is often applied to the documenta-
tion that must be submitted. Section 106 requires Federal agencies to take into account the
effects of their proposed undertakings on properties included or eligible for inclusion in the
National Register of Historic Places and give the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
a reasonable opportunity to comment on the proposed undertakings.

218 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 setting. The physical environment of a historic property; the character of the place in which
the property played its historical role.

site preparation. Preparing an area of land for reforestation; may include removing un-
wanted vegetation and debris from a site.

size class. A standard size classification system used for fuel inventory or timber manage-
ment planning inventories.

State Historic Preservation Office or Officers for each state (SHPO). An official within
each State appointed by the governor to administer the state historic preservation program
and carry out certain responsibilities relating to Federal undertakings within the State.

sintering. In ceramics, the process by which clay particles adhere to one another when
heated close to but below their melting points. Sintering causes fired pottery to become
hard and dense.

slash. The residue left on the ground after timber cutting, or after storms, fire, etc. It includes
unutilized logs, uprooted stumps, broken stems, branches, twigs, leaves, bark, and chips.

smoldering. A slow spreading fire burning without flame.

smoldering combustion. Combined process of dehydration, paralysis, solid oxidation,

and scattered flaming combustion and glowing combustion, which occur after the flam-
ing combustion phase of a fire; often characterized by large amounts of smoke consisting
mainly of tars.

snag. A standing dead tree from which the leaves and some of the branches have fallen.
For wildlife purposes, one that is at least 15 inches DBH and 20 feet tall.

sooting. The carbon-based solid residue created by incomplete combustion of carbon-based

fuels, resulting in smudging and blackening of the surface.

spalling. the exfoliation of a portion of the original surface of a specimen resulting from
internal pressures associated with differential expansion or contraction upon heating or
cooling. Differential expansion or contraction results from internal variation in the miner-
alogy or moisture content. For example, an artifact may exhibit spalling when its surface
heats or cools more rapidly than its interior.

stabilization. Interventive treatment action taken to increase the stability or durability of

an object when preventive conservation measures fail to decrease its rate of deterioration
to an acceptable level or when it has deteriorated so far that its existence is jeopardized;
actions taken to render an unsafe, damaged, or deteriorated property stable while retain-
ing its present form.

stand. A community of trees or other vegetation sufficiently uniform in composition, consti-

tution, age, spatial arrangement, or condition to be distinguishable from adjacent communi-
ties and to thus form a management entity; the basic unit for silvicultural prescriptions.

stratigraphy. The layered geological and/or cultural sediments in a site, whose arrange-
ment allows interpretations of the sites cultural chronology.

structure. A constructed work, usually immovable by nature or design, consciously cre-

ated to serve some human activity. Examples are buildings of various kinds, monuments,
damns, roads, railroad tracks, canals, millraces, bridges, tunnels, locomotives, nautical
vessels, stockades, forts and associated earthworks, Indian mounds, ruins, fences, and
outdoor sculpture. In the National Register program structure is limited to functional
constructions other than buildings.

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 subsistence. The traditional use of natural plants and wild animals for personal or family
consumption, for the making and selling of handicraft articles out of the non-edible byprod-
ucts of fish and wildlife resources taken for personal or family use or consumption, and
for customary trade. In Alaskan and Pacific parks, subsistence is the significant economic
and cultural dependence on the harvest of wild natural resources by local rural residents
through traditional hunting, fishing, and gathering activities. The legislation for some parks
defines what constitutes subsistence there.

succession. the gradual supplanting of one plant community by a higher ecologically

ordered one as a site changes over time, until a climax community is reached.

suppression. Actions taken to exclude, extinguish or confine a fire.

surface fire. A fire that burns in litter, dead branches, leaves and low vegetation at or near
the surface of the ground, mostly by flaming combustion but not reaching the crowns of trees.

tangible cultural resources. Resources that are categorized as districts, sites, buildings,
structures, and objects for the National Register of Historic Places and as archaeological
resources, cultural landscapes, structures, museum objects, and ethnographic resources
for management purposes.

tangible effects. The purposeful, intentional, observable, measurable human responses

to the perceived risks or opportunities presented by fire or resource management. These
include suppression, rehabilitation, mitigation, and exploitation.

temper. An archaeological term referring to non-plastic materials such as sand or crushed

potsherds that traditional potters may add to improve the properties of raw clay. Modern
ceramists use the term differently, referring to liquid additive; added to clay prior to pottery
manufacture to reduce shrinkage and breakage during drying and firing.

temperature. The degree of hotness or coldness of an object or environment. Temperature

can be measured using Fahrenheit (F), Celsius (C)or Kelvin (K) scales.

thermoluminescence (TL). An absolute dating method for objects that were heated dur-
ing manufacture or use. Measures the light energy released from an object when heated
to 500C under laboratory conditions; the amount of energy released depends on the time
passed since the object was last heated.

Third-Order effects. The impacts of fire on the human environment .Third-Order effects
may be tangible or intangible.

THPO. Tribal Historic Preservation Office or Officer.

threshold. The point or level of activity beyond which an undesirable set of responses
begins to take place within a given resource system.

torching. A surface fire that intermittently moves vertically, consuming individual tree
crowns, shrubs or small groups of trees as it advances through a forest stand; also termed
passive crown fire.

traditional. Pertains to recognizable but not necessarily identical cultural patterns trans-
mitted by a group across at least two successive generations. Also applies to sites, structures,
objects, landscapes, and natural resources associated with those patterns. Popular synonyms
include ancestral and customary.

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 traditional knowledge. The total understanding by indigenous people of their relation-
ship to the earth and the universe, and the knowledge inherent within that relationship.
This knowledge includes the spiritual, physical, emotional, and mental aspects of a person
and related components of the earth and universe to these aspects

traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). TEK refers to the ability of Aboriginal peoples to
comprehend local-ecosystem interrelationships and to achieve sustainable levels of resource
use with no or minimum disruptions to ecosystem functions. It is the evolving knowledge
acquired by indigenous and local peoples over hundreds or thousands of years through
direct contact with the environment. This knowledge is specific to a location and includes
the relationships between plants, animals, natural phenomena, landscapes and timing of
events that are used for lifeways. It is an accumulating body of knowledge, practice, and
belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural
transmission, about the relationship of living beings (human and non-human) with one
another and with the environment. It encompasses the world view of indigenous people,
which includes ecology, spirituality, human and animal relationships, and more.

traditional cultural property (TCP). A property associated with cultural practices or

beliefs of a living community that are rooted in that communitys history or are important
in maintaining its cultural identity. Traditional cultural properties are ethnographic re-
sources eligible for listing in the National Register. A location significant for its value to a
community, based on traditional practices, beliefs, or customs, as long as the value extends
into the past for at least 50 years. TCPs may be unaltered landscapes or historic properties.

tree tip-up. A tree that falls, exposing the root structure and leaving a void in the soil.

understory. Low-lying vegetation (herbaceous, brush or reproduction) growing under a

stand of trees, i.e., the portion of trees in a forest stand below the overstory.

undertaking (United States). As referred to in Section 106 of the National Historic Pres-
ervation Act, any Federal, Federally assisted, Federally licensed, or Federally sanctioned
project, activity, or program that can result in changes in the character or use of historic
properties. Undertakings include new and continuing projects, programs, and activities that
are (1) directly undertaken by Federal agencies; (2) supported in whole or in part, directly or
indirectly, by Federal agencies; (3) carried out pursuant to a Federal lease, permit, license,
approval, or other form of permission; or (4) proposed by a Federal agency for congressional
authorization or appropriation. Undertakings may or may not be site-specific (see 36 CFS
800.2 [o] and Section 301[7] of the National Historic Preservation Act).

vegetation management. The practice of manipulating the species mix, age, fuel load, and
distribution of wildland plant communities within a management area. It includes prescribed
burning, grazing, chemical applications, biomass harvesting, and any other economically
feasible method of enhancing, retarding, or removing the above ground parts of plants.

vesiculation. The formation of abundant and interconnected bubbles throughout the

interior and at the surface of the glass object as a result of heating that, in turn, causes
deformation and increase in object volume size or size.

vitrification. Melting and fusion of glassy minerals within clay during high-temperature
firing of pottery (above 1000 C), resulting in loss of porosity; the process in which a sub-
stance melts and turns to glass.

water bar. A shallow channel or raised barrier used as an erosion control structure with
a cross drain to divert water to prevent gullying.

watershed. The total area above a given point on a stream contributing water to the flow
at that point.

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 wet line. A line of water, or water and chemical retardant, sprayed along the ground that
serves as a temporary control line from which to ignite or stop a low-intensity fire.

wildfire. An unplanned ignition of a wildland fire (such as a fire caused by lightning, vol-
canoes, unauthorized and accidental or human-caused fires) and prescribed fires that have
exceeded prescription parameters or otherwise meets the criteria for conversion to wildfires
(Guidance for Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy. February, 2009).

wind direction. Compass direction from which wind is blowing, measured in 45 angles,
generally referencing the cardinal directions.

wind speed. Ratio of the distance covered by the air to the time taken to cover that distance.
Wind, in MPH, is measured at 20 feet above open, level ground or as adjusted to meet this
standard to compensate.

222 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 Index D
decision-making matrix 190191
fire spread probability model (FSPro)
186
fire suppression 6, 16, 38, 57, 111, 130,
Dome Fire 92, 95, 103, 145, 151, 152, 143, 147, 170, 171, 172, 175, 176,
154, 155, 156 177, 180, 182, 186
A Dutton Point Fire 92 fire triangle 16, 22
Advisory Council on Historic fire weather 23
F First-Order Fire Effects 12
Preservation 186
Antiquities Act 6 FARSITE 52 First Order Fire Effects Model (FOFEM)
Archaeological Resource Protection Act Federal Wildland Fire Management 45, 53
186 Policy 6, 157 FlamMap 52
artifacts 20 fire behavior 1584 fluxing agent 90
concepts and models 23 FMP. Seefire management plan (FMP)
B fire behavior software FOFEM 41. See alsoFirst Order Fire
BehavePlus 52 Effects Model (FOFEM)
BAER. SeeBurned Area Emergency
FARSITE 52 FSPro. Seefire spread probability model
Rehabilitation (BAER)
FireFamily Plus 52 fuel
Bandelier National Monument 7, 126,
FlamMap 52 consumption 53, 67, 172, 185
143, 145, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156
NEXUS 52 loading 37, 106, 108, 111, 122, 125
basalt 105, 109, 122, 124, 127
fire effects 11, 38, 1584, 53, 144, 152, models 27, 52
BehavePlus 52
153, 155, 156, 164 moistur 26
bone 142, 148, 152
below-ground 29 moisture 25, 29, 38, 52, 53
Bugaboo Fire 175, 176
concepts and models 23 treatment 2, 52, 165, 171
Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation
direct 11, 12, 18, 145 fuel consumption 39
(BAER) 126, 127, 187
first order 11, 13, 18 fuel loading 34
C indirect 12, 18, 145 fuel moisture 68
operational 14
calcium carbonate 90, 91, 95 second order 11, 12, 18 G
Canadian Environmental Assessment third order 12, 14 glass 90, 137138, 140, 142
Act (CEAA) 8 fire suppression 14
Canadian Forest Fire Behavior mitigation 14 H
Prediction System (FBP) 27, 39 rehabilitation 14
Canadian Register of Historic Places 8 restoration 14 Healthy Forests Restoration Act 6, 45,
CEAA. SeeCanadian Environmental fire effects on 157, 158
Assessment Act bone 148, 149 heat transfer 11, 15, 18, 20, 21, 22, 27,
ceramics 88, 91, 92, 94 ceramics 8596 41, 183
Chapin 5 Fire 125 cultural resources 44, 164 conduction 18, 19, 20, 37
charcoal 17, 18, 40, 113, 141, 149, 150 historical artifacts 131142 convection 18, 20, 27, 37, 118, 125
chert 98, 99, 99101, 147 historical sites 131142 radiation 18, 19, 20, 27, 37, 118, 189
clay 87, 89 intangible cultural resources 157170 mass transport 20
climatology 23 lithic artifacts 97112, 147 Henry Fire 92, 94, 95
combustion 11, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, obsidian 150151 historical artifacts 140
27, 29, 2937, 30, 31, 32, 40, 52, pollen 149 Historic Sites Act 6
5657, 174, 175, 183, 190 pottery 8696 hydration 94, 98, 99, 103, 104, 105
efficiency 18 rock art 18
flaming 17, 33 K
rock images 113130
glowing 40 subsurface archaeological deposits Knife River Indian Villages National
preheating 17 143156 Historic Site 139
smoldering 18, 37, 38, 40 fire exclusion 5, 143
Consultation and Coordination with fire frequency 45 L
Indian Tribal Governments (E.O. fire intensity 56
13175) 6 La Mesa Fire 7, 95, 149, 150, 151
fire management
consumption 177 lithic artifacts 46, 94, 97112, 110, 111
implications 171191
cultural resource 12, 177 flaked stone 97
fire management plan (FMP) 172, 174
categories 9, 10 ground stone 97
fire regime 16, 22, 45
protection 186 Long Mesa Fire 144, 149, 153, 188

USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012 223

M RAVAR. SeeRapid Assessment of
Values at Risk
Mesa Verde National Park 93, 108, 125, reference fire regime. See baseline fire
144, 153, 180, 181, 188 regime
Minimum Impact Suppression rehabilitation 186
Techniques (MIST) 180, 182, Reservoir Salvage Act 6
190 retardant 12, 108, 118, 132, 136, 137,
MIST. SeeMinimum Impact 147, 171, 175, 180, 181, 185
Suppression Techniques (MIST) effects on cultural resources 180
mitigation 6, 14, 127130, 164, 165, Rodeo-Chediski Fire 187
172, 183, 186, 190
Moccasin Fire 93 S
Mustang Fire 178, 187
sedimentary rock 87
N sherd 85, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 144, 147,
164, 176
National Fire Danger Rating System Standards and Guidelines for the
(NFDRS) 41, 42 Conservation of Historic Places in
National Historic Preservation Act Canada 8
(NHPA) 2, 6, 8, 131, 161, 167, State Historic Preservation Office 186
170, 172
National Register of Historic Places T
(NRHP) 6, 8, 10
NHPA. SeeNational Historic temper 87
Preservation Act thermal effects 23, 47, 98, 99, 106,
NRHP. SeeNational Register of Historic 108109, 109, 110, 117
Places (NRHP) thermal fracturing 100
thermal shock 148
O thermoluminescence (TL) 85, 92, 93,
95, 101, 105
obsidian 98, 99, 101102, 103105, 117, traditional cultural properties (TCPs)
148, 150151, 154, 155 10, 11
oxidation 17, 88, 90, 92, 110, 136, 141, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
146, 148 11, 12, 160, 164
P W
palynology 149 WFDSS. SeeWildland Fire Decision
pollen 7, 93, 95, 108, 145, 149, 152 Support System
post-fire treatment 186 Wildland Fire Decision Support System
pottery 85, 8696, 87, 88, 93, 95 (WFDSS) 186
prescribed fire 10, 11, 92, 98, 100, 104,
108, 111, 130, 139, 142, 146, 147, Y
151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 177, 182,
183, 185, 186 Yellowstone Fire 102
Yellowstone National Park 102
R
Rapid Assessment of Values at Risk
(RAVAR) 190

224 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012

 The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information
and technology to improve management, protection, and use of the
forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs of
the National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and
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economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects and diseases.
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