Chapter 15 Leveling

Contents 1. Differential Leveling 2. Leveling Equipment 3. Stadia 4. 3-Wire Leveling 5. Errors in Leveling 6. Adjustment of Leveling Lines 7. Profile Leveling 8. Vertical Datums Practice Problems 1. Differential Leveling As the term implies, differential leveling is a process of measuring the difference in elevation between points. A surveyors level and level rod are used in this process. A level rod is merely a piece of wood, fiberglass, or metal marked off in meters or feet and fractional parts of those units. The level is a telescope equipped with cross hairs and attached to some type of device allowing the telescope to remain at the same height while turning in a horizontal plane. Thus, the level establishes a line of sight in a horizontal plane from which measurements can be made with the rod. As the observer focuses on the level rod, the graduation of the rod coincident with the line of sight can be read thus reflecting the distance between the line of sight and the point on which the rod is resting. Figure 15.1 illustrates the use of a level and rod to measure the difference between two points. In that illustration, bench mark (BM) 1 is a permanent object with a known elevation of 436.27 feet above the datum being used. Turning point (TP) 1 is a temporary object, such as the top of a stake, for which an elevation is to be measured. For the measurement, the level is set up in a location allowing visibility of both objects and the following two-step process is followed: 1. With the rod on BM 1, a reading is made and recorded. This reading is known as a backsight (BS) and is added to the elevation of the bench mark to determine the height of instrument (HI) which is the elevation of the line of sight. 2. The rod is then placed on TP 1 and a reading made and recorded. This reading is known as the foresight (FS) and is subtracted from the height of instrument to determine the elevation of TP 1.

Figure 15.1 Differential Leveling (use Figure 13.2 from 5th Edition)

Using the process described above, the elevations of a continuing line of objects (or two objects separated by a greater distance or greater difference in elevation than can be covered by one set up of the level) may be determined by moving the level between set ups as illustrated in Figure 15.2 and the associated field notes. With that process, a leap frog process is used between the rod and level. After a backsight is taken, the level rod remains at its location while the level is moved ahead to the next set up and then a backsight is taken at the point that served as the previous foresight. The level then remains at the new set up while the rod is moved to the next point for the foresight.

Figure 15.2 Continuous Differential Leveling (use Figure 13.3 from 5th edition)

Point BM 3 TP 1

Field Notes for Differential Levels BS(+) HI FS(-) 8.56 10.34 450.28 459.52 465.90 472.96 1.10

Elevation 441.72 449.18

1.37 458.15 1.83 464.07 3.46 469.50

TP 2 7.75 TP 3 8.89 BM 4

2. Leveling Equipment Level Rods As described previously, a level rod is merely a graduated rod used to measure the distance between a point and the line of sight. The most commonly type of level rod in current use is the Philadelphia rod. That device consists of two sliding parts and typically has graduations extending from zero to seven feet on the base part with the ability to extend the rod on up to 13 feet with the sliding upper part. Most Philadelphia rods are graduated in feet, tenths and hundreds with graduations running continuously from zero at the bottom to 13 feet at the top. Each full foot is marked with a red number (white in Figure 14.3) and each tenth of a foot is marked with black numbers. The hundreds graduations alternate from black to white. The black graduations are pointed at each tenth of a foot (0.10, 0.20, 0.30, etc) as well as for each five hundredth of a foot (0.05, 0.15, 0.25, etc.) for ease of reading. For greater precision, the thousandth of a foot may be interpolated. The rod is read at the point where the center cross hair of the telescope intersects the rod. As examples, the correct rod reading for Figure 15.3(a) is 5.130 feet while the correct reading for Figure 15.3(b) is 5.180 feet. Figure 15.3 Graduations on a Philadelphia Rod (use Figure 13.4 from 5th Edition)

Philadelphia rods typically are constructed with a thin steel tape inserted in the face of a wooden support. For projects requiring greater precision, rods with a graduated strip made of invar is used. Invar is an alloy with a very low coefficient of expansion, thus reducing imprecision due to contraction and expansion of the graduated strip with changing temperature. Further, invar rods typically have the graduated strip supported at a constant tension to standardize measurements. In addition, invar rods are typically in one continuous piece as opposed to having two sections as does the Philadelphia rod to eliminate any error due to the join. Typically, such rods are equipped with a level bubble and prop poles (Figure 15.4) to insure that the rods are perfectly plumb when read. Figure 15.4 Invar Rod with Prop Pole

Surveyors Levels Traditionally, surveyors levels were spirit levels (Figure 15-5). Such an instrument is equipped with an elongated slightly curved glass tube filled with alcohol or other liquid which allows establishing a level horizontal line by centering a bubble. Setting up such instruments can be time consuming since the instrument has to be carefully adjusted to insure that it is level when pointed at any direction. Figure 15.5 Spirit Level

Today, self-leveling levels are in much more common use than spirit levels. Such instruments are equipped with a compensator and a simple bulls eye level rather than a long spirit level. A compensator is a device consisting of a system of prisms and mirrors suspended as a pendulum (Figure 15.6) within the level. As long as the level is roughly leveled up, typically within +/- 10 of the true vertical, the compensator swings freely and establishes a horizontal line of sight. As a result, a self-leveling level is light, easy to handle and set up, and its operation s quick and accurate. Figure 15.6 Compensator in a Self-Leveling Level

The current state of the art in levels is the digital level. A digital level (Figure 15.7) combines the advantages of the self-leveling level with a solid-state camera and electronic image processing. Such instruments use a level rod with bar-code graduations. Thus, the rod readings are automatically recorded eliminating observer and recording error. Figure 15.7 Digital Level

3. Stadia Distances between the level and the level rods may be measured by use of the stadia hairs in the telescope. One stadia hair is above and one below the principle horizontal cross hair. Distance measurement by this method is based on the principle that the interval between the two stadia hairs is proportional to the distance between the instrument and the rod. Most levels have a stadia constant of 100. Therefore, the distance to the rod may be determined by multiplying the interval between the top and bottom cross hair by 100. As an example, in Figure 15.8, the top stadia hair has a rod reading of 5.248 (interpolated to third place). The bottom stadia hair has a reading of 5.013. Therefore, the distance to the rod is 100(5.248 5.013) or 23.5 feet.

Figure 15.8 Stadia

4. 3-Wire Leveling For increased precision with leveling the process of 3-wire leveling may be used. That process increases the precision by using the average of three thread observations for each sighting. In addition, that process provides an ideal method for determining if leveling shots are balanced as well as allowing post correction to eliminate collimation error. The process involves observing rod readings for all three horizontal cross hairs for each sighting. By comparing the average of the three readings with the middle hair reading, bad readings may be detected immediately and the readings repeated. For this process, notes are typically kept as shown in Figure 15.9.

Figure 15.9 3-Wire Leveling Notes

BS top mid bot mean top mid bot mean 3.000 2.500 2.000 +2.500 5.255 4.555 3.853 +4.554

FS 1.500 0.995 0.490 -0.995 2.962 2.254 1.546 -2.254

Elev 10.000

FS Dist

BS Dist

11.505

100

101

13.805

140

142

5. Errors in Leveling Collimation Error The most common cause of errors in leveling is imperfect adjustment of the level. Almost all level lines will have at least a slight difference from a truly horizontal line. That difference is called collimation error (Figure 15.10). This error can be eliminated by insuring that the backsight and foresight distances are equal in length which cancels the error. In addition, by frequently performing collimation checks on the level and adjusting the instrument as needed, this error can be minimized even in unbalanced shots. Figure 15.10 Collimation Error

Collimation checks are made by setting two points about 200 feet apart. The level is first set up about 20 feet from the first point on a line between the two points and rod readings for all three horizontal crosshairs read and recorded. The level is then moved to a location on the line between the two points about 20 feet from the second point and rod

readings for all three horizontal crosshairs read and recorded. The correction for the collimation error (C factor) may then be calculated as the sum of the short readings minus the sum of the long readings divided by the sum of the long distances minus the sum of the short distances. This may be expressed numerically as follows:

C=

( RS1 + RS 2 ) ( RL1 + RL 2 ) ( DL1 + DL 2 ) ( DS1 + DS 2 )

(15.1)

where C = collimation correction in ft/ft or m/m R = rod reading for middle hair D = distance calculated by stadia S = subscript for short readings or distances L = subscript for long readings or distances 1 = subscript for readings or distances for position 1 2 = subscript for readings or distances for position 2 If the C factor and the distances to the rod for each set up known, post-correction of leveling data to eliminate the collimation error can be accomplished. If the C factor is large (generally considered to be over 0.01 ft/ft), the level should be adjusted. This can be done while the level is still set up at position 2, by adjusting the alignment screw until the middle thread reading for the short sight reads the value calculated as follows: Correct C = RS 2 + (C )( DS 2 ) where the symbols are the same as Equation 15.1 (15.2)

Curvature Error Due to the curvature of the earth, a level reading on a distant rod is greater than if leveling on a plane (Figure 15.11). The effect of curvature of the earth may be calculated as 0.667 M2 feet (where M is distance in miles) or 0.785 K2 (where K is distance in kilometers). Therefore, this is not a significant error for short sightings. It can, however, become a factor for long sightings. This error can be eliminated by having balanced backsights and foresights.

Figure 15.11 Curvature Error

Refraction Error Refraction causes errors in leveling due to its bending of the light rays due to differences in air temperature encountered in the line of sight. Refraction is proportional to distance and is generally in the opposite direction from curvature error. It therefore cancels out some of the curvature error. Refraction error may be minimized by avoiding sightings that pass close to the earth since temperature gradients are generally greatest close to the earths surface. The general rule is to avoid sightings where the line of sight passes closer than a half meter from the ground. Refraction error may also be minimized by having short, balanced sightings and taking the backsight and foresight observations in quick succession.

Recent research by the National Geodetic Survey has resulted in a refraction modeling process to determine refraction error. Therefore, for precise geodetic leveling conducted by or for that agency, tripods for levels are equipped with temperature sensors mounted about 0.3 and 1.3 meters above the ground. Temperatures from those sensors are recorded with each leveling sighting for correction purposes.

Rod Plumb Error One of the most common and yet most easily prevented errors is that caused by the level rod not being plumb at the time of sighting. This error may be prevented by the person holding the rod being especially alert to the plumb of the rod and by use of easily obtainable rod bubbles. As may be seen in Figure 15.11, the true reading of an inclined level may be calculated as the product of the rod reading and the sine of the angle from the vertical.

Figure 15.11 Level Rod Plumb Error

Parallax Parallax is the apparent change in the position of the cross hair as viewed through the telescope. Because the reticle (the ring that holds the crosshairs in the telescope) is stationary, the distance between it and the eyepiece must be adjusted to suit the eye of each individual observer. The eyepiece is adjusted by turning it slowly until the crosshair is as black as possible. After the eyepiece is adjusted, the object viewed should be brought into sharp focus by means of the focusing knob for the objective lens. If the crosshairs seem to move across the object when the viewer moves his eye slightly, parallax exists. It is eliminated by carefully adjusting the eyepiece and the objective lens. If parallax is not eliminated, it can affect the accuracy of the rod readings.

Other Errors in Leveling In addition to those errors listed above, there are numerous other potential sources of errors in leveling. Possibly the most common are blunders in observing or recording of rod readings. The proliferation of digital levels is rapidly eliminating that source. Another common source is the choice of turning points. Turning points should be exceptionally stable and symmetrical on top so that the same elevation is reflected for both the foresight and backsight on the point. Other errors are caused index and expansion errors of the level rod. For precise leveling, this is typically corrected by the calibration of the rod against a known standard.

6. Adjustment of Leveling Lines

Good leveling practice calls for either redundancy or closure in leveling lines to detect blunders in observations. A preferred method is for each segment in a leveling line to be double run, once forward and once back, thus making two independent sets of measurements. A second method is for the leveling line to be run in a complete circuit or closed on a second bench mark of known elevation. With the double run process, there are typically some differences in the forward and back runs which allows determination of a closure error. In addition, since each segment in the line is double run, this allows distribution of corrections to the appropriate segment by averaging the forward and back runs. The process for determining error of closure and abstracting double run levels is illustrated in Figure 15.12.

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Figure 15.12

BM 1

Abstract of Double Run Levels Direction Dif in Elev Avg F B 1.092 -1.089 5.336 -5.340 -2.786 2.779 -5.443 5.447

Elev 10.000

1.091 11.091

2 F B 3 F B 4 F B 5 Total Fwd Run Total Back Run Closure -1.801 1.797 0.004 -5.445 -2.783 5.338

16.429

13.646

8.201

For single run closed leveling circuits, closure error may be determined by the difference between the measured final elevation and the known elevation of the closing bench mark. Since the location of the error is not known as in double run levels, an alternate method must be used to distribute the error. Since random errors in leveling usually accumulate in proportion to the number of instrument setups, it follows that the error of closure should be distributed within the various segments of the level line in proportion to the number of setups in each segment. The process for adjusting and abstracting a typical closed leveling circuit closing on beginning bench mark is illustrated in Figure 15.13. As may be seen, the correction that is applied to each segment is calculated as follows:

correction =

no. of setups in segment (beginning elev. ending elev.) total no. of setups

(15.3)

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Figure 15.13
Abstract of Closed Level Circuit Dif in Elev Segment Elev Setups Correction 10.000 BM 1 - BM 2 1.092 3 -0.006 11.092 BM 2 - BM 3 5.336 2 -0.004 16.428 BM 3 - BM 4 -2.786 3 -0.006 13.642 BM 4 - BM 1 -3.618 4 -0.008 10.024 Total Closure = 10.024 - 10.000 = 0.024 12 Adjusted Elev 10.000 11.086 16.418 13.626 10.000

The leveling adjustments discussed above deal with simple closed leveling lines or loops. When dealing with a more complex leveling network, a more complex approach to adjustment must be used to distribute any error since there are typically multiple solutions. Figure 15.14 illustrates such a complex network. With this type of network, the best approach is a least squares adjustment.

Figure 15.14 Typical Complex Leveling Network

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Least squares adjustment of a leveling network utilizes matrix algebra. (Chapter 12 covers the basic matrix algebra operations that are used in a least squares adjustment.) The network illustrated in Figure 15.14 will be used to illustrate the adjustment process. The first step is to create an observation equation is created for each line in the network which defines the unknown points in terms of the known elevations and elevation differences. This process is illustrated as follows: Line 1: Line 2: Line 3: Line 4: Line 5: Line 6: Line 7: A = (100 + 5.10) = 105.10 A = (107.50 - 2.34) = 105.16 C = (107.50 1.25) = 106.25 C = (100 + 6.13) = 106.13 A - B = 0.68 B = (107.50 - 3.00) = 104.50 B - C = - 1.70

The second step is to use the above equations to create three matrices, typically called A, L, and X. Matrix A contains a column for each unknown point in the network (A, B, and C) and a row for each observation equation. Each element in the first column, which represents point A, is the coefficient for A from the corresponding equation. Therefore, the elements are either 1 or 0. There is also a corresponding column for B and C. Matrix L has only one column and also has a row for each observation equation which contains the values from the right hand side of the equations. Matrix X contains one column with a row for each unknown point in the network.
1 0 0 105.10 1 0 0 105.16 0 0 1 106.25 A A = 0 0 1 L = 106.13 X = B 1 1 0 0.68 C 0 1 0 104.50 0 1 1 1.70

The adjustment process involves solving Equation 15.3 provided below for matrix X. Typically, this is accomplished by use of a calculator with matrix algebra capability or a computer program. X = ( AT A) 1 AT L

(15.3)

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When solved, equation 15.3 used with data from this illustration yields the matrix X which contains the adjusted or most probable values for A, B, and C, the three points in the illustration with unknown elevations.
A 105.14 X = B = 104.49 C 106.20 An additional important step with a least squares adjustment is an evaluation of the residuals from the adjustment. This allows the spotting of blunders as well as providing an idea of the size of the random errors in the data. Using the same A, X and L matrices as in the adjustment itself, a residual matrix may be generated using the following equation:
V = AX L

(15.4)

For the sample data used above in the adjustment, the calculation and the resulting residuals are illustrated below:
105.10 0.041 1 0 0 105.16 0.019 1 0 0 0 0 1 105.14 106.25 0.062 V = AX L = 0 0 1 104.49 106.13 = 0.058 1 1 0 106.20 0.68 0.022 104.50 0.017 0 1 0 1.70 0.005 0 1 1

The above process assumes that all level lines in the network have an equal weight for the distribution of errors. A possibly more valid approach is to distribute errors weighted to the length of the various lines, or to the number of setups in each line. This may be accomplished for the illustrated network by creating a weight matrix W based on the number of setups tabulated in Figure 15.14. Weights in a leveling network are inversely proportional to the lengths of lines or the number of setups. Therefore, the elements for each line in matrix W are entered as 1 divided by the number of setups. Note that matrix W has the same number of columns and rows with both equal to the number of observational equations and that the table is a diagonal matrix with the weights entered in a diagonal line and all other elements being zero.

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 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 1 W = 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4

The adjustment process using weights involves solving the following equation for matrix X: X = ( ATWA) 1 ATWL) (15.5)

For the illustrated network, a comparison of the results of unweighted and weighted adjustments are as follows: Point A B C Unweighted 105.14 104.49 106.20 Weighted 105.15 104.49 106.21

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7. Profile Leveling

Profile leveling is the process of determining elevations of points at measured intervals along a fixed line. This is a common process in the planning of highways, canals, pipelines and other linear projects where a vertical section of the earth is needed to determine the location of the centerline of the project. Profile leveling is similar to differential leveling except that multiple foresight readings are typically taken from one backsight reading. At each setup of the level, foresight readings are taken along the centerline of the profile at each full station and at any break of the topography. A break is where there is a sudden significant change in slope. The elevation of each of these points may then be determined by subtracting the readings from the height of instrument at the setup. Figure 15.15 illustrates typical field notes for the profile leveling process. The resulting profile from the notes is illustrated in Figure 15.16. Note that the sightings on the bench mark and turning point are read to a higher order of precision than sightings on the ground.

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Station
BM 4 32+00 33+00 +75 34+00 35+00 +15 +70 36+00 +50 37+00 38+00 TP

Figure 15.15 Profile Leveling Notes BS HI FS Elevation

478.26 4.87 483.13 11.5 9.4 10.1 8.2 3 1.9 2.3 5.2 6.8 5.9 13.3 10.72 4.54 476.95 13.2 12.0 3.9 1.2 0.8 0.7 1.5 0.4 0.17 463.8 465.0 473.1 475.8 476.2 476.3 475.5 476.6 476.78 471.6 473.7 473.0 474.9 480.1 481.2 480.8 477.9 476.3 477.2 469.8 472.41

38+60 39+00 40+00 41+00 42+00 +70 +80 43+00 BM 5

Figure 15.16 Profile Plotted from Level Notes in Figure 15.15 (use Figure 13.7 from 5th Edition)

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8. Vertical Datums

To allow comparison with other geospatial data, surveys are typically referenced to a common framework or datum. Typically, horizontal coordinates for points in a survey are referenced to a datum based on an ellipsoid of revolution approximating the figure of the earth. Unlike horizontal coordinates, elevations have traditionally not been related to the ellipsoid. Rather, they have been more typically referenced to an average stage of the tide such as mean sea level although the use of a tidal datum creates challenges with use for a large area because of the geographic variability of tidal datums. This challenge has been dealt with by use of a horizontal surface shaped by the earths gravity force that approximates the elevation of stilled sea level around the world. That surface is called the geoid. It represents an elevation with equal gravitation force and is thus is a concept ideally suited for a datum for elevations. In the United States, the geoidal datum used prior to 1991 was established by holding as fixed the elevations of mean sea level at 26 locations along the coastlines of the United States and Canada and using a least squares adjustment of the level lines connecting those points. That datum was known as the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 1929), formerly called the sea-level datum of 1929. With increased understanding of the geographic variability of sea level, the current geoidal datum was established using a different approach. That current datum, the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88), was established by use of a minimal constraint adjustment holding mean sea level at just one point, Father Point in Quebec, Canada, as fixed. A similar geoidal datum has been established on the island of Puerto Rico, known as the Puerto Rican Vertical Datum of 2000 (PRVD 2000) by holding the elevation of mean sea level at San Juan as fixed. Elevations referenced to the geoid are considered to be orthometric heights and are defined as the distance between the geoid and the point as measured along a plumb line passing through the point. Currently in the United States, most elevations used in topographic mapping, geodetic surveys, engineering studies, construction surveys, and geographic information systems are orthometric heights and are referenced to NAVD 88. Even though the geoid is is a somewhat irregular surface as compared to the predictable, smooth, and mathematically perfect shape of the ellipsoid (Figure 15.17), elevations, referenced to the geoid, are generally preferable to those referenced to the ellipsoid for most applications. One reason is perception since in some places in the United States, the ellipsoid is 50 meters or more above sea level. The most important reason is that a datum based on gravity is preferable since water can theoretically run uphill in terrain measured relative to the ellipsoid in areas where the geoidal separation is changing. An understanding of the difference between ellipsoidal and orthometric elevations is especially important when dealing with elevations derived from GPS observations. Since the GPS orbital information is referenced to the ellipsoid, elevations determined by GPS observations are relative to the ellipsoid. For use for most applications such as

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topographic mapping, such elevations must be adjusted to orthometric heights by subtracting the geoidal separation (parameter N in Figure 15.17) at that location using a model of the geoid. Within the United States, models of the geoid have been developed using a combination of geodetic leveling, GPS observations, and gravity observations. In less developed areas of the world, precise geoidal models may not exist.

Figure 15.17 Orthmetric vs Ellipsoidal Heights

In addition to the vertical datums discussed above, local tidal datums, such as mean high water and mean lower low water are used for some applications. Typical applications include water boundary and hydrographic surveys. See Chapters 24 and 25 for discussions on these applications.

Practice Problems

1. The term height of instrument, as used in leveling, is which of the following? (A) (B) (C) (D) distance from the ground to the axis of the telescope elevation of the line of sight above the datum being used height of the line of sight above a bench mark all of the above

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2. A distant point observed through a level telescope appears to be lower than it actually is because of which of the following? (A) (B) (C) (D) collimation error refraction curvature of the earth both (B) and (C)

3. Balancing distances to backsights and foresights eliminates which of the following? (A) (B) (C) (D) curvature of the earth errors collimation errors rod plumb errors both (A) and (B)

4. At a leveling setup, the monument on which the rod is set for the backsight has an elevation of 10.000 feet. The back sight reading is 2.456 and the foresight reading is 4.232. What is the elevation of the foresight point? (A) (B) (C) (D) 7.544 ft 8.224 ft 12.456 ft 16.688 ft

5. What is the curvature of the earth error associated with a leveling shot of 1000 feet? (A) (B) (C) (D) 0.024 ft 0.032 ft 0.035 ft 0.547 ft

6. Assuming a typical stadia constant, what is the distance between the level and the rod in this illustration if the rod is in feet? (A) (B) (C) (D) 23 ft 46 ft 59 ft 67 ft

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7. What is an advantage of an invar leveling rod? (A) (B) (C) (D) low coefficient of expansion more visible graduations top portion of rod can be detatched better resolution

8. What is the rod reading for a typical backsight in this illustration? (A) (B) (C) (D) 0.930 1.000 1.100 1.270

9. For a typical modern level, what device defines the line of sight? (A) (B) (C) (D) spirit level bubble bulls eye bubble compensator plumb bob

10. What is the closure error for the closed leveling run having the measurements provided in the table below?
setup BM 1 - BM 2 BM 2 - BM 3 BM 3 - BM 2 BM 2 - BM 1 BS 2.543 3.278 4.135 5.047 FS 5.222 4.362 3.053 2.359

(A) (B) (C) (D)

0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008

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11. What is the closure error for the closed leveling run having the measurements provided in the table below? Published elevation for BM 1 = 10.000 ft Published elevation for BM 5 = 4.291 ft
setup BM 1 - BM 2 BM 2 - BM 3 BM 3 - BM 4 BM 4 - BM 5 BS 3.124 3.487 5.213 2.413 FS 5.667 4.223 5.673 4.392

(A) (B) (C) (D)

0.009 ft 0.011 ft 0.012 ft 0.015 ft

12. With a level rod reading of 6.000 feet, what is the corrected reading if the level rod is 5 off vertical? (A) (B) (C) (D) 5.977 ft 5.986 ft 6.002 ft 6.023 ft

13. What is the foresight rod reading necessary to find a point on the ground with an elevation of 2.00 feet if you sight on a bench mark with an elevation of 5.25 and read a backsight of 2.52? (A) (B) (C) (D) 2.73 5.25 5.77 7.77

14. What is the elevation of bench mark B using the 3-wire field notes provided in the table below?
BS BM A top mid bot BM B 3.477 2.965 2.456 4.566 4.044 3.521 FS Elev 10.000

(A) (B) (C) (D)

7.078 ft 8.921 ft 8.922 ft 9.812 ft

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15. Calculate the collimation correction ( C factor) for determining collimation error given the following field notes for a C test. The rod readings are in feet.
setup 1 short 4.621 4.516 4.412 4.400 4.302 4.199 long 4.236 3.320 2.403 3.929 3.010 2.091

(A) (B) (C) (D)

0.002 ft/ft 0.008 ft/ft 0.011 ft/ft 0.015 ft/ft

16. Which of the following practices should be followed to minimize leveling error due to refraction? (A) (B) (C) (D) not allowing line of sight to be close to ground balancing backsights and foresights taking backsights and foresights in quick succession all of the above

Solutions to Practice Problems

1. In leveling, the term height of instrument means the elevation of the line of sight above the datum being used. The answer is (B).

2. A distant point appears to be lower than it actually is due to curvature of the earth. The answer is (C).

3. Balancing distances to backsights and foresights eliminates errors for both curvature of the earth and collimation. The answer is (D).

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4. The elevation of the foresight point may be calculated as follows: BS elev + BS HI -FS 10.000 ft +2.456 12.456 -4.232 8.224 ft

The answer is (B).

5. The curvature of the earth may be calculated as follows:

1000 ft =

1000 ft = 0.189mi 5280 ft / mi

curvature = 0.667 M 2 = 0.667(0.189) 2 = 0.024 ft The answer is (A).

6. The top stadia hair is 6.13 and the bottom stadia hair is 5.67, so the stadia distance is 100(6.13 5.67) = 46 feet. The answer is (B).

7. An advantage of an invar leveling rod is that it has a low coefficient of expansion and thus reduces error due to temperature differences. The answer is (A).

8. The rod reading is 1.100 ft. The answer is (C).

9. Most modern levels us a compensator to define the line of sight. The answer is (C).

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10. The error of closure may be calculated as shown below.

setup BM 1 BM 2 3.278 BM 3 4.135 BM 2 5.047 BM 1 12.366 2.359 10.007 10.372 3.053 7.319 10.599 4.362 6.237 BS 2.543 HI 12.543 FS 5.222 7.321 elev 10.000

Error of Closure = 10.007 10.000 = 0.007 The answer is (C).

11. The error of closure may be calculated as shown below.

setup BM 1 BM 2 3.487 BM 3 5.213 BM 2 2.413 BM 5 8.674 4.392 4.282 11.934 5.673 6.261 10.944 4.223 6.721 BS 3.124 HI 13.124 FS 5.667 7.457 elev 10.000

Error of Closure = 4.291 4.282 = 0.009 ft The answer is (A).

12. True reading = (rod reading) cos(angle) = (6.000 ft)cos(5) = 5.977 ft The answer is (A).

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13.

BM Elev 5.25 + BS 2.52 HI 7.77 To find a contour of 2.00, FS = 7.77 2.00 = 5.77 The answer is (C).

14. The elevation may be calculated as illustrated below:

BS BM A top mid bot BM B 3.477 2.965 2.456 2.966 12.966 4.566 4.044 3.521 4.044 8.922 avg BS HI FS avg FS Elev 10.000

The answer is (C).

15. The C factor may be calculated as below.

setup 1 short 4.621 4.516 4.412 4.400 4.302 4.199 avg reading 4.516 dist 20.9 long 4.236 3.320 2.403 3.929 3.010 2.091 avg 3.320 183.3

4.300

20.1

3.010

183.8

sums

8.817

41.0

6.330

367.1

C=

( RS1 + RS 2 ) ( RL1 + RL 2 ) 8.817 6.330 = = 0.008 ft / ft ( DL1 + DL 2 ) ( DS1 + DS 2 ) 41.0 367.1

The answer is (B)

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16. To minimize error due to refraction in leveling, observers should not allow the line of sight to be close to ground, balance backsights and foresights, and take backsights and foresights in quick succession. The answer is (D).

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