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"#$%#&'#%
Who Started the
Second World War?
Viktor Suvorov
Translated by Thomas B. Beattie
HAMISH HAMILTON
London
For ny lroiIcr
HanisI Hanilion Lid
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By the same author
THE LIDEFATOFS
INSIDE THE SOVIET AFMY
SOVIET MILITAFY INTELLICENCE
AOUAFIUM
SPETSNAZ
Lisi of Maps
MAP I Destruction of the Red Army's Defensive System
MAP 2 First Strategic Echelon of the Red Army
MAP 3 Preparations to Destroy the Rumanian Oil-fields
List of Illustrations
Icebreaker in Action
Soviet Tanks
Soviet Parachutists
In Training
Winged Tank KT/A-40
Invasion Preparations
BT Soviet Tanks
Exercises in Bridge-building
Marshal Timonshenko and Marshal Zhukov Troops Ready for an Offensive
KV-1 Tank
GULAG Prisoner
Conicnis
List of Maps vii
List of Illustrations i
To the Reader xv
Maps xix
CHAPTER 1
TIc Foad io Happincss 1
CHAPTER 2
TIc Main Encny 8
CHAPTER 3
WIy Arns for iIc Connunisis? 14
CHAPTER 4
WIy Sialin Pariiiioncd Poland 25
CHAPTER 5
TIc Paci and iis Fcsulis 31
CHAPTER 6
WIcn Did iIc Sovici Union Enicr World War II? 37
CHAPTER 7
`Eicnding iIc Foundaiions of War' 47
CHAPTER 8
WIy Howiizcr Ariillcry for iIc CIclisis? 58
CHAPTER 9
WIy iIc Sccuriiy Zonc was Disnanilcd on iIc Evc of War 67
CHAPTER 10
WIy Sialin AlolisIcd iIc Sialin Linc 82
CHAPTER 11
Pariisans or Saloicurs? 100
CHAPTER 12
WIy Did Sialin Nccd Tcn Airlornc Assauli Corps? 107
CHAPTER 13
TIc Wingcd Tanl 115
CHAPTER 14
On io Dcrlin 121
CHAPTER 15
TIc Marinc Infaniry in iIc Forcsis of Dyclorussia 131
CHAPTER 16
WIai arc 'Arnics of Covcring Forccs'? 135
CHAPTER 17
Mouniain Divisions on iIc Sicppcs of iIc Ulrainc 151
CHAPTER 18
TIc Purposc of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon 163
CHAPTER 19
Sialin in May 166
CHAPTER 20
Words and Aciions 182
CHAPTER 21
Living Pcaccally wiiI SIarp TcciI 188
CHAPTER 22
TIc TASS Fcpori 195
CHAPTER 23
TIc Miliiary Disiricis 226
CHAPTER 24
TIc Dlacl Divisions 234
CHAPTER 25
TIc KonI)gs and iIc Kondus 242
CHAPTER 26
WIy iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon was Forncd 248
CHAPTER 27
Undcclarcd War 265
CHAPTER 28
WIy Sialin Dcploycd iIc Fronis 275
CHAPTER 29
WIy Sialin Did Noi Trusi CIurcIill 302
CHAPTER 30
WIy Sialin Did Noi Trusi FicIard Sorgc 313
CHAPTER 31
How Hiilcr Frusiraicd Sialin's War 325
CHAPTER 32
Did Sialin Havc a War Plan? 336
CHAPTER 33
TIc War WIicI Ncvcr Was 344
Index 354
TIc Vcst, utI ts npc)ust og)cs, Ius
Icconc u ccnt)c o] du)Incss und suuc)u.
TIc tusI s to dcst)ou tIs ccnt)c, to tIc ]ou
und )cc] o] tIc uo)Ic)s.
STALIN, ZIzn Nu)sonu' nost,
No. 6 (1918i
To iIc Fcadcr
WIo siaricd iIc Sccond World War? TIcrc is no singlc answcr io iIis qucsiion. TIc Sovici govcrnncni, for
canplc, Ias rcpcaicdly cIangcd iis official linc on iIc issuc.
On 18 Scpicnlcr 1939, iIcy siaicd in an official noic iIai iIc govcrnncni of Poland was iIc insiigaior of
iIc war. On 3o Novcnlcr 1939, Iowcvcr, Sialin nancd oiIcr culpriis in iIc ncwspapcr, P)uudu. 'Francc and
Driiain . . . aiiaclcd Ccrnany, iIcrcly ialing upon iIcnsclvcs iIc rcsponsililiiy for iIc prcscni war,' Ic
wroic. Dy 5 May 1941, iIc siory Iad cIangcd again . in a sccrci spcccI io graduaics of niliiary acadcnics,
Sialin laid iIc rcsponsililiiy on Ccrnany.
Aficr iIc war Iad cndcd, iIis circlc of 'culpriis' grcw. Sialin announccd iIai iIc nosi llood-siaincd war in
iIc Iisiory of Iunaniiy Iad lccn siaricd ly all iIc capiialisi counirics in iIc world in oiIcr words, all iIc
sovcrcign siaics in iIc world including Swcdcn and Swiizcrland, lui ccluding iIc Sovici Union.
Sialin's vicw Ias long lccn csiallisIcd in connunisi nyiIology. During iIc iincs of KIrusIcIcv and
DrczIncv, and as rcccnily as Andropov and CIcrncnlo, iIcsc accusaiions againsi iIc rcsi of iIc world wcrc
frcqucnily rcpcaicd. Undcr CorlacIcv, nucI is cIanging in iIc Sovici Union, lui Sialin's vicw aloui wIo
siaricd iIc war rcnains uncIallcngcd. Licuicnani-Ccncral P. A. ZIilin, cIicf Iisiorian of iIc Sovici Arny,
rcpcaicd during iIc CorlacIcv cra iIai 'iIc pcrpciraiors of iIc war wcrc noi only iIc inpcrialisis of
Ccrnany, lui of iIc wIolc world'. (Hcd Stu), 24 Scpicnlcr 1985i
I would lilc io suggcsi iIai, fron iIc lcginning of iIc war, iIc Sovici connunisis nadc accusaiions againsi
cvcry couniry in iIc world wiiI iIc dclilcraic inicniion of conccaling iIcir own rolc as iis insiigaiors.
Aficr iIc Firsi World War, iIc Trcaiy of Vcrsaillcs dcprivcd Ccrnany of iIc rigIi io a sirong arny and
offcnsivc wcapons, including ianls, niliiary aircrafi, Icavy ariillcry and sulnarincs. Ccrnan connandcrs
wcrc unallc io usc Ccrnan icrriiory io irain for iIc waging of offcnsivc wars. So iIcy lcgan io nalc iIcir
prcparaiions in iIc Sovici Union. EvcryiIing possillc was donc, on Sialin's ordcrs, io cnallc Ccrnan
connandcrs io carry oui niliiary iraining on Sovici icrriiory. TIcy wcrc givcn iraining classcs, ariillcry and
sIooiing rangcs, as wcll as ianls, Icavy ariillcry and niliiary aircrafi wIicI, undcr iIc icrns of iIc Trcaiy,
iIcy Iad no rigIi io rcccivc. Sinilarly, Ccrnan connandcrs wcrc givcn acccss io Sovici ianl-nanufaciuring
planis, iIc nosi powcrful in iIc world. LooI, )cncnIc) und copu. Fron iIc 1920s on, sparing nciiIcr
rcsourccs nor cffori, nor indccd iinc, Sialin rcvivcd iIc sirilc powcr of Ccrnan niliiarisn. Ccriainly noi
againsi Iinsclf. For wIai purposc? TIcrc is only onc answcr so iIai war would lc dcclarcd on iIc rcsi of
Europc.
Sialin undcrsiood iIai a powcrful, aggrcssivc arny docs noi siari a war ly iisclf. A nad, fanaiical lcadcr is
also nccdcd. Sialin did a grcai dcal io scc iIai jusi sucI a lcadcr sIould appcar ai iIc Icad of iIc Ccrnan
naiion. Oncc iIc fascisis Iad conc io powcr, Sialin pcrsisicnily and doggcdly pusIcd iowards war. TIc IigI
poini of iIcsc cfforis was iIc MoloiovFillcnirop paci. In iIis paci, Sialin guaraniccd Hiilcr frccdon of aciion
in Europc and, in cffcci, opcncd iIc floodgaics of iIc Sccond World War.
Evcn lcforc iIc Nazis canc io powcr, iIc Sovici lcadcrs Iad givcn Hiilcr iIc unofficial nanc of 'Icclrcalcr
for iIc Fcvoluiion'. TIc nanc is loiI api and fiiiing. TIc connunisis undcrsiood iIai Europc would lc
vulncrallc only in iIc cvcni of war and iIai iIc Icclrcalcr for iIc Fcvoluiion could nalc ii vulncrallc.
Unawarc of iIis, Adolf Hiilcr clcarcd iIc way for world connunisn ly Iis aciions. WiiI Iis HtzI)cg wars,
Hiilcr crusIcd iIc Wcsicrn dcnocracics, scaiicring and dispcrsing Iis forccs fron Norway io Lilya. TIis
suiicd Sialin adnirally. TIc Icclrcalcr conniiicd iIc grcaicsi crincs againsi iIc world and Iunaniiy, and,
in doing so, placcd in
Sialin
'
s Iands iIc noral rigIi io dcclarc Iinsclf iIc lilcraior of Europc ai any iinc Ic cIosc wIilc cIanging
iIc conccniraiion canps fron lrown io rcd.
Sialin undcrsiood lciicr iIan Hiilcr iIai a war is won ly iIc sidc wIicI cnicrs ii lasi and noi ly iIc onc
wIicI gocs inio ii firsi. Sialin granicd Hiilcr iIc douliful Ionour of lcing iIc firsi, wIilc Ic Iinsclf prcparcd
for Iis unavoidallc cniry inio iIc war aficr 'all iIc capiialisis (willi Iavc fougIi anongsi iIcnsclvcs'. (Stun,
Vol. 6, p. 158i
MucI Ias lccn donc io uncovcr iIc crincs of Nazisn and find iIc luicIcrs wIo pcrpciraicd airociiics in iis
nanc. TIis worl nusi lc coniinucd and sicppcd up. Dui wIilc unnasling fascisis, onc nusi also cposc iIc
Sovici connunisis wIo cncouragcd iIc Nazis io connii iIcir crincs, so iIai iIcy could avail iIcnsclvcs of
iIc rcsulis of iIcsc crincs.
TIc connunisis wccdcd iIcir arcIivcs iIorougIly a long iinc ago, lui wIai siill rcnains prcscrvcd iIcrc is
alnosi inacccssillc io rcscarcIcrs. I was foriunaic cnougI io worl lricfly in iIc arcIivcs of iIc Sovici
Minisiry of Dcfcncc, lui quiic inicniionally I an naling liiilc usc of sccrci arcIival naicrial. Ovcri Sovici
pullicaiions arc ny nain sourcc. Evcn iIcsc arc quiic sufficicni io placc Sovici connunisis in iIc docl wiiI
Nazis.
My cIicf wiincsscs arc Mar, Engcls, Lcnin, Troisly, Sialin, and all iIc Sovici wariinc narsIals and nany
lcading gcncrals. TIc Sovici connunisis adnii iIai iIcy uscd Hiilcr io unlcasI a war in Europc, and
prcparcd a suddcn llow ai Hiilcr Iinsclf in ordcr io scizc a Europc wIicI Iad lccn dcsiroycd ly Iin. TIc
valuc of ny sourccs lics in iIc faci iIai ii is iIc crininals iIcnsclvcs wIo spcal of iIcir own crincs.
I lnow iIai on iIc connunisi sidc iIcrc arc nany apologisis. I iool iIc connunisis ai iIcir word, so lci us
allow iIcn io dcfcnd iIcnsclvcs indcpcndcnily.
Vilior Suvorov
"(&)*#% !
TIc Foad io Happincss
Vc u)c tIc Pu)tu o] tIc cuss uIcI s on tIc
uuu to
tIc conqucst o] tIc uo)d.
FFUNZE (Fcpori io iIc niliiary
dclcgaics scni io iIc XI
Congrcss of iIc FKP (li (1922ii
Mar and Engcls forciold a world war and lcngiIy inicrnaiional conflicis wIicI would lasi 'fificcn, iwcniy,
fifiy ycars'. TIc prospcci did noi frigIicn iIcn. TIc auiIors of TIc Connunst Mun]csto did noi call on iIc
prolciariai io prcvcni war; on iIc conirary, iIcy saw ii as dcsirallc. War was noiIcr io iIc rcvoluiion. TIc
rcsuli of a world war, in Engcls' words, would lc 'gcncral cIausiion and iIc crcaiion of condiiions for iIc
final viciory of iIc worling class'. (Karl Mar, FricdricI Engcls, Vo)Is, CI. 21, p. 351i
Mar and Engcls did noi livc io scc iIc world war, lui a succcssor in iIcir causc was found for iIcn in
Lcnin. Fron iIc carlicsi days of iIc Firsi World War, Lcnin's pariy canc oui in favour of iIc govcrnncni of
iIcir own couniry lcing dcfcaicd, so iIai iIc 'inpcrialisi war nigIi lc cIangcd inio a civil war'.
Lcnin calculaicd iIai lcfi-wing pariics in oiIcr counirics would also conc oui againsi iIc govcrnncnis of
iIcir own counirics and iIc inpcrialisi world war would lc iransnuicd inio a world civil war. TIis did noi
Iappcn. WiiIoui alandoning Iopcs for a world rcvoluiion, as carly as auiunn 1914 Lcnin adopicd a
nininun progrannc. If world rcvoluiion wcrc noi io rcsuli fron world war, cvcryiIing possillc Iad io lc
donc io nalc a rcvoluiion Iappcn in ai lcasi onc couniry; ii did noi naiicr wIicI onc. 'WIcn iIc prolciariai
Ias conqucrcd iIai couniry, ii will siand againsi all iIc rcsi of iIc world,' foncniing disordcrs and uprisings
in oiIcr counirics, 'or coning oui againsi iIcn dirccily wiiI arncd forcc.' (AIout tIc Sogun o] tIc ' Untcd
Stutcs o] Eu)opc')
For Lcnin, as for Mar, world rcvoluiion rcnaincd iIc guiding siar, and Ic did noi losc sigIi of iIis goal.
Dui according io iIc nininun progrannc, iIc Firsi World War would only faciliiaic a rcvoluiion in onc
couniry. How, iIcn, would iIc world rcvoluiion ialc placc iIcrcaficr? Lcnin gavc a clcar-cui answcr io iIis
qucsiion in 1916. as a rcsuli of iIc sccond inpcrialisi war. (TIc Mtu)u P)og)unnc ]o) tIc P)octu)un
Hcuouton}
PcrIaps I an nisialcn, lui Iaving rcad nucI of wIai Hiilcr wroic, I Iavc ccriainly found no indicaiions
iIai in 1916 Adolf ScIiclclgrulcr was drcaning of iIc Sccond World War. Dui Lcnin was. WIai is norc, Ic
was laying down iIc nccd for sucI a war as iIc iIcorciical lasc for iIc luilding of socialisn iIrougIoui iIc
world.
Evcnis dcvclopcd apacc. TIc rcvoluiion in Fussia occurrcd iIc following ycar. Lcnin Iasicncd iIcrc fron
cilc. In iIc naclsiron of confusion and a ioial alscncc of auiIoriiy, Ic and Iis pariy, snall lui niliiarily
organizcd, scizcd powcr in a coup d'ctut. In MarcI 1918, Ic concludcd iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl pcacc agrccncni wiiI
Ccrnany and iis allics. Ai iIai iinc Ccrnany's posiiion was alrcady Iopclcss. Lcnin of coursc undcrsiood
iIis. TIc pcacc Ic signcd iIcrcforc frccd Iis Iands io sircngiIcn, iIrougI civil conflici, iIc connunisi
diciaiorsIip insidc Fussia, and gavc Ccrnany considcrallc rcsourccs and rcscrvcs io coniinuc iIc war in iIc
Wcsi, wIicI was cIausiing loiI Ccrnany and iIc Wcsicrn allics.
Dy concluding a scparaic dcal -wiiI iIc cncny, Lcnin lciraycd Fussia's allics. Dui Lcnin also lciraycd
Fussia iisclf. Ai iIc lcginning of 1918, iIc viciory of Francc, Driiain, Fussia, iIc Uniicd Siaics and oiIcr
counirics ovcr Ccrnany and iis allics was alrcady incviiallc. Fussia Iad losi nillions of soldicrs and was fully
cniiilcd io lc nunlcrcd anong iIc viciors, alongsidc Icr wcsicrn allics. Dui Lcnin did noi nccd sucI a
viciory. Hc nccdcd world rcvoluiion. Lcnin rccognizcd iIai iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl pcacc Iad lccn concludcd noi in
iIc inicrcsis of Fussia, lui in iIc inicrcsis of world rcvoluiion, in iIc inicrcsis of csiallisIing connunisn in
Fussia and oiIcr counirics. Lcnin adniiicd iIai Ic Iad placcd worldwidc diciaiorsIip of iIc prolciariai and
world rcvoluiion 'alovc all naiional sacrificcs'. (Ccniral Conniiicc rcpori on iIc VIII Congrcss of iIc FKP (li
(1919ii Hc cvcn gavc away io Ccrnany, wiiIoui a figIi, a nillion squarc liloncircs of iIc nosi fcriilc lands
and iIc ricIcsi indusirial rcgions of Fussia's wcsicrn icrriiorics, and paid oui a war indcnniiy in gold. WIy?
TIc rcason is iIai iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl 'pcacc' rcndcrcd nillions of Fussian soldicrs unncccssary. No longcr
undcr iIc conirol of any auiIoriiy, iIcsc nillions wcni lacl io iIcir Ioncs, lrcaling iIc foundaiions of iIc
siaic sysicn and iIc ncwly lorn dcnocracy on iIc way. Drcsi-Liiovsl narlcd iIc lcginning of iIc fcrocious
civil war; wIilc lroiIcr fougIi lroiIcr, iIc connunisis sircngiIcncd and cicndcd iIcir powcr uniil, aficr a
fcw ycars, iIc cniirc couniry was undcr iIcir conirol.
Drcsi-Liiovsl was dirccicd noi only againsi iIc naiional inicrcsis of Fussia, lui againsi Ccrnany as wcll,
and in loiI iis scnsc and spirii ii scrvcd as a proioiypc of iIc Moloiov Fillcnirop paci. Lcnin's calculaiion
in 1918 was cacily iIc sanc as Sialin's in 1939. Lci Ccrnany figIi in iIc Wcsi, lci Ccrnany and iIc
Wcsicrn allics cIausi iIcnsclvcs onc aficr iIc oiIcr io iIc grcaicsi cicni possillc; wc oursclvcs sIall Iclp
Ccrnany ai any pricc io cIausi Icrsclf io iIc vcry linii, and iIcn aci.
WIilc iIc pcacc agrccncni wiiI Ccrnany was lcing signcd on Lcnin's ordcrs in Drcsi-Liiovsl, inicnsivc
worl was lcing undcrialcn in Pcirograd io prcparc iIc ovcriIrow of iIc Ccrnan Covcrnncni. Ai iIai iinc,
iIc connunisi Ccrnan-languagc ncwspapcr, Dc FucIc, wiiI a circulaiion of 500,000, was lcing pullisIcd
in Pcirograd. SPAFTAK, iIc Ccrnan connunisi group, Iad lccn sci up in Pcirograd in January 1918, cvcn
lcforc iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl agrccncni was signcd. Two oiIcr ncwspapcrs, Dc Vct)cuouton and Dc Hotc FuInc,
also saw iIc ligIi of day, noi in Ccrnany, lui in connunisi Fussia, again on iIc ordcrs of Lcnin wIo Iad
signcd iIc 'pcacc' wiiI Ccrnany. In iIc iwcniics, connunisn was siriling dccp roois in Ccrnany. Indccd,
Lcnin sci Iis Iand io iIis prcciscly ai iIc iinc wIcn Ccrnany was losing iIc war in iIc Wcsi and Ic Iad
ciracicd a 'pcacc' agrccncni fron Icr ai Icr nosi vulncrallc.
Lcnin's calculaiion was caci. TIc Ccrnan Enpirc would noi lc allc io wiiIsiand iIc colossal prcssurc of a
war of aiiriiion; in faci ii lcd io iIc downfall of iIc cnpirc - and rcvoluiion. Lcnin inncdiaicly annullcd iIc
ircaiy. Connunisi siaics sirilingly sinilar io Lcnin's DolsIcvil rcginc arosc fron iIc ruins of cnpircs in
war-iorn Europc. 'Wc arc on iIc iIrcsIold of world rcvoluiion!' Lcnin culicd. Hc iIcn iIrcw away Iis
nininun progrannc. Hc no longcr spolc of iIc nccd for a Sccond World War, as Ic now lclicvcd iIai world
rcvoluiion could lc acconplisIcd as a rcsuli of iIc Firsi.
Lcnin sci up iIc Coninicrn io lc, in iIc dcfiniiion of iis own nanc, iIc world connunisi pariy, and gavc ii
iIc oljcciivc of sciiing up a world Sovici socialisi rcpullic.
Dui world rcvoluiion did noi follow. Connunisi rcgincs in Davaria, Drcncn, Slovalia and Hungary provcd
io lc wcal and unviallc. WIcn ii canc io scizing and wiclding powcr, lcfi-wing pariics in Wcsicrn counirics
displaycd ficllcncss and vacillaiion, and Lcnin could only givc iIcn noral suppori. TIc cniirc nigIi of iIc
DolsIcvils was iIrown on io iIc Ionc fronis and inio iIc laiilc againsi iIc pcoplcs of Fussia wIo did noi
wani connunisn. Ii iool Lcnin uniil 1920 io sircngiIcn Iis posiiion sufficicnily insidc Fussia. Ii was only
iIcn iIai Europc lccanc iIc arcna iargcicd for rcvoluiion.
TIc favourallc noncni in Ccrnany Iad alrcady passcd. Evcn so, Ccrnany in 1920 rcprcscnicd an
cnincnily suiiallc ficld for waging class laiilcs. SIc Iad lccn dcsiroycd and Iunllcd. All Icr idcals Iad
lccn dcsccraicd and Iuniliaicd. A fcrocious ccononic crisis ragcd iIrougIoui iIc land. In MarcI, sIc was
sIalcn ly a gcncral sirilc in wIicI, according io sonc sourccs, norc iIan iwclvc nillion pcoplc iool pari.
Ccrnany was a powdcr lcg and only onc sparl was nccdcd io sci ii off.
TIc official narcI of iIc Fcd Arny (Dudcnnyi's MarcI
1
i includcs iIc words 'Lci's ialc Warsaw! TIcn Dcrlin!'
Nilolai DulIarin, iIc Sovici connunisis' iIcorciician, proclaincd a norc dcicrnincd slogan in iIc
ncwspapcr, P)uudu. 'SiraigIi io iIc walls of Paris and London!'
In iIc paiI of iIc Fcd lcgions, Iowcvcr, lay Poland. TIcrc was no connon froniicr lciwccn iIc Sovici
Union and Ccrnany; in ordcr io igniic rcvoluiion ii was csscniial io dcsiroy iIc larricr dividing iIcn. TIis
was frcc, indcpcndcni Poland. Unforiunaicly for iIc connunisis, ai iIc Icad of iIc Sovici iroops was M. N.
TulIacIcvsly, a connandcr wIo did noi undcrsiand iIc csscncc of siraicgy. TulIacIcvsly's arnics wcrc
dcfcaicd lcforc rcacIing Warsaw and sIancfully rcircaicd. Ai a criiical noncni, TulIacIcvsly found Iinsclf
wiiIoui any siraicgic rcscrvc and iIis cnsurcd iIai iIc ouiconc was a spcciacular dcfcai.
TulIacIcvsly's dcfcai did noi Iappcn ly cIancc. Si noniIs lcforc iIc Sovici 'lilcraiion canpaign' sci oui
for Warsaw and Dcrlin, TulIacIcvsly Iad laid down, as a 'iIcorciical lasc', iIai siraicgic rcscrvcs wcrc
unncccssary in war. Siraicgy Ias sinplc lui incorallc laws. Iis nain principlc is conccniraiion. Ai iIc
dccisivc noncni and in iIc dccisivc placc, ouc)uIcnng pouc) nusi lc conccniraicd againsi iIc cncny's
nosi vulncrallc poini. In ordcr io conccniraic powcr in iIis way, ii is ncccssary io Iavc ii in rcscrvc.
1
Onginally, iIc song was dcdicaicd io Sinion Dudcnnyi, lcgcndary Icro of iIc civil war and laicr MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union.
TulIacIcvsly, did noi undcrsiand iIis, and paid iIc pricc. As a rcsuli, iIc rcvoluiion in Ccrnany Iad io lc
pui off uniil 1923.
TIc roui of TulIacIcvsly's Iordcs in Poland Iad vcry unplcasani conscqucnccs for iIc DolsIcvils. Fussia
suddcnly rosc up in a dcspcraic cffori io iIrow off iIc connunisi diciaiorsIip. TIc worlcrs, of Pcirograd, iIc
cradlc of iIc rcvoluiion, wcni on sirilc; iIcy dcnandcd lrcad, iIcy dcnandcd iIcir proniscd lilcriy. TIc
DolsIcvils pui down iIcir dcnonsiraiions, lui a squadron of iIc Daliic Flcci canc oui on iIcir sidc. TIc
sailors fron Kronsiadi (iIc principal Sovici naval lasc, ncar Pcirogradi, iIc sanc oncs wIo prcscnicd powcr
io Lcnin and Troisly, dcnandcd iIai iIc connunisis lc iIrown oui of iIc Sovicis, or councils. A wavc of
pcasani dcnonsiraiions swcpi iIc couniry; and in iIc woods of Tanlov, a group of pcasanis forncd an anii-
connunisi arny wIicI was powcrful and wcll organizcd, lui ladly arncd.
TulIacIcvsly's lruialiiy ai Kronsiadi lccanc lcgcndary. TIc nonsirous sIooiing of pcasanis in Tanlov
Provincc is onc! of iIc nosi Iorrifying pagcs in Iisiory. TIc auiIor of iIis pagc! is TulIacIcvsly. TIc
iwcniiciI ccniury Ias lnown quiic a fcw villains sucI as YczIov, Hinnlcr and Pol Poi. Dy iIc anouni of
llood Ic Ias spili, TulIacIcvsly Ias fully carncd Iis placc alongsidc iIcn, for in Iis iinc TulIacIcvsly
was iIc forcrunncr of nosi of iIcsc scoundrcls!
In 1921 Lcnin iniroduccd iIc Ncw Econonic Policy, or NEP.! TIcrc was noiIing ncw in iIis plan, wIicI
loilcd down io liiilc! norc iIan good old capiialisn. Ii is acccpicd iIai Kronsiadi and Tanlov wcrc inporiani
rcasons inpclling Lcnin io iniroducc clcncnis of frcc-narlciccring and io looscn iIc idcological running
lnoi on iIc nccl of sociciy. Onc nusi sccl norc dccp for oiIcr rcasons.
In 1921 Lcnin undcrsiood iIai iIc Firsi World War Iad noi lcd io world rcvoluiion. According io Troisly's
advicc, ii was, ncccssary io go ovcr io pcrnancni rcvoluiion, dcaling llow aficr llow ai iIc wcal linls in frcc
sociciy and, ai iIc sanc iinc, prcparc for iIc Sccond World War, wIicI would lring final 'lilcraiion'. Dcforc
iIc aciual iniroduciion of iIc NEP in Dcccnlcr 1920, Lcnin claincd iIai 'sucI a ncw war is unavoidallc . . .'
(A spcccI io iIc Moscow Council on iIc firsi annivcrsary of iIc Coninicrn, 1920i 'Wc Iavc cndcd onc pIasc
of wars and wc nusi prcparc oursclvcs for iIc nci.' (A spcccI io iIc VIII Congrcss of iIc Sovicis, 1920i For
iIis purposc NEP was iniroduccd. Pcacc is a lrcaiIing spacc for war. So says Lcnin, so said Sialin and so
said P)uudu. TIc connunisis Iad pui iIcir lands in ordcr io sircngiIcn and consolidaic powcr, dcvclop an
cccpiionally sirong war indusiry, and io prcparc iIc populacc for fuiurc wars, laiilcs and 'lilcraiion
canpaigns'.
TIc iniroduciion of clcncnis of frcc-narlciccring in no way significd iIai prcparaiions for world rcvoluiion
and iIc Sccond World War Iad lccn rcpudiaicd. Dy iIc following ycar iIc Union of Sovici Socialisi Fcpullics
- iIc USSF - Iad lccn forncd. TIc dcclaraiion iIai acconpanicd iIc fornaiion of iIc USSF iicnizcd four
rcpullics; ii was inicndcd io go on incrcasing iIis nunlcr uniil iIc wIolc world forncd pari of ii.
TIc dcclaraiion acconpanying iIc fornaiion of iIc USSF was a dcu) und d)cct dccu)uton o] uu) on tIc
)cst o] tIc uo)d. TIis dcclaraiion is siill in forcc. Nolody Ias rcvolcd ii. Dciwccn iIis dcclaraiion and iIai
coniaincd in Mcn Kunp], iIcrc is a diffcrcncc. Hiilcr wroic Iis lool laicr and ii rcprcscnis iIc vicw of onc
individual. Mcn Kunp] liicrally ncans nu sirugglc. TIc dcclaraiion lcIind iIc fornaiion of iIc USSF is an
official docuncni on iIc principal oljcciivc of a vasi siaic, wIicI is io dcsiroy and suljugaic all oiIcr siaics
in iIc world.
CHAPTER 2
The Main Enemy
If there is one place where a start can be made to
arouse Europe to revolution, that place is
Germany . . . and victory of the revolution in
Germany will guarantee the victory of world
revolution.
STALIN (Sochineniya, Vol. 6, p. 267)
In 1923, Germany was again on the brink of revolution. Lenin was no longer taking part either in governing the USSR or directing
the Comintern. Stalin had seized almost all the reins of government, although the fact that he had done so had not yet been grasped by
the country, the world, or even by his rivals.
This is how Stalin himself described his role in the preparations which were being made for revolution in Germany in 1923 : 'The
German Commission of the Comintern, consisting of Zinoviev, Bukharin, Stalin, Trotsky, Radek and a number of German comrades,
took a series of specific decisions that direct assistance be given to the German comrades to enable them to seize power.' (Speech to
the Plenum of the Central Committee and Central Control Commission of the VKP (b), 1 August 1927)
Boris Bazhanov, Stalin's private secretary, gave a more detailed description of these preparations. The resources which were allotted
to them were enormous. The Politburo decided at a secret meeting that nothing would be spared. All communists of German
extraction living in the Soviet Union were prepared for action, as were all communists who spoke German. They were sent to
Germany to do clandestine work. It was not just rank-and-file communists who were moved into Germany. Top-ranking Soviet
leaders, including Vassily Schmidt, a Soviet People's Commissar, Joseph Unschlikht, deputy chairman of the GRU
2
and future head of
military intelligence, and Karl Radek and G. L. Pyatakov, then members of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party,
were all sent to Germany as well. N. Krestinsky, the plenipotentiary representative, or ambassador in Germany, set to work with
feverish intensity. The Soviet Embassy in its entirety became the nerve centre for organizing the revolution: instructions from
Moscow, a flood of money which was immediately spent on mounds of communist literature, and an avalanche of arms and
2
The Soviet Secret Police frequently changed its initials; this was another variation of the NKVD or the KGB.
ammunition all flowed through the Embassy. 'Unschlikht was given responsibility for recruiting, equipping and organizing the armed
insurrectionist detachments which would carry out the coup d'etat. He was given the added responsibility of organizing a German
secret-police force and of exterminating the bourgeoisie and the enemies of the revolution after the coup had taken place.' (B.
Bazhanov, Memoirs, Paris 1980; p. 67)
The Soviet Politburo worked out the blueprint for the coup in detail and ratified it. The date on which it was to take place was fixed
for 9 November 1923. But the revolution did not happen. The reasons for this were many.
First, the great bulk of the German populace chose the golden mean. They favoured the Social Democrats. The Communist Party
did not have the support it needed among the masses. What is more, the Party was split into two factions, and as Lenin and Trotsky
saw it, the Party leaders were not displaying sufficient determination. Secondly, Germany and the Soviet Union did not share a
common frontier. As they had found four years previously, Poland lay between their two countries. Had there been a common frontier,
then the Red Army would have been in a position to help the German Communist Party and its indecisive leaders.
The third and perhaps most important reason was that Lenin was dying, and for some time previously had ceased either to govern
the Soviet Union or lead the world revolution. Lenin's heirs were many - Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Rykov and Bukharin.
Alongside these obvious rivals worked the modest Stalin, whom no one saw as an aspirant to power, but who, in Lenin's words, had
already 'concentrated unlimited power in his own hands'. (Political Will, 1923)
The 1923 German revolution was directed from the Kremlin, but a fierce fight over who should control the world revolution was
already under way. Not one of the evident claimants for power wanted to see his opponent in the role of leader of the German and
therefore the European revolution. They jostled one another at the helm, issuing conflicting instructions to their subordinates. No one
in such circumstances would end as victor. Wisely, Stalin did not join the helmsmen in their scramble for power. Instead, he decided
first of all to devote his entire attention to consolidating his personal authority beyond all dispute.
In the years which immediately followed, Stalin demoted from the highest level of the Party all those who aspired to the post of
leader, pushing them down to increasing depths until they ended up in the cellars of the Lubyanka jail. Once he had seized power,
Stalin removed all obstacles standing in the way of the German revolution. He brought order to the German Communist Party and
compelled it to carry out Moscow's instructions without question. He established a common frontier with Germany. He annihilated
German social democracy. His position was both simple and based upon principles: it was necessary to fight against the Social
Democrats and the pacifists, who were distracting the proletariat from revolution and war. On 7 November 1927, Stalin launched a
slogan which said, 'It is impossible to finish with capitalism without first finishing with social democratism in the workers' movement.'
(Pravda, No. 255, 6/7 Nov 1927) The following year Stalin declared that the communists' main task was to fight against social demo-
cracy : 'first of all, the struggle with social democratism along all lines, including and following from this the exposure of bourgeois
pacifism'. (Stalin, Sochineniya, Vol. 11, p. 202) Stalin's attitude towards those who openly favoured war with, for example, the
German Nazis, was just as simple and understandable. The Nazis had to be supported: leave it to the Nazis to eliminate the Social
Democrats and the pacifists; let the Nazis start another war and destroy every state in Europe, every political party, every parliament,
every army and every trade union. In 1927 Stalin already foresaw that the Nazis would come to power and he considered that this
would be a positive event. 'It is precisely this fact which will lead to an exacerbation of the internal situation in the capitalist countries
and to the workers coming out in favour of revolution.' (Stalin, Sochineniya, Vol. 10, p. 49)
Stalin supported the Nazis. Zealous Stalinists, such as Herman Remmele, who was a member of the Politburo of the German
Communist Party, was quite open in his support of the Nazis, then eager for power. The part which Stalin played in the Nazis' seizure
of power in Germany was considerable. As Leon Trotsky said in 1936: 'Without Stalin there would have been no Hitler, there would
have been no Gestapo!' (Bulletin of the Opposition (BO), Nos. 52-53, October 1936) Another statement he made in November 1938
reveals Trotsky's shrewdness and his knowledge of the point at issue. 'Stalin finally untied Hitler's hands, as well as those of his
enemies, and thereby pushed Europe towards war.' He said this at a time when Chamberlain was rejoicing that there would be no war,
Mussolini was regarding himself as a peacemaker and Hitler still had no intention of issuing a directive to attack Poland, even less
France. At the moment when Europe was heaving a sigh of relief in the belief that there would be no war, Trotsky already knew both
that war would quickly come and who would be to blame for it.
On 21 June 1939, intensive negotiations directed against Germany were then taking place between Britain, France and the Soviet
Union. There was nothing to indicate that any surprises or complications might possibly be in store. 'The Soviet Union,' Trotsky said
at the time, 'will move up to the German frontiers in all its massed strength just at the moment when the Third Reich becomes
involved in the conflict for a new repartition of the world.' And indeed it was to happen precisely like that. Germany would fight in
France, while Stalin, 'with all his massed strength', would crush the neutral countries on his western frontiers, thereby bringing himself
nearer to the German border. On that same day of 21 June 1939 Trotsky made an even more extraordinary prophecy that in autumn
1939 Poland would be occupied and that Germany intended to attack the Soviet Union in autumn 1941.
Trotsky made one minor error in being only a few months out as to when the war would begin against the Soviet Union. We shall
see later that Stalin also made the same mistake.
Today, when we read some fifty years later the general pronouncements and predictions which Trotsky made, we can appreciate
their accuracy. But this raises the question, how did he know all this? There is nothing secret about Trotsky. He had been one of the
leaders of the communist coup d'etat. He was the creator of the Red Army and its leader. He had been the Soviet representative at the
negotiations in Brest-Litovsk. He was the first head of Soviet diplomacy. He was, along with Lenin, a recognized leader of the Soviet
Union and leader of the world revolution. So he already knew very well what communism was, what the Red Army was and who
Stalin was. Trotsky said that all his predictions were based on overt Soviet publications and in particular on the statements of George
Dimitrov, the secretary of the Comintern.
Trotsky was the first person to understand Stalin's game, which was not understood by Western leaders, nor in the beginning even
by Hitler. The game was quite simple. Trotsky himself became its victim and for that reason understood it. Working in league with
Zinoviev and Kamenev, Stalin, creating a new group to activate prejudice against his fellow-revolutionary, removed Trotsky from
power. Next, working in league with Bukharin, Stalin removed Zinoviev and Kamenev. Then Stalin kicked out Bukharin as well.
Stalin followed this up by using Henrik Yagoda to remove Felix Dzerzhinsky's generation of Chekists. Then, using Nikolai Yezhov as
leverage, he discarded Henrik Yagoda and his generation in their turn. With the help of Lavrenty Beria, Stalin finally ousted Yezhov
and his generation. Stalin continued to play the same game in the international arena and Trotsky saw this too. For Stalin, German
Nazism was an instrument which would break a path for the revolution through the solid ice - an icebreaker. German Nazism could
begin the war and the war would lead to revolution. Let the icebreaker break Europe! Hitler could do what it did not suit Stalin to do.
Stalin stated in 1927 that the second imperialist war was quite unavoidable, just as unavoidable, in fact, as the entry of the Soviet
Union into that war. However, he did not want to take part in it himself from the first day. 'We shall move, but we shall be the last to
move, in order to throw our weight on to the scales and tip the balance.' (Stalin, Vol. 7, p. 14)
In Europe Stalin needed crises, wars, destruction and hunger. Hitler could achieve all this for him. The more crimes Hitler
committed in Europe, the better it would be for Stalin and the more reason he would have one day to send the Red Army into Europe
as her liberator. Trotsky understood all this before the Second World War began and before Hitler became Chancellor. 'Let them come
to power,' said Trotsky in 1932, explaining what Stalin's attitude was to the German Nazis, 'let them compromise themselves, and then
. . .'
From 1927 onwards, Stalin made every effort to support the Nazis who were then striving for power, although he did not of course
do so publicly. After 1933, Stalin would do everything possible to push the Nazis towards war. When they entered the war, Stalin
would order communists living in democratic countries temporarily to become pacifists, to demoralize the armed forces of the
Western countries, to open the way for the Nazis and to capitulate to them with demands that the 'imperialist war' should be stopped,
while at the same time undermining the war effort of their own countries and governments.
When he moved his icebreaker - German Nazism - against democratic Europe, Stalin had already passed the death sentence on it.
Stalin had been planning to liquidate the Nazis for five years before they took over in Germany. 'Smash fascism, overthrow capitalism,
establish Soviet power and free the colonies from slavery.' (Stalin, Sochineniya, Vol. n, p. 202)
Fascism was the hangman of Europe. Stalin supported the hangman, but even before the hangman had begun his work, Stalin had
prepared the same fate for the hangman as awaited the hangman's victims.
CHAPTER 3
Why Arms for the Communists?
The people perish for want of steel.
Gounod's Faust
In 1933, the German colonel (later general) Heinz Guderian visited a Soviet locomotive engineering works at Kharkov. Guderian
saw that, in addition to locomotives, the yard was producing tanks as a side product. The tanks were being produced at the rate of 22 a
day.
When assessing the output of side products at one Soviet plant in peacetime, it must be remembered that in 1933 Germany was
producing no tanks at all. In 1939, Hitler came into the Second World War with 3,195 tanks, that is, less than the Kharkov locomotive
engineering works, working on a peacetime footing, produced in six months. When assessing the significance of an output of 22 tanks
a day, it must also be borne in mind that in 1940, even after the Second World War had begun, the United States had in all only about
400 tanks.
What of the quality of the tanks which Guderian saw at the Kharkov engineering works? They were tanks which had been created
by that American tank genius, J. W. Christie. Nobody, apart from the Soviet tank makers, appreciated Christie's achievements. One of
Christie's American tanks was bought in the United States and sent to the Soviet Union under false documentation; the tank was
described as an agricultural tractor. The 'tractor' was then produced in large numbers in the Soviet Union as a Mark BT - initials for
the Russian words 'high-speed tank'. The first Mark BTs had a speed of 100 kilometres per hour. In the present day, there is not a tank
crew anywhere which would not envy such a speed.
The shape of the hull of the Mark BT tank was simple and efficient. No tank at that time, not even those being produced for the
United States Army, had a similar form of armament. The best tank in operation during the Second World War was the T34, a direct
descendant of the Mark BT. The shape of its hull was a further development of the ideas of the great American tank builder. The
principle of mounting its front armour plating in a sloping position was used, after the T34, on the German Panzer tank and then on all
other tanks subsequently produced elsewhere in the world.
In the 1930s, practically all tanks in all tank-producing countries were designed and produced with the engine at the rear and the
transmission system at the front. The Mark BT was an exception to this rule. The engine and the transmission system were both in the
rear. It would take another quarter-century before the rest of the world understood the advantages of this structure.
The Mark BT tanks were continuously being improved. Their radius of action on one fuelling was increased to 700 kilometres. Fifty
years later this is still a dream for the majority of tank crews. In 1936, Mark BT tanks produced in series were fording deep rivers
underwater and along the river beds. Even now, at the end of the twentieth century, not all tanks used by the probable enemies of the
Soviet Union have the same capability. Installation of diesel engines on the Mark BT tanks began in 1938. This was done elsewhere
only ten or twenty years later. Finally, the Mark BT tank carried a weapons system which was very powerful for that time.
Having said so many positive things about the numbers and quality of Soviet tanks, one must note one minor drawback. It was
impossible to use these tanks on Soviet territory.
The basic characteristic of the Mark BT tank was its speed. The quality so dominated all its other characteristics that it was even
used in the name it was given.
The Mark BT is an aggressor tank. In all its characteristics, it is remarkably similar to the small but completely mobile cavalry
warrior who emerged from the countless hordes of Genghis Khan. This great world conqueror vanquished all his enemies by
delivering lightning strikes with great masses of exclusively mobile troops. Genghis Khan destroyed his enemies not, in the main, by
force of arms, but by swift manoeuvre in depth. Genghis Khan did not need slow, sluggish knights, but hordes of light, fast-moving
troops, capable of covering vast distances, fording rivers and moving deep into the rear of enemy territory.
That was just what the Mark BT tanks were like. By I September 1939, more of them had been produced than any other tank of any
other type by any other country anywhere else in the world. The mobility, speed and radius of action were bought at the price of
lighter and less thick, though still efficient armour. Mark BT tanks could only be used in an aggressive war, only in the rear of the
enemy and only in a swift offensive operation, in which masses of tanks suddenly burst into enemy territory, bypassing his centres of
resistance and racing into the depth of his heartland, where there were no enemy troops, but where his towns, bridges, factories,
aerodromes, ports, depots, command posts and communications centres were situated.
The strikingly belligerent qualities of the Mark BT tank were also achieved by means of using a unique system of tracks and
suspension. On unmade roads, the Mark BT operated on heavy caterpillar tracks, but once on a good road, the tracks were discarded
and it then shot ahead on wheels, like a racing car. It is, however, well known that speed is not compatible with crosscountry
performance. The choice is therefore between, on the one hand, a high-speed car which will go only on good roads, or on the other, a
slow-moving tractor, which will go anywhere. The Soviet marshals favoured the high-speed car. Thus, the Mark BT tanks were quite
powerless on Soviet territory. When Hitler began Operation Barbarossa, practically all the Mark BT tanks were cast aside. It was
almost impossible to use them off the roads, even with caterpillar tracks. They were never used on wheels. The potential of these tanks
was never realized, but it certainly could never have been realized on Soviet territory. The Mark BT was created to operate on foreign
territory only and, what is more, only on territory where there were good roads, as already observed.
Let us glance at the Soviet Union's neighbours. Then, as now, there were no good roads in Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, China,
Mongolia, Manchuria, or Northern Korea. Zhukov used Mark BT tanks in Mongolia, where the terrain is as flat as a billiard table.
However, he used them only with caterpillar tracks and was dissatisfied with them. Off the roads, the tank tracks often raced round
without gripping the surface, while the wheels, because of the comparatively great pressure they had to bear, whether they were off the
road or even on unmade roads, simply spun round and sank into the earth while the tank remained stationary.
To the question, where could the enormous potential of these Mark B T tanks be successfully realized, there is only one answer: in
central and southern Europe. The only territories where tanks could be used, after their caterpillar tracks were removed, were
Germany, France and Belgium. To the question as to which is more important for the Mark BT tanks, the wheels or the caterpillar
tracks, Soviet textbooks of that period give a clear-cut answer: the wheels. The most important characteristic of the MarkBT, speed, is
attained on wheels. Caterpillar tracks are only a means for reaching foreign territory. For instance, Poland could be crossed on
caterpillar tracks which, once the German auto-bahns had been reached, could then be discarded in favour of wheels, on which
operations would then proceed. Caterpillar tracks were regarded as an auxiliary device which was supposed to be used only once in
war, then to be discarded and forgotten. It is exactly like the parachutist who uses his parachute for the sole purpose of landing in
enemy territory. Once there, he throws the parachute away so that he can operate without being burdened by a heavy load which he no
longer needs. It was precisely this attitude which was adopted towards caterpillar tracks. Those Soviet divisions and army corps which
were equipped with Mark BT tanks did not have on their complement any vehicles whose purpose it was to recover the caterpillar
tracks which had been thrown away and bring them back. After the Mark BT tanks had discarded their tracks, they had to finish the
war on wheels.
Some types of Soviet tanks were named after communist leaders, like the 'KV, for Klim Voroshilov,
3
and the 'JS', for Joseph Stalin.
Most Soviet tanks, however, were given a designation which contained the index letter 'T'. Sometimes, in addition to 'T', the index
3
Voroshilov was first a Marshal of the Soviet Union, one of Stalin's closest allies; he later became Chairman of the Supreme Soviet.
included the letter 'O' (which stands for the Russian word for 'flame-throwing'), 'B' (the initial letter of the Russian word for 'high
speed') or 'P' (indicating 'amphibious'
4
).
Then in 1938, the Soviet Union began to work intensively on the production of a tank which bore the highly unusual index number
of A-2O. What does 'A' mean? There is not one Soviet textbook which gives the answer to this question and to date it remains
undeciphered by many experts. For a long time I sought an answer and finally found it at Factory No. 183. This plant produced
locomotives, but had other, less 'peaceful' production on the go at the same time. People with great experience at this plant say that the
original meaning of the index letter 'A' in this case stood for 'Autostradnyi' motorway. Personally I find this explanation convincing.
The Mark A-20 tank was the latest development in the Mark BT family. The main characteristic of the Mark BT figured in its name,
so why should the main characteristic of the Mark A-2O not be expressed in the same way? The purpose, I suggest, of the Mark A-20
was to reach the motorways on its caterpillar tracks and, once there, to discard the tracks, and convert itself into the king of speed.
At the end of the twentieth century the Soviet Union does not have one kilometre of highway which can be even remotely described
as a motorway. Fifty years ago, and for long after that, there were no motorways in Soviet territory. Nor were there motorways in any
of the countries which bordered the Soviet Union in 1938. One year later, however, in 1939, Stalin partitioned Poland under the
Molotov-Ribbentrop pact and thereby established a common frontier with a country which did have motorways. That country was
Germany.
It is said that Stalin's tanks were not ready for war. That was not so. They were not ready for a defensive war on their own territory.
They were, however, designed to wage war on others.
As it was for Soviet tanks, so it was for Soviet aircraft in both quality and numbers. Communist falsifiers of the facts say nowadays
that the Soviet Union did of course have many aircraft, but the majority were inferior. They were obsolete planes and they therefore
could be disregarded. Let us consider only the contemporary Soviet aircraft - the MIG-3, the Y A K-1, the PE-2, the IL-2; in doing so
we shall in no way find ourselves discussing antiquated flying machines.
4
The Soviet Union was the only country in the world which produced amphibious tanks in massive numbers. In a defensive war, there is no need for a tank to pass over water.
Therefore, when Hitler set Operation Barbarossa in motion, Soviet amphibious tanks had to be discarded because they were unsuitable for defensive warfare. Their production, like
the production of the Mark BT tanks, stopped immediately.
Alfred Price was a British airman who, throughout his lifetime, flew 45 types of aircraft and logged more than 4,000 flying hours.
This is what he thought of these 'antiquated flying machines':
The most heavily armed fighter in service in September 1939 was the Russian Polikarpov I-i6, a progressive development of an
aircraft which had first entered service in 1934 and fought in the Spanish Civil War ... In terms of armament. . . it had never been
surpassed. The I-16 Type 17, which appeared in 1938, carried two synchronized 7.62 ShKAS machine guns on top of the engine
cowling and two 20mm ShVAK cannon in the wings. The ShKAS had a rate of fire of 1,600 rounds per minute after
synchronization and a muzzle velocity of 2,700 feet per second; the ShVAK had a rate of fire of 800 rounds per minute and a
muzzle velocity of 2,600 feet per second. In both cases these figures were better than those for any comparable weapon and they
conferred upon the Type 17 a weight of fire of more than double that of the Messerschmitt 109E-I and nearly three times that of the
Spitfire. The hefty punch of this tubby Russian fighter was years ahead of its time . . . Those who believe that the Russians were
backward peasants prior to the Second World War and advanced after it only because they were able to make use of German
expertise might care to ponder these points. (Alfred Price, World War II Fighter Conflict, London 1975; pp. 18-21)
To this it must be added that in August 1939, Soviet fighters were the first aircraft in the world to use rockets as armaments in
combat conditions. What is more, Soviet aircraft builders had created a plane, unique in the world, which had an armoured fuselage.
The IL-2 was virtually a flying tank, with super-high-powered weaponry by any standard, including eight heavy rocket shells.
What does all this mean? Why was it that from the very first day of the war the Soviet Air Force yielded mastery in the air to the
enemy? The answer is simple. Most Soviet pilots, including fighter pilots, had not been trained to fight air battles. So what had they
been trained to do? They had been trained to strike at ground targets. The regulations of the Soviet fighter and bomber Air Force
(BUIA-4O and BUBA-4O) pointed Soviet pilots towards staging one grandiose, lightning offensive operation, in which the air force
would catch the enemy air force napping with one blow and seize supremacy of the air. Even in 1929, the Soviet magazine, War and
Revolution, published a basic article entitled 'The Initial Period of War'. This drew the conclusion, to be repeated in Soviet Air Force
regulations, including those of 1940 and 1941, that 'it is highly advantageous to take the initiative and be first to attack the enemy.
Once the air force has taken the initiative in attacking the airfields and hangars of the enemy, it can then count upon having supremacy
in the air.' (War and Revolution, No. 9, pp. 19-20 (1929)) The Soviet air theoreticians did not have in mind some general enemy, but a
clearly defined one. Alexander Lapchinsky, the chief Soviet air strategist, illustrated his books with very detailed maps of standard
bombing targets. These included the railway junction at Leipzig, at the Friedrichstrasse in Berlin and its railway station, and other
such places. In explaining how Soviet territory had to be defended, Lapchinsky said 'a determined ground attack attracts enemy air
forces towards itself like a magnet and serves as the best means of defending the country from them. The air defence of the country is
not a manoeuvre from depth, but a manoeuvre into depth.' (Vozdushnaya Armiya, Alexander Lapchinsky, Moscow 1939; pp. 176-7) It
was precisely for this purpose in 1941 that the entire Soviet Air Force was concentrated on the very frontiers of the country. For
example, the field aerodrome of the i23rd Fighter Regiment was only two kilometres from the German frontier. In battle conditions an
aircraft, in order to save fuel, takes off towards the enemy. Aircraft of the I23rd Regiment, like many others, were thus compelled to
gain height after takeoff by flying over German territory.
Both during the war and after it, the Soviet Union built quite a few aircraft which were, at the same time, excellent and surprisingly
simple. The greatest achievements of the Soviet Air Force, however, were not in building aircraft which would destroy enemy planes
in the air. They lay in the building of aircraft which would destroy planes and other enemy targets on the ground. The IL-2 was in just
such a category. Airfields were its most important targets. When he had created this aggressor aircraft, Sergei Ilyushin stipulated one
minor defensive detail. The first model of the IL-2 had two seats. From one, the pilot flew the aircraft and attacked his targets, while
seated behind him in the other the air gunner protected the rear of the aircraft from enemy fighter attack. Stalin personally telephoned
Ilyushin and ordered him to discard the rear gunner and his machine gun, and to produce the IL-2 as a one-seater aircraft. Stalin, it
seemed, needed the IL-2 for a situation in which not one enemy fighter would succeed in taking off. After Operation Barbarossa had
been launched, Stalin rang up Ilyushin again and ordered him to produce the IL-2 as a two-seater aircraft, as before. In a defensive war
even aggressor aircraft need to have some defensive armaments.
1927 was the year when Stalin took his place, finally and permanently, at the summit of power. From then onwards, he concentrated
his attention not only on consolidating his dictatorship, but also on the problems of the whole communist movement and world
revolution.
1927 was the year in which Stalin finally drew the conclusion that the Second World War was inevitable; that there had to be a
decisive conflict with social democratic pacifism which was delaying its start; and that the Nazis, striving for power, had first to be
supported and then destroyed.
The same year also marked the beginning of the industrialization of the Soviet Union. This was done through a series of five-year
plans, the first of which began in 1927.
When the first five-year plan began, the Red Army had 92 tanks. When the plan was completed, it had more than 4,000. Even so,
the military bias in the first five-year plan was not very noticeable. Most attention was paid to the industrial base which was to be
created and which would subsequently produce arms, rather than to arms per se.
The second five-year plan continued the development of the industrial base. It produced coke ovens and open-hearth furnaces, great
electrical power stations and oxygen plants, rolling and blooming mills, mines and pits. The production of arms was not yet the
important issue. Even so, Stalin was not losing sight of it. 24,708 military aircraft were produced during the first two five-year plans.
Then came the third five-year plan, which should have been completed in 1942. This was the plan to turn out actual military
products in enormous quantities and of very high quality.
Industrialization was bought at a high price, however. Stalin let the standard of living of the populace fall to a very low level. Vast
reserves of gold, platinum and diamonds were sold to foreign markets. Churches and monasteries, imperial repositories and museums,
were pillaged. Icons and valuable books were put on the foreign market. Paintings by the great masters of the Renaissance, collections
of cut diamonds, and treasures from museums and libraries were all given over to export. Similarly, Stalin forced timber and coal,
nickel and manganese, oil, cotton, caviar, furs, grain and much more on to the export market.
Then, in 1930, he began his notorious collectivization programme. The peasants were driven by force into collective farms, so that
all their crops could be taken from them without payment. In communist jargon this was called 'transferring resources from agriculture
to heavy industry'. The result of collectivization and the hunger which followed it was ten to sixteen million dead. Stalin, meanwhile,
went on, throughout this period, selling five million tons of grain every year abroad.
Why was collectivization needed? For industrialization. Why industrialization? Not, in any way, to raise the standard of living of
the nation. Life during the NEP, and before industrialization and collectivization, had been perfectly tolerable. Had Stalin been
interested in the standard of living of the people, then he needed neither industrialization nor collectivization. He needed simply to
preserve the NEP. Living standards now, however, reached an awesomely low level. Robert Conquest has recently published a book,
The Harvest of Sorrow (1987), on these fearsome five-year plans, complete with pictures showing skeleton-like children. They portray
a situation as bad as, if not worse than, those we have witnessed in communist Ethiopia or Pol Pot's Cambodia in recent times.
Industrialization and collectivization were intended to produce arms in vast quantities. Why did the communists want arms? To
defend the people? The answer is no. If Stalin had sold only four million tons of grain a year instead of five for his motorway tanks,
parachute silk and Western military technology, millions of children would not have died. Weapons are used in all countries to defend
the population from appalling calamities - above all, their children, who are a nation's future. In the Soviet Union, it was the other way
round. In order to obtain arms, the populace, children included, were subjected to fearful disaster. Just one statistic will serve to
underline its scale. In World War I Russia lost in all 2.3 million people. In peacetime, however, Stalin was responsible for the
destruction of approximately five to seven times more people for the sake of acquiring motorway tanks and offensive aircraft. The
communist turned out to be many times more terrible than the imperialist war.
The growth in Soviet military might was in no way dictated by an external threat, for it began before Hitler came to power. The
annihilation of millions of children for the sake of obtaining armaments was going on whilst Stalin was making strenuous efforts to
suppress western pacifists and at the same time raising up the Nazis. It may be objected that while Stalin sacrificed millions of people,
he nevertheless created arms to defend the survivors. This is not valid. We have already seen, and shall see again, that the arms created
were in no way suitable for the defence of his territory nor the protection of his people; indeed, he would be compelled either to use
them in a way for which they were not intended, or to discard them altogether.
For precisely what, then, were these vast arsenals of arms intended, if not for the defence of the Soviet territory or populace?
CHAPTEF 4
WIy Sialin Pariiiioncd Poland
Vc u)c dong sonctIng uIcI, ] t succccds, u
ouc)tu)n tIc uIoc uo)d und Ic)utc tIc cnt)c
uo)Ing cuss.
STALIN (SocIncnuu, Vol. 13, p. 41i
On 22 Junc 1941, Nazi Ccrnany suddcnly aiiaclcd iIc Sovici Union. TIai is a Iisiorical faci. Ii is, Iowcvcr,
a vcry sirangc faci. Dcforc iIc Sccond World War, Ccrnany did noi Iavc a connon froniicr wiiI iIc Sovici
Union. Conscqucnily, Ccrnany could noi iIcn Iavc nudc an aiiacl, siill lcss a suddcn onc.
Ccrnany and iIc Sovici Union Iad lccn scparaicd ly an uninicrrupicd luffcr of ncuiral siaics. Dcforc a
SoviciCcrnan war could ialc placc, onc condiiion alovc all oiIcrs was ncccssary. TIc luffcr of ncuiral
siaics Iad io lc dcsiroycd. Dui wIo cacily dcsiroycd iIis luffcr; and wIy?
TIc luffcr lciwccn Ccrnany and iIc Sovici Union consisicd for nosi of iis lcngiI of ai lcasi iwo counirics.
Only ai onc poini was ii forncd ly onc couniry. Poland. Poland was iIc sIoricsi, nosi dircci, nosi lcvcl and
nosi convcnicni rouic lying lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany. Ii was iIc narrowcsi pari of iIc dividing
wall. Ii is noi Iard io undcrsiand iIai ii is prcciscly iIrougI Icrc iIai any poicniial aggrcssor, inicni on a
SoviciCcrnan war, would Iavc io iry io forcc a corridor. On iIc oiIcr Iand, if ciiIcr iIc Sovici Union or
Ccrnany did noi wani sucI a war, iIcy would Iavc io usc all iIc sircngiI of iIcir arncd forccs, all of iIcir
naiional wisdon and all iIc forcc of iIcir inicrnaiional auiIoriiy io lccp iIc cncny off PolisI icrriiory. If iIc
worsi canc io iIc worsi, war would Iavc io lc wagcd in Poland iisclf, so as io prcvcni an approacI iowards
ciiIcr froniicr.
Hiilcr Iad dcclarcd Iis warlilc inicniions quiic opcnly. Sialin was quicl io call Iin pullicly, a cannilal.
Hiilcr of coursc could noi aiiacl Sialin, sincc iIcy did noi sIarc a connon froniicr. So Hiilcr proposcd io
Sialin iIai iIcy nalc a joini cffori io lrcacI iIc wall iIai dividcd iIcn. Sialin acccpicd iIis proposal wiiI
dcligIi. Hc lnoclcd down iIc PolisI wall wiiI cnornous cniIusiasn and forccd a corridor in Hiilcr's
dircciion. Hiilcr's noiivcs iowards Poland, as laid oui in Mcn Kunp], arc undcrsiandallc. Dui Iow can
Sialin's aciions lc cplaincd?
TIc firsi cplanaiion, according io Sovici propagandisis, is iIai, aficr Iaving iorn Poland io picccs and
drowncd ii in llood, USSF novcd Icr froniicr wcsiwards, iIai is, sircngiIcncd Icr sccuriiy. TIis is a sirangc
cplanaiion. TIc Sovici froniicr was indccd novcd wcsiwards ly 200-300 liloncircs, lui ai iIc sanc iinc
Ccrnany novcd iis froniicr sonc 300-400 liloncircs casiwards. As a rcsuli of iIis, iIc sccuriiy of iIc Sovici
Union was noi cnIanccd; on iIc conirary, ii was dininisIcd. Dui iIis apari, iIcrc was an cniircly ncw facior.
TIis was iIc connon Sovici-Ccrnan froniicr and Icncc iIc dircci possililiiy of war, including a war of
surprisc aiiacl.
TIc sccond cplanaiion is iIai ly sialling Poland in iIc lacl ai a iinc wIcn sIc was cngagcd in a
dcspcraic sirugglc wiiI iIc Nazis, USSF iricd io dcuu iIc ouilrcal of iIc SoviciCcrnan war. TIis is lilc
saying iIai USSF siaricd a firc in Icr ncigIlour's Iousc in iIc cpcciaiion iIai ii would noi sprcad io Icrs.
TIc iIird cplanaiion is iIai iIc unwillingncss of Francc and Driiain io sign a ircaiy wiiI iIc USSF lcfi
Sialin wiiI no opiion lui io conc io icrns wiiI Hiilcr. Dui wIy sIould Francc and Driiain dcfcnd iIc Sovici
Union, wIcn iIc Sovici Union Iad proclaincd iIai iis nain ain was io ovcriIrow dcnocracy cvcrywIcrc,
including in Francc and Driiain? TIc Wcsi did noi carc wIciIcr Hiilcr wcni casi or noi. TIc counirics of
Easicrn Europc ccriainly did. If Hiilcr iurncd casiwards, iIcy would lc Iis firsi viciins. TIcrcforc iIc Easicrn
Europcan counirics wcrc iIc naiural allics of iIc Sovici Union. An alliancc sIould lc sougIi wiiI iIcn
againsi Hiilcr. Dui Sialin did noi sccl sucI allianccs. In cascs wIcrc ircaiics did cisi, iIc Sovici Union did
noi carry oui Icr olligaiions. Sialin could Iavc rcnaincd ncuiral, lui cIosc insicad io sial in iIc lacl iIosc
counirics cngagcd in a sirugglc wiiI fascisn.
Oncc Ic Iad forccd a corridor iIrougI iIc dividing wall, Hiilcr iIougIi iIai Ic Iad donc cnougI. Hc iIcn
iurncd Iis aiicniions io Wcsicrn Europc, Africa, iIc Mcdiicrrancan and iIc Ailaniic. WIai ougIi Sialin io
Iavc donc, faccd as Ic was wiiI a lrcacI in iIc wall sonc 570 liloncircs widc and iinc in Iand? Hc sIould
Iavc Iasiily rcinforccd Iis dcfcnccs. TIc old froniicr was a powcrful linc of foriificd rcgions. Ii sIould Iavc
lccn sircngiIcncd and inprovcd wiiIoui dclay. In addiiion io iIis, a sccond linc of dcfcncc sIould Iavc lccn
luili, and a iIird, and a fifiI, and norc. Mincs sIould Iavc lccn laid ai oncc on roads, on lridgcs and in
ficlds. Anii-ianl diicIcs sIould Iavc lccn dug and givcn anii-ianl ariillcry covcr. Dui nonc of iIis Iappcncd.
Sonc iinc laicr, in 1943, iIc Fcd Arny was prcparing io rcpcl an cncny aiiacl in iIc Kursl Salicni. WiiIin
a sIori pcriod of iinc, Sovici iroops succccdcd in crcaiing si coniinuous dcfcnsivc sirips - onc lcIind iIc
oiIcr - on a vasi froni, io a ioial dcpiI of 250-300 liloncircs. EacI liloncirc was saiuraicd wiiI ircncIcs,
dugouis, connunicaiion ircncIcs, conccalncni sIclicrs and gun posiiions. TIc avcragc dcnsiiy of anii-ianl
and anii-infaniry nincs pcr liloncirc was as IigI as 7,000, wIilc iIc dcnsiiy of anii-ianl wcaponry rcacIcd
iIc cccpiionally IigI lcvcl of 41 guns in cvcry liloncirc, noi couniing ficld and aniiaircrafi ariillcry, and
ianls, dug inio iIc ground. TIus a iruly inpcncirallc dcfcncc was sci up fron scraicI in a vcry sIori spacc
of iinc in iIc opcn ficld.
In 1939 condiiions wIicI favourcd dcfcncc wcrc considcrally lciicr iIan in 1943. TIcrc wcrc inpassallc
forcsis, rivcrs and narsIcs. TIcrc wcrc fcw roads and a loi of iinc. NcvcriIclcss, ai iIai noncni iIc Sovici
Union sioppcd producing anii-ianl and anii-aircrafi guns. Insicad of rcndcring iIc arca inpassallc, ii was
inncdiaicly nadc norc passallc. Foads and lridgcs wcrc luili in ii, and iIc railway nciworl was cicndcd,
sircngiIcncd and inprovcd. Prcviously cisiing foriificaiions wcrc dcnolisIcd and covcrcd wiiI cariI.
Ilya Siarinov, a CFU coloncl involvcd in iIis proccss, dcscrilcd wIai Ic saw.
TIc siiuaiion was lcconing alsurd. WIcn wc wcrc faccd ly wcal arnics of conparaiivcly snall counirics,
our froniicrs wcrc rcally wcll and iruly safc. WIcn Nazi Ccrnany lccanc our ncigIlour iIc dcfcnsivc
insiallaiions pui up ly iIc cnginccrs along iIc forncr froniicr wcrc alandoncd and cvcn pariially
disnanilcd. (I. Siarinov, Mnu ZIdut Suocgo CIusu, p. 186i
TIc niliiary cnginccring dirccioraic of iIc Fcd Arny indcnicd for 120,000 dclaycd-aciion railway nincs. In
iIc cvcni of an invasion ly iIc Ccrnan Arny, iIis quaniiiy would Iavc lccn quiic sufficicni io paralysc iIc
cniirc railway nciworl lcIind cncny lincs, upon wIicI iIc Ccrnans would Iavc lccn ioially dcpcndcni. Dui
insicad of iIc nunlcr of nincs ordcrcd, only 120 arrivcd. (Siarinov, op. ct.) Yci iIc ninc is a vcry sinplc,
vcry cIcap and vcry cffcciivc wcapon. TIc produciion of nincs in iIc Sovici Union was cnornous, lui ii was
curiailcd aficr iIc passagc Iad lccn forccd iIrougI iIc wall.
Onc lrcacI in iIc wall was cnougI for Hiilcr. Ii was noi cnougI for Sialin. Hiilcr, wiiI Sialin's Iclp,
dcsiroycd iIc auiIoriiy of iIc siaic in only onc couniry forning pari of iIc dividing luffcr. Sialin, wiiIoui
anylody's Iclp, acIicvcd iIis in iIrcc oiIcr counirics, Laivia, LiiIuania and Esionia, aiicnpicd io do iIc
sanc in a fouriI, Finland, and aciivcly prcparcd io rcpcai iIc pcrfornancc in a fifiI couniry, Fonania, aficr
Iaving scizcd a vasi iraci of Fonanian icrriiory. Only icn noniIs aficr iIc 'non-aggrcssion' paci was signcd
and ly Sialin's own cfforis, iIc dividing luffcr fron iIc Arciic Occan io iIc Dlacl Sca Iad lccn conplcicly
sIaiicrcd. TIcrc no longcr rcnaincd any ncuiral counirics lciwccn Sialin and Hiilcr and iIcrcly iIc
condiiions nccdcd for aiiacl wcrc crcaicd.
During iIis sIori spacc of iinc, all of Sialin's wcsicrn ncigIlours Iad lcconc Iis viciins. TIc appcarancc
of Sovici iroops in LiiIuania ncani iIai iIcy Iad novcd on io iIc rcal Ccrnan froniicr. Prcviously, iIc
Sovici-Ccrnan lordcr passcd iIrougI PolisI-occupicd icrriiory. Now, Sovici iroops Iad novcd on io iIc
froniicr wiiI Easi Prussia.
Connunisi Iisiorians Iavc iricd, iIougI wiiIoui any succcss, io dcvisc answcrs io iIc qucsiion as io wIy
Sialin agrccd io Iclp Hiilcr forcc a corridor iIrougI Poland. TIc qucsiion as io wIy Sialin snasIcd iIc cniirc
luffcr is onc wIicI iIcy prcfcr noi io raisc. Dui Sialin Iinsclf gavc a clcar and prccisc answcr io tIut
unaslcd qucsiion.
Hisiory siaics wroic Sialin| iIai wIcn onc couniry wanis io go io war wiiI anoiIcr, cvcn onc wIicI is noi a
ncigIlour, iIcn ii lcgins io sccl froniicrs across wIicI ii would lc allc io rcacI iIc froniicrs of iIc
counirics ii wisIcs io aiiacl. (P)uudu, 5 MarcI 1936i
Did iIc Fcd Arny inicnd io siop on iIc lordcrs oncc ii Iad rcacIcd iIcn?
Hcrc is S. K. TinosIcnlo, MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union, on iIc suljcci.
In LiiIuania, Laivia and Esionia, iIc powcr of iIc landowncrs and capiialisis, so Iaicful io iIc worlcrs,
Ias lccn alolisIcd. TIc Sovici Union Ias grown significanily and Ias novcd iis froniicrs wcsiwards. TIc
capiialisi world Ias lccn conpcllcd io yicld and givc ground. Dui ii is noi for us figIicrs of iIc Fcd Arny io
givc oursclvcs airs or rcsi on our laurcls! (O)dc) o] tIc Pcopc's Connssu) o] Dc]cncc, No. 400, 7 Novcnlcr
1940i
TIis is nciiIcr a spcccI nor a Tass rcpori. Ii is an ordcr of iIc Fcd Arny. To iIc wcsi of iIc Sovici lordcrs
lay only Ccrnany and counirics allicd io Icr. Could iIc froniicrs lc novcd furiIcr wcsiward, ai iIc cpcnsc
of Ccrnany?
"(&)*#% +
TIc Paci and iis Fcsulis
Stun uus no)c cunnng tIun Htc), no)c
cunnng
und no)c pc)]dous.
ANTON ANTONOV-OVSEENKO
(TIc Po)t)ut o] u Tu)unt, Ncw Yorl 1980; p.
296i
Ouiwardly cvcryiIing sccncd cquiiallc, a pari of Poland for Hiilcr and a pari for Sialin. Howcvcr, jusi onc
wccl aficr iIc signing of iIc Paci, Sialin playcd Iis firsi diriy iricl. Hiilcr lcgan iIc war againsi Poland, wIilc
Sialin siaicd iIai Iis iroops wcrc noi yci rcady. Hc could Iavc iold Fillcnirop iIai lcforc iIc Paci was
signcd, lui Ic did noi do so.
5
Hiilcr lcgan iIc war and found Iinsclf on Iis own. TIc rcsuli? Hc, and Ic
alonc, was lrandcd iIc pcrpciraior of iIc Sccond World War.
Oncc Ic Iad lcgun iIc war againsi Poland, Hiilcr inncdiaicly found Iinsclf ai war wiiI Francc, iIai is, ai
war on iwo fronis. Evcry Ccrnan scIoolloy lncw Iow a war on iwo fronis would iurn oui in iIc cnd for
Ccrnany.
Driiain ai oncc dcclarcd war on Ccrnany. Francc could lc dcali wiiI, lui Driiain was an island. In ordcr io
rcacI ii, long and scrious prcparaiions wcrc ncccssary. A powcrful flcci, rougIly cqual in sircngiI io iIc
Foyal Navy, was also nccdcd, as wcll as suprcnacy in iIc air. TIc war was iIus alrcady cIanging inio wIai
would lcconc a long, drawn-oui conflici.
Sianding lcIind Driiain was iIc Uniicd Siaics wIicI could, as ii did in World War I, iIrow iis
incIausiillc powcr on io iIc scalcs ai iIc nosi viial noncni. TIc wIolc of iIc Wcsi lccanc Hiilcr's cncny.
5
Known as the 'Non-Aggression Pact', which, by dividing Poland between the Soviet Union and Germany, was instrumental in the start of World War II.
Hiilcr could couni on Sialin's fricndsIip only so long as Ic was in a posiiion of sircngiI. In a proiracicd war
againsi iIc Wcsi, Sialin would, of coursc, lc olligcd io dissipaic iIis sircngiI.
As far as Sialin was conccrncd, Poland Iad lccn pariiiioncd, noi in iIc CIanccllcry in Dcrlin, lui in iIc
Krcnlin in Moscow. In cffcci, Sialin goi iIc war Ic wanicd, wiiI a wcsicrn naiion dcsiroying oiIcrs around ii,
wIilc Sialin rcnaincd ncuiral, liding Iis iinc. WIcn, laicr, Ic goi inio scrious difficuliics, Sialin ai oncc
rcccivcd Iclp fron iIc Wcsi.
In iIc cnd, Iowcvcr, Poland, for wIosc lilcriy iIc Wcsi Iad gonc io war, cndcd up wiiI nonc ai all. On iIc
conirary, sIc was Iandcd ovcr io Sialin, along wiiI iIc wIolc of Easicrn Europc, including a pari of
Ccrnany. Evcn so, iIcrc arc sonc pcoplc in iIc Wcsi wIo coniinuc io lclicvc iIai iIc Wcsi won iIc Sccond
World War.
Hiilcr conniiicd suicidc; Sialin lccanc iIc alsoluic rulcr of a vasi cnpirc Iosiilc io iIc Wcsi, wIicI Iad
lccn crcaicd wiiI iIc Icp of iIc Wcsi. For all iIai, Sialin was allc io prcscrvc Iis rcpuiaiion as naivc and
irusiing, wIilc Hiilcr wcni down in Iisiory as iIc uliinaic aggrcssor. A nuliiiudc of lools Iavc lccn
pullisIcd in iIc Wcsi lascd on iIc idca iIai Sialin was noi rcady for war wIilc Hiilcr was. In ny vicw, iIc
nan wIo is rcady for war is noi iIc onc wIo loudly proclains Iinsclf prcparcd for ii, lui iIc nan wIo wins ii
ly dividing Iis cncnics and lnocling iIcir Icads iogciIcr.
Did Sialin inicnd io olscrvc iIc Paci? Lci Sialin spcal.
TIc qucsiion of conflici nusi noi lc considcrcd fron iIc poini of vicw of jusiicc, lui fron iIc poini of vicw
of iIc dcnands of iIc poliiical facior, fron iIc poini of vicw of iIc poliiical dcnands of iIc Pariy ai any
givcn noncni. (SpcccI io a scssion of iIc cccuiivc conniiicc of iIc Coninicrn, 22 January 1926i
War can iurn cacI and cvcry agrccncni upsidc down. (Pravda, 15 Scpicnlcr 1927i
TIc Pariy, in congrcsscs ai wIicI Sialin spolc, corrccily undcrsiood iis lcadcrs and gavc iIcn iIc
appropriaic, full auiIoriiy.
TIc Congrcss sircsscs in pariicular iIai iIc Ccniral Conniiicc is givcn full powcrs ai any noncni io lrcal
all allianccs and pcacc ircaiics wiiI inpcrialisi and lourgcois siaics and cqually io dcclarc war on iIcn.
(Fcsoluiion of iIc 7iI Pariy Congrcssi
Incidcnially, iIis Pariy dccision Ias ncvcr lccn rcscindcd.
According io Sialin, 'A grcai dcal dcpcnds upon wIciIcr wc succccd in dclaying iIc war, wIicI is
unavoidallc, wiiI iIc capiialisi world, uniil iIai noncni wIcn iIc capiialisis siari figIiing anong
iIcnsclvcs.' (SocIncnuu, Vol. 10, p. 288i And. "TIc dccisivc laiilc can lc considcrcd innincni wIcn all iIc
class forccs Iosiilc io us Iavc lcconc sufficicnily cnianglcd wiiI cacI oiIcr, wIcn iIcy arc figIiing
sufficicnily wiiI cacI oiIcr, and wIcn iIcy Iavc wcalcncd cacI oiIcr sufficicnily for iIc conflici io lc lcyond
iIcir sircngiI.' (SocIncnuu, Vol. 6, P- 158i
Sialin nccdcd a siiuaiion in wIicI 'iIc capiialisis will figIi cacI oiIcr lilc dogs'. (P)uudu, 14 May 1939i TIc
Moloiov-Fillcnirop paci crcaicd jusi iIai siiuaiion. Ouoiaiions lilc iIcsc could lc glinpscd in P)uudu. 'Noi
only nusi iIcy lc ialcn ly iIc iIroai, iIcy nusi lc dcsiroycd.' (Mar, Vol. 2, p. 343i P)uudu was iransporicd
wiiI dcligIi. TIc foundaiions of iIc cariI arc ircnlling,' ii wroic. 'TIc ground slips fron undcr iIc fcci of
pcoplcs and naiions. Clows arc afirc in iIc sly and iIc iIundcr of guns sIalcs scas and coniincnis. Powcrs
and siaics arc llown away jusi lilc cIaff in iIc wind. How cccllcni ii is, Iow ciraordinarily wondcrful, wIcn
iIc world is sIalcn io iis vcry foundaiions, wIcn powcrs pcrisI and grcaincss falls.' (P)uudu, 4 Augusi 1940i
'Evcry sucI war lrings us closcr io iIai Iappy iinc wIcn nurdcrs anong iIc pcoplc will no longcr Iappcn.
(P)uudu, 18 Augusi 1940i
TIcsc scniincnis sprcad fron iIc vcry iop down iIrougI iIc ranls of iIc Fcd Arny and iIc Pariy.
Licuicnani-Ccncral S. KrivosIcin dcscrilcd a convcrsaiion Ic Iad wiiI Pcicr LaiysIcv, Iis dcpuiy. KrivosIcin
was connanding iIc 25iI MccIanizcd Corps ai iIc iinc. SIorily lcforc, Ic Iad lccn in cIargc, along wiiI
Ccncral Cudcrian, of iIc joini Nazi-Sovici paradc in Drcsi-Liiovsl io narl iIc pariiiion of Poland. 'Wc Iavc
concludcd a ircaiy wiiI iIc Ccrnans', Ic said, 'lui iIis ncans noiIing. Now is iIc nosi wondcrful iinc io
solvc all world prollcns oncc and for all, and in a consiruciivc way.' (Hutnuuu HuV, Molodaya Cvardiya, 1962,
p. 8i KrivosIcin iurncd cvcryiIing inio a jolc aficr iIc cvcni. Ii is inicrcsiing iIai jolcs of iIis lind wcrc
circulaiing in Iis Corps and indccd iIrougIoui iIc Fcd Arny. Nolody scriously discusscd wIciIcr iIc Corps
and iIc cniirc Fcd Arny Iad lccn prcparcd for dcfcncc.
Lconid DrczIncv Iinsclf Ias spolcn of iIc way in wIicI Sovici connunisis lclicvcd in iIc Non-Aggrcssion
Paci and iIc nanncr in wIicI iIcy inicndcd io olscrvc ii. Hc dcscrilcd a ncciing of Pariy agiiaiors wIicI
was Icld in Dncpropcirovsl in 1940.
'Conradc DrczIncv, wc Iavc io inicrprci non-aggrcssion and say iIai ii Ias io lc ialcn scriously, and iIai
anyonc wIo docs noi lclicvc in ii is ialling provocaiion. Dui pcoplc Iavc liiilc faiiI in ii. So wIai arc wc io
do? Do wc go on inicrprciing ii or noi?'
Ii was quiic a dclicaic noncni. TIcrc wcrc 400 pcoplc siiiing in iIc Iall, all waiiing for nc io answcr. I
Iad vcry liiilc iinc io iIinl.
'You Iavc goi io go on inicrprciing ii,' I said, 'and wc sIall go on inicrprciing ii uniil noi onc sionc of Nazi
Ccrnany rcnains upon anoiIcr.' (Lconid DrczIncv, Muuuu Zcnuu, Moscow, 1978, p. 16i
Ii occurrcd io Sialin iIai iIc siiuaiion in wIicI 'noi onc sionc of Nazi Ccrnany rcnains upon anoiIcr'
would conc aloui in 1942. Dui iIc rapid fall of Francc and Hiilcr's rcfusal io land in Driiain (Sovici niliiary
iniclligcncc lncw aloui iIis ai iIc cnd of 1940i rcarrangcd all iIc cards wIicI Sialin Icld in Iis Iand. TIc
lilcraiion of Europc was lrougIi forward fron iIc sunncr of 1942 io iIc sunncr of 1941. TIc ncw ycar of
1941 was iIcrcforc grccicd wiiI iIc slogan, 'Lci us incrcasc iIc nunlcrs of rcpullics in iIc Sovici Union!'
Wiclding our spadcs, in Foriy-Onc, wc'll find
TIc wcaliI of EariI, wIicI lics in virgin laycrs;
Uraniun, ly cyclairon cnlivcncd,
Dcconcs a sinplc fucl for cvcry day.
EacI ycar for us is viciory, a laiilc,
For coal, for swccps of nciallurgy galorc,
To siiccn coais of arns, pcrIaps, arc addcd,
Ncw coais of arns-of iIcsc will Iavc siill norc . . .
(P)uudu, l January 1941i
TIcy wcrc noi iIinling aloui dcfcncc. TIcy wcrc noi prcparing for ii, nor Iad iIcy any inicniion of
prcparing for ii. TIcy wcrc fully awarc iIai Ccrnany was alrcady ai war in iIc Wcsi and for iIai rcason
would noi lcgin a war in iIc Easi. TIcy lncw full wcll iIai war on iwo fronis would lc suicidc for Hiilcr.
On no occasion lcforc iIc war did P)uudu cvcr call on iIc Sovici pcoplc io sircngiIcn iis dc]cnccs. Indccd,
P)uudu's ionc was quiic diffcrcni.
Our couniry is largc; iIc glolc nusi rcvolvc for ninc Iours lcforc iIc wIolc of our vasi Sovici land can
cnicr iIc ncw ycar of our viciorics. TIc iinc will conc wIcn noi ninc Iours, lui all iIc iwcniy-four Iours
on iIc clocl will lc nccdcd for iIis io Iappcn . . . WIo lnows wIcrc wc sIall lc grcciing iIc ncw ycar in
fivc or icn ycars' iinc - in wIai laiiiudc, on wIai ncw Sovici ncridian? (P)uudu, 1 January 1941i
TIc ncarcr iIc daic of iIc Sovici invasion of Europc approacIcd - July 1941 - iIc norc cplicii P)uudu
lccanc.
Dividc our cncnics, ncci iIc dcnands of cacI of iIcn icnporarily and iIcn dcsiroy iIcn onc ai a iinc,
giving iIcn no opporiuniiy io uniic. (P)uudu, 4 MarcI 1941i
Hiilcr dccidcd iIai ii was noi woriI Iis wIilc waiiing any longcr. Hc was iIc firsi io go, wiiIoui waiiing for
iIc llow of iIc 'lilcraiing' daggcr io sial Iin in iIc lacl. Hc Iad lcgun iIc war in iIc nosi favourallc
condiiions wIicI could possilly Iavc cisicd for an aggrcssor; lui givcn iIc naiurc of Sialin's grand plan, Ic
could ncvcr Iavc won ii. Evcn in iIc nosi unfavourallc condiiions, iIc Fcd Arny was allc io 'lilcraic' Ialf of
Europc and Ias Icld ii in suljugaiion io iIis day. Wc nusi wondcr Iow would ii Iavc iurncd oui Iad iIc
lcsi Ccrnan forccs lcfi iIc Coniincni in iIc carly siagcs of iIc war io go off io Africa and iIc DriiisI Islcs,
lcaving iIc Fcd Arny io novc in lcIind iIcir lacls io dcsiroy Ccrnany's only sourcc of oil.
"(&)*#% ,
WIcn Did iIc Sovici Union Enicr World War II?
In tIc cucnt o] u gcnc)u con]ct, onu onc count)u
cun un. TIut count)u s tIc Souct Unon.
HITLEF, 1937 (In convcrsaiion
wiiI Lord Halifa, Olcrsalzlurg,
19 Novcnlcr 1937i
EvcryiIing in iIc Sovici Union rclaiing io iIc lcginning of World War II is conccalcd ly iIc inpcncirallc
darlncss of siaic sccrccy. Anong iIc nany sccrcis is onc wIicI is cspccially wcll lcpi. iIc daic on wIicI iIc
Sovici Union cnicrcd iIc war.
In ordcr io conccal iIc iruiI, connunisi propaganda Ias pui aloui iIc falsc daic of 22 Junc 1941.
Connunisi wriicrs Iavc iIougIi up a nuliiiudc of lcgcnds aloui 22 Junc. I Iavc cvcn Icard ii said iIai iIc
USSF was lcni on a 'pcaccful' lifc wIcn ii was sci upon. If iIc invcniions of Sovici propaganda arc io lc
lclicvcd, iIc Sovici Union did noi cnicr World War II of iis own voliiion, lui was forcilly draggcd inio ii.
In ordcr io nalc iIis sound plausillc, Sovici propaganda Ias lccn conpcllcd io luiircss iIis daic wiiI
spccial props. On iIc onc Iand, iIc 'prc-war pcriod' was dcviscd io includc iIc iwo ycars prcccding 22 Junc,
wIilc on iIc oiIcr, wc Iavc iIc invcnicd figurc of'1,418 days of war'. Couniing lacl fron iIc day wIcn iIc
war in Europc cndcd, onc incviially concs io rcsi, according io forgcd Sovici conpuiaiions, on 'iIai faicful
Sunday'.
Ii is, Iowcvcr, casy io dclunl iIc nyiI of 22 Junc. All iIai is nccdcd io do iIis is io iap gcnily on onc of iIc
supporis, iIai of iIc 'prc-war pcriod', for canplc, for iIc cniirc siruciurc io collapsc, along wiiI iIai 'faicful'
daic and iIc 1,418 days of iIc 'grcai noiIcrland war'.
TIc 'prc-war pcriod' ncvcr cisicd. Ii was invcnicd. Sufficc ii io rccall iIai during iIis pcriod all iIc
Europcan ncigIlours of iIc Sovici Union fcll viciins io Sovici aggrcssion. Morcovcr, iIc Fcd Arny ccriainly
Iad no inicniion of rcsiriciing or siopping iis 'lilcraiion canpaigns' inio iIc Wcsi ai iIai poini (Ordcr No.
400, daicd 7 Fclruary 1940, of iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for iIc Dcfcncc of iIc USSFi aliIougI ly iIcn only
Ccrnany lay io iIc wcsi of iIc Sovici Union.
In Scpicnlcr 1939, iIc Sovici Union dcclarcd iisclf ncuiral and, during iIc 'prc-war pcriod', scizcd
icrriiorics wiiI populaiions ioialling 23 nillion pcoplc - noi lad going for a ncuiral siaic.
TIc Fcd Arny and iIc NKVD pcrpciraicd fcarful crincs in iIcsc capiurcd icrriiorics. Sovici conccniraiion
canps wcrc cranncd wiiI inprisoncd soldicrs and officcrs fron a nunlcr of Europcan counirics. Officcr
prisoncrs, and noi only iIc Polcs, wcrc sIoi in iIcir iIousands. TIis is noi iIc aciion of a ncuiral siaic.
Hcrc is a sirangc siaic of affairs. Ccrnany aiiaclcd Poland, wIicI ncans iIai Ccrnany was iIc insiigaior
of, and pariicipani in, iIc Europcan and iIcn iIc World War. TIc Sovici Union did iIc sanc iIing in iIc
sanc noniI, lui ii docs noi judgc iisclf io Iavc lccn an insiigaior of iIc war. Nor docs ii considcr iisclf cvcn
io Iavc iIcn lccn a pariicipani in iIc war.
A PolisI soldicr lillcd in laiilc on PolisI icrriiory againsi iIc Fcd Arny is considcrcd a pariicipani in World
War II, as wcll as iis viciin, wIilc iIc Sovici soldicr wIo lillcd Iin is rcgardcd as 'ncuiral'. If in iIc sanc
laiilc a Sovici soldicr is lillcd, iIcn ii is judgcd iIai Ic Ias lccn lillcd noi in wariinc lui in pcacciinc -in
iIc 'prc-war pcriod'.
Ccrnany scizcd Dcnnarl and iIis was an aci of war, cvcn aliIougI no grcai laiilcs wcrc fougIi. TIc
Sovici Union also scizcd, wiiIoui firing a sIoi, iIrcc Daliic siaics narlcdly sinilar io Dcnnarl in
gcograpIical posiiion, in sizc of populaiion, in culiurc and in iradiiions. Dui iIc aciions of iIc Sovici Union
arc noi judgcd io lc acis of war.
Ccrnany scizcd Norway. TIis was a furiIcr aci of aggrcssion. Dui lcforc iIis Iappcncd, iIc Sovici Union
Iad carvcd up ncigIlouring Finland. TIc lisi of crincs conniiicd ly Ccrnany in iIc war lcgins on i
Scpicnlcr 1939, wIilc iIc lisi of iIc Fcd Arny's crincs lcgins for sonc rcason only on 22 Junc 1941. WIy?
During iIc 'prc-war pcriod', iIc Fcd Arny losi Iundrcds of iIousands of iis soldicrs in liiicr laiilcs.
Ccrnan Arny losscs in iIc sanc pcriod wcrc considcrally lcss. If onc judgcs fron losscs alonc, Ccrnany Iad
norc grounds iIan iIc Sovici Union for considcring iisclf ncuiral in 1939 and 1940.
TIc official fornula uscd io givc a nanc io iIcsc aciions of iIc Sovici Arny in iIc 'prc-war pcriod' is
'sircngiIcning of wcsicrn froniicr sccuriiy'. TIis is noi iruc. TIc froniicrs wcrc sccurc, ai a iinc wIcn iIc
ncigIlours of iIc Sovici Union wcrc iIc ncuiral siaics of Europc, wIilc iIcrc wcrc no connon froniicrs wiiI
Ccrnany, and wIcn Hiilcr in conscqucncc was ioially unallc io launcI a gcncral aiiacl, and ccriainly noi a
surprisc aiiacl, on iIc Sovici Union. Sialin, Iowcvcr, sysicnaiically dcsiroycd scvcral ncuiral siaics of
Europc, iIcrcly csiallisIing a connon froniicr wiiI Ccrnany. TIis was noi a way of cnIancing iIc sccuriiy
of iIc Sovici froniicrs.
If wc usc iIc fornula 'sircngiIcning of wcsicrn froniicr sccuriiy' io dcscrilc aggrcssion againsi si ncuiral
Europcan siaics Poland, Finland, Esionia, LiiIuania, Laivia and Fonania - wIy do wc noi usc iIc sanc
fornula in rclaiion io Hiilcr? Did Ic noi cnIancc iIc sccuriiy of Iis froniicrs ly occupying ncigIlouring
counirics?
Ii nigIi lc oljccicd iIai in iIc 'prc-war pcriod' iIc Sovici Union did noi wagc onc coniinuous war, lui a
scrics of wars and invasions scparaicd ly inicrvals. Dui Hiilcr also wagcd a scrics of wars scparaicd ly
inicrvals. WIy do wc usc oiIcr criicria wIcn judging Iin?
Ii is allcgcd iIai iIc Sovici Union did noi fornally dcclarc war on anylody in iIc 'prc-war pcriod', iIcrcforc
ii cannoi lc considcrcd a pariicipani in iIc war. Dui Hiilcr did noi always fornally dcclarc war. According io
iIc siaicncnis nadc ly Sovici propaganda, nolody fornally dcclarcd war on anylody on 22 Junc 1941
ciiIcr. So wIy is iIis daic acccpicd as iIc dividc lciwccn war and pcacc?
Sovici propaganda lcgins iis Iisiory of iIc war fron iIc noncni wIcn forcign iroops appcarcd on Sovici
icrriiory and iIus prcscnis iIc Sovici Union as an innoccni viciin. Lci us siop inagining ii as an innoccni
viciin. Lci us rcncnlcr insicad iIosc wIo wcrc rcally innoccni, and wIo pcrisIcd in iIc 'prcwar pcriod' on
iIc layoncis of iIc arny of 'lilcraiors'. Lci iIc Iisiory of iIc war lc wriiicn, noi fron 22 Junc, lui fron iIc
noncni wIcn iIc connunisi Iordcs, wiiIoui any dcclaraiion of war, iool lclligcrcni aciion in an alrcady
wcalcncd Poland, wIosc arny was irying in a Icroic lui uncqual sirugglc io siop Hiilcr's drivc io iIc casi.
Lci iIc Iisiory of iIc war lc wriiicn, noi jusi fron iIai day, lui fron iIc day on wIicI Sialin Iinsclf iool iIc
dccision io siari ii.
Ai dawn on 1 Scpicnlcr 1939, iIc Ccrnan Arny cnicrcd Poland. In iIc iwcniiciI ccniury, war in Europc
auionaiically ncans world war. So iIc war in faci quiclly laid Iold upon loiI Europc and alnosi iIc wIolc
of iIc rcsi of iIc world.
Dy a sirangc conflucncc of circunsianccs, ii was prcciscly on iIai vcry sanc day of 1 Scpicnlcr iIai iIc
FouriI Eiraordinary Scssion of iIc Suprcnc Sovici of iIc USSF passcd a law csiallisIing gcncral lialiliiy
for niliiary scrvicc. TIrougIoui iIc wIolc of iIc Sovici Union's Iisiory, iIcrc Iad ncvcr lccn sucI a law.
WIilc Hiilcr was frigIicning cIildrcn (and grown-upsi, and was loolcd upon as a nonsicr and an ogrc, iIc
Sovici govcrnncni Iad in faci goi ly wiiIoui any gcncral niliiary-scrvicc lialiliiy law. Yci as soon as iIc Non-
Aggrcssion Paci was signcd, an aci was nccdcd io csiallisI a gcncral olligaiion io pcrforn niliiary scrvicc.
Scpicnlcr 1939 was iIc lcginning of iIc pIoncy war in iIc Wcsi. In iIc sanc noniI, a no lcss pIoncy pcacc
lcgan in iIc Easi.
WIy did iIc Sovici Union nccd io inposc iIc gcncral olligaiion io niliiary scrvicc? TIc connunisis will
answcr wiiI onc voicc iIai ii was nccdcd lccausc iIc Sccond World War lcgan iIai day; iIcy did noi wani io
ialc pari in ii, lui wcrc sinply ialing prccauiionary ncasurcs. MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union, K. A. Mcrcislov,
was onc of iIc nany wIo asscricd iIai iIc law was of grcai significancc and was passcd 'in iIc condiiions of
World War II wIicI Iad alrcady lcgun'. (Nu SuzIIc Nu)odu, IPL, Moscow, 1968 p. 181i
Lci us inaginc iIc PolisI-Ccrnan froniicr on iIai iragic norning - darlncss, nisi, sIooiing and iIc roar of
cngincs. TIcrc wcrc fcw in Poland wIo undcrsiood wIai was Iappcning, wIciIcr ii was a provocaiion or an
unauiIorizcd clasI wIicI Iad soncIow lccn sclf-gcncraicd. Dui ai iIc sanc noncni, iIc dcpuiics of iIc
Suprcnc Sovici of iIc USSF - including sIcpIcrds fron iIc nouniainous pasiurcs IigI alovc iIc cloud lcvcl
and disiinguisIcd rcindccr lrccdcrs fron nonad canps in iIc Arciic - wcrc asscnllcd in Moscow. TIcu
alrcady lncw iIai ii was nciiIcr provocaiion, nor a clasI, nor a PolisI-Ccrnan war, nor cvcn a Europcan
war, lui iIc lcginning of iIc Sccond World War; and iIcy inncdiaicly nci in cncrgcncy scssion io pass iIc
appropriaic laws. Yci Iow can ii lc cplaincd wIy iIcsc sanc dcpuiics did noi rcaci wiiI idcniical swifincss
wIcn a sinilar iIing Iappcncd on iIc Sovici-Ccrnan froniicr in 1941?
On iIai norning of 1 Scpicnlcr, ii was noi only iIc PolisI govcrnncni and iIc govcrnncnis of wcsicrn
counirics wIo did noi lnow iIai a ncw world war Iad lcgun. Hiilcr Iinsclf did noi lnow ii. Hc lcgan iIc war
againsi Poland in iIc Iopc iIai ii would only lc a local aciion, lilc iIc scizurc of CzccIoslovalia Iad lccn.
TIis is noi jusi Cocllcls' propaganda. Sovici sourccs say iIc sanc iIing. 'Hiilcr was convinccd,' wroic Air
Coloncl-Ccncral A. S. Yalovlcv, wIo was a pcrsonal adviscr of Sialin's ai iIc iinc, 'iIai Driiain and Francc
would noi go io war ovcr Poland.' (Tsc' ZIzn, IPL, Moscow, 1968, p. 212i
TIus Hiilcr did noi lnow iIai Ic was lcginning World War II; iIc conradcs in iIc Krcnlin lncw ii all ioo
wcll. Dui ii is, of coursc, a long -way io Moscow. Sonc dcpuiics nccdcd a wccl, oiIcrs as nucI as iwclvc
days io rcacI iIc capiial. TIis ncans iIai, in ordcr io discuss iIc war wIicI Iad lcgun in Europc, sonconc
gavc iIc signal io iIc dcpuiics io gaiIcr in iIc Krcnlin Ic]o)c tIc uu) Icgun. Indccd, I lclicvc iIai sonconc
gavc iIis signal cucn Ic]o)c tIc MootouHIIcnt)op puct uus sgncd.
An aiicnpi io csiallisI iIc cxuct daic on wIicI iIc Sccond World War lcgan, and iIc iinc wIcn iIc Sovici
Union canc inio ii, incscapally lcads us, in faci, io iIc daic of 19 Augusi 1939.
Prcviously, Sialin Iad oficn spolcn ai sccrci ncciings aloui Iis plan io 'lilcraic' Europc. TIis was firsi io
involvc Europc in war, wIilc Ic Iinsclf rcnaincd ncuiral. TIcn, wIcn iIc advcrsarics Iad cIausicd cacI
oiIcr, Ic would iIrow iIc wIolc powcr of iIc Fcd Arny inio iIc lalancc. (Sialin, Vol. 6, p. 158; Vol. 7, p. 14i
TIc final dccision io carry iIis plan in cffcci was ialcn ai a scssion of iIc Poliiluro Icld on 19 Augusi 1939.
Ncws aloui iIis Poliiluro ncciing and wIai ii Iad dccidcd rcacIcd iIc Wcsicrn prcss inncdiaicly. Havas,
iIc FrcncI ncws agcncy, pullisIcd a rcpori on iIc procccdings. Yci Iow could a rccord of iIcn fall inio iIc
Iands of iIc Wcsicrn prcss?
TIcrc is no surc answcr. Ii ngIt Iavc passcd along onc of scvcral paiIs. Onc of iIc norc prolallc is iIis.
onc or norc Poliiluro ncnlcrs, frigIicncd ly Sialin's plans, dccidcd io siop Iin. TIcy could noi proicsi
opcnly. TIc only way, iIcrcforc, of conpclling Sialin io rcnouncc Iis plans nigIi Iavc lccn io pullisI Iis
plans in iIc Wcsi. Mcnlcrs of iIc Poliiluro, cspccially iIosc wIo conirollcd iIc Fcd Arny, iIc war indusiry,
niliiary iniclligcncc, iIc NKVD, propaganda and iIc Coninicrn, wcrc pcrfccily allc io do ii.
SucI a sccnario is noi as faniasiic as ii nigIi firsi appcar. Zinovicv and Kancncv, wIo wcrc, in 1917,
ncnlcrs of iIc Poliiluro, pullisIcd iIc plans of Lcnin and Troisly in iIc lourgcois prcss in ordcr io disrupi
iIc Ociolcr Coup. Wc siill do noi lnow Iow iIc docuncni found iis way io iIc Wcsi, lui iIcrc wcrc a variciy
of ways ii could Iavc goi iIcrc.
Sialin rcacicd io iIc Havas agcncy ncssagc wiiI ligIining spccd and in a IigIly unusual nanncr. Hc
pullisIcd a dcnial in P)uudu. Ii is a scrious docuncni and nusi lc rcad in full.
THE FALSE FEPOFT ISSUED DY THE HAVAS
ACENCY
TIc cdiior of P)uudu Ias pui iIc following qucsiion io Conradc Sialin. WIai is Conradc Sialin's aiiiiudc io
iIc ncssagc issucd ly iIc Havas agcncy on 'Sialin's spcccI', allcgcdly nadc ly Iin 'in iIc Poliiluro of 19
Augusi', ai wIicI idcas wcrc supposcdly advanccd io iIc cffcci iIai 'iIc war nusi lc coniinucd for as long as
is nccdcd io cIausi iIc lclligcrcni counirics'?
Conradc Sialin Ias scni iIc following answcr.
'TIis rcpori issucd ly iIc Havas agcncy, lilc nany norc of iis ncssagcs, is nonscnsc. I of coursc cannoi
lnow in prcciscly wIicI nigIiclul iIcsc lics wcrc falricaicd. Dui no naiicr Iow nany lics iIc gcnilcncn of
iIc Havas agcncy nigIi icll, iIcy cannoi dcny iIai
ai ii was noi Ccrnany wIicI aiiaclcd Francc and Driiain, lui Francc and Driiain wIicI aiiaclcd
Ccrnany, iIcrcly ialing upon iIcnsclvcs iIc rcsponsililiiy for iIc prcscni war;
li aficr Iosiiliiics lcgan, Ccrnany nadc pcacc proposals io Francc and Driiain, wIilc iIc Sovici Union op
cnly supporicd iIcsc Ccrnan pcacc proposals, for ii considcrcd, and coniinucs io considcr, iIai only as
carly an cnd io iIc war as possillc can lring rclicf in a fundancnial way io iIc condiiion of all
counirics and all pcoplcs;
ci iIc ruling circlcs in Driiain and Francc rcjccicd oui of Iand loiI iIc Ccrnan pcacc proposals and iIc
Sovici Union's cfforis io cnd iIc war as quiclly as possillc.
SucI arc iIc facis. WIai can iIc nigIiclul poliiicians of iIc Havas agcncy providc io counicr iIcsc
facis?' J. STALIN (Pravda, 30 Novcnlcr 1939i
Lci iIc rcadcr nalc up Iis own nind as io wIciIcr iIc Havas agcncy rcpori or Sialin's dcnial is nonscnsc.
Sialin Iinsclf, in ny vicw, would Iardly Iavc wisIcd io rcpcai iIis in Iis own words in a sulscqucni pcriod.
Ii is inicrcsiing io noic iIai copics of iIc Pravda issuc of 30 Novcnlcr 1939 praciically no longcr cisi in iIc
Sovici Union. I was asionisIcd io discovcr iIai iIcrc was no copy io lc found in iIc spccial rcposiiory of iIc
CFU arcIivcs. Ii Iad long sincc lccn dcsiroycd. I succccdcd in finding a copy only in iIc Wcsi.
TIc unconccalcd ncndaciiy of Sialin's rcfuiaiion, and Iis uncIaracicrisiic loss of conposurc, suppori iIc
Havas agcncy vcrsion. In iIis casc a ncrvc of unusual scnsiiiviiy was ioucIcd and iIis is wIy iIcrc was sucI
a rcsponsc io ii. During iIc dccadcs of Sovici powcr, iIc Wcsicrn prcss wroic a grcai dcal aloui iIc Sovici
Union and Sialin pcrsonally. TIc DolsIcvils and Sialin Iinsclf wcrc accuscd of cvcry norial sin. Ii wroic iIai
Sialin Iad lccn an ugcnt p)ouocutcu) for iIc policc, iIai Ic Iad nurdcrcd Iis wifc, iIai Ic was a dcspoi, a
sadisi, a diciaior, an ogrc, a luicIcr and nucI norc lcsidcs. Dui noi oncc did Sialin lcconc involvcd in
conirovcrsy wiiI iIc 'lourgcois Iacl wriicrs'. WIy iIcn, on only iIis onc occasion, did iIc nornally iaciiurn
and conposcd Sialin lowcr Iinsclf io indulgc in cIcap insulis? TIcrc can only lc onc answcr. TIc Havas
agcncy Iad rcvcalcd sonc of Sialin's lcsi-lcpi sccrcis. Ii did noi naiicr io Iin wIai fuiurc gcncraiions nigIi
iIinl aloui Iis rcfuiaiion. (TIcy do noi, incidcnially, iIinl anyiIing of ii ai all.i WIai was inporiani io Sialin
ai iIai pariicular noncni was iIai Ic sIould lccp Iis plan sccrci for iIc nci iwo or iIrcc ycars uniil iIc
counirics of Europc Iad lcconc wcal iIrougI involving iIcnsclvcs in a nuiually dcsiruciivc war.
If wc arc io acccpi Sialin's arguncnis and if iIc Havas agcncy rcpori did sinply consisi of lics 'falricaicd' in
a 'nigIiclul', wc nusi cprcss our adniraiion for iIc Havas agcncy journalisis. If iIcy rcally did invcni iIcir
rcpori, iIcn iIcy did so on iIc lasis of a dccp lnowlcdgc of Marisn-Lcninisn, of Sialin's cIaracicr, and of a
dciailcd, scicniific analysis of iIc niliiary and poliiical siiuaiion in Europc; indccd, iIcy undcrsiood iIc
siiuaiion far lciicr iIan Hiilcr and iIc lcadcrs of iIc Wcsicrn dcnocracics. If iIc rcpori uus invcnicd, iIcn
iIis was an occasion wIcn an invcniion corrcspondcd cniircly io iIc facis.
Many ycars laicr, wIcn iIc Havas agcncy rcpori and Sialin's rcfuiaiion of ii Iad long lccn forgoiicn,
iIiriccn voluncs of Sialin's cssays wcrc pullisIcd in iIc Sovici Union. TIcsc worls includc Iis spcccIcs
nadc ai sccrci scssions of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc. In 1939 iIc Havas agcncy journalisis did noi Iavc any
acccss io iIcsc spcccIcs. Dui iIc pullicaiion of Sialin's worls confirncd iIai Sialin's plan was sinplc and
onc of gcnius, and iIai ii was cacily as iIc FrcncI journalisis Iad dcscrilcd ii. As carly as 1927, Sialin
cprcsscd iIc vicw ai a closcd scssion of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc iIai in iIc cvcni of war ii would lc csscniial
io rcnain ncuiral uniil iIc 'warring sidcs Iavc cIausicd cacI oiIcr in a nuiual conflici wIicI is lcyond
iIcir sircngiI io susiain'. TIis vicw was oficn rcpcaicd sulscqucnily ai closcd scssions. Sialin considcrcd
iIai in iIc cvcni of a war lrcaling oui in Europc, iIc Sovici Union Iad io lcconc a pariicipani in ii, lui ii
nusi lc iIc lasi io cnicr, rigIi ai iIc cnd of iIc ganc in wIicI iIc advcrsary Iad alrcady lccn wcalcncd io
iIc poini of cIausiion.
AliIougI iIcy loiI Iad diffcrcni aiiiiudcs iowards Sialin, iwo of Iis succcssors, KIrusIcIcv and DrczIncv,
inicrcsiingly loiI confirncd iIai ii Iad lccn Sialin's inicniion io cIausi Europc in war, wIilc prcscrving Iis
own ncuiraliiy, and tIcn io 'lilcraic' ii. Sialin's prcdcccssors said iIc sanc iIing. WIcn Ic was laying iIc
foundaiions of Iis plan in iIc narrow circlc of Iis conradcs in arns, Sialin sinply quoicd Lcnin and
cnpIasizcd iIai ii was Lcnin's idca. Dui Lcnin Iad noi lccn original ciiIcr. Hc in Iis iurn scoopcd Iis idcas
fron iIc incIausiillc supply of idcas providcd ly Mar. TIcrc is an inicrcsiing lciicr wriiicn ly FricdricI
Engcls on 12 Junc 1883 io Edouard Dcrnsicin. 'All iIcsc layalouis of various linds,' Ic wroic, 'nusi firsi of
all figIi lilc dogs anong iIcnsclvcs, dcsiroy and conpronisc cacI oiIcr, and in iIai way iIcy will lc
prcparing iIc ground for us.'
Sialin diffcrcd fron loiI Iis prcdcccssors and succcssors in iIai Ic spolc lcss iIan iIcy, lui acicd norc.
Ii would lc vcry inporiani io lnow, wcrc ii possillc, wIai Sialin aciually said in iIc Poliiluro ncciing of 19
Augusi 1939. Evcn aliIougI wc cannoi lnow iIc words Ic spolc, wc scc Iis aciions and iIcsc sIow far norc
clcarly wIai Ic Iad in nind. Ii was only four days aficr iIis ncciing iIai iIc Moloiov Fillcnirop paci was
signcd in iIc Krcnlin. TIc nosi ouisianding acIicvcncni cvcr aiiaincd ly Sovici diplonacy, ii was Sialin's
nosi lrilliani viciory in Iis ciraordinary carccr. 'I Iavc dcccivcd Iin. I Iavc dcccivcd Hiilcr,' cricd Sialin
joyfully aficr iIc Paci Iad lccn signcd. (Niliia KIrusIcIcv, Mcno)s, CIasidzc Pullicaiions, 1981i Sialin Iad
indccd dcccivcd Hiilcr in a way iIai nolody Iad dcccivcd anyonc clsc iIrougIoui iIc wIolc of iIc iwcniiciI
ccniury. Only a wccl and a Ialf aficr iIc Paci Iad lccn signcd Hiilcr Iad a war on iwo fronis. TIai is io say,
fron iIc vcry ouisci of Iosiiliiics Ccrnany fcll inio a siiuaiion in wIicI ii could only losc iIc war; or, io pui ii
anoiIcr way, on 23 Augusi 1939, iIc day iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop paci was signcd, Sialin Iad won iIc Sccond
World War cvcn lcforc Hiilcr canc inio ii.
Ii was only in iIc sunncr of 1940 iIai Hiilcr rcalizcd iIai Ic Iad lccn ialcn in. Hc iricd io ialc on Sialin
again, lui ii was ioo laic. Hiilcr could Iopc for lrilliani iaciical viciorics only, lui Ccrnany's siraicgic
posiiion was caiasiropIic. Ccrnany again found iisclf lciwccn iwo nillsioncs. On iIc onc sidc iIcrc was
Driiain on Icr inacccssillc island, wiiI iIc Uniicd Siaics lcIind Icr. On iIc oiIcr sidc was Sialin. Hiilcr
iurncd Iis facc io iIc wcsi, rcalizing iIai Sialin was quiic clcarly prcparing an aiiacl and iIai Ic could cui
Ccrnany's oil aricry in Fonania ai onc llow, paralysing iIc wIolc of Ccrnan indusiry, and iIc cniirc
Ccrnan Arny, Air Forcc and Navy. Turning Iis facc io iIc casi, Hiilcr firsi goi siraicgic air raids and iIcn
invasion fron iIc wcsi.
Ii is said iIai Sialin won only iIanls io iIc Iclp and coopcraiion givcn ly Driiain and iIc Uniicd Siaics,
and Icrcin lay Iis grcaincss; wIilc lcing iIc Wcsi's nosi virulcni cncny, Sialin lncw Iow io usc ii in ordcr
io proicci and rcinforcc Iis own diciaiorsIip. Sialin's gcnius, as wc'vc sccn, lay in lnowing Iow io dividc Iis
advcrsarics and iIcn lnocl iIcir Icads iogciIcr. Evcn in 1939, iIc frcc prcss in iIc Wcsi was alrcady
sounding a warning aloui sucI a coursc of cvcnis, wIcn Sialin was playing a ganc of ncuiraliiy in words
wIilsi, in dccd, playing a vcry nucI norc dangcrous onc.
"(&)*#% -
'Eicnding iIc Foundaiions of War'
TIc nutonu Ic)uton o] Gc)nunu cs n
tIc p)octu)un )cuouton sczng Ccnt)u und Vcstc)n
Eu)opc, und untng t utI Eustc)n Eu)opc n
tIc ]o)n o] tIc Souct Untcd Stutcs.
TFOTSKY (DO, No. 24, p. 9i
Aficr Napolcon Iad lccn cpcllcd fron Fussia, iIc viciorious Fussian Arny cnicrcd Paris. Noi finding
Napolcon iIcrc, iIc Fussian Arny wcni Ionc, singing songs on iis way. For Fussia iIc ain of iIc war Iad
lccn io roui iIc arnics of iIc cncny. If no onc clsc was iIrcaicning Moscow, iIcn iIc Fussian Arny Iad
noiIing furiIcr io do in Wcsicrn Europc.
TIc diffcrcncc lciwccn Tsarisi Fussia and iIc Sovici Union lics in iIcir rcspcciivc war ains. In 1923
MilIail TulIacIcvsly, wIo Iad alrcady gaincd rcnown for Iis nonsirous lruialiiy in nass cicrninaiions in
ccniral Fussia, noriIcrn Caucasus, iIc Urals, Silcria and Poland, was fornulaiing iIc iIcorciical lasis for
iIc ain of war. According io TulIacIcvsly, iIc ain of war was 'io guaranicc for oncsclf iIc frcc usc of
violcncc and for iIis purposc ii is ncccssary in iIc firsi insiancc io wipc oui iIc forccs of iIc cncny'.
(Hcuouutsu uonu, Moscow 1923, Cocctcd Vo)Is No. 22, p. 188i TIc roui of iIc cncny arnics and iIcir
gcncral dcsiruciion do noi narl iIc cnd of war and cocrcion, lui only iIc crcaiion of condiiions for 'iIc frcc
usc of violcncc'. 'Evcry icrriiory occupicd ly us lcconcs Sovici icrriiory aficr iis occupaiion, wIcrc iIc powcr
of iIc worlcrs and pcasanis will lc csiallisIcd.' (MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union M. TulIacIcv-sly, IzI)unnuc
P)ozucdcnuu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1964, Vol. I, p. 258i
In Iis worl, Oucstons o] Modc)n St)utcgu, TulIacIcvsly draws aiicniion io iIc faci iIai Sovici niliiary
siaff nusi givc iincly insiruciions io iIc poliiical adninisiraiion and oiIcr appropriaic agcncics io prcparc
rcvoluiionary conniiiccs and oiIcr local adninisiraiivc nacIincry for iIcsc or oiIcr rcgions'. (op. ct., p. 196i
In oiIcr words, Sovici niliiary siaff wcrc io prcparc 'lilcraiion' opcraiions in grcai sccrccy, lui wIilc iIcy
wcrc doing iIis iIcy wcrc also io alcri iIc poliiical connissars and iIc 'appropriaic agcncics' iIai iIcy
sIould prcparc in good iinc iIc connunisi adninisiraiivc nacIincry for iIc 'lilcraicd' rcgions. TIc Fcd
Arny would lring frccdon io iis ncigIlours on iis layoncis, along wiiI rcady-nadc organs of local auiIoriiy.
To iIis proccss of Soviciizing all scizcd icrriiorics as rapidly as possillc ly nciIods of unrcsiraincd
cocrcion and icrror, iogciIcr wiiI iIc larlaric cploiiaiion of all rcsourccs nccdcd io coniinuc aggrcssion,
TulIacIcvsly gavc a 'scicniific' nanc. Ic callcd ii 'cicnsion of iIc lasis of war'. TulIacIcvsly cvcn inscricd
iIis icrn inio iIc Crcai Sovici Encyclopcdia. (Ho'sIuuu SouctsIuuu EntsIopcduu, Moscow 1928, Vol. 12,
pp. 276-277i
In a spcccI on 30 MarcI 1941, Adolf Hiilcr proclaincd io Iis gcncrals wIai iIc oljcciivc of iIc war in iIc
Easi was io lc. Ii was io dcfcai iIc cncny arncd forccs, io wipc oui iIc connunisi diciaiorsIip, io csiallisI
'rcal socialisn' and io nalc oui of Fussia a lasc for coniinuing iIc war. Wcrc TulIacIcvsly's ains any
diffcrcni? Was Ic noi pronulgaiing iIc sanc idcas in 1923?
WIcn Ic was prcparing a niliiary opcraiion, Hiilcr iool carc io sci up adninisiraiivc nacIincry for ncw
icrriiorics cvcn lcforc iIcy Iad lccn invadcd; TulIacIcvsly ioo proposcd io do cacily iIc sanc iIing.
TulIacIcvsly would Iavc nadc a good Guuctc), lui Ic was no siraicgisi. A scruiiny of Iis 'laiicring-ran'
siraicgy rcvcals iis conplcic lacl of sulsiancc. Ii is iIc nciIod adopicd ly a cIcssplaycr wIo conccniraics
Iis aiicniion on dcsiroying all Iis opponcni's picccs cn nussc, lcginning wiiI iIc pawns. Carricd away ly Iis
iIcory, TulIacIcvsly quiclly and incviially found Iinsclf wiiIoui rcscrvcs in any scrious clasI. His dcfcai
on iIc Visiula ccriainly did noi Iappcn ly cIancc. All Iis lifc Ic iricd, wiiI din-wiiicd olsiinacy, io inprovc
Iis nciIod, fallacious in principlc, ly using a iIcorciical lasc io sIorc up Iis ignorancc. Connunisi
Iisiorians assurc us iIai, oncc Ic Iad liquidaicd TulIacIcvsly, Sialin conplcicly rcjccicd Iis nciIods. TIis
was noi iIc casc. Sialin only spurncd TulIacIcvsly's unacccpiallc siraicgic nciIod, wIicI was lnown io
lcad io dcfcai, lui Ic rciaincd Iis idcas aloui 'iIc cicnsion of iIc lasis of war' and allowcd oiIcrs io dcvclop
iIcn furiIcr.
Apari fron TulIacIcvsly and oiIcrs lilc Iin, Sialin did Iavc rcal siraicgisis. TIc firsi and nosi lrilliani of
iIcsc was undoulicdly Vladinir Triandafillov, iIc faiIcr of opcraiional ari.
6
Ii was in 1926 iIai, in a lool
cniiilcd Hungc o] Opc)utons n Modc)n A)ncs, Ic cpoundcd iIc firsi approinaic fornulaiion of iIc
'opcraiions in dcpiI' iIcory. Triandafillov dcvclopcd Iis idcas furiIcr in a sulscqucni lool cniiilcd CIu)uctc)
o] Opc)utons n Modc)n A)ncs. Evcn ioday iIcsc lools rcnain iIc foundaiion of iIc Sovici ari of war.
Triandafillov found pcoplc wIo undcrsiood Iis siraicgic idcas, wIicI wcrc iruly oncs of gcnius, and pronoicd
iIcn io iIc Ccncral Siaff. Anong iIcsc was A. M. Vasilcvsly, iIc fuiurc narsIal of iIc Sovici Union. C. K.
ZIulov pui Triandafillov's idcas inio praciicc in all Iis opcraiions, lcginning wiiI KIallIin-Col.
Triandafillov undcrsiandally could noi casily rclaic io TulIacIcvsly, cvcn aliIougI TulIacIcvsly was Iis
inncdiaic supcrior. Triandafillov was noi afraid of TulIacIcvsly and Ic cposcd iIc povcriy of iIc
'laiicring-ran' siraicgy ly sIowing iIai a good cIcssplaycr nusi noi dcvoic all Iis aiicniion io dcsiroying
pawns. TIc good cIcssplaycr dclivcrs a llow 'in dcpiI', iIcrcly rcndcring Iis opponcni's pawns usclcss. A
good cIcssplaycr will crcaic a iIrcai noi in onc lui in ai lcasi iwo scciors, iIcrcly conpclling Iis opponcni io
dividc Iis aiicniion and rcscrvcs, wIilc iIc playcr Iinsclf sirilcs a llow ai anoiIcr sccior, wIcrc Iis
opponcni Ias no rcscrvcs ai all.
WIcn Ic rcjccicd TulIacIcvsly's niliiary nciIod, Triandafillov fully acccpicd and dcvclopcd Iis iIcory on
forcillc and rapid Soviciizaiion of'lilcraicd' icrriiorics; 'iIc Soviciizaiion of cniirc siaics nusi lc dcali wiiI
wiiIin a sIori pcriod of iwo io iIrcc wccls. WIcrc largcr counirics arc conccrncd, Soviciizaiion of vcry largc
arcas nusi lc nanagcd in iIrcc io four wccls . . . WIcn organizing rcvoluiionary conniiiccs, ii will lc vcry
difficuli io couni on local forccs. Only a pari of iIc iccInical apparaius and only iIc norc junior cccuiivc
officials will lc availallc on iIc spoi. All cccuiivc officials and cvcn sonc of iIc iccInical pcrsonncl will Iavc
io lc lrougIi in along wiiI iIc Arny . . . TIc nunlcr of sucI officials nccdcd io carry on Soviciizaiion in
rccapiurcd arcas will lc cnornous.' (KIu)uItc) Opc)uts Sou)cncnnuII A)n, V. K. Triandafillov, Moscow
1929, pp. 177-8i
Triandafillov drcw aiicniion io iIc faci iIai ii would lc nisialcn io divcri Fcd Arny figIiing uniis io iasls
of'Soviciizaiion'. Ii would lc no lad iIing io Iavc spccial uniis for iIis. TIc Fcd Arny docs laiilc wiiI iIc
6
Uniil iIc carly iwcniiciI ccniury, all niliiary ari was dividcd inio iwo lcvcls. siraicgy and iaciics. Sovici niliiary iIinling iIcn
dcvclopcd an inicrncdiaic lcvcl and callcd ii 'opcraiional ari'. Haifa ccniury laicr, Wcsicrn niliiary iIinlcrs now acccpi iIis icrn.
cncny and inflicis dcfcai upon Iin, wIilc iIcsc spccial uniis go io worl in iIc rcar csiallisIing powcr, and a
Iappy lifc for iIc worlcrs and pcasanis. Hiilcr laiicrly iool iIc sanc vicwpoini. TIc WcIrnacIi would crusI
iIc cncny, wIilc iIc S S would sci up iIc Ncw Ordcr. Of coursc, in criiical siiuaiions and war consisis of
iIcsc iIc WcIrnacIi divisions wcrc iIrown inio iIc laiilc io supprcss iIc pariisan novcncni, wIilc iIc
SS divisions wcrc iIrown inio ianl laiilcs on iIc forward cdgc of iIc laiilc arca. TIai, Iowcvcr, was noi
wIai ciiIcr iIc WcIrnacIi or iIc SS was luili for.
Triandafillov undcrsiood iIc ari of war in icrns of iIc caci scicnccs, in wIicI ly ncans of naiIcnaiical
calculaiion Ic worlcd oui sinplc fornulac for offcnsivc opcraiions involving arnics of nillions opcraiing in
grcai dcpiI. TIc fornulac covcrcd cvcry siagc of an offcnsivc. TIcy cvcn includcd a calculaiion as io Iow
nany Sovici poliiical lcadcrs would lc nccdcd for cvcry adninisiraiivc unii in capiurcd icrriiorics. TIcy arc
fornulac as sIarp and clcgani as any gconciric iIcorcn.
TIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci opcncd iIc gaics io Soviciizaiion. Sialin Iad cvcryiIing rcady and noi only in
iIcory. Sovici siaff Iad worlcd oui opcraiions in grcai sccrccy, lui iIcy did noi ncglcci io givc insiruciions io
iIc poliiical connissars and iIc 'appropriaic organs' iIai iIcy lc fully prcparcd for Soviciizaiion.
On iIc nigIi of 16-17 Scpicnlcr 1939 I. A. Dogdanov, a lrigadc connandcr in iIc NKVD, issucd an ordcr
io iIc CIclisis in wIicI Ic said iIai 'ai dawn on 17 Scpicnlcr 1939, iIc arnics of iIc Dyclorussian Froni
will go ovcr io iIc offcnsivc. TIcir iasl will lc io Iclp iIc worlcrs and pcasanis of Dyclorussia wIo Iavc riscn
in rclcllion.' TIus iIc rcvoluiion in Poland Iad lcgun; iIc worlcrs and pcasanis would lc up io dcaling wiiI
ii iIcnsclvcs, wIilc iIc Fcd Arny and iIc NKVD would only rcndcr iIcn assisiancc. TIc rcsulis arc wcll
lnown. TIc nassacrc of PolisI officcrs ai Kaiyn also concs inio iIis caicgory of'assisiancc'.
Sialin was noi afraid of Hiilcr, as iIc connunisis iry io nalc ii appcar. If Sialin Iad fcarcd Hiilcr, Ic
would Iavc lcpi iIc PolisI officcrs safc and, wIcn iIc Ccrnan invasion iool placc, iIrown iIcn inio laiilc
ai iIc Icad of icns of iIousands of iroops io figIi as pariisans on PolisI soil. Dcfcncc againsi Hiilcr, Iowcvcr,
did noi cnicr inio Sialin's plans. Sialin noi only did noi usc iIis PolisI poicniial, Ic cvcn dissolvcd Iis own
pariisan dciacIncnis wIicI Iad lccn forncd carlicr io lc uscd in iIc cvcni of war.
TIc Soviciizaiion of Finland was prcparcd in cvcn grcaicr dciail. Ai iIc vcry noncni wIcn 'iIc FinnisI
niliiarisis lcgan iIcir arncd provocaiions', Sialin alrcady Iad up Iis slccvc a FinnisI connunisi 'prcsidcni',
a 'princ ninisicr' and an cniirc 'govcrnncni', including a lcading CIclisi, for a 'frcc dcnocraiic Finland'.
'Pcoplc's rcprcscniaiivcs' also iurncd up in Esionia, LiiIuania, Laivia, Dcssaralia and in Dulovina, all
dcnanding iIai iIcsc counirics lc annccd io iIc 'fraicrnal fanily of naiions'. CIairncn of rcvoluiionary
conniiiccs, pcoplc's jurors, dcpuiics and nany norc wcrc all found wiiI surprising spccd.
Soviciizaiion iIus gaiIcrcd sircngiI, wIilc Sialin addcd io Iis rcscrvcs of Pariy adninisiraiors for ncw
canpaigns. On 13 MarcI 1940, iIc Poliiluro iool a dccision io cnirusi iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Dcfcncc
wiiI iIc praciical iasl of grading iIc cniirc noncnIutu)u, or govcrning csiallisIncni of iIc Pariy, and of
giving iIcn niliiary ranls. TIc cniirc Pariy cIangcd fron lcing scni-niliiary inio a purcly niliiary onc.
'Officials of Pariy conniiiccs,' ii was dccidcd, 'would lc olligcd sysicnaiically io undcrgo niliiary rciraining
so iIai, wIcncvcr iIcy nigIi lc callcd inio iIc FKKA ]HuIucIc-K)cst' uunsIuuu K)usnuuu A)nuu - iIc
Worlcrs' and Pcasanis' Fcd Arny| or iIc FKKF ]HuIucIc-K)cst'uunsI K)usnu Pot - iIc Worlcrs' and
Pcasanis' Fcd Navy|, iIcy would lc allc io dcvoic iIcnsclvcs io duiics appropriaic io iIcir qualificaiions.'
(Poliiluro Dccrcc, daicd 13 MarcI 1940, 'Miliiary Fciraining and Fcgrading of Pariy Conniiicc Officials and
iIc Proccdurc io lc Followcd on iIcir Molilizaiion inio iIc FKKA'i TIc words, 'dcvoic iIcnsclvcs io duiics
appropriaic io iIcir qualificaiions', arc of pariicular inicrcsi. WIai qualificaiion docs a lig sIoi in iIc Pariy
Iavc, apari fron lcing qualificd io aci as sccrciary of a Pariy rcgional conniiicc? Yci Icrc wc Iad plans
lcing nadc io usc iIcn as sccrciarics of rcgional conniiiccs (and iown conniiiccs and disirici conniiiccsi,
cvcn aficr iIcy Iad lccn callcd up io iIc Arny.
Fron May 1940 uniil Fclruary 1941, 99,000 poliiical worlcrs in iIc rcscrvc, wIo includcd '63,000 scnior
worlcrs of Pariy conniiiccs', wcrc rcgradcd, iIai is iIcy Iad io sii caninaiions and appcar lcforc loards.
TIc rciraining of iIc Pariy csiallisIncni wcni aIcad ai an inicnsificd pacc. And rciraining was noi all. On 17
Junc 1941 anoiIcr dccrcc was issucd. Yci anoiIcr 3,700 of iIc Pariy noncnIutu)u rcccivcd ordcrs io placc
iIcnsclvcs ai iIc Arny's disposal. Wcrc prcparaiions undcr way for a ncw Soviciizaiion?
Noi only did iIc Pariy losscs Soviciizc iIc Daliic siaics, iIc wcsicrn Ulrainc, wcsicrn Dyclorussia,
Dcssaralia and Dulovina, lui iIcy also Iad a Iand in iIc 'appropriaic organs'. Worling lcIind iIc lacls of
iIc 'pcoplc's rcprcscniaiivcs' and iIc 'scrvanis of iIc pcoplc', iIc NKVD assisicd iIc worlcrs and pcasanis,
wIo Iad riscn in rclcllion 'io rcinforcc iIc powcr of iIc prolciariai', as ii is pui in Sovici propaganda
parlancc.
TIc froniicr guards of iIc NKVD wcrc iIc firsi io cross iIc lordcrs. 'Opcraiing in snall groups, iIcy scizcd
and Icld rivcr crossings and road junciions.' (VIZH* 1970, No. 7, p. 85i In iIc 1939-40 Winicr War againsi
Finland, a dciacIncni of NKVD froniicr guards infiliraicd sccrcily inio FinnisI icrriiory, nadc a dasI
iIrougI iIc iundra and, in a surprisc aiiacl, scizcd iIc iown of Pcisano and iis Iarlour. In iIc war wiiI
Japan sonc fivc ycars laicr, using froniicr guards, '320 assauli dciacIncnis wcrc forncd, cacI consisiing of
lciwccn 30 and 75 ncn arncd wiiI nacIinc guns, sul-nacIinc guns, riflcs and grcnadcs. Scparaic
dciacIncnis Iad a sircngiI of lciwccn 100 and 150 ncn . . . TIc iraining wIicI was carricd oui was lascd
upon prcviously worlcd oui and prcciscly dcfincd plans of surprisc aiiacl . . . TIc surprisc clcncni in iIc
opcraiions was io play a paranouni rolc in iIc aiiainncni of succcss.' (VIZH
?
1965, No. 8, p. 12i
TIc NKVD froniicr iroops opcraicd in cacily iIc sanc way in iIc war wiiI Ccrnany. In iIosc placcs wIcrc
Ccrnan iroops Iad noi crosscd iIc lordcr, Sovici froniicr iroops wcni ovcr ii on iIcir own iniiiaiivc. TIcy Iad
lccn prcparcd. An canplc of iIis nciIod of opcraiing occurrcd on 26 Junc 1941. Sovici froniicr noior-
launcIcs nadc a landing in iIc arca of iIc iown of Kiliya on iIc Fonanian froniicr. TIc landing csiallisIcd a
lridgcIcad, on wIicI iIc ncnlcrs of iIc assauli landing-forcc gavc firc suppori io iIc ncnlcrs of iIc NKVD
rcconnaissancc pairol wIo Iad prcccdcd iIcn wiiI a landing on iIc lanl. (CIusouuc SouctsIII g)unts,
Moscow 1983; p. 141i Inicrcsiingly ; ai iIc iinc of iIc Gc)nun uttucI iIcsc cliic and IigIly iraincd NKVD
iroops, siaiioncd on lridgcs ai iIc froniicr, Iad nadc no prcparaiions ciiIcr io rcpcl an aiiacl or dcfcnd iIc
lridgcs. TIcy yicldcd iIcn io iIc cncny alnosi wiiIoui a figIi. WIcn iIcy Iad io capiurc iIc wcsicrn pari of
a froniicr lridgc, Iowcvcr, iIcsc froniicr iroops rcvcalcd cccllcni iraining, and displaycd loiI couragc and
lravcry, all in iIc spirii of iIc Fonanian assauli dcscrilcd alovc. WIcn iIcy Iad io dcfcnd iIc casicrn pari
of iIc lridgc, iIcsc sanc soldicrs sIowcd a ioial ucI of prcparcdncss. Ii was sinply iIai no onc Iad iraincd
iIcn io do iIis. No onc Iad cvcr pui iIcn iIrougI any dcfcnsivc ccrciscs.
7
An official niliiary-Iisiorical nagazinc fron iIc Minisiry of Dcfcncc.
In 1940, iIc volunc of NKVD opcraiions ccccdcd iIai of 1944 and 1945, and of nany sulscqucni ycars.
1940 was, of coursc, iIc ycar of Kaiyn. PolisI officcrs wcrc also cicrninaicd in ai lcasi iwo oiIcr placcs,
wIcrc iIc viciins wcrc no fcwcr iIan in Kaiyn. LiiIuanian officcrs wcrc cicrninaicd ai iIc sanc iinc, as
wcrc Laivian and Esionian officcrs; and noi only officcrs. TIcrc wcrc icacIcrs, pricsis, policcncn, wriicrs,
lawycrs, journalisis, pcasanis, cnircprcncurs and pcoplc fron all siraia of sociciy, cacily as in iIc Fcd
Tcrror againsi iIc Fussian pcoplc. TIc scalc of iIc NKVD opcraiions grcw; lui suddcnly sonciIing cIangcd.
Fron Fclruary 1941, iIc NKVD's niliiary sul-uniis covcrily lcgan a sccrci luild-up ncar iIc siaic froniicrs.
TIc cIicf sircngiI of iIc NKVD, Iowcvcr, did noi lic in iis froniicr iroops. Apari fron iIcn, iIc NKVD
consisicd of a grcai nunlcr of rcgincnis and divisions of opcraiional, convoy and sccuriiy iroops. All of iIcsc
worlcd vcry Iard ai dcsiroying 'Iosiilc clcncnis' and ai 'purging iIc icrriiory'. In iIc Sovici -FinnisI war of
1939-40, iIcrc wcrc cigIi NKVD rcgincnis cngagcd in iIis aciiviiy, as wcll as individual laiialions, conpan-
ics and fornaiions of froniicr iroops. An opcraiion carricd oui in 1944 in iIc rcar of iIc Dyclorussian Froni
nay scrvc io illusiraic iIc scalc of iIcsc 'purgcs' of iIc arca lcIind iIc froni. Fivc NKVD froniicr rcgincnis,
scvcn NKVD rcgincnis of opcraiional iroops, four cavalry rcgincnis, dciacIcd laiialions and rcconnaissancc
aircrafi all iool pari in iIc opcraiion. TIc ioial sircngiI involvcd was 50,000 iroops. TIc arca covcrcd was
30,000 squarc liloncircs. (IId,p. 181i TIc NKVD opcraicd on no lcss a scalc cvcn lcforc Hiilcr aiiaclcd,
iIougI infornaiion on opcraiions carricd oui in 1940 in iIc Daliic siaics, iIc wcsicrn Ulrainc, Dyclorussia,
Dulovina and Dcssaralia Ias ncvcr lccn pullisIcd.
Connunisi profcssors arc now doing iIcir lcsi io play down iIc Fcd Arny's powcr ai iIc ouisci of World War
II, and io ovcrsiaic iIc sircngiI of iIc WcIrnacIi. TIis is donc ly nanipulaiing siaiisiics; wIilc iIcy ialc
inio accouni all divisions of iIc WcIrnacIi and iIc SS in Ccrnany, in iIc Sovici Union only iIc divisions of
iIc Fcd Arny arc counicd. TIc cliic, IigIly iraincd, fully cquippcd and arncd NKVD divisions, Iowcvcr, arc
convcnicnily lcfi oui of iIc calculaiion. TIc connunisis Iavc proclaincd iIai 47 ground and si naval
froniicr dciacIncnis, cacI wiiI a conplcncni of aloui onc rcgincni, and n rcgincnis of NKVD opcraiional
iroops, ioialling aloui 100,000 ncn, wcrc siaiioncd closc io iIc froniicrs. TIis is iIc iruiI. Dui noi all iIc
iruiI. WIcn iIc Ccrnans invadcd, noi only NKVD rcgincnis, lui scparaic NKVD laiialions of inprcssivc
sircngiI, as wcll as cniirc NKVD divisions, wcrc siaiioncd dirccily on iIc froniicrs. For canplc, iIc 4iI
NKVD Division, connandcd ly Coloncl F. M. MazIarin, was on iIc Fonanian froniicr, wIilc sul-uniis of iIc
57iI NKVD Fcgincni of iIis division wcrc siaiioncd dirccily ai froniicr lridgcs. TIc 8iI NKVD Moior Fiflc
Division was closc io iIc froniicr. TIc 10iI NKVD Division was in iIc Fava-Fusslaya rcgion, wIilc iIc 16iI
NKVD Cavalry Fcgincni, wIicI forncd pari of iIis division, was dirccily dispcrscd anong posis along iIc
froniicr. TIc 2isi NKVD Moior Fiflc Division was on iIc FinnisI froniicr. TIc 1si NKVD Division, connandcd
ly Coloncl S. I. Donslov, was iIcrc as wcll. TIc 22nd NKVD Moior Fiflc Division firsi appcars in Ccrnan
opcraiional sunnarics on iIc scvcniI day of iIc invasion of LiiIuania.
Sonc of iIcsc NKVD uniis wcrc incrcdilly closc io iIc lordcrs; sonciincs liicrally only a fcw ncircs away
fron iIc froniicr iisclf. For canplc, iIc 132nd NKVD Indcpcndcni Daiialion was in iIc Tiraspol foriificaiion
of iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl forircss, iIougI noi for dcfcnsivc purposcs; iIc forircss Iad noi lccn prcparcd for war. Ii
Iad lccn inicndcd, in iIc cvcni of war, io lcavc only onc infaniry laiialion iIcrc wiiI ordinary iroops. Siiiing
alongsidc, in iIc sanc larracls, for dcfcnsivc purposcs was iIc FifiI Froniicr DciacIncni (a rcgincnii; iIc
132nd NKVD Daiialion was noi in faci a froniicr laiialion ai all, lui a conuou laiialion. TIis Iad lccn uscd
io dcpori 'cncnics' fron wcsicrn Dyclorussia and Icrc ii was now siaiioncd on iIc wcsicrn lanl of iIc rivcr
Dug. TIc laiialion was doing noiIing for iIc iinc lcing. Ii was a long, Iard road lacl io iIc Sovici Union.
Firsi iIc rivcr Dug Iad io lc crosscd io iIc old ciiadcl in iIc loais of iIc CIclisi officials. TIcn iIcrc was a
nuliiiudc of gaics io pass iIrougI, and ninor lridgcs and diicIcs io cross. Nci canc iIc rivcr MulIavcis,
lui oncc ovcr iIai, iIcrc wcrc cvcn norc diicIcs, lanls and larricrs. TIcrc wcrc no cncnics in iIc forircss
and ii was iIcrcforc a long way io iown, so iIc laiialion was rcsiing - for iIc iinc lcing. In iIc oiIcr
dircciion was iIc Tiraspol foriificaiion, a forircss island on PolisI icrriiory, or raiIcr, io lc norc caci, on
Ccrnan, as ii was no longcr pari of Poland. And all iIc laiialion Iad io do io rcacI Ccrnan icrriiory was io
cross a snall lridgc.
On a wall in iIc larracls of iIc 132nd Indcpcndcni Daiialion sonconc wroic an inscripiion. 'I an dying,
lui I sIall noi surrcndcr. Farcwcll, MoiIcrland! 20. VII. 1941.' TIcsc 'Icrocs' Iad good rcason noi io
surrcndcr. TIc SS would Iavc alrcady worlcd oui wIo iIc CIcla officials inicndcd io dcpori fron iIc oiIcr
sidc of iIc siaic froniicr.
I found, as wc Iavc sccn, NKVD convoy laiialions and rcgincnis, and indccd convoy divisions, rigIi on iIc
froniicr. TIc 4iI NKVD Division siraddlcd iIc froniicr lridgcs across iIc rivcr Prui. Was ii iIcrc pcrIaps io
llow iIcn up, sIould iIc siiuaiion lcconc caccrlaicd? Dy no ncans. TIc lridgcs wcrc nincd. Aficrwards
iIc nincs wcrc rcnovcd and an NKVD division was placcd alongsidc iIc sanc lridgcs. According io onc piccc
of infornaiion, iIc 4iI NKVD Division was a lind of sccuriiy division. ly naling an analogy wiiI iIc SS, iIc
ncaning of iIc word 'sccuriiy' lcconcs aliogciIcr norc sinisicr in iIis conici. OiIcr infornaiion, Iowcvcr,
indicaics iIai iIc 4iI NKVD Division opcraicd lilc a convoy division. Indccd Coloncl MazIarin, wIo
connandcd iIc division, was an old CULAC wolf, wIo spcni all Iis carccr in convoy worl. Dui wIon did iIc
Culag sccuriiy inicnd io cscori across iIc froniicr lridgcs?
"(&)*#% .
WIy Howiizcr Ariillcry for iIc CIclisis?
Vc sIu dcst)ou tIc Icust n Is u).
L. DEFIA
(Connissar Ccncral for
Siaic Sccuriiy, Pcoplc's
Connissar for Inicrnal
Affairs, Fclruary 1941i
TIc connunisi puniiivc nacIinc Iad iwo principal nccIanisns, iIc organs and iIc iroops. WIai is
undcrsiood Icrc ly 'iroops' is noi, of coursc, Fcd Arny iroops, lui spccial fornaiions of iIc VCIK
(Vsc)osssIuuu CI)czuucIunuuu Konssuu -iIc All-Fussian Spccial Connission, or CIclai, iIc OCPU
(OI'cdncnnoc Gosudu)stucnnoc PotcIcsIoc Up)uucnc) and iIc NKVD.
WIilc iIc Fcd Arny fougIi on cicrnal fronis, iIcsc spccial divisions wagcd war on inicrnal fronis. Ai iIc
iinc wIcn iIc connunisi diciaiorsIip was lcing csiallisIcd, iIc puniiivc iroops playcd an inconparally
norc inporiani rolc iIan iIc puniiivc organs. Equippcd wiiI arnourcd cars, arnourcd irains, iIrcc-incI
cannon and nacIinc guns, iIcy wagcd a rcal war againsi iIcir own pcoplc.
In 1923, iIc CIicf Dirccioraic was sci up io co-ordinaic iIc opcraiions carricd oui ly all puniiivc iroops.
AliIougI iIc puniiivc nacIinc cIangcd iis nanc fron iinc io iinc as casily as a snalc cIangcs iis slin, iIc
nanc of iIc CIicf Dirccioraic rcnaincd uncIangcd. TIis organizaiion, and iIc iroops undcr
iis connand, pcrpciraicd fcarful airociiics againsi iIc Fussian and indccd all oiIcr naiions wIo populaic iIc
Sovici Union. In iIc iincs of collcciivizaiion alonc, iIc puniiivc iroops cicrninaicd nillions of pcoplc, and
Iandcd ovcr norc iIan icn nillion of iIcn io iIai oiIcr dirccioraic of iIc NKVD, iIc CULAC, rcsponsillc for
prisons and lalour canps.
As iIc connunisi diciaiorsIip grcw in sircngiI, iIc organs canc io occupy an incrcasingly inporiani placc
in rclaiion io iIai Icld ly iIc puniiivc iroops. TIc inforncr's pcn, iIc inicrrogaior's iIunlscrcw and iIc
cccuiioncr's Nagan rcvolvcr lccanc iIc nain wcapons of icrror. Of coursc, iIc nunlcrs of iIc puniiivc
iroops did noi grow any lcss, lui iIcir rolc lccanc largcly a sccondary onc, involving round-ups, scarcIcs,
arrcsis, dcporiaiions, and iIc proicciion of puniiivc and 'corrcciional' csiallisIncnis. TIc puniiivc iroops
also proiccicd lcadcrs, iIc naiional froniicrs and connunicaiions. TIc inagc of iIc puniiivc figIicr also
cIangcd. Ii was iIcn no longcr a sailor wiiI iIc facc of a crininal in an arnourcd car, lui a soldicr wcaring a
sIccpslin coai, Iis facc iurncd inio iIc Arciic wind, riflc in Iand and wiiI Iis faiiIful dog ai Iis sidc. TIc
puniiivc soldicry no longcr Iad arnourcd cars. TIcy wcrc no longcr nccdcd.
1937 was noi, as iIc connunisis assurc us, iIc lcginning of iIc icrror, lui raiIcr iIc ycar wIcn ii
rcacIcd iis pcal. A ycar laicr, ii Iad undcrgonc a cIangc in cIaracicr, in iIai ii Iad cIangcd fron lcing a
gcncral icrror inio a sclcciivc icrror. Ii was during 1937 and 1938 iIai iIc icrror cvcn sprcad io iIc
connunisi lcadcrs iIcnsclvcs. Dy iIc iinc iIai siagc Iad lccn rcacIcd, iIc CIclisis no longcr nccdcd iIcir
nacIinc guns. TIc connunisis, wIo Iad ly iIcn conc undcr iIc llows of iIc ac of icrror, did noi offcr any
pariicular rcsisiancc.
Aficr iIc Crcai Purgc Iad lccn succcssfully concludcd in Dcccnlcr 1938, iIc icrror wiiIin iIc couniry
alaicd sIarply; nany prisoncrs wcrc rclcascd ly iIc CULAC, and prcparaiions wcrc nadc io rclcasc nany
norc. In iIis siiuaiion, wIai was io Iappcn io iIc iroops of iIc NKVD and iIc CIicf Dirccioraic wIicI co-
ordinaicd iIcir aciiviiics?
Any doulis as io wIciIcr iIcy would in faci lc alolisIcd wcrc quiclly dispcllcd. TIc Sovici Union Iad
cnlarlcd upon a ncw pIasc of iis cisicncc, for inncdiaicly aficr iIc Crcai Purgc Iad cndcd and Nilolai
YczIov Iad lccn rcnovcd fron powcr, iIc CIicf Dirccioraic conirolling iIc NKVD froniicr and inicrior iroops
ccascd io cisi undcr a dccrcc issucd on 2 Fclruary 1939 ly iIc Council of Pcoplc's Connissars.
On iIc sanc day, no fcwcr iIan si indcpcndcni cIicf dirccioraics wcrc crcaicd insidc iIc NKVD io ialc
cIargc of iIc iroops and dcal wiiI niliiary naiicrs. TIcsc wcrc.
TIc CIicf Dirccioraic (CUi of NKVD
Froniicr Troops
TIc CIicf Dirccioraic (CUi of NKVD
Sccuriiy Troops
TIc CIicf Dirccioraic (CUi of NKVD
Convoy Troops
TIc CIicf Dirccioraic (CUi of NKVD
Failway Troops
TIc CIicf Dirccioraic (CUi of NKVD
Miliiary Supply
TIc CIicf Dirccioraic (CUi of NKVD
Miliiary Consiruciion, givcn iIc
acronyn of Guuuocnst)o of iIc NKVD.
TIc Sovici puniiivc nacIinc iIcn undcrwcni a sIarp cIangc in cIaracicr as iIc Covcrnncni dccidcd iIai
iIc puniiivc iroops sIould lc givcn a posiiion of prinacy ovcr iIc organs. TIc lcginning of 1939 narlcd iIc
siari of a lrcaiIialing incrcasc in iIc puniiivc iroops' powcr. Oncc again iIcir arnancni includcd arnourcd
irains, iIc laicsi DA-10 arnourcd cars, Iowiizcrs, and finally ianls and aircrafi.
Puniiivc iroops of all iypcs and funciions lcgan io grow rapidly in nunlcrs. TIc NKVD iroops lccanc so
nuncrous iIai a spccial posi Iad io lc crcaicd io conirol iIcn, and Licuicnani-Ccncral I. I. Maslcnnilov was
appoinicd Dcpuiy Pcoplc's Connissar for Troops.
TIc sirangc iIing, Iowcvcr, was iIai puniiivc iroops wcrc no longcr nccdcd on Sovici icrriiory. TIcrc wcrc
clcarly no plans for anoiIcr purgc in iIc Sovici Union in 1939, as iIc couniry Iad lccn lrougIi io iis lnccs
and was ly iIcn ioially suljccicd io Sialin.
TIc NKVD iroops dcvclopcd in nany dircciions, onc of wIicI was iIc fornaiion of iIcir rcircai-llocling
scrvicc in 1939. TIc iasl of rcircai-llocling dciacIncnis is io lolsicr iIc rcsolvc of iroops in laiilc,
pariicularly an offcnsivc laiilc. Having dcploycd lcIind iIc iroops, iIc rcircai-llocling dciacIncni
cncouragcs iIc advancing soldicry wiiI lursis of nacIinc-gun firc dirccicd ai iIc lacls of iIcir Icads, dclays
iIc iroops if iIcy arc rcircaiing, rciurns iIc olcdicni soldicrs io iIc laiilc and sIoois iIc disolcdicni oncs on
iIc spoi.
SucI dciacIncnis Iad lccn uscd during iIc Civil War. Indccd, quiic a fcw rascals wIo disiinguisIcd
iIcnsclvcs in iIis ficld wcrc ciicd in Sovici pullicaiions as 'Icrocs of iIc Civil War'. Hcrc is a iypical canplc.
'Vypov, I. P.lcadcr of a nacIinc-gun ican of iIc rcircai-llocling dciacIncni of iIc 38iI Infaniry Division'
(VIZH, 1976, No. 12, p. 76i TIc rcircai-llocling soldicrs' lifc is noi onc of scrvicc, lui a Ioliday. Encny
ariillcry docs noi worry iIcn. TIcy figIi noi againsi a siray cncny, lui againsi iIcir own dcnoralizcd ncn.
Dccoraiions sIowcr upon iIcn fron iIc Iorn of plcniy. Our Icro Ias iwo Ordcrs of iIc Fcd Danncr.
As pari of iIc sccrci luild-up of Sovici forccs in iIc couniry's wcsicrn rcgions lcforc iIc Moloiov-
Fillcnirop Paci was signcd, a dciacIcd noiorizcd infaniry rcgincni of iIc NKVD lccanc an inicgral pari of
cacI arny. TIis rcgincni consisicd noi of laiialions, lui of rcircai-llocling dciacIncnis.
Apari fron iIc rcgincnis wIicI nadc up iIc arnics, iIcrc wcrc also dciacIcd NKVD noiorizcd riflc
rcgincnis wIicI forncd pari of iIc fronis. For canplc, in Junc 1941, iIcrc wcrc ninc rcgincnis, an
indcpcndcni dciacIncni and a dciacIcd laiialion of iIc NKVD lcIind iIc SouiIcrn Froni alonc. (VIZH,
1983, No. 9i
In addiiion io NKVD noiorizcd riflc rcgincnis, indcpcndcni rcircai-llocling dciacIncnis of iIc NKVD wcrc
also crcaicd. TIcsc inncdiaicly lccanc pari of iIc corps and arnics wIicI wcrc iIcn lcing forncd. Onc of
iIcsc, for canplc, was iIc 241si DciacIcd Fcircai-Dlocling DciacIncni, wIicI lccanc pari of iIc 19iI
Arny.
Major-Ccncral P. V. Scvasi'yanov Ias siaicd iIai iIc NKVD's rcircai-llocling scrvicc worlcd wiiI grcai
prccision and surcncss of ioucI. In ordcr io pcrforn iIcir alloiicd scrvicc of siopping any rcircai, iIc NKVD
iroops always iool up posiiion lcIind iIc figIiing iroops in cvcry siiuaiion. 'Conpanics of froniicr iroops
inncdiaicly dcploycd lcIind us' (Vogu-Ncnun-Dunu, Moscow Vocnizdai, 1961, p. 82i In Ccncral
Scvasi'yanov's words, Iis infaniry wcrc Iaving io figIi Ccrnan iroops wiiIoui ianls, wIilc iIc CIclisis, wIo
did Iavc ianls, siood lcIind iIcn.
Wc can find quiic a fcw indicaiions in Sovici sourccs wIicI sIow iIai iIc NKVD's rcircai-llocling scrvicc
was aciivc fron iIc vcry firsi Iours of iIc war, wIicI ncans iIai ii Iad lccn dcploycd cvcn lcforc iIc
Ccrnans invadcd. TIcir prcscncc is aclnowlcdgcd in Coloncl-Ccncral Lconid MilIailovicI Sandalov's
accouni of Junc 1941. 'I sIall lcavc iIc Arny rcircai-llocling dciacIncni Icrc,' Ic wriics. 'TIc Arny rcircai-
llocling dciacIncnis wcrc siopping iIcn and scnding iIcn io iIc ncarcsi uniis of iIc 28iI Fiflc Corps.'
(Pc)czItoc, Moscow, 1966i
TIai iIc NKVD's rcircai-llocling scrvicc was rcvivcd lcforc iIc Ccrnan aiiacl and indccd lcforc iIc
Moloiov-Fillcnirop paci is dircci cvidcncc iIai iIc war Iad lccn dccidcd upon in iIc Krcnlin long lcforc ii
aciually lcgan.
TIc NKVD cpandcd iis opcraiions in oiIcr dircciions as wcll. Fron iIc lcginning of 1939, iIc sircngiI of iIc
NKVD froniicr iroops sIarply incrcascd. Sincc Lcnin's iinc, iIc Sovici Union Iad Iad si froniicr disiricis.
Now iIcir nunlcr incrcascd io cigIiccn, wIilc ai iIc sanc iinc iIc niliiary sircngiI in cacI ncw disirici
grcw in rclaiion io wIai ii Iad lccn in iIc old disiricis. Wc Iavc alrcady Iad occasion io olscrvc iIc
aggrcssivc icndcncics of iIc Sovici froniicr iroops, wIicI always scrvcd as iIc lasis on wIicI iIc OSNAZ
(OsoIogo NuznucIcnuu - spccial purposci fornaiions wcrc sci up.
In Augusi 1939, lcforc iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci was signcd, a rapid growiI occurrcd in iIc nunlcr of
NKVD OSNAZ iroops. OSNAZ fornaiions wcrc iIc nosi aggrcssivc sirilc fornaiions in iIc Sovici puniiivc
nacIinc. In iIc Civil War OSNAZ uniis wcrc noiorious for iIcir lruialiiy, wIicI was circnc cvcn ly CIcla
siandards. Aficr iIc Civil War Iad cndcd, OSNAZ was sIarply cui lacl so iIai only onc NKVD OSNAZ
division rcnaincd in iIc Moscow rcgion. TIis division was undcr iIc connand of NKVD Konlrig
8
Pavcl
Aricn'cv.
Ai iIc lcginning of Augusi 1939, C. K. ZIulov was prcparing Iis surprisc sirilc againsi iIc Japancsc. A
dciacIcd OSNAZ laiialion of iIc NKVD nunlcring 502 ncn was placcd ai ZIulov's connand. AliIougI iIc
laiialion was snall, ii consisicd of spccially piclcd siranglcrs wIosc Iands wcrc norc iIan accusioncd io
nurdcr. TIc nain iasl of iIis OSNAZ laiialion was 'io purgc iIai arca of iIc rcar wIicI lay closcsi io iIc
8
Drigadc-Connandcr - icrn uscd lcforc 1940. KonI)g and sinilar icrns wcrc alandoncd aficr 1940, and iIc EnglisI cquivalcni ranlings wcrc uscd.
froni'. (CIusouuc SouctsIII G)unts, IPL, Moscow 1983, p. 106i OSNAZ did iis worl splcndidly and ZIulov
was IigIly saiisficd.
Inncdiaicly aficr iIis, iIc fornaiion of OSNAZ laiialions lcgan on iIc PolisI froniicr. A dispaicI fron iIc
poliiical dcparincni of iIc froniicr iroops in iIc Kicv disirici, daicd 17 Scpicnlcr 1939, ncniions iIai
OSNAZ laiialions Iad alrcady lccn sci up.
During iIc 'lilcraiion' of Poland, Dcssaralia, Dulovina, Esionia, Laivia, LiiIuania, and Finland, iIc OSNAZ
laiialions wcrc iIc firsi io cross iIc froniicrs. TIcir iasl was firsi io lnocl oui cncny froniicr posis ly
surprisc aiiacl, and iIcn, ly opcraiing aIcad of iIc advancing iroops, io capiurc lridgcs, cui
connunicaiions, wipc oui snall groups of iIc cncny and icrrorizc iIc populaiion. Oncc iIc Fcd Arny uniis
Iad caugIi up wiiI iIc OSNAZ laiialions, iIcsc iIcn iurncd io iIc iasls of purging iIc icrriiory and of
cicrninaiing undcsirallc clcncnis. Wc can find ncniion of iIc NKVD's OSNAZ laiialions in iIc sanc official
Iisiory of iIc froniicr iroops. (Docuncnis Nos. 185 and 193i Hcrc arc iIc fruiis of iIcir worl. 'Aloui 600
prisoncrs wcrc cscoricd across iIc froniicr; iIcsc includcd officcrs, landowncrs, pricsis, gcndarncs and
policcncn . . .' (Docuncni No. 196i In a conicnporary vcrsion of iIis docuncni iIis scnicncc concs io an
alrupi Iali ai iis scni-colon, and wc arc noi iold wIo wcrc ialcn as 'prisoncrs'. A docuncni daicd 19
Scpicnlcr 1939 dcscrilcs iIc siiuaiion ai onc pariicular snall NKVD froniicr posi. Ii was iIc iIird day of iIc
'lilcraiion canpaign' in Poland. TIis lilcraiion is cplaincd nowadays as a Sovici aiicnpi io sccurc iis
lordcrs againsi Hiilcr. WIy iIcn drivc 'landowncrs and pricsis' across iIc froniicr inio iIc Sovici Union and
dcclarc iIcn prisoncrs? TIcsc 600 prisoncrs forncd only onc drop in a vcry grcai sircan wIicI pourcd noi
sinply iIrougI onc froniicr posi, lui iIrougI all of iIcn, Iaving lcgun iis flow on iIc vcry firsi day
of'lilcraiion'.
Ii was forcsccn iIai, aficr iIc ncw froniicr wiiI Ccrnany Iad lccn csiallisIcd, ncw usurpaiions would
follow. Far fron dissolving iIc prcviously crcaicd OSNAZ laiialions of iIc NKVD, Sialin sci up ncw
laiialions, and noi only laiialions. Hc crcaicd rcgincnis, divisions, and cvcn an NKVD OSNAZ corps undcr
iIc connand of NKVD Kondiv
9
SInyrcv, Connissar CIunalov, and CIicf of Siaff NKVD Coloncl
9
Scc prcvious pagc.
Vinogradov. Fcfcrcnccs io iIis iop sccrci corps nay sonciincs lc found in official Sovici docuncnis.
(Pog)uncInuc VosIu SSSH l939-4l, Naula, 1970, Docuncni No. 39i.
TIc novcncni of all iypcs of NKVD iroops iowards iIc Sovici Union's wcsicrn froniicr in Fclruary 1941
cannoi lc cplaincd as a dcfcncc againsi Ccrnan invasion. Had ii lccn so, iIcn surcly iIc fornaiion of ncw
puniiivc laiialions, rcgincnis and divisions sIould Iavc lccn Ialicd in favour of sonciIing norc appropriaic
io dcfcncc, sucI as iIc fornaiion of a corps of sappcrs io ninc iIc cniirc wcsicrn icrriiory of iIc Sovici Union
or covcr ii wiiI anii-ianl diicIcs and ircncIcs.
Dui Sialin was noi cngagcd in anyiIing lilc iIis. Sialin nccdcd puniiivc iroops, noi sappcrs. TIai is wIy
onc norc niliiary cIicf dirccioraic was sci up in iIc NKVD ai iIc lcginning of 1941. TIis iinc ii was a purcly
niliiary onc, iIc CIicf Dirccioraic of Opcraiional Troops of iIc NKVD. Ai iis Icad, Sialin placcd Pavcl
Aricn'cv, an OSNAZ vcicran wIo Iad connandcd iIc 1si OSNAZ Division of iIc NKVD, and wIo Iad alrcady
riscn io iIc ranl of NKVD licuicnani-gcncral.
TIc ncw cIicf dirccioraic inncdiaicly sci in noiion a vasi dcployncni of iroops. TIc lasic niliiary unii
was an NKVD noior-riflc division consisiing of a ianl rcgincni (or laiialioni, iwo or iIrcc noior-riflc
rcgincnis, a Iowiizcr ariillcry laiialion, and oiIcr sul-uniis. TIc ioial sircngiI of cacI division was norc
iIan 10,000 CIclisis.
TIc NKVD noior riflc divisions sprcad inncdiaicly io iIc wcsicrn lordcr of iIc Sovici Union. NKVD
puniiivc divisions arncd wiiI ianls, Iowiizcrs and oiIcr Icavy wcapons wcrc sinply noi nccdcd on Sovici
icrriiory. NciiIcr wcrc iIcy rcquircd in iIc icrriiorics wIicI Iad rcccnily lccn scizcd. Hcrc iIc NKVD's icrror
nacIinc goi ly wiiIoui ianls, aliIougI in circnc cascs iIcy sougIi Iclp fron iIc Fcd Arny.
TIc NKVD divisions wcrc inicndcd io lc uscd in iIc rcar in wariinc, noi in iIc froni. TIai iIcsc divisions
Iad Icavy wcapons indicaics iIai ii was planncd io usc iIcsc divisions againsi a sirong cncny. Dui iIcrc
was no sirong cncny, nor could iIcrc lc onc, in iIc rcar of iIc Fcd Arny on Sovici icrriiory.
A sirong cncny could only appcar in iIc rcar of iIc Fcd Arny in iIc cvcni of iIc Fcd Arny crossing iIc
froniicr and driving forward. Hiilcr did noi allow iIis io Iappcn. Hc sirucl iIc firsi llow, and iIus rcndcrcd
all iIc NKVD's Sovici riflc divisions rcdundani. TIc NKVD's CIicf Dirccioraic of Opcraiional Troops provcd io
lc quiic unncccssary in iIc dcfcnsivc war wIicI followcd. Four days aficr iIc war Iad lcgun, Sialin novcd
NKVD Ccncral Aricn'cv fron iIc CIicf Dirccioraic of Opcraiional Troops, lcaving ii wiiIoui a lcadcr. No norc
NKVD noior-riflc divisions wcrc forncd aficr 1941, and iIc cisiing divisions wcrc rc-forncd as ordinary riflc
divisions of iIc Fcd Arny. TIc NKVD's 21 si Moior Fiflc Division, for insiancc, undcr NKVD Coloncl M. D.
PancIcnlo, was cIangcd inio iIc lopiI Fiflc Division of iIc Fcd Arny; iIc NKVD's 13iI Moior Fiflc Division
lccanc iIc 95iI Fiflc Division of iIc Worlcrs' and Pcasanis' Fcd Arny (and laicr iIc 75iI Cuards Divisioni;
and iIc NKVD's 8iI Moior Fiflc Division lccanc iIc 63rd Fiflc Division of iIc Worlcrs' and Pcasanis' Fcd
Arny (laicr iIc 52nd Cuards Divisioni. In all, 29 divisions wcrc iransfcrrcd fron iIc NKVD io iIc Fcd Arny.
(Major-Ccncral V. Nclrasov, VIZH, 1985, No. 9i In iIc dcfcnsivc war iIai Iad lccn forccd upon Iin, Sialin
nccdcd ordinary infaniry, noi puniiivc iroops.
In 1944 iIc Fcd Arny, wiiI iIc NKVD in iis walc, arrivcd in Ccniral Europc and csiallisIcd worlcrs' and
pcasanis' powcr, social jusiicc and oiIcr llcssings. Dui cvcn in 1939 Sialin was alrcady sciiing up iIc
nacIincry for csiallisIing iIai Iappy lifc. Hiilcr sinply prcvcnicd iIis nacIincry lcing uscd uniil 1944.
TIc Sovici icrror nacIinc was cnornous and was inicndcd noi jusi for Easicrn Europc lui Europc in iis
cniirciy. Ii Iad io lc sIarply rcduccd in sizc aficr Hiilcr invadcd lccausc ii no longcr scrvcd any inncdiaic
purposc.
TIc crcaiion of nacIincry wiiI wIicI io Soviciizc Europc lcgan lcforc iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci. TIc
Paci was signcd aficr a final dccision Iad lccn ialcn io csiallisI a Iappy lifc in Europc. TIc Paci was only a
iaciical novc wIicI would allow Europc io lc lrougIi down io iIc lcvcls wIicI Iad cisicd iIcrc in 1918,
iIcrcly opcning iIc gaics io iIc OSNAZ fornaiions and iIc noior-riflc divisions of iIc NKVD.
CHAPTEF 9
WIy iIc Sccuriiy Zonc was Disnanilcd on iIc Evc of War
Mncs u)c u pouc)]u tIng, Iut tIs s u )csou)cc
]o) tIc ucuI, ]o) tIosc uIo u)c dc]cndng tIcnscucs.
Vc do not nccd nncs us nucI us uc nccd
tIc ncuns o] ccu)ng tIcn.
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union
CFICOFY IVANOVICH KULIK,
carly Junc 1941
A couniry wIicI is prcparing iis dcfcncc dcploys iis arny dccp insidc iis own icrriiory, and noi on iis vcry
froniicr. TIc oljcci is io prcvcni iIc cncny fron dcsiroying iIc nain dcfcnding forccs wiiI onc surprisc
aiiacl. A dcfcnding sidc will nornally luild a sccuriiy zonc in iIc froniicr arcas in plcniy of iinc; a zonc
wIcrc iIc icrrain Ias lccn saiuraicd wiiI iraps, cnginccrcd dcfcnccs, olsiaclcs and nincficlds. TIc
dcfcnding sidc will dclilcraicly avoid consiruciing anyiIing rclaicd io indusiry or iranspori in iIis zonc; nor
will ii lccp any Icavy niliiary fornaiions or largc quaniiiics of supplics iIcrc. On iIc conirary, iincly
prcparaiions will Iavc lccn nadc io llow up all lridgcs, iunncls and roads in iIis zonc.
Oncc insidc iIc sccuriiy zonc, iIc aggrcssor loscs spccd of novcncni, and Iis iroops susiain losscs lcforc
iIcy cvcn cncounicr iIc nain forccs of iIc dcfcndcr. Only snall lui IigIly nolilc dciacIncnis of iIc
dcfcnding sidc opcraic in iIc sccuriiy zonc. TIcsc dciacIncnis spring anlusIcs, launcI surprisc aiiacls
and iIcn quiclly wiiIdraw io prcviously prcparcd posiiions. LigIi dciacIncnis crcaic iIc inprcssion iIai
iIcy arc iIc nain forcc, conpclling iIc aggrcssor io siop, dcploy Iis forccs and wasic Iis sIclls on arcas
wIcrc iIcrc is noiIing io Iii. TIc ligIi dciacIncnis, ncanwIilc, sccrcily wiiIdraw io prcparc ncw anlusIcs.
WIilc iIc aggrcssor is waging an cIausiing laiilc wiiI iIc ligIi dciacIncnis of iIc covcring forcc, iIc
nain dcfcnding forccs Iavc iinc io prcparc iIcnsclvcs io confroni iIc aggrcssor fron posiiions wIicI favour
dcfcncc.
TIc dccpcr iIc sccuriiy zonc is, iIc lciicr. As Ic lrcals inio a dccp sccuriiy zonc, an aggrcssor
involuniarily rcvcals iIc nain dircciion of Iis iIrusi, and loscs iIc advaniagc of surprisc. Sincc Ic docs noi
lnow Iow dccp iIc sccuriiy zonc is, Ic cannoi prcdici wIcn Ic will cncounicr iIc dcfcndcr's nain forccs;
iIus, iIc iniiiaiivc Ias passcd io iIc dcfcnding forccs.
TIrougIoui iIc ccniurics, and indccd iIc nillcnnia, Slavonic irilcs Iavc crcaicd powcrful sccuriiy zoncs of
cnornous lcngiI and vasi dcpiI. Anong iIc nany dcfcncc olsiaclcs iIcy cnploycd, iIc nosi inporiani and
cffcciivc was iIc forcsi larricr. TIis consisicd of a sirip iIrougI iIc forcsi in wIicI iIc irccs wcrc fcllcd ai a
poini in iIc irunl jusi IigIcr iIan a nan's IcigIi, in sucI a way iIai iIc fcllcd pari of iIc ircc siaycd
aiiacIcd io iIc siunp. TIc iops of iIc irccs wcrc iIcn pilcd in a criss-cross nanncr on iIc sidc fron wIicI
iIc cncny was cpccicd io approacI, and wcrc prcsscd io iIc ground wiiI sialcs. TIc iIin lrancIcs wcrc
cIoppcd off, and iIc iIicl oncs sIarpcncd. Ai iIosc placcs wIcrc ii was unlilcly iIai iIc cncny would
appcar, iIc larricr was usually only a fcw dozcn ncircs dccp. Dui on iIc rouics along wIicI iIc cncny
would prolally approacI, iIc dcpiI of iIc forcsi larricr could anouni io foriy io siiy liloncircs of
inpassallc olsiaclcs rcinforccd ly palisadcs, sialcs, conccalcd piis, icrrillc iraps capallc of lrcaling iIc
lcgs of a Iorsc, and snarcs of iIc nosi ingcnious consiruciion.
Forcsi larricrs in Old Fussia sircicIcd for Iundrcds of liloncircs; iIc Crcai Forcsi Darricr Linc,
consirucicd in iIc siiccniI ccniury, was norc iIan 1,500 liloncircs long.
Forircsscs and ciiadcls wcrc luili lcIind iIcsc lincs, wIicI wcrc carcfully proiccicd ly ligIi nolilc
dciacIncnis. As iIc cncny iricd io pcnciraic iIc larricr, iIcsc dciacIncnis would launcI surprisc aiiacls
lcforc wiiIdrawing along sccrci passagcs. Evcry aiicnpi io pursuc iIcn cndcd ladly for iIc cncny. Falsc
passagcs wcrc nadc iIrougI iIc larricrs, and iIcsc lcd iIc cncny inio a zonc of iraps and anlusIcs.
Ii is inicrcsiing io noic iIai, wIcn iIc froniicrs of Tsarisi Fussia novcd souiIwards, iIc old larricrs wcrc
noi dcsiroycd, lui wcrc fully prcscrvcd and foriificd, wIilc a ncw linc of foriificaiions, forircsscs, and foriificd
iowns was consirucicd, and in froni of iIcn a ncw forcsi larricr was luili. Dy iIc cnd of iIc scvcniccniI
ccniury, any cncny wIo iricd io aiiacl Moscow fron iIc souiI would Iavc Iad io ovcrconc cigIi of iIcsc
forcsi larricrs, wIicI Iad lccn nadc io a ioial dcpiI of 800 liloncircs. TIis was lcyond iIc capaliliiy of any
onc arny io pcnciraic. Dui cvcn if anyonc Iad dccidcd io iry io ovcrconc all iIcsc larricrs, Ic would ncvcr
Iavc lccn allc io nalc a surprisc aiiacl. TIc aggrcssor would Iavc lccn worn down ly cnornous cffori and
ly consiani raids cffccicd ly ligIi nolilc dciacIncnis. Evcn supposing iIai Ic ovcrcanc all iIis, Ic would
find iIc Fussian Arny, fully nolilizcd, frcsI and rcady for laiilc, awaiiing Iin ai iIc cnd of iIc road.
Sccuriiy zoncs siill rciain iIcir inporiancc in iIc iwcniiciI ccniury. TIc Fcd Arny undcrsiood full wcll
wIai a sccuriiy zonc was, Iaving Iad cnornous cpcricncc of opcraiing in iIcn. During iIc 1920 canpaign
io 'lilcraic' Warsaw and Dcrlin, iIc Fcd Arny found iisclf in a sccuriiy zonc prcparcd ly iIc PolisI Arny.
CIicf MarsIal of Ariillcry N. N. Voronov noicd Iow
iIc PolisI iroops dcsiroycd cvcryiIing in iIc walc of iIcir wiiIdrawal, railway siaiions, railway lincs, and
lridgcs. TIcy lurncd villagcs, crops, and Iaysiacls. Wc novcd forward wiiI grcai difficuliy. Wc Iad io ford
cvcry snall rivcr ly wading or ly inproviscd ncans. Having io carry our annuniiion nadc our progrcss
cvcn norc difficuli. (Nu SuzIIc Vocnno, Vocnizdai 1963, p. 34i
Aficr sucI an cpcricncc, iIc Fcd Arny iisclf crcaicd sirong sccuriiy zoncs on iis own froniicrs, pariicularly
iis wcsicrn lordcrs. Spccial govcrnncni connissions inspccicd iIc couniry's wcsicrn rcgions and dcicrnincd
wIicI zoncs an cncny would find casicsi io cross, and wIicI would afford Iin nosi difficuliy. Tcans of
lridgc-proicciion guards, iraincd in dcnoliiion worl, wcrc nadc rcady io llow up all iIc lridgcs in iIc
wcsicrn rcgions. TIc 6o-ncirc long railway lridgc ai Olcv, for canplc, could Iavc lccn llown up ly iIc
duplicaicd cplosion sysicn in iwo and a Ialf ninuics. (I. Siarinov, Mnu ZIdut Suocgo CIusu, Moscow
Vocnizdai 1964, p. 24i
Hcavy pipc-lincs, dcpois, waicr punps, waicr iowcrs, IigI cnlanlncnis and dccp cuiiings wcrc all
prcparcd io lc llown up. (IId, p. 18i Dy iIc cnd of 1929, 60 icans of dcnoliiion sappcrs, ioialling 1,400
ncn, Iad lccn iraincd in iIc Kicv Miliiary Disirici alonc. TIcsc Iad ai iIcir disposal '1,640 fully prcparcd
sopIisiicaicd cIargcs and icns of iIousands of safciy-fusc dcionaior scis, wIicI wcrc rcady liicrally for
insiani usc.' (IId, p. 22i Sinilar aciiviiy was also going on in oiIcr niliiary disiricis.
In addiiion io iIc icans of dcnoliiion sappcrs wIicI Iad lccn sci up in iIc wcsicrn rcgions of iIc couniry,
railway-llocling laiialions wcrc forncd. Onc of iIcir iasls was io dcsiroy iIc nain railway junciions in iIc
cvcni of a rcircai and io crcaic dcfcncc olsiaclcs on iIc nain aricrial rouics ly dcsiroying roads and laying
dclaycd-aciion land nincs lcsi iIc cncny sIould iry io rcluild iIc roads. TIcrc wcrc four sucI laiialions in
iIc Ulrainc in 1932. (IId, p. 175i
Failway poinis crossings, connunicaiions cquipncni, iclcgrapI wircs and in sonc cascs cvcn iIc rails
wcrc goi rcady io lc rcnovcd. (M. TulIacIcvsly, IzI)unnuc P)ozucdcnuu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1964, Vol. i pp.
65-67i
TIc Sovici sccuriiy zonc undcrwcni coniinuous inprovcncnis. TIc nunlcr of iargcis prcparcd for
dcnoliiion sicadily grcw. Ncw dcfcncc olsiaclcs wcrc crcaicd. forcsi larricrs; ariificial rcscrvoirs in froni of
dcfcnsivc consiruciions; prcparaiions wcrc cvcn nadc io flood sonc arcas.
In iIc auiunn of 1939, iIc Sovici Union Iad a grcai sirolc of lucl. Undcr iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci, ii
annccd ncw icrriiorics lciwccn 200 and 300 liloncircs dccp. TIc sccuriiy zonc iIai Iad alrcady lccn sci up
iIus grcw considcrally in dcpiI. Naiurc Icrsclf could Iavc crcaicd iIcsc ncw icrriiorics for iIc cprcss
purposc of cquipping ii as a sccuriiy zonc. TIcy Iad forcsis, Iills, logs, dccp rivcrs wiiI narsIy lanls and,
in iIc wcsicrn Ulrainc, fasi-flowing nouniain rivcrs lciwccn siccp lanls. In sIori 'iIc icrrain favourcd
dcfcncc and iIc crcaiion of dcfcncc olsiaclcs.' (MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union A. Ercncnlo, V NucIuc Vonu,
Moscow Naula 1964, p. 71i As if iIai wcrc noi cnougI, iIc nciworl of roads was siill ai a priniiivc siagc of
dcvclopncni. Of 6,696 nilcs of railway lincs, only 2,008 Iad doullc iracls, lui iIc capaciiy of cvcn iIcsc
was liniicd. Ii would Iavc lccn quiic casy, wcrc iIc nccd io arisc, io nalc iIcsc railway lincs quiic unusallc.
Ii was ai iIis poini iIai iIc Fcd Arny Iad spcciacular confirnaiion of iIc valuc of sccuriiy zoncs io a
dcfcnding sidc. In iIc auiunn of iIai ycar, iIc Sovici Union invadcd Finland. TIc aiiacl was no surprisc,
Iowcvcr, for iIc FinnisI forccs wcrc far fron iIc froniicr lcIind iIcir own sccuriiy zonc wIcn ii arrivcd.
TIc failurcs of iIc Fcd Arny on iIis occasion wcrc noi sinply iIc rcsulis of niscalculaiions ly iIc Sovici
connand. Morc inporiani was iIc faci iIai iIc FinnisI Arny was prcparcd for dcfcncc, and rcady io nalc
sacrificcs. TIc Finns Iad crccicd iIcir sccuriiy zonc in froni of iIcir nain linc of dcfcncc. TIis zonc -sonc 40-
60 liloncircs dccp (SouctsIuuu Vocnnuuu EntsIopcduu, Vol. 6, p. 504i - was sircwn wiiI nincficlds and
dcfcncc olsiaclcs. Snipcrs, sappcrs and ligIi nolilc dciacIncnis wcrc circncly aciivc.
TIc rcsuli was iIai ii iool iIc Fcd Arny 25 days io ovcrconc iIc sccuriiy zonc. TIcy cncrgcd fron ii
facing iIc nain linc of dcfcncc Iaving suffcrcd grcai losscs, wiiI low noralc and wiiIoui annuniiion, fucl or
supplics. Spacc for nanocuvrc was scvcrcly rcsiricicd. Onc sicp off iIc road nigIi lc iIc lasi onc would cvcr
ialc. TIc rcar uniis fcll lcIind and found iIcnsclvcs undcr consiani iIrcai of rcpcaicd raids ly FinnisI ligIi
dciacIncnis, wIo lncw iIc localiiy circncly wcll and wIo Iad sccrci paiIs iIrougI iIc nincficlds.
All iIc Sovici connandcrs wIo fougIi iIcrc cprcsscd iIcir adniraiion of iIc FinnisI sccuriiy zonc.
Forcnosi anong iIcn was K. Mcrcislov, wIo connandcd iIc yiI Arny. (Nu SuzIIc Nu)odu, Moscow IPL
1968, p. 184i Aficr Ic Iad finally ovcrconc iIc FinnisI sccuriiy zonc and Iad asscsscd iis woriI, Mcrcislov
was appoinicd CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff. So Iow did Ic nalc usc of Iis cpcricncc in ordcr io rcinforcc iIc
Sovici sccuriiy zonc wIicI Iad lccn sci up along iIc Sovici Union's wcsicrn froniicrs?
Mcrcislov ordcrcd iIai.
1. TIc sccuriiy zonc wIicI Iad prcviously lccn consirucicd along iIc Sovici Union's wcsicrn froniicrs
sIould lc disnanilcd, iIc icans of dcnoliiion sappcrs dislandcd, iIc cplosivc cIargcs rcnovcd, iIc nincs
rcndcrcd Iarnlcss, and iIc dcfcncc olsiaclcs razcd io iIc ground;
2. No sccuriiy zonc sIould lc sci up in iIc ncw lands;
3. TIc nain forccs of iIc Fcd Arny sIould lc novcd rigIi up io iIc froniicrs, wiiIoui a sccuriiy zonc io
proicci iIcn;
4. TIc siraicgic rcsourccs of iIc Fcd Arny sIould lc lrougIi fron iIc Icari of iIc couniry and
conccniraicd dirccily on iIc froniicr;
5. A vasi worls progrannc sIould lcgin ai oncc io luild a nciworl of roads and airficlds in wcsicrn
Dyclorussia and in iIc wcsicrn Ulrainc. singlc-lanc roads wcrc io lc nadc inio dual-lanc roads, iIc capaciiy
of iIc roads was io lc incrcascd; and ncw roads lcading dirccily io iIc Ccrnan lordcr wcrc io lc luili.
TIc rcsulis of iIis ludicrous policy lccanc clcar wIcn Poland was pariiiioncd in 1939. Dridgcs across wIai
wcrc now froniicr rivcrs rcnaincd iniaci, cvcn iIougI nolody uscd iIcn. TIcrc wcrc si sucI lridgcs in iIc
zonc of iIc Sovici 4iI Arny alonc. For undcrsiandallc rcasons, iIc Ccrnans ncvcr raiscd iIc issuc of
dcsiroying iIcn, aliIougI no onc nccdcd iIcn in pcacciinc. Dui iIc Sovici lcadcrs did noi raisc iIc issuc of
dcsiroying iIcn ciiIcr. TIc noncni iIc war lcgan, all iIcsc lridgcs wcrc capiurcd ly iIc Ccrnans, allowing
a grcai nunlcr of Ccrnan iroops io cross iIcn and caicI iIc Sovici 4iI Arny napping. TIis arny suffcrcd a
crusIing dcfcai, opcning iIc way inio iIc rcar of iIc powcrful 10iI Arny, wIicI suffcrcd a quiic
unprcccdcnicd roui as a rcsuli. Encounicring no furiIcr olsiaclcs in Iis paiI, Cudcrian lcgan Iis drivc for
Minsl.
'WIy, in pariicular, wcrc so nany lridgcs across iIc Dug lcfi iniaci in iIc 4iI Arny zonc?' cnquircs L.
Sandalov, forncr cIicf of siaff of iIc 4iI Arny. (Pc)czItoc, Vocnizdai 1966, p. 99i WIy indccd? TIc Ccrnan
connand Iopcd io usc iIc lridgcs in an aggrcssivc war, so ii was clcarly noi in iIcir inicrcsis io dcsiroy
iIcn. Dui wIai was iIc Sovici Connand Ioping for?
TIc dccision io lcavc iIc lridgcs iniaci is usually cplaincd as a piccc of inconpcicncc on iIc pari of iIc
Sovici connandcrs. Dui ii was Sandalov, wIosc nosi siriling qualiiy was Iis cccpiional prudcncc and
aiicniion io dciail, wIo was rcsponsillc for iIcsc lridgcs. Ii is inicrcsiing iIai no onc Ias llancd Iin for
doing noiIing aloui iIcsc lridgcs, nor Ias anyonc pui Iin up againsi a wall for ii. On iIc conirary, in Junc
1941 Ic lcgan Iis rapid risc in ranl fron coloncl io coloncl-gcncral, and disiinguisIcd Iinsclf in nany
opcraiions.
TIc Ccrnan iroops advanccd furiIcr wiiIoui cncounicring difficuliics, capiuring lridgcs across iIc Dvina,
iIc Dcrczin, iIc Nicncn, iIc Pripyai' and cvcn iIc Dnicpcr. A failurc io prcparc iIcsc lridgcs for dcnoliiion
could lc judgcd as crininal ncgligcncc. Dui iIc naiicr is norc scrious. TIcy Iad lccn prcparcd for
dcnoliiion, lui wcrc clcarcd of nincs aficr iIc connon SoviciCcrnan froniicr Iad lccn csiallisIcd. TIc
nincs wcrc clcarcd cvcrywIcrc. TIis ncans iIai ii Iappcncd noi lccausc of a wIin of individual idiois, lui
lccausc ii was siaic pocu. 'Our couniry,' wroic Coloncl Ilya Siarinov, 'was now dirccily adjoincd io iIc Wcsi,
wIicI coniaincd iIc powcrful niliiary nacIinc of Nazi Ccrnany.'
TIc iIrcai of invasion Iung ovcr England . . . WIcn I lcarni iIai prcparaiions wcrc lcing nadc io disnanilc
iIc dcfcncc olsiaclcs in iIc froniicr zonc, I was sinply siunncd. Evcn cvcryiIing wIicI wc Iad succccdcd
in sciiing up in iIc ycars 1926-33 was in faci clininaicd. TIcrc wcrc no longcr any siorcs wiiI alrcady
prcparcd cIargcs siicd ncar inporiani lridgcs and oiIcr oljcciivcs. Ii was noi only iIai iIcrc wcrc no
lrigadcs. TIcrc wcrc no spccial laiialions ciiIcr . . . TIc Ul'yanovsl ScIool of Spccial Enginccring, wIicI
was iIc only iraining insiiiuiion wIicI iurncd oui IigIly qualificd connandcrs for sul-uniis cquippcd wiiI
radio-conirollcd nincs, was nadc inio a connunicaiions scIool. (I. Siarinov, op. ct. p. 175i
TIc clcncni of surprisc - so advaniagcous io iIc Ccrnans in Junc 1941 - could Iavc lccn rcduccd Iad iIc
nain Sovici forccs lccn lcpi away fron iIc aciual froniicrs. Enpiy icrriiory, cvcn wiiIoui any iccInical
dcfcncc insiallaiions, would Iavc scrvcd as a sccuriiy zonc aficr iis own fasIion, ly allowing iIc nain forccs
iinc io gci rcady for aciion. Dui, according io iIc official Sovici accouni,
TIc arnics . . . wcrc io dcploy dirccily along iIc siaic froniicr ... in spiic of iIc faci iIai iis gcograpIical
ouilinc was cniircly disadvaniagcous io dcfcncc. Evcn iIosc sccuriiy 1oncs siipulaicd in our prc-war
dircciivcs Iad noi lccn iccInically prcparcd, (Ito)uu VcIo OtccIcstucnno Vonu, Vocnizdai 1961, Vol. 2,
p. 49i
TIus Mcrcislov was aciing againsi Sovici niliiary inicrcsis. So wIy did Sialin noi disniss Iin? Hc did; lui
noi lccausc Mcrcislov Iad clininaicd iIc sccuriiy zonc and failcd io crcaic a ncw onc, lui lccausc
Mcrcislov Iad noi lccn aciivc cnougI in luilding roads, lridgcs, and airficlds in iIc ncw rcgions.
On 1 Fclruary 1941, Mcrcislov's placc as CIicf of Ccncral Siaff was ialcn ly Ccncral C. K. ZIulov. TIc
worl iIcn inicnsificd on a iruly ZIulovian scalc. Prior io iIis, iIcrc Iad lccn fivc railway lrigadcs in iIc Fcd
Arny. ZIulov inncdiaicly incrcascd iIis nunlcr io iIiriccn. EacI lrigadc consisicd of onc rcgincni, iwo
dciacIcd laiialions and lacl-up sul-uniis. Alnosi all iIc railway iroops wcrc conccniraicd in iIc wcsicrn
froniicr rcgions, wIcrc iIcy worlcd inicnsivcly ai nodcrnizing old railway iracls and laying ncw oncs lcading
rigIi up io iIc froniicr iisclf. (Hcd Stu), 15 Scpicnlcr 1984i TIc consiruciion of iIcsc lincs suggcsis iIai iIc
Sovici lcadcrsIip was looling upon iIc froniicr zonc noi as a laiilc zonc lui as iis )cu) u)cu io wIicI, in iIc
cvcni of a rapid advancc inio iIc wcsi, ii would lc csscniial io scnd nillions of ncw rcscrvisis, nillions of ions
of annuniiion, fucl and oiIcr iicns of supply.
TIc consiruciion of railways was acconpanicd ly iIc luilding of noior IigIways running dirccily io iIc
froniicr iowns of PcrcnysIl', Drcsi-Liiovsl and Yavarov. WIcn prcparaiions arc lcing nadc for a dcfcnsivc
war, 'lcli' roads arc luili running parallcl wiiI iIc froni, so iIai iroops nay lc novcd fron passivc scciors io
iIosc undcr iIrcai. TIcsc 'lcli' roads arc luili dccp in iIc rcar; iIc froniicr rcgions iIcnsclvcs arc lcfi as far
as possillc wiiIoui roads or lridgcs. Dui iIc Fcd Arny luili loiI railways and noior IigIways running fron
casi io wcsi, dirccily io iIc froni. TIis is donc wIcn prcparaiions arc lcing nadc io advancc, so iIai rcscrvcs
can lc iransfcrrcd rapidly fron wiiIin iIc couniry io iIc siaic froniicr, and so iIai iIc iroops can
sulscqucnily lc supplicd wIcn iIcy Iavc crosscd iIc froniicr.
'TIc nciworl of noior IigIways in wcsicrn Dyclorussia and iIc wcsicrn Ulrainc,' rccalls MarsIal ZIulov,
'was in a vcry lad condiiion. Many lridgcs wcrc unallc io lcar iIc wcigIi of ncdiun ianls or ariillcry.'
(Vosponnunuu HuznusIcnuu, p. 207i TIc siiuaiion sIould Iavc dcligIicd ZIulov. iIc supporis of iIcsc
riclciy lridgcs could Iavc lccn lnoclcd down; anii-ianl nincs could Iavc lccn laid on iIc lanls, snipcrs
posicd in iIc undcrgrowiI, and anii-ianl guns pui in placc. Insicad, ZIulov was furiously luilding roads,
and rcplacing old lridgcs wiiI ncw oncs, so iIai ianls and ariillcry could usc iIcn.
TIc NK VD and Lavrcniy PavlovicI Dcria in pcrson gavc iIc Fcd Arny cnornous Iclp in iIis nigIiy worl.
TIc icrn 'iIc consiruciion organizaiions of iIc NK VD' is oficn cncounicrcd in Sovici sourccs. (Air CIicf
MarsIal A. A. Novilov, V NcIc Lcnng)udu, Naula 1970, p. 65i Dui wc now lnow wIon iIc NKVD uscd as
nanpowcr. WIy clsc wcrc so nany lalour-canp prisoncrs Icld in iIc froniicr zonc, pariicularly on iIc cvc of
iIc war?
McanwIilc war was clcarly approacIing. TIc official Hsto)u o] tIc Kcu Mtu)u Dst)ct (Vocnizdai 1972, p.
147i siaics iIai 'ai iIc lcginning of 1941 iIc Nazis sci aloui luilding lridgcs, railway lrancI lincs and ficld
acrodroncs'. TIcsc wcrc clcar signs iIai an invasion was lcing prcparcd. Yci iIis is wIai iIc Sovici railway
iroops wcrc doing ai cacily iIc sanc iinc. (IId, P. 143i
TIc railway lrigadcs wIicI ZIulov Iad sci up acconplisIcd a vasi anouni of worl on Sovici icrriiory.
TIcir nain purposc, Iowcvcr, was io opcraic on cncny icrriiory in iIc walc of iIc advancing iroops ly
rapidly ovcrconing iIc cncny's sccuriiy zonc, ly rcluilding roads and lridgcs and ly alicring iIc narrow
Wcsicrn Europcan gaugc on iIc nain railway lincs io nalc ii corrcspond io iIc lroadcr Sovici siandard.
Aficr iIc war lcgan, iIcsc lrigadcs wcrc uscd io pui up dcfcncc olsiaclcs, lui iIis was noi wIai iIcy Iad
lccn lrougIi inio cisicncc io do.
On iIc cvc of iIc war, iIc Sovici railway iroops did noi prcparc iIc rails for rcnoval or dcnoliiion. TIcy did
noi iranspori iIcir supplics away fron iIc froniicr zoncs. On iIc conirary, iIcy sioclpilcd rails, collapsillc
lridgcs, luilding naicrial and coal in considcrallc quaniiiics dirccily on iIc froniicr. Ii was rigIi iIcrc iIai
iIc Ccrnan Arny capiurcd all iIcsc siocls. Ccrnan docuncnis givc cvidcncc of iIis, as indccd do Sovici
sourccs. Siarinov, wIo was Icad of iIc Dcparincni for Dcfcncc Olsiaclcs and Mining in iIc Enginccring
Dirccioraic of iIc Worlcrs' and Pcasanis' Fcd Arny, dcscrilcd iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl froniicr railway siaiion on 21
Junc 1941. 'Ncar iIc railway iracls,' Ic wroic, 'iIc sun sIonc down upon nouniains of coal and Icaps of
lrand-ncw rails lcsidc iIc iracls. TIc rails sparllcd in iIc sunsIinc. EvcryiIing lrcaiIcd iranquilliiy.' (Mnu
ZIdut Suocgo CIusu, p. 190i
Evcryonc lnows iIai rails vcry quiclly lcconc covcrcd wiiI a iIin coaiing of rusi. TIc poini Icrc is iIai
iIc rails Iadjusi lccn dclivcrcd siraigIi io iIc froniicr on iIc day lcforc iIc war lcgan. WIy?
'AI, if only Sialin Iad noi clininaicd TulIacIcvsly, cvcryiIing would Iavc lccn diffcrcni,' was iIc iIougIi
wIicI was consianily Ianncrcd inio our Icads. TulIacIcvsly Iad disiinguisIcd Iinsclf ly Iis lruialiiy in
iIc sIooiings of loiI iIc pcasanis in Tanlov Provincc and also of iIc Kronsiad sailors wIo Iad lccn ialcn
prisoncr; faccd wiiI a rcal war, Ic Iad lccn dcfcaicd ly iIc PolisI Arny. In all rcnaining rcspccis Ic was no
diffcrcni fron any oiIcr Sovici narsIal. 'WIcn prcparing an opcraiion,' Ic wroic, 'ii is alsoluicly cssscniial io
nalc a sioclpilc of woodcn lridgcs, and io conccniraic railway rcconsiruciion uniis in iIc ncccssary scciors
. . . wIcn iIc narrow gaugc is lcing adjusicd io a widc onc.' (MarsIal M. TulIacIcvsly, IzI)unnuc
P)ozucdcnuu, Vocnizdai 1964, Vol. I, pp. 62-63i
Praciically all iIc Sovici cnginccring and railway iroops wcrc gaiIcrcd on iIc wcsicrn froniicrs. Sappcr
uniis and uniis lclonging io iIosc divisions, corps and arnics wIicI wcrc conccniraicd on iIc froniicr iisclf,
as wcll as oiIcr uniis fron oiIcr fornaiions wIicI Iad lcgun io novc up io iIc lordcr, wcrc all opcraiing in
iIc froniicr zonc lcforc iIc war lcgan. TIc Sovici sappcrs wcrc lusy
prcparing iIc dcpariurc posiiions fron wIicI iIc offcnsivc would lcgin; laying down roads for colunns io
novc along; surnouniing and crcciing cnginccrcd dcfcnccs, crcaiing iaciical and siraicgic canouflagc,
cnsuring iIai iIc infaniry and ianls wIicI forncd pari of iIc assauli groups inicracicd propcrly;
proicciing forccd rivcr crossings . . . (SouctsIc Voo)uzIcnnuc Su, Vocnizdai 1978, p. 255i
Lci noi iIc words 'crcciing cnginccrcd dcfcnccs' nislcad iIc rcadcr. Dy iIc iinc iIai iIc dccisivc aiiacl on
iIc FinnisI ManncrIcin Linc lcgan, Sovici sappcrs Iad also luili scvcral scciors consisiing of cnginccrcd
dcfcncc olsiaclcs sinilar io iIc FinnisI oncs. Dcforc going inio laiilc, iIc ncwly arrivcd Sovici iroops wcrc
pui iIrougI iIcsc dcfcnccs, wIicI Iad lccn pui iIcrc for iraining purposcs. Aficr iIai, iIcy wcni ovcr io iIc
rcal aiiacl.
WiiI all duc rcspcci io iIc Ccrnan Arny, ii nusi lc adniiicd iIai ii was caiasiropIically unprcparcd for a
scrious war. TIc inprcssion is givcn iIai iIc Ccrnan Ccncral Siaff sinply did noi lnow iIai winicr occurs
on occasions in Fussia, or iIai iIc roads wcrc soncwIai diffcrcni fron Ccrnan oncs. TIc oil uscd io
lulricaic Ccrnan wcapons congcalcd in iIc inicnsc cold, and conscqucnily iIcy did noi worl. TIc Ccrnan
HtzI)cg was unallc io novc wiiI iIc sanc rapidiiy ovcr Fussian roads as ii Iad ovcr FrcncI oncs. Hiilcr
lncw iIai Ic Iad io nalc war in Fussia; if Ccrnan indusiry was producing arns wIicI wcrc only suiiallc
for usc in Wcsicrn Europc and Africa, wIo can say iIai Ccrnany was rcady for war wiiI iIc USSF?
Hiilcr was lucly, Iowcvcr. ZIulov, Mcrcislov and Dcria Iad olligingly conpcnsaicd for iIc dcfccis in
Ccrnan niliiary planning ly luilding roads and laying down grcai sioclpilcs of rails, collapsillc lridgcs and
luilding naicrials jusi wIcrc iIc cncny could capiurc iIcn. WIai would Iavc Iappcncd io Hiilcr's arny Iad
a powcrful progrannc of sclf-dcfcncc lccn pui inio cffcci, wiiI lridgcs llown up, rolling siocl and rails
cvacuaicd, all siorcs dcsiroycd and iIc roads wrcclcd, floodcd, iurncd inio narsIcs and nincd? TIc Ccrnan
HtzI)cg would Iavc sliddcd io a Iali long lcforc ii rcacIcd Moscow.
Ii was noi, of coursc, for Hiilcr's lcncfii iIai Mcrcislov, ZIulov and Dcria Iad luili roads and railways and
sioclpilcd supplics. Ii was io lci iIc Sovici 'lilcraiion' arny loosc on Europc, wiiI spccd and wiiI noiIing in
iis paiI, and io lccp ii supplicd in iIc coursc of iis surprisc offcnsivc. On iIc cvc of iIc war, no onc in iIc
Fcd Arny was iIinling aloui dcfcnsivc olsiaclcs. Evcryonc Iad Iis nind on ovcrconing sucI olsiaclcs on
cncny icrriiory. TIai is wIy, undcr covcr of a TASS announccncni of 13 Junc 1939, sonc Sovici narsIals
and lcading cpcris on olsiaclc ccu)ng nadc iIcir sccrci appcarancc on iIc wcsicrn froniicr.
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union C. Kulil, wIo Iad sccrcily arrivcd in Dyclorussia, discusscd iIc siiuaiion wiiI
Coloncl Siarinov. 'Lci's Iavc ninc-dcicciors, sappcrs and irawl cquipncni!' Ic dcnandcd (Mnu ZIdut Suocgo
CIusu, p. 179i TIc MarsIal was iIinling aloui Ccrnan icrriiory. All iIc nincs on Sovici icrriiory Iad
alrcady lccn rcndcrcd Iarnlcss, and all iIc olsiaclcs disnanilcd. 'You Iavc noi nancd your lrancI
corrccily,' iIc MarsIal wcni on io icll Iin. 'To lc in accordancc wiiI our docirinc you sIould call ii iIc
lrancI for iIc clcarancc of olsiaclcs and nincs. Oncc wc would Iavc iIougIi oiIcrwisc, and Iarpcd on
dcfcncc, dcfcncc . . . lui cnougI of iIai!' (IId, quoicd ly Siarinovi TIc sanc prollcn worricd Ccncral of iIc
Arny Diniiri CrigorycvicI Pavlov, iIc connandcr of iIc Spccial Wcsicrn Miliiary Disirici. Hc noicd angrily
iIai insufficicni aiicniion was lcing paid io olsiaclc rcnoval. TIc Fcd Arny Iad lcarni fron iis cpcricncc in
iIc FinnisI sccuriiy zonc, and was carcfully prcparing iisclf io surnouni iIc Ccrnan dcfcnccs. If only iIc
Sovici narsIals Iad lnown iIai iIc war would lcgin for iIcn on 21 Junc, and noi as planncd in July, iIcn
no rcsourccs for disnaniling nincs would Iavc lccn nccdcd ai all.
TIc Ccrnan Arny lrolc iis own rulcs and did cacily iIc sanc iIing. Ii rcnovcd iIc nincs, razcd iIc
dcfcnccs io iIc ground and conccniraicd iis iroops dirccily on a froniicr wIicI Iad no dcfcnsivc zonc
wIaicvcr. Ai iIc lcginning of Junc, Ccrnan iroops lcgan io rcnovc iIc larlcd wirc fron iIc froniicr.
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union Kirill SirnionovicI Moslalcnlo considcrcd iIis inconirovcriillc cvidcncc iIai iIcy
would soon lcgin an aggrcssion. (Hu Yugo-Zupudnon Nup)uucnu, Naula 1960, p. 24i
Dui of coursc iIc Fcd Arny did iIc sanc iIing vcry sIorily aficrwards. TIc full flowcr of niliiary
cnginccring iIougIi, including Profcssor Diniiri MilIailovicI KarlysIcv - iIcn a licuicnani-gcncral of
cnginccring iroops canc fron Moscow io ncci on iIc wcsicrn froniicr. As Ic lcfi Moscow ai iIc lcginning
of Junc, Ic iold Iis fricnds iIai iIc war Iad alrcady lcgun and arrangcd io ncci iIcn in iIc 'placc of
viciory.' Oncc Ic Iad arrivcd on iIc wcsicrn froniicr, Ic lccanc fcvcrisIly lusy. Hc aiicndcd ccrciscs in
fording waicr-dcfcncc olsiaclcs, and in surnouniing anii-ianl olsiaclcs wiiI iIc laicsi T-34 ianls, nciiIcr of
wIicI arc nccdcd in dcfcnsivc warfarc. On 21 Junc, Ic wcni ovcr io iIc loiI Arny. Dui 'lcforc iIis,' Iis
liograpIcr iclls us, 'KarlysIcv, acconpanicd ly V. I. Kuzncisov/ officcr connanding iIc 3rd Arny and
Coloncl N. A. Ivanov, connandani of iIc Crodncnsl UF ]UI)cpuonnu Huon - foriificd rcgion| visiicd iIc
froniicr dciacIncni. On iIc Augusiow-Scino road along iIc froniicr, our larlcd-wirc cnianglcncnis wcrc siill
in placc in iIc norning, lui ly iIc iinc iIcy passcd iIcn again on iIcir rciurn journcy, iIc larricrs
appcarcd io Iavc lccn rcnovcd.' (E. FcsIin, Gcnc)u Ku)IusIcu, Izd. DOSAAF 1971, p. 204i
Inicrcsiingly, nciiIcr iIc officcr connanding iIc 3rd Arny, wIo Iad io wagc war iIcrc, nor iIc
connandani of iIc foriificd zonc wIicI in iIcory was inicndcd for dcfcncc, nor iIc nosi scnior cpcri fron
Moscow, wIo lncw iIai iIc war Iad alrcady lcgun, rcacicd in iIc sligIicsi io iIcsc ncasurcs. On iIc
conirary, iIc rcnoval of iIc olsiaclcs coincidcd wiiI iIcir visii.
Can wc inaginc iIc connandcr of a Sovici froniicr sul-unii, an NKVD licuicnani, rcnoving iIc larlcd
wirc on Iis own voliiion? If Ic wcrc io givc sucI an ordcr, would noi Iis sulordinaics rcgard iIc ordcr as
'clcarly crininal'? TIc licuicnani did givc sucI an ordcr, iIougI, and Iis sulordinaics carricd ii oui ai iIc
gallop; cvidcnily an ordcr Iad lccn rcccivcd fron Licuicnani-Ccncral I. A. Dogdanov, iIc Icad of iIc NKVD
froniicr iroops in Dyclorussia. Dogdanov clcarly rcalizcd iIai war was approacIing; on 18 Junc Ic iool iIc
dccision io cvacuaic iIc fanilics of scrviccncn. (Dozo)nuc ZupudnuII HuIczIc, Izd. Polii Liicraiury Ulrainy,
Kicv 1972, p. 101i
Ii is Iardly possillc iIai Dogdanov could Iavc dccidcd io cvacuaic froniicr iroops' fanilics and, ai iIc sanc
iinc, io cui iIc wirc, wiiIoui iIc lnowlcdgc of Lavrcniy PavlovicI Dcria, iIc Pcoplc's Connissar of Inicrnal
Affairs and Ccncral Connissar for Siaic Sccuriiy. Ii is Iardly possillc iIai Dcria could Iavc nadc iIis
dccision ly Iinsclf ciiIcr. Nor did Ic do so. Dcria worlcd in full co-opcraiion wiiI ZIulov. Alovc iIcn,
Sialin nusi Iavc co-ordinaicd iIc aciions of iIc arny and iIc NKVD. TIc niliiary and iIc CIclisis wcrc
aciing in coordinaiion. WIai is norc, iIcy wcrc all in full agrccncni on csscniials, on placcs and on iincs.
Wc arc assurcd iIai iIc Fcd Arny suffcrcd iis firsi dcfcais lccausc ii was unprcparcd for war. TIis is
nonscnsc. If ii Iad noi prcparcd iisclf for war, iIcn iIc larlcd wirc would Iavc lccn lcfi iniaci, if only on iIc
froniicr. TIis would ai lcasi Iavc gaincd a liiilc iinc for iIc arny sul-uniis io lring iIcir wcaponry io
rcadincss, and nay Iavc avcricd iIc fcarful caiasiropIcs iIai followcd.
TIc CIclisis ccriainly did noi rcnovc iIc larlcd wirc on iIc froniicr in ordcr io allow iIc Ccrnan Arny io
ialc advaniagc of iIc gaps iIcy Iad opcncd up. TIc larlcd wirc was ialcn away for oiIcr purposcs. Try io
inaginc a siiuaiion wIcrc, for wIaicvcr rcason, iIc Ccrnan assauli Iad lccn dclaycd. WIai would iIc
CIclisis on iIc froniicr Iavc donc? Would iIcy Iavc clininaicd iIc froniicr larricrs, lcpi iIc froniicr opcn,
and lcgun again io crcci dcfcnsivc olsiaclcs? Ccriainly noi. TIcrc can lc only onc alicrnaiivc io iIis iIcsis.
TIc CIclisis cui iIc wirc in ordcr io allow iIc 'lilcraiion arny' io pass ovcr iIc cncny's icrriiory, wiiIoui
Iindrancc, in cacily iIc sanc way as iIcy Iad donc lcforc iIc 'lilcraiion' of Poland, Finland, Esionia,
Laivia, Dcssaralia and Dulovina. Now Ccrnany's iurn Iad conc.
"(&)*#% 01
WIy Sialin AlolisIcd iIc Sialin Linc
Onu nuuc pcopc Iccuc tIut tIc cIc] tusI o]
]o)t]cd zoncs s dc]cncc. TIs s not so. Fo)t]cd
zoncs u)c Iut so tIut un o]]cnsuc nuu Ic p)cpu)cd
n g)cutc) sccu)tu. TIcu nust uso sccu)cu conccu
tIc dcpouncnt o] g)oupngs o] sIocI t)oops, )cpc
unu cncnu uttcnpt to ds)upt tIc) dcpouncnt,
und suppo)t ou) t)oops utI u possIc ])c pouc)
uIcn tIcu go ouc) to tIc o]]cnsuc.
Major-Ccncral PIOTF CFICOFENKO
(Mcno)s, Ncw Yorl 1981, p. 141i
In iIc 1930s, iIiriccn foriificd rcgions, or UFs, wcrc luili along iIc Sovici Union's wcsicrn froniicr, in a sirip
of icrriiory wIicI was unofficially callcd iIc Sialin Linc.
EacI foriificd rcgion was in faci a niliiary fornaiion cquivalcni io a lrigadc in nuncrical sircngiI, lui
cqual io a corps in firc-powcr. Evcry rcgion was nadc up of a connand and a Icadquaricrs, lciwccn iwo and
cigIi nacIinc-gun and ariillcry laiialions, onc ariillcry rcgincni, scvcral laiicrics of Icavy caponicr ariillcry,
a ianl laiialion, a connunicaiions conpany or laiialion, a sappcr cnginccring laiialion and oiIcr sul-
uniis. EacI rcgion covcrcd an arca of 100-180 liloncircs along iIc froni, io a dcpiI of 30-50 liloncircs. A
conplc sysicn of conlai and supply insiallaiions, arnourcd and luili of rcinforccd concrcic, was
consirucicd in iIc zonc; iIcrc wcrc also undcrground prcniscs, luili of rcinforccd concrcic, io scrvc as
sioragc dcpois, clccirical powcr siaiions, Iospiials, connand poinis and connunicaiions ccnircs. TIc
undcrground insiallaiions wcrc linlcd ly a conplicaicd sysicn of iunncls, gallcrics and ovcrlapping
connunicaiion ircncIcs. EacI UF was capallc of waging warfarc indcpcndcnily and ovcr a long pcriod in
condiiions of conplcic isolaiion.
TIc lasic clcncni of iIc foriificd rcgions was iIc DOT, or pcrnancni firc posiiion. In iis issuc of 25
Fclruary 1983, iIc ncwspapcr Hcd Stu) gavc a dcscripiion of DOT No. 112 in iIc 53rd UF, siiuaicd in iIc
Mogilcv-Podolsl rcgion. TIis was onc of iIc conplcicly siandard DOTs in iIc Sialin Linc.
Ii consisicd of conplc iunncllcd foriificaiion dcfcnccs, wIicI coniaincd connunicaiion ircncIcs,
caponicrs, conparincnis and filiraiion sysicns. Ii also Iad arnourics, annuniiion siorcs, food supplics, a
ncdical unii, a ncss roon, waicr supply (wIicI incidcnially is siill funciioningi, a rccrcaiion and rcading
roon, and olscrvaiion and connand posis. TIc arnancni of iIc DOT consisicd of nacIinc-gun posiiions
wiiI iIrcc firing cnlrasurcs. In iIcsc posis iIcrc wcrc iIrcc 'nains' nounicd on spccial iurrcis and iwo
singlc-gun caponicrs wiiI a ydnrn cannon in cacI onc.
Onc nay ialc iIis DOT io lc an avcragc onc. Dcsidcs iIc DOTs, iIousands of snall conlai siruciurcs
wcrc luili, along wiiI cnornous foriificaiion cnscnllcs. Ccncral P. Crigorcnlo dcscrilcs onc of iIcn in Iis
ncnoirs. Duili in iIc sanc UF in Mogilcv-Podolsl, ii Iad cigIi powcrful DOTs, all inicrlinlcd ly
undcrground gallcrics. Coloncl P. C. Unansly also iool pari in luilding iIc Sialin Linc, and in Iis ncnoirs
Ic ncniions iIc undcrground insiallaiions in iIc Kicv foriificd rcgion, wIcrc iIcy sircicIcd ovcr a disiancc of
nany liloncircs (Coloncl P. C. Unansly, Nu IocuuII nIczIuII, Vocnizdai 1960, p. 35i Coloncl-Ccncral A. I.
SIclunin, anoiIcr pariicipani in iIai nigIiy worl of consiruciion, iclls us iIai in iIc Proslurov UF alonc,
norc iIan onc iIousand rcinforccd concrcic dcfcncc-worls wcrc consirucicd in jusi iIrcc ycars. Many of
iIcsc wcrc conccalcd ly ariificial waicr dcfcnccs (Coloncl-Ccncral A. I. SIclunin, SIo'Io nunp)odcno,
Moscow Vocnizdai 1971, p. 58i
TIc consiruciion of iIc Sialin Linc was noi advcriiscd lilc iIc luilding of iIc Maginoi Linc. TIc Sialin Linc
was crccicd in iIc ioial darlncss of siaic sccrccy. As cvcry sirongpoini was lcing luili, iIc NKVD 'closcd'
sonc paris of ii 'io prcvcni sonc Iorrillc lird flying around iIcrc'. (P. Crigorcnlo, Mcno)s) Consiruciion
worl procccdcd in all scciors ai iIc sanc iinc, lui only in onc of iIc scciors was ii gcnuinc - in iIc oiIcr
cascs ii was sinply a falsc froni. DoiI iIc local inIaliianis and nany of iIosc wIo wcrc involvcd in iIc
luilding ai iIc iinc Iad a nisialcn idca of wIai was lcing luili, and wIcrc.
TIcrc wcrc nany diffcrcnccs lciwccn iIc Sovici Union's Sialin Linc and iIc FrcncI Maginoi Linc. Ii was
inpossillc io pass round iIc circnc cnds of iIc Sialin Linc, as iis flanls rcsicd upon iIc Daliic ai onc cnd
and iIc Dlacl Sca on iIc oiIcr. TIc Sialin Linc was luili noi jusi for dcfcncc againsi infaniry aiiacl, lui
prinarily for dcfcncc againsi cncny ianls. In addiiion, ii Iad powcrful air-dcfcncc covcr. TIc Sialin Linc also
Iad grcaicr dcpiI iIan iIc FrcncI sysicn. Apari fron iIc rcinforccd concrcic wIicI was uscd io luild iIc
Sialin Linc, largc quaniiiics of arnourcd siccl and graniic fron ZaporozI'c and CIcrlassy wcrc cnploycd.
An inporiani diffcrcncc lciwccn iIc iwo lincs was iIai iIc Sialin Linc was luili dccp insidc Sovici icrriiory,
and noi up againsi iIc aciual froniicr; ii was proiccicd ly a sccuriiy zonc wIicI would Iavc slowcd iIc
cncny's advancc and worn Iin down. Ii also would Iavc acicd lilc a fog ai sca wIicI conccals a cIain of
icclcrgs lcIind ii. TIc foriificd zoncs wcrc canouflagcd in sucI a way iIai, wIcn iIc aiiacling iroops canc
up againsi Sialin's foris, iIcy would Iavc rcccivcd an unplcasani surprisc.
Unlilc iIc Maginoi Linc, iIc Sialin Linc was noi a coniinuous wIolc. TIc foriificd rcgions wcrc scparaicd
ly widc gaps. WIcn iIc nccd arosc, iIcsc gaps could Iavc lccn covcrcd wiiI nincficlds, ariificial dcfcnccs of
all linds, and ficld dcfcncc involving ordinary iroops. TIcy could also Iavc lccn lcfi opcn, as if io offcr iIc
aggrcssor iIc cIoicc of noi aiiacling iIc foriificd rcgions Icad on, lui of irying io pass lciwccn iIcn. If iIc
cncny iool iIc opporiuniiy offcrcd, iIcn iIc nass of advancing iroops would lc splii up inio scvcral isolaicd
lincs, cacI onc of wIicI would iIcn Iavc io novc forward along a corridor wIicI was undcr firc on loiI
sidcs, wIilc iis flanls, rcar, and lincs of connunicaiion would lc undcr consiani and vcry scrious iIrcai.
Wc sIall scc laicr iIai iIc corridors wIicI scparaicd iIcsc foriificd rcgions Iad yci anoiIcr, aliogciIcr
diffcrcni purposc.
TIc 13 foriificd rcgions of iIc Sialin Linc wcrc luili ly cnornous cffori and ai vasi cpcnsc during iIc firsi
iwo fivc-ycar plans. In 1938, ii was dccidcd io rcinforcc all iIiriccn foriificd rcgions ly luilding Icavy ariillcry
caponicrs in iIcn. In addiiion, iIc consiruciion of cigIi norc foriificd rcgions lcgan. Morc iIan onc
iIousand conlai insiallaiions wcrc concrcicd inio iIc ncw foriificd rcgions in iIc pcriod of onc ycar.
Ai iIai vcry noncni, Iowcvcr, iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci was signcd. TIc Paci narlcd iIc lcginning of
World War II. Ii also ncani iIai iIcrc was no longcr a dividing larricr lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany
- iIcy now sIarcd a connon froniicr.
Sialin could Iavc donc a grcai dcal in iIis vcry ncnacing siiuaiion io inprovc iIc sccuriiy of iIc Sovici
Union's wcsicrn froniicrs and io guaranicc Sovici ncuiraliiy in iIc coursc of a war. Hc could, for insiancc,
Iavc ordcrcd iIai iIc garrisons on iIc Sialin Linc lc sircngiIcncd; iIai iIc faciorics producing arnancnis
for iIc foriificd rcgions sIould sicp up iIcir ouipui; iIai planis wIicI wcrc producing dcfcnsivc wcapons
sIould givc prioriiy io anii-ianl guns and anii-ianl riflcs; iIai iIc cniirc consiruciion cnginccring capaliliiy
of iIc couniry, and iis cniirc rcsourccs, lc nolilizcd so iIai iIc consiruciion of iIc Sialin Linc lc accclcraicd
apprccially; iIai a siari lc nadc on luilding a sccond, cvcn sirongcr dcfcnsivc sysicn in froni of iIc Sialin
Linc; iIai in addiiion io iIcsc iwo powcrful dcfcnsivc sysicns, a iIird lcli of foriificd zoncs lc luili lcIind
iIc Sialin Linc, for canplc along iIc casicrn lanl of iIc Dnicpcr; and finally iIai iIc iroops of iIc Fcd Arny
dig iIousands of liloncircs of ircncIcs, anii-ianl diicIcs, piis and connunicaiion ircncIcs fron iIc Daliic
io iIc Dlacl Sca.
In Auiunn 1939, Iowcvcr, wIcn World War II lcgan and a connon froniicr wiiI Ccrnany was csiallisIcd,
all consiruciion worl on iIc Sialin Linc was sioppcd. (V. Anfilov. Hcssnc)tnu Podug, Moscow Naula 1971, p.
35i TIc garrisons in iIc foriificd rcgions of iIc Sialin Linc wcrc firsi rcduccd in sizc and iIcn dislandcd
conplcicly. Sovici faciorics sioppcd producing arnancni and spccial cquipncni dcsiincd for foriificaiion
insiallaiions. TIc cisiing foriificd rcgions wcrc disnanilcd, and iIcir arnancni, annuniiion and all
olscrvaiion, connunicaiions and firc-conirol cquipncni wcrc pui inio sioragc. (VIZH 1961 No. 9, p. 120i TIc
proccss of clininaiing iIc Sialin Linc gaiIcrcd spccd. Sonc of iIc niliiary luildings wcrc Iandcd ovcr io
collcciivc farns io lc uscd for sioring vcgciallcs; lui nosi of iIc niliiary insiallaiions wcrc covcrcd wiiI
cariI.
Apari fron arnancnis for iIc foriificd rcgions, Sovici indusiry ccascd producing nany oiIcr dcfcnsivc
sysicns as wcll. Produciion of anii-ianl guns and 76nn rcgincni and division guns, wIicI could also Iavc
lccn uscd as anii-ianl guns, was conplcicly sioppcd. (VIZH 1961 No. 7, p. 101; VIZH1963 No. 2, p. 12i TIc
anii-ianl guns wIicI Iad alrcady lccn issucd io iIc iroops wcrc noi uscd for iIc purposc for wIicI iIcy Iad
lccn inicndcd, lui for lnocling oui cncny firing posiiions wIcn Sovici iroops wcrc on iIc aiiacl. (Licu-
icnani-Ccncral I. P. Foslyi. Poscdnu P)uu u Hc)nc, Moscow Vocnizdai 1983, p. 27i Anii-ianl riflcs wcrc noi
only ialcn oui of produciion; iIcy cvcn ccascd io lc pari of iIc Fcd Arny's arnancni. (VIZH 1961, No. 7, p.
101i EvcryiIing connccicd wiiI dcfcncc was ncrcilcssly dcsiroycd and olliicraicd.
In fairncss, Iowcvcr, ii nusi lc said iIai in iIc sunncr of 1940, consiruciion lcgan of a lcli of foriificd
rcgions dirccily on iIc ncw Sovici-Ccrnan froniicr. Ii was ncvcr conplcicd. TIc Sovici Ccncral Siaff, noi
wiiIoui a ccriain dcgrcc of irony, gavc iIcsc ncw foriificd rcgions iIc unofficial iiilc of iIc Moloiov Linc. TIc
dccision io cnlarl upon iis consiruciion was ialcn on 26 Junc 1940. (V. Anfilov, op. ct., p. 162i
Consiruciion procccdcd vcry slowly on iIc ncw froniicr, aliIougI iIc dcsiruciion of iIc old dcfcnccs wcni
aIcad wiiI surprising spccd.
TIc iragcdy of iIc Sialin Linc rcacIcd iis apoiIcosis in iIc spring of 1941.
I do noi lnow Iow fuiurc Iisiorians will cplain iIis crinc againsi our pcoplc. Prcscni-day Iisiorians pass
ovcr iIis cvcni in conplcic silcncc, and I do noi lnow wIy. TIc Sovici govcrnncni flccccd iis pcoplc of
nany lillions of roullcs (no lcss iIan 120 lillion, according io ny calculaiionsi in ordcr io luild
foriificaiions, inprcgnallc io any cncny, along iIc cniirc wcsicrn froniicr, fron sca io sca, fron iIc grcy
Daliic io iIc azurc Dlacl Sca. Yci jusi lcforc war lrolc oui, in spring 1941, powcrful cplosions iIundcrcd
along iIc 1,200-liloncirc-long sircicI of foriificaiions. Sirong doullc and singlc caponicrs luili of
rcinforccd concrcic, firing posiiions wiiI onc, iwo and iIrcc cnlrasurcs, connand posis, olscrvaiion
posis, and icns of iIousands of pcrnancni dcfcnsivc insiallaiions wcrc all llown up on Sialin's pcrsonal
ordcrs. (Major-Ccncral P. C. Crigorcnlo, VPodpo'cMozIno Vst)ctt' To'Io K)us, Ncw Yorl 1981, p. 141i
TIus, iIc Sialin Linc on iIc old froniicr Iad alrcady lccn olliicraicd, wIilc iIc Moloiov Linc on iIc ncw
froniicr Iad siill io lc luili. Aficr iIc war, and aficr Sialin dicd, Sovici gcncrals and narsIals cIoruscd iIcir
indignaiion. CIicf MarsIal of Ariillcry N. N. Voronov Iad iIis io say. 'How could our lcadcrsIip, Iaving failcd
io luild iIc ncccssary dcfcnsivc zoncs on iIc ncw wcsicrn froniicr in 1939, ialc iIc dccision io alolisI and
disarn iIc foriificd rcgions on iIc forncr lordcrs?' (Nu suzIIc Vocnno, Moscow Vocnizdai 1963, p. 172i
TIc MarsIal's indignaiion is falsc, Iowcvcr. Hc scolds 'our lcadcrsIip', lui Ic Iinsclf was Coloncl-Ccncral
of Ariillcry, onc of iIc nosi scnior posis in iIc Fcd Arny connand, ai iIc iinc. Can ii rcally lc iIai iIc anii-
ianl and caponicr guns wcrc wiiIdrawn fron produciion wiiIoui Iis lnowlcdgc? Did Ic rcally noi lnow iIai
iIc Ariillcry caponicrs in iIc Sialin Linc wcrc lcing sirippcd of arnancni and olliicraicd? Voronov
dclilcraicly asls iIc wrong qucsiion in ordcr io disiraci iIc rcadcr's aiicniion fron iIc csscncc of iIc
prollcn. Hc sccns io iIinl iIai iIc Moloiov Linc sIould Iavc lccn luili firsi, and iIcn iIc Sialin Linc
lrolcn up aficrwards. In puiiing iIc qucsiion iIis way, Voronov iaciily jusiifics iIc dcsiruciion of iIc Sialin
Linc; Iis criiicisn is noi iIai ii was donc ai all, lui only iIai ii was donc prcnaiurcly.
Dui wIy noi asl anoiIcr qucsiion - wIy lrcal up iIc Sialin Linc ai all? TIc cvcnis of 1940 Iad confirncd
iwicc ovcr iIai iwo dcfcnsivc sirips arc lciicr iIan onc. In 1940 iIc Fcd Arny paid a IigI pricc in llood io
lrcal iIrougI iIc ManncrIcin Linc, conpclling Finland io conccdc io Sialin's dcnands. Laicr iIai ycar, iIc
Ccrnan Arny passcd round iIc sidc of iIc FrcncI Maginoi Linc, lrolc oui on io a lroad cpansc of icrriiory
wIcrc ii could opcraic wiiIoui rcsiriciion, and iIai was iIc cnd of iIc war for Francc. Ii is unforiunaic iIai
nciiIcr Francc nor Finland Iad a sccond linc, dccp in iIcir Icarilands; in iIai casc ii is unlilcly iIai ciiIcr
invasion would Iavc succccdcd.
Sialin Iad jusi sucI a sccond linc and iIcn assiduously lrolc ii up. Ovcr iIc ycars, Sovici apologisis
Iavc dcviscd a grcai nunlcr of cplanaiions for iIis apparcni aci of folly. Onc of iIcsc is iIai iIcrc was
insufficicni arnancni io cquip iIc ncw foriificd rcgions, so iIai cquipncni Iad io lc ialcn fron iIc Sialin
Linc. TIis arguncni fails on scvcral counis, Iowcvcr. Firsily, if iIc Moloiov Linc was sIori of arnancni, wIy
wcrc iIc ordnancc planis noi ordcrcd io sicp up produciion? Noi only was no sucI ordcr givcn, lui iIc
produciion of siandard arnancnis was aciually sioppcd.
Sccondly, iIc dcnoliiion of iIc Sialin Linc lcgan in iIc auiunn of 1939. TIc arns rcnovcd fron ii wcrc
pui inio sioragc, lccausc iIc Moloiov Linc did noi iIcn cisi. Indccd, iIc dccision io crcci ii was noi ialcn
uniil 26 Junc 1940. So ii iurns oui iIai firsi of all iIc Sialin Linc was dcniliiarizcd, wIilc laicr, ncarly a ycar
laicr, iIc rcason, iIc nccd and iIc rcquircncni io do so arosc.
TIirdly, iIc Moloiov Linc, in conparison io iIc Sialin Linc, was a conparaiivcly wcal scrics of ligIi
foriificaiions, and did noi nccd sucI a largc quaniiiy of arnancni. In iIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici of
Dyclorussia, for insiancc, 193 conlai insiallaiions wcrc luili on iIc ncw froniicr, wIilc lcforc iIai on iIc old
froniicr, 876 norc powcrful conlai insiallaiions Iad lccn disarncd. TIc raiio of ncwly luili insiallaiions io
iIosc wIicI Iad lccn prcviously disarncd was siill norc siriling in oiIcr niliiary disiricis. In ordcr io Iavc
arncd iIc Moloiov Linc, iIcrcforc, ii would Iavc lccn sufficicni io ialc only pu)t of iIc arnancni, and a
ninor pari of iIai, fron iIc Sialin Linc. WIy iIcn was iIc arnancni rcnovcd in iis cniirciy fron iIc Sialin
Linc?
Cascncni wcaponry, nacIinc guns, annuniiion, pcriscopcs, connunicaiions cquipncni and gas filicrs
arc poriallc; rcinforccd concrcic insiallaiions arc noi. Evcn iIc snallcsi DOT, wiiI a nacIinc gun and onc
cnlrasurc, is a rcinforccd concrcic nonoliiI wcigIing 350 ions, dug inio iIc cariI wiiI llocls of graniic
pilcd on iop of ii and covcrcd ovcr wiiI cariI, wIicI cvcn Iad irccs growing on ii io afford cira dcfcncc and
canouflagc. Ii was surroundcd ly diicIcs and ariificial ponds. Could all iIis Iavc lccn draggcd 200
liloncircs wcsiwards?
Evcn if wc acccpi iIai iIc Sialin Linc Iad io lc sirippcd of iis arnancni io cquip iIc ncw froniicr, wIy
llow up iis insiallaiions? TIc ordinary fooi soldicr, arncd wiiI Iis riflc and sIovcl, can dig a ircncI io nalc
ii difficuli and sonciincs inpossillc for iIc cncny io cross iIc Linc. If you pui iIc sanc soldicr, arncd wiiI
Iis riflc or cvcn a ligIi nacIinc gun, noi inio a nud-Iolc in iIc niddlc of a ficld, lui inio cvcn iIc nosi
sinplc disnanilcd DOT, iIcn Iis icnaciiy and firnncss will incrcasc icnfold. Hc will Iavc ai lcasi onc ncirc of
rcinforccd fcrroconcrcic ovcr Iis Icad, a ncirc and a Ialf of ii in froni of Iin and a ncirc on cacI sidc, all
carcfully canouflagcd fron iIc cnquiring gazc of iIc cncny. If 170 firsi-ccIclon Sovici divisions wcrc pui inio
iIcsc allcii disnanilcd locs, ii would Iavc lccn no sinplc naiicr io lrcal iIrougI iIcir dcfcnccs.
Dcfcnding iroops always nccd sonciIing io Iold on io. iIc disnanilcd foris ai Vcrdun; iIc lasiions ai Drcsi-
Liiovsl; iIc walls ai Sialingrad; or iIc ircncIcs in iIc Kursl salicni, wIicI Iad lccn alandoncd iwo ycars
prcviously. Oncc iIcy Iavc sucI a fooiIold, iIc infaniry will dig in in sucI a way iIai noiIing will snolc
iIcn oui of iIcir lairs and lurrows. TIcy will iurn iIc ruins of a faciory, a ninciccniI-ccniury lasiion or a
iIiriccniI-ccniury ciiadcl inio an unassailallc forircss.
Evcn wIcn conplcicly disnanilcd, iIc Sialin Linc could Iavc providcd a linc of dcfcncc on wIicI iIc Fcd
Arny could Iavc sioppcd iIc cncny fron rcacIing iIc Icari of iIc couniry. TIcn iIc disnanilcd DOTs, iIc
undcrground connand posis, iIc cccllcni Iospiials, iIc concrcic-proiccicd siorc dcpois, io say noiIing of
iIc undcrground gallcrics and iunncls, lincs of connunicaiion and conirol lincs, clccirical powcr siaiions
and waicr-supply sysicns, could all Iavc conc in uscful. Dui aficr dcsiroying-iIc Sialin Linc, iIc Firsi
Siraicgic EcIclon of iIc Fcd Arny was novcd io iIc oiIcr sidc of iIc prc-war froniicr. Undcr covcr of iIc
TASS rcpori of 13 Junc 1941, iroops lclonging io iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon wcrc iransfcrrcd, in ioial
sccrccy, in scvcn arnics io iIc wcsicrn arcas of iIc Sovici Union. TIcsc arnics ioo wcrc scni lcyond iIc old
froniicr, and lcyond iIc now disnanilcd, alandoncd and olliicraicd Sialin Linc.
Evcry soldicr lnows iIai dcfcncc nusi lc consianily inprovcd; ii is onc of iIc nosi lasic rcquircncnis laid
down ly niliiary icilools. No naiicr Iow sirong iIc dcfcnccs nigIi appcar, cvcry soldicr will go on doggcdly
digging up iIc ground, naling iIc anii-ianl diicIcs widcr and dccpcr, adding a sccond, iIird, fouriI, and
fifiI ircncI io iIc firsi onc. TIcrc is no sucI iIing as an 'adcquaic' siaic of dcfcncc; if icn anii-ianl diicIcs
Iavc lccn dug, iIcn dig an clcvcniI.
Soldicrs of cvcry arny Iavc lnown iIis sinplc iruiI for nany iIousands of ycars now. TIai is wIy ncw
dcfcnccs arc luili io sircngiIcn and rcinforcc cisiing dcfcnccs, noi io rcplacc iIcn. A siudy of any casilc will
sIow iIai no dcfcncc is cvcr olsolcic. An clcvcniI-ccniury iowcr will lc surroundcd ly iIiriccniI-ccniury
walls. Around iIcn is a ring of scvcniccniI-ccniury lasiions, wIicI in iIcir iurn arc ringcd ly ninciccniI-
ccniury foris, rcinforccd ly iwcniiciI-ccniury DOTs. According io iIis lasic and univcrsally acccpicd niliiary
principlc, iIc Moloiov Linc could Iavc scrvcd as a conplcncni io iIc Sialin Linc, lui ncvcr as a rcplaccncni
for ii.
TIc Moloiov Linc, Iowcvcr, was crcaicd nciiIcr as an addiiion io iIc Sialin Linc nor as a rcplaccncni for ii,
and diffcrcd sIarply fron iis prcdcccssor loiI in conccpi and in dciail. Unlilc iIc Sialin Linc, ii was luili in
sucI a way iIai ii could lc sccn ly iIc cncny. Ii was sci up in sccond-gradc niliiary scciors, and was noi
sIicldcd ly a sccuriiy zonc, ly nincficlds or oiIcr cnginccrcd dcfcnccs. TIc luildcrs of iIc Moloiov Linc did
noi nalc usc of iIc nany opporiuniiics availallc io rcinforcc ii, nor wcrc iIcy in any Iurry io luild ii.
TIc consiruciion of iIc Moloiov Linc is jusi as nucI an cnigna in Sovici Iisiory as is iIc dcsiruciion of iIc
Sialin Linc. Sirangc iIings Iappcncd wIcn iIc ncw foriificd zoncs wcrc lcing luili. In 1941, vasi nasscs of
Sovici iroops wcrc conccniraicd in iIc Lvov salicni in iIc Ulrainc; a snallcr forcc was conccniraicd in iIc
Dialysiol salicni in Dyclorussia. Sovici narsIals cplain iIai iIcy wcrc cpcciing iIc nain aiiacl io lc nadc
in iIc Ulrainc, and a sulsidiary onc io lc launcIcd in Dyclorussia. TIc nain cffori nadc in luilding iIc
Moloiov Linc sIould iIcrcforc Iavc lccn conccniraicd in iIc Ulrainc, wiiI a sccondary drivc in Dyclorussia.
Dui ii Iad lccn planncd io cpcnd Ialf of all iIc rcsourccs alloiicd io iIc consiruciion of iIc Moloiov Linc in
iIc Daliic arca, a sccond-gradc niliiary sccior wcll away fron iIc cpccicd aiiacl. A quaricr of iIc rcsourccs
wcrc allocaicd for Dyclorussia, wiiI only ninc pcr ccni going io iIc Ulrainc, wIcrc according io iIc
assuranccs of iIc Sovici narsIals 'iIc nain aiiacl was cpccicd.' (Anfilov, op. tt., p. 164i
TIc foriificaiions in iIc Moloiov Linc wcrc luili in sccond-gradc niliiary scciors. For canplc, si road and
railway lridgcs across iIc rivcr wIicI forncd iIc froniicr in iIc rcgion of Drcsi-Liiovsl wcrc scvcrcd
inncdiaicly. TIc nain siraicgic iIrusi of a war would follow a linc running fron Warsaw iIrougI Drcsi-
Liiovsl, Minsl, Snolcnsl and on io Moscow. TIcsc Drcsi-Liiovsl lridgcs wcrc iIcrcforc of iIc IigIcsi
siraicgic inporiancc. A ncw foriificd zonc Iud lccn crccicd ncar Drcsi-Liiovsl; lui ii was far oui of iIc way of
iIc crucial lridgcs.
TIc foriificd rcgions of iIc Moloiov Linc wcrc luili rigIi up againsi iIc froniicr. TIcy wcrc noi proiccicd ly
a sccuriiy zonc, and in iIc cvcni of a surprisc aiiacl iIc garrisons would no longcr Iavc iinc io occupy iIcir
conlai insiallaiions and lring iIcir wcaponry io full rcadincss. Unlilc iIosc along iIc Sialin Linc, iIc
foriificd rcgions of iIc Moloiov Linc wcrc noi vcry dccp. EvcryiIing wIicI could Iavc lccn luili on iIc
froniicr iisclf, was in faci luili iIcrc. Dcfcncc posiiions wcrc noi luili in iIc rcar, nor was ii cvcr planncd io
luild any. (Licuicnani-Ccncral V. F. Zoiov, Nu Scuc)o-Zupudnon F)ontc, Moscow Naula 1969, p. 175i
TIc foriificaiions wcrc noi siicd on posiiions wIicI would favour dcfcncc, lui followcd cvcry lcnd and iwisi
of iIc siaic froniicr. TIc ncw conlai insiallaiions wcrc noi proiccicd ly larlcd wirc, nincs, diicIcs, sialcs,
IcdgcIog cnianglcncnis or anii-ianl iciraIcdrons, nor wcrc any cnginccrcd dcfcnccs crccicd in iIc arca of
consiruciion. NciiIcr wcrc iIc ncw insiallaiions canouflagcd. For canplc, in iIc foriificd rcgion of Vladinir-
Volynsl, 'oui of 97 conlai insiallaiions, 5-7 wcrc covcrcd wiiI cariI, wIilc iIc rcnaindcr wcrc viriually dc-
canouflagcd'. (VIZH l9?b, No. 5, p. 91i
If iIc rcadcr wcrc io cross iIc Sovici froniicr in iIc rcgion of Drcsi-Liiovsl, lci Iin iurn Iis aiicniion io iIc
grcy concrcic locs wIicI siand alnosi on iIc lanl iisclf. TIcsc arc DOTs wIicI lclongcd io iIc souiIcrn
iip of iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl foriificd rcgion. TIcy wcrc noi covcrcd ovcr wiiI cariI ai iIc iinc, and so rcnain
cposcd io iIis day. TIc DOTs on iIc Sialin Linc wcrc luili in sccrci, far fron iIc froniicr, so iIai iIc cncny
could noi lnow wIcrc iIc foriificaiions wcrc, wIcrc iIc gaps lciwccn iIcn lay, or indccd wIciIcr iIcrc wcrc
any sucI gaps ai all. Now iIc cncny could scc iIc cniirc consiruciion fron Iis sidc, and lcarn cacily wIcrc
iIc foriificaiions wcrc. Hc could nalc oui cacI scparaic insiallaiion wiiI sucI accuracy iIai Ic could cvcn
csiallisI wIai iIc linc of firc would lc fron cacI cnlrasurc. On iIc lasis of iIis Ic could dcicrninc iIc
cniirc firc plan and, cIoosing iIosc sirips of land wIicI wcrc noi covcrcd ly firc, infiliraic Iinsclf iowards iIc
uncanouflagcd DOTs and llocl iIc cnlrasurcs wiiI sandlags; wIicI is cacily wIai iIc Ccrnans did on 22
Junc 1941.
MarsIal ZIulov icsiificd iIai
iIc foriificd zoncs wcrc luili ioo closc io iIc froniicr and Iad an circncly unfavourallc opcraiional
configuraiion, cspccially in iIc arca of iIc Dialysiol salicni. TIis cnallcd iIc cncny io aiiacl iIc rcar of
our cniirc Dialysiol grouping fron iIc arca of Drcsi-Liiovsl and Suwalli. In addiiion, lccausc iIcy laclcd
sufficicni dcpiI, iIc foriificd zoncs wcrc unallc io Iold oui for long, sincc iIcy wcrc sIoi iIrougI ly
ariillcry. (Vosponnunuu HuznusIcnuu, APH 1969, p. 194i
Sincc iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl and Suwalli arcas wcrc so vulncrallc io cncny aiiacl, wIy was usc noi nadc of
iIc old, alandoncd Fussian lordcr forircsscs of Drcsi-Liiovsl, Osovcis, Crodno PcrcnysIl' or Kaunas? Nonc
of iIcsc forircsscs is in any way infcrior in sircngiI io Vcrdun, and cacI could Iavc lccn iurncd inio an
inprcgnallc lasiion, iIcrcly raising iIc sialiliiy of iIc wIolc dcfcncc sysicn. In addiiion io iIcsc forircsscs,
iIc rcgions posscsscd sonc old and lcss powcrful foriificaiions, sucI as doullc caponicrs, cacI onc inicndcd
for a riflc conpany. TIc walls and ccilings wcrc of rcinforccd concrcic iIrcc ncircs iIicl. Coloncl Siarinov
rccallcd iIai iIc Icad of iIc CVIU (iIc CIicf Miliiary Enginccring Doard of iIc Fcd Arnyi 'proposcd iIai usc
lc nadc of iIc old Tsarisi forircsscs ncar iIc froniicr and sci up zoncs of cnginccrcd olsiaclcs. TIis proposal
was ncvcr acccpicd. Ii was said iIai ii would Iavc scrvcd no purposc.' (Mnu ZIdut Suocgo CIusu, Moscow
Vocnizdai 19, p. 177i
In Fclruary 1941, Ccorgi KonsianiinovicI ZIulov lccanc CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff of iIc Fcd Arny. No
oiIcr narsIal or gcncral iIis ccniury Ias occupicd sucI a scnior posi wiiIoui Iaving suffcrcd cvcn onc
niliiary dcfcai. TIus ZIulov, wIosc grcaincss Iad alrcady lccn provcd ly Iis ligIining roui of iIc Japancsc
6iI Arny, Icld viriually suprcnc niliiary auiIoriiy, and nigIi Iavc lccn cpccicd io lring ordcr io iIc
Moloiov Linc. ZIulov's arrival, Iowcvcr, did noiIing io inprovc iIc siiuaiion. On iIc conirary, consiruciion
worl in iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl rcgion was givcn a lowcr prioriiy. (Anfilov, op. tt, p. 166i TIc ncaning of iIc words
'lowcr prioriiy consiruciion' nccd noi lc cplaincd io iIc rcadcr wIo is acquainicd wiiI Soviciy rcaliiy. In
praciicc, ii ncans iIai consiruciion is alnosi conplcicly frozcn. Dui cvcn iIis coin Ias anoiIcr sidc io ii.
Capiurcd docuncnis of iIc Ccrnan 48iI Moiorizcd Corps sIow iIai iIc Ccrnan HigI Connand Iad forncd
an aliogciIcr diffcrcni inprcssion. TIc Ccrnan iroops saw inicnsivc consiruciion worl going on day and
nigIi; wIai was norc, ai nigIi iIc worl iool placc undcr floodligIis.
WIai is onc io nalc of iIis? Wcrc iIc Sovicis rcally sucI idiois as io lciray iIcir consiruciion siics on iIc
froniicr ly floodligIiing iIcn cvcry nigIi? How can onc rcconcilc 'lowcr prioriiy consiruciion' wiiI iIis
frcnciic lursi of floodlii luilding? Onc is drawn io iIc incviiallc conclusion iIai iIc Moloiov Linc was luili,
as MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union I. KI. Dagranyan pui ii, as a 'dclilcraic display'. In Iis ncnoirs, Coloncl-
Ccncral Sandalov rccords a convcrsaiion wiiI MilIail IvanovicI Puzyrcv, iIc connandani of iIc Drcsi-
Liiovsl foriificd zonc. 'I lrougIi iIc foriificd zonc rigIi up io iIc froniicr iisclf,' Puzyrcv iold Iin. 'Ii was vcry
unusual. Dcforc, wc Iad always luili iIc DOTs a ccriain disiancc fron iIc froniicr. Dui iIcrc was noiIing io
lc donc aloui ii Icrc. Wc Iad io lc guidcd ly poliiical, and noi only ly niliiary considcraiions.' (Pc)czItoc,
Moscow Vocnizdai 1966, p. 64i
TIis prcscnis us wiiI anoiIcr cnigna. TIc Sovici iroops wcrc conccalcd in iIc woods, forliddcn io sIow
iIcnsclvcs 'so as noi io provolc a war'. Dui ai iIc sanc iinc, as a rcsuli of poliiical considcraiions unlnown
io us, iIcy wcrc inporiunaicly displaying io iIc cncny iIcir inicnsivc prcparaiions for dcfcncc, wiiIoui fcar
of provoling any diplonaiic or niliiary conplicaiions.
How can onc rcconcilc all iIcsc confliciing facis? As usual, iIc apparcni inconsisicncy of Sovici niliiary
planning is pui down io sIccr siupidiiy. I sIould Iavc acccpicd iIis cplanaiion lui for onc snag. TIc Sialin
Linc and iIc Moloiov Linc wcrc iIc worl of iIc sanc nan, Profcssor D. KarlysIcv, licuicnani-gcncral of iIc
cnginccring iroops. On iIc Sialin Linc Ic did cvcryiIing rigIi, wcll up io iIc lcvcl of world siandards and
IigIcr. Hc providcd for cvcryiIing. iIc carcful canouflaging of cvcry DOT, iIc grcai dcpiI of cvcry foriificd
rcgion, iIc cnginccrcd dcfcnccs, iIc sccuriiy zonc and nucI clsc.
Dui iIcn iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci was signcd and onc of iIc world's nosi lrilliani niliiary cnginccrs
suddcnly lccanc siupid, and cvcryiIing Ic did Iad lccn wrong. Alovc KarlysIcv siood iIc grcai ZIulov.
EvcryiIing Ic did was rigIi, loiI carlicr and laicr. Dui suddcnly, in iIc firsi Ialf of 1941, ZIulov cIangcd
inio an idioi and Iad lcgun io issuc idioiic ordcrs. Ii was jusi ai iIc iinc of ZIulov's arrival ai iIc Ccncral
Siaff iIai 'iIc foriificd zoncs on iIc old froniicrs wcrc disarncd io iIcir prcvious siaic, wIilc consiruciion on
iIc ncw froniicrs wcni aIcad ai a snail's pacc'. (Siarinov, op. tt., p. 178i
TIc siory aloui siupid Sialin, siupid ZIulov and iIc idioi KarlysIcv will noi Iold waicr, for iIc rcason
iIai ai iIai vcry sanc iinc Adolf Hiilcr and iIc Ccrnan gcncrals wcrc doing cacily iIc sanc iIing. TIcy
iool cacily iIc sanc dccisions, lui no onc considcrcd wIai iIcy did io lc idioiic.
Dciwccn 1932 and 1937, pariicularly sirong foriificaiions Iad lccn luili on iIc lanls of iIc Odcr io
proicci Ccrnany fron aiiacls fron iIc casi. TIcy wcrc firsi-class conlai insiallaiions wIicI llcndcd inio iIc
surrounding icrrain and wcrc vcry wcll canouflagcd, and ranl anong iIc IigIcsi acIicvcncnis of niliiary
cnginccring in iIc firsi Ialf of our ccniury.
Oncc iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci was signcd, iIc Ccrnan arny novcd casi and iIcsc splcndid
foriificaiions wcrc alandoncd, ncuc) ugun io lc occupicd ly iroops. Many conlai insiallaiions wcrc uscd io
saiisfy oiIcr nccds. In iIc HocIwald rcgion, for canplc, iIcrc was a powcrful foriificaiion conplc
coniaining 22 four-siorcy conlai insiallaiions, connccicd ly a 30-liloncirc undcrground iunncl. All iIis was
Iandcd ovcr io iIc aircrafi indusiry io Iousc a plani wIicI produccd aircrafi cngincs. Having novcd oui io
ncci iIc Fcd Arny in iIc niddlc of Poland, iIc Ccrnan iroops lcgan io luild a ncw linc of foriificd rcgions.
TIcy wcrc luili in sccondary scciors, rigIi up againsi iIc Sovici froniicr. NciiIcr nincficlds nor cnginccrcd
dcfcnccs wcrc pui down in froni of iIc ncw foriificd rcgions.
Worl wcni on day and nigIi. TIc Sovici froniicr guards saw wIai was going on, and rcporicd ii 'io iIc propcr
quaricrs'. (Pog)uncInuc VosIu SSSH l939 uun' l94l, SIo)nI doIu-ncntou nutc)uou, Moscow Naula
1970, Docuncni Nos. 344 and 287i Consiruciion worl wcni aIcad inicnsivcly uniil May 1941, aficr wIicI,
as Sovici jargon would Iavc ii, iIc dcfcnccs wcrc 'rcgradcd io iIc caicgory of non-firsi prioriiy'. Of 80 conlai
insiallaiions planncd io lc luili on iIc lanls of iIc froniicr rivcr San, only 17 wcrc conplcicd. All of iIcsc
wcrc inadcquaicly canouflagcd. In conparison wiiI iIc dcfcnccs on iIc old Ccrnan froniicr, iIcsc wcrc ligIi
insiallaiions. TIc walls and ccilings wcrc cacI 1 ncircs iIicl, and iIc arnourcd conponcni paris 200nn.
cacI. On iIc old froniicr on iIc Odcr linc, iIc arnourcd conponcni paris Iad lccn nucI sirongcr, wiiI
iIiclncsscs up io 350nn.
Eacily iIc sanc iIing was lcing donc on iIc Sovici sidc. On iIc Sialin Linc iIcrc wcrc sirong arnourcd
cupolas and vcry Icavy arnourcd paris; in iIc luilding of iIc Moloiov Linc on iIc lanls of iIc sanc rivcr
San, Sovici cnginccrs uscd conparaiivcly iIin arnourcd paris of a iIiclncss of up io 200nn. WIcn I was a
Sovici officcr, onc frcqucnily saw Ccrnan and Sovici DOTs on opposiic sidcs of iIc sanc snall rivcr. If
pIoiograpIs of iIc DOTs wcrc sIown io an cpcri, and Ic wcrc aslcd io say wIcrc iIc Ccrnan and Sovici
DOTs wcrc, Ic would noi lc allc io icll iIc diffcrcncc.
WIy did iIc Ccrnan connandcrs fail io crcci as nany sirong foriificaiions on iIcir ncw froniicrs as iIcy
Iad donc on iIcir prcvious lordcr? Dccausc iIcy Iad no inicniion of dcfcnding iIcnsclvcs for a long pcriod
in iIai placc.
A dcfcnsivc foriificaiion is onc iIing and an offcnsivc foriificaiion is anoiIcr. Dcforc launcIing an aiiacl
cvcry gcncral nusi aci in accordancc wiiI onc of iIc nain principlcs of siraicgy and conccniraic grcai
nasscs of iroops in vcry narrow scciors; iIus iIc Ccrnan iroops wcrc conccniraicd in iwo salicnis in iIc
Suwalli and Lyullin arcas, wIilc Sovici iroops wcrc conccniraicd in iwo salicnis in iIc arcas of Lvov and
Dialysiol. In ordcr io asscnllc iIcsc sIocl groupings in iIc nain scciors, iIc sccondary scciors would Iavc
io lc dcnudcd of iIcir rcsourccs, cvcn if ncrvc wcrc nccdcd io do iIis. TIcsc scciors sIould Iavc prcviously
consirucicd foriificd zoncs, so iIai iIcy sIould noi lc lcfi conplcicly cposcd. TIc firc-powcr and conlai
insiallaiions in iIcsc zoncs would cnallc figIiing iroops iIcrc io lc rclcascd for laiilc.
An offcnsivc foriificd zonc sIould lc placcd io onc sidc of iIc nain ais; your iroops will advancc ovcr iIc
froniicr lridgcs. Foriificaiions arc noi nccdcd Icrc. Dui, on iIc sidc wIcrc iIcrc arc no lridgcs, your iroops
nusi lc wiiIdrawn and you nusi crcci a foriificd zonc in iIcir sicad. TIis will allow a conparaiivcly snall
garrison io conirol fairly widc cpanscs of icrriiory. Offcnsivc foriificd zoncs do noi nccd io Iavc dcpiI. You
do noi inicnd io dcfcnd yoursclf Icrc for long. TIcrc is no nccd io pui down nincficlds round aloui; all iIc
gaps will lc uscd ly your own iroops wIcn iIcy novc on io cncny icrriiory. TIc lcsi approacI is io novc up
iIc DOTs io iIc froniicr rivcr iisclf, so iIai wIcn iIc offcnsivc lcgins iIcy can lc uscd io givc firc suppori io
iIc advancing iroops. TIcrc is, of coursc, no nccd io luild posiiions in iIc rcar, for ly doing so you condcnn
a pari of your garrisons and caponicr arnancni io inaciiviiy. Ii is lciicr io lring iIcn all up io iIc froniicr
iisclf. Your dcfcnsivc consiruciion worls sIould noi lc canouflagcd; lci iIc cncny scc your dcfcnsivc
luilding, and lci iIcn concludc iIai you arc prcparing only for dcfcncc.
TIai was cacily wIai iIc Ccrnan gcncrals did. Noi long lcforc, in Augusi 1939, ZIulov Iad opcraicd
prcciscly in iIis way ai KIallIin-Col. 'Dy iIcsc ncasurcs, wc sirovc io givc iIc cncny iIc inprcssion iIai
iIcrc was a ioial alscncc of prcparaiory ncasurcs of an offcnsivc naiurc on our sidc, and io sIow iIai wc
wcrc carrying oui cicnsivc worls, iIc purposc of wIicI was io organizc dcfcncc, and only dcfcncc.' (ZIulov,
op. ct., p. 161i TIc Japancsc wcrc succcssfully dcccivcd. TIcy iool ZIulov's 'dcfcnsivc' worls ai facc valuc,
and paid iIc pricc wIcn iIcy fcll io Iis crusIing ligIining sirilc.
Aficr iIai, ZIulov did iIc sanc iIing on iIc Ccrnan froniicr, aliIougI on a nucI largcr scalc. Dui Ic did
noi succccd in ialing in iIc Ccrnan gcncrals; iIcy wcrc faniliar wiiI iIis siraicgy, Iaving uscd ii
iIcnsclvcs. On 22 Augusi 1939, jusi iwo days aficr ZIulov dcali Iis surprisc sirilc ai KIallin-Col and wIilc
iIc MoloiovFillcnirop ncgoiiaiions wcrc in progrcss, iIc Ccrnan Arny was prcparing io go inio Poland.
Ccncral Cudcrian was ordcrcd io ialc ovcr iIc 'Foriificaiion Hcadquaricrs Poncrania'; iIc ain was io lull iIc
Polcs ly naling purcly dcfcnsivc prcparaiions. Ai iIc sanc iinc, Ic quiclly consirucicd sonc conparaiivcly
ligIi foriificaiions in sccondary scciors, so iIai a fcw norc figIiing iroops nigIi lc rclcascd io ialc pari in
iIc nain aiiacl.
Cudcrian was again luilding dcfcnccs in iIc spring and sunncr of 1941, lui iIis iinc ii was on iIc Sovici
froniicr. If Cudcrian was luilding concrcic pilllocs on iIc lanl of a rivcr on iIc froniicr, ii in no way ncani
iIai Ic was iIinling aloui dcfcnding Iinsclf. Ii significd iIc caci opposiic. And if ZIulov was
osicniaiiously luilding cacily iIc sanc lind of locs on iIc lanl of iIc sanc rivcr, wIai could iIai ncan?
TIc Sialin Linc was nulii-purposc. Ii could lc uscd io dcfcnd iIc couniry or scrvc as a springloard for
aiiacl. Widc corridors wcrc iIcrcforc lcfi lciwccn iIc foriificd rcgions io allow iIc nass of Sovici iroops io
pass iIrougI on iIcir way io iIc wcsi. Aficr iIc froniicr Iad lccn novcd a couplc of Iundrcd liloncircs io
iIc wcsi, iIc Sialin Linc conplcicly losi iis inporiancc as a foriificd springloard for furiIcr aggrcssion; and
oncc iIc MoloiovFillcnirop Paci Iad lccn signcd, Sialin no longcr Iad any inicniion of iIinling in icrns
of dcfcncc. TIis is wIy iIc Linc was disnanilcd and iIcn lrolcn up. Ii was in iIc way of iIai grcai nass of
iroops wIo Iad iIcir sigIis sccrcily ficd upon iIc Ccrnan froniicr. Ii would also Iindcr iIc proccss of
supplying iIc Fcd Arny wiiI iIc nillions of ions of annuniiion, food supplics and fucl ii would nccd on iis
viciorious 'lilcraiion' canpaign. TIc corridors lciwccn iIc foriificd zoncs wcrc pcrfccily adcquaic for loiI
niliiary and ccononic nccds in pcacciinc, lui in iIc coursc of a war, rivcrs of consignncnis of supplics
would Iavc io lc splii up inio iIousands of liiilc sircans, so iIai iIcy would lc invulncrallc io cncny
counicr-aciion. TIc foriificd rcgions squcczcd iranspori colunns inio conparaiivcly narrow corridors. TIai
scalcd iIc faic of iIc alrcady rcdundani Linc.
Eacily iIc sanc siiuaiion cisicd in Ccrnany, on loiI iis casicrn and wcsicrn froniicrs. Evcr sincc iIc
FrancoPrussian War, Ccrnan aiiacls on Francc Iad lccn iradiiionally planncd io conc fron iIc noriI.
TIc Sicgfricd Linc was luili in iIc 1930s, io iIc souiI of iIis sccior; iIai is, in a sccondary sccior. TIc
Ccrnan Arny passcd far io iIc wcsi in 1940, and iIc Sicgfricd Linc iurncd oui io lc unncccssary. Sincc ii
ncvcr occurrcd io Hiilcr ai iIc iinc iIai four ycars laicr Ic would Iavc io dcfcnd Iinsclf on Iis own lordcrs,
iIc Sicgfricd Linc was alandoncd. Ii was iurncd io accouni in a vcry original way. Iis conlai insiallaiions
wcrc Iandcd ovcr io farncrs for sioring poiaiocs. Sonc insiallaiions, wIicI wcrc fiiicd wiiI inprcgnallc
arnourcd doors, wcrc sinply loclcd up. WIcn iIc nccd arosc io opcn iIcn again, no onc could find iIc lcys.
(K. Mallory and A. Oiiar, A)cItcctu)c o] Agg)csson, ArcIiicciural Prcss, 1973, p. 123i
Onc nay, of coursc, call ouisianding Sovici and Ccrnan gcncrals idiois, lui iIcrc was no idiocy Icrc. TIcy
wcrc sinply aggrcssors. DoiI iIougIi in icrns of aiiacl, and wIcn iIcir foriificaiions could no longcr lc uscd
for iIc purposcs of aiiacl, iIcy wcrc ciiIcr dcnolisIcd io nalc way for iIcir advancing iroops or, if iIc
opporiuniiy arosc, iIcir conlai cascncnis wcrc Iandcd ovcr io farncrs for sioring poiaiocs.
CHAPTEF 12
Pariisans or Saloicurs?
Htc) u uttucI tIc Vcst, utI Is nun ]o)ccs,
uIc Moscou u usI to tuIc ]u uduuntugc o]
ts poston.
TFOTSKY (DO, Nos. 79-80, 21 Junc 1939i
Aficr iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci Iad lccn signcd, iIc Sovici Union lcgan iIc sysicnaiic dcsiruciion of iIc
ncuiral counirics, so iIai ii could 'novc up in all iis nass io iIc Ccrnan froniicr jusi ai iIai iinc wIcn iIc
TIird FcicI Iad lcconc involvcd in a conflici io carvc up iIc world'. TIc 'lilcraiion canpaigns' procccdcd
apacc, lui in Finland a pausc occurrcd. As wc Iavc alrcady sccn, iIc Fcd Arny was caugIi in iIc FinnisI
sccuriiy zonc.
Hcrc is a classic siiuaiion. A Sovici colunn of ianls, noiorizcd infaniry and ariillcry is noving along a road
iIrougI iIc forcsi. No onc can sicp off iIc road, ciiIcr io iIc rigIi or io iIc lcfi, lccausc iIcrc arc nincs
iIcrc. TIcrc is a lridgc aIcad. TIc sappcrs Iavc cIcclcd ii Ias noi lccn nincd. TIc lcading ianls roll on io
iIc lridgc, and iIc ianls, along wiiI iIc lridgc, go up in iIc air. Eplosivc cIargcs Iad lccn placcd insidc
iIc supporis of iIc lridgc wIcn ii was luili. Ii is noi so casy io dcicci iIai iIis Ias lccn donc, and cvcn if iIc
cIargcs wcrc dciccicd, any aiicnpi io rcnovc iIcn would rcsuli in an cplosion. TIus iIc Sovici colunn,
winding lilc a Iugc snalc across nany liloncircs, concs io a Iali on iIc road. Now concs iIc iurn of iIc
FinnisI snipcrs. TIcy arc in no Iurry cracl, cracl. Silcncc dcsccnds on iIc forcsi. TIcn cracl, cracl again.
TIc snipcrs arc firing fron soncwIcrc in iIc disiancc. TIcy Iii only iIc Sovici connandcrs. Cracl, cracl.
And connissars as wcll. Ii is inpossillc io conl iIc woods. Wc Iavc noi forgoiicn iIai on ciiIcr sidc of iIc
road arc inpassallc nincficlds. Any aiicnpi ly Sovici sappcrs io approacI iIc llown-up lridgc or io dcfusc
iIc nincs on loiI sidcs of iIc road will lc cndcd ly a singlc sIoi fron a FinnisI snipcr. Cracl! TIc Sovici
44iI Fiflc Division, wIicI was loiilcd up on iIrcc parallcl roads ly iIrcc llown-up lridgcs, losi iis cniirc
connand siaff in onc day of figIiing. Ai nigIi iIc Sovici colunn is ralcd ly riflc noriar firc fron soncwIcrc
in iIc dcpiIs of iIc forcsi. Sonciincs long lursis of nacIinc-gun firc Iii iIc Iclplcss colunn fron
soncwIcrc lcIind iIc undcrgrowiI. TIcn all falls silcni again.
Ii is said iIai iIc Fcd Arny did noi sIow iisclf ai iis lcsi in Finland. TIai could noi lc norc iruc. Dui wIai
would any oiIcr arny Iavc donc in iis placc? Pull iIc colunn lacl? Dui iIc Icavy ariillcry iraciors wiiI iIcir
grcai Iowiizcrs on iow would noi Iavc lccn allc io pusI iIcir irailcrs laclwards, as iIcsc wcigI nany ions.
TIc snipcrs now Iii iIc iracior drivcrs cracl, cracl. Finding iisclf in iroullc, Ialf iIc colunn gocs inio
rcvcrsc and novcs laclwards. Dui lcIind ii ncanwIilc, anoiIcr lridgc Ias lccn llown up. TIc colunn is
now irappcd. All iIc approacIcs io iIis lridgc Iavc lccn nincd as wcll, and Icrc ioo iIc snipcrs can ialc
iIcir iinc. TIcy firc ai iIc connandcrs, iIc connissars, iIc sappcrs, iIc drivcrs cracl, cracl. AIcad lics
iIc alnosi inacccssillc linc of FinnisI rcinfor-ccd-concrcic foriificaiions, iIc ManncrIcin Linc. Ii is inposs-
illc io lrcal iIrougI ii wiiIoui ariillcry and wiiIoui iIousands of ions of annuniiion. WIcn iIc Sovici
iroops canc up againsi iIc FinnisI foriificaiions, iIcir Icavy ariillcry was far lcIind, lying innolilizcd on
roads iIrougI iIc forcsis, lciwccn nincficlds and llown-up lridgcs, undcr snipcr firc.
Having lccn iaugIi sucI a lcsson in Finland, iIc Sovici connandcrs nusi surcly Iavc drawn iIc
appropriaic conclusions? Surcly ligIi pariisan dciacIncnis would Iavc lccn sci up cvcn in pcacciinc in iIc
wcsicrn paris of iIc USSF io facc a possillc cncny invasion? Naiurc Icrsclf could Iavc crcaicd iIc wcsicrn
rcgions of iIc Sovici Union cprcssly for pariisan warfarc on iIc connunicaiions of any aggrcssor noving
casiwards.
Sialin did indccd forn sucI dciacIncnis as far lacl as iIc 19205. In Dyclorussia alonc, iIcrc wcrc in
pcacciinc si pariisan dciacIncnis, cacI wiiI a sircngiI of lciwccn 300 and 500 ncn. If iIcsc nunlcrs
sccn snall, onc nusi lcar in nind iIai iIc dciacIncnis wcrc conposcd only of connandcrs, organizcrs,
and spccialisis of iIc IigIcsi qualiiy. Evcry pcacciinc pariisan dciacIncni was a nuclcus around wIicI
powcrful fornaiions of scvcral iIousand ncn could lc forncd ai iIc ouilrcal of war.
Sccrci lascs for pcacciinc pariisan fornaiions wcrc sci up in inpassallc forcsis and on liiilc islands in iIc
loundlcss narsIcs. Undcrground sIclicrs, Iospiials, sioragc dcpois and undcrground worlsIops for
producing arns and annuniiion wcrc all luili in pcacciinc. In Dyclorussia alonc, arns, annuniiion and
cquipncni sufficicni for 50,000 pariisans wcrc placcd in undcrground cacIcs for usc in a possillc war.
Sccrci scIools wcrc sci up io irain iIcsc pariisan lcadcrs, organizcrs and insiruciors. Sccrci scicniific
rcscarcI ccnircs worlcd on dcvcloping rcsourccs for usc in pariisan warfarc, including spccial cquipncni,
arns and connunicaiions cquipncni. TIc pariisans wcni on pcriodic iraining courscs, on wIicI iIc OSNAZ
divisions of iIc NKVD usually assuncd iIc rolc of iIc cncny.
In addiiion io iIcsc pariisan fornaiions, snall undcrground groups wcrc iraincd, lui noi io ialc io iIc
forcsis wIcn iIc cncny sirucl. TIcir purposc was io rcnain lcIind in iowns and villagcs in ordcr io Iclp iIc
cncny and lc of scrvicc io Iin, wIilc all iIc iinc gaining Iis irusi . . .
Worl of iIis iypc was noi only going on in Dyclorussia, lui also in iIc Ulrainc, iIc Crinca and iIc
Lcningrad Disirici, anong oiIcr placcs. Alongsidc iIc aciiviiics of iIc sccrci policc, Sovici niliiary
iniclligcncc, in parallcl wiiI iIc NKVD lui conplcicly indcpcndcnily of ii, was cngagcd in cacily iIc sanc
worl, cquipping sccrci lascs, sIclicrs, sccrci lillcis and rallying poinis, and cquipping lincs for clandcsiinc
connunicaiions. TIc niliiary iniclligcncc Iad iis own sccrci scIools, iis own organizcrs, iis own insiruciors.
TIc Connunisi Pariy was also iraining nany of iis lcadcrs in iIc wcsicrn paris of iIc couniry, wiiI a vicw
io iIcir going undcrground in iIc cvcni of iIc icrriiory falling inio cncny Iands. WiiI iIcir long-sianding
crininal iradiiions, iIc connunisis lncw Iow io lccp iIcir sccrcis. TIcsc iradiiions wcni lacl io iIcir
undcrground aciiviiics of iIc 19205 and 1930s; wcrc iIc nccd io arisc, nany Pariy organizaiions could again
lcconc dccply conspiraiorial ccnircs of sccrci conflici.
TIcsc pariisan dciacIncnis wcrc sci up in wIai was icrncd iIc DcaiI Zonc iIc Sovici sccuriiy zonc
wIcrc, in iIc cvcni of Sovici iroops lcing wiiIdrawn, all lridgcs Iad io lc llown up, iunncls dcnolisIcd,
railway junciions rcndcrcd conplcicly unusallc, railway poinis, crossings and cvcn rails and iclcpIonc
callcs lificd and carricd off io iIc inicrior. TIc pariisans rcnaincd lcIind only io cnsurc iIai iIc iargcis
wIicI Iad lccn dcsiroycd wcrc noi rcsiorcd. TIc pariisans wcrc viriually invulncrallc; iIcir lcadcrs lncw iIc
ways iIrougI iIc vasi nincficlds, and could sIalc off any pursuii ly Icading for iIc nincd forcsis and
narsIcs, inio wIicI iIc cncny Iad no ncans of finding a way.
All iIis consiiiuicd an cccllcni sysicn of dcfcncc. iIc Sialin Linc; iIc vasi sccuriiy zonc in froni of ii wiiI
iis loundlcss nincficlds; and iIc pariisan dciacIncnis, rcady io opcraic fron iIc firsi ninuic of war. Dui in
1939, Hiilcr found Iinsclf in a vcry iroullcsonc siraicgic siiuaiion, wIcrc Ic Iad io wagc war in iIc wcsi,
noi iIc casi. Fron iIai noncni onwards, Sialin's dcfcnsivc sysicns wcrc no longcr nccdcd. TIc Sovici
pariisan novcncni was alolisIcd ai iIc sanc iinc as iIc Sialin Linc and iIc sccuriiy zonc. Pariisan
dciacIncnis wcrc dislandcd, arns, annuniiion and cplosivcs rcnovcd, iIc sccrci dug-ouis and siorc
dcpois covcrcd wiiI cariI, and iIc pariisan lascs laid wasic. All iIis Iappcncd in iIc auiunn of 1939. Dui
as auiunn drcw io iis closc, iIc Fcd Arny lcgan iis 'lilcraiion' of Finland, and iIcrc ii cncounicrcd all iIosc
clcncnis of sclf-dcfcncc wIicI uniil rcccnily Iad cisicd in iIc Sovici Union. iIc linc of rcinforccd-concrcic
foriificaiions, iIc sccuriiy zonc in froni of ii, and iIc ligIi pariisan-lilc dciacIncnis opcraiing in iIis zonc.
Aficr Ic Iad lccn iaugIi a scvcrc lcsson in Finland, did Sialin pcrIaps iIcn cIangc Iis nind and sci up ncw
pariisan fornaiions in iIc wcsicrn rcgions of iIc Sovici Union? Hc did noi.
On 22 Junc 1941, nuncrous inprovisaiions wcrc sci in noiion, including iIc fornaiion of a pariisan
novcncni. Sci up ai iIc lasi ninuic, ii only grcw io iis full powcr in 1943-44. Had Sialin noi alolisIcd ii in
1939, ii would Iavc aiiaincd iis full sircngiI in iIc firsi days of iIc war, and would iIcn Iavc lccn nany
iincs norc cffcciivc.
As iIc war progrcsscd, iIc pariisans Iad io pay a IigI pricc in llood for cvcry lridgc iIcy dcionaicd. Dcforc
a lridgc could lc llown up, ii Iad firsi io lc capiurcd, and iIcn guardcd wIilc iIc surrounding irccs wcrc
fcllcd and iIc adjaccni ground nincd. Dui wIcrc wcrc iIc pariisans io find cplosivcs? If any could lc found,
Iow nucI could iIc pariisan group carry along wiiI ii? WIilc iIc dcionaiion was lcing prcparcd, iIc cIargcs
Iad io lc Iasiily pui in placc, noi in iIc lridgc supporis lui on iIc spans. TIc cncny could quiclly rcpair
sucI a lridgc oncc ii Iad lccn llown up, and iIcn iIc pariisans would Iavc io siari all ovcr again fron iIc
lcginning. WIilc iIc cncny was rcpairing onc lridgc, iIc oiIcr lridgcs would siill lc funciioning, so iIc
cncny could rcgulaic Iis flow of iranspori.
Prcviously, Iowcvcr, cvcryiIing Iad lccn nadc rcady io llow up u iIc lridgcs, in sucI a way iIai no
pariisan llood would Iavc lccn spili. To llow iIcn up ly sinply prcssing a luiion in a sccrci pariisan
lunlcr, and iIcn, fron iIc far sidc of inpassallc nincficlds, io picl.off iIc officcrs, iIc sappcrs and iIc
drivcrs wiiI snipcrs' riflcs. TIc Ccrnan Arny was cccpiionally vulncrallc on iIc roads. TIc HtzI)cg could
lc slowcd down considcrally ly iIc conplcic alscncc of lridgcs, ly Iundrcds, iIousands and indccd
nillions of pariisans' nincs on iIc roads, ly anlusIcs, and ly snipcr icrror fron iIc firsi Iours of iIc
invasion.
WIo iIcn alolisIcd iIc Sovici pariisan novcncni ai iIc vcry noncni iIai World War II lcgan, and wIy?
CFU Coloncl Profcssor I. Siarinov, onc of iIc faiIcrs of Sovici niliiary icrrorisn, connandcd a sccrci scIool
in iIosc ycars wIicI iraincd pariisan groups wIicI wcrc undcr iIc connand of Sovici niliiary iniclligcncc.
In Iis cccllcni ncnoirs, iIc Coloncl nancs iIc culprii. 'Arns and cplosivcs wIicI Iad lccn safcly Iiddcn
in iIc ground wcrc waiiing for iIcir iinc io conc. Dui lcforc iIai Iour sirucl, iIc conccalcd pariisan lascs
wcrc laid wasic, uncondiiionally, lnowingly and, for ccriain, on Sialin's dircci ordcrs.' (Mnu ZIdut Suocgo
CIusu, p. 40i
KCD Coloncl S. VaupsIas, onc of iIc vcicrans of Sovici poliiical icrrorisn, was ai iIai iinc connanding an
NKVD pariisan dciacIncni in Dyclorussia. Hc cplains iIc rcason wIy iIc pariisan fornaiions wcrc
alolisIcd. 'In iIosc ncnacing prc-war ycars, iIc docirinc of war on forcign icrriiory was in iIc asccndancy. Ii
was of a clcarly pronounccd offcnsivc naiurc.' (Nu T)cuozInuII Pc)cI)cstIuII, Moscow, IPL, p. 203i
Onc nay agrcc wiiI iIc KCD coloncl, or onc nay dispuic wIai Ic said. No onc clsc, Iowcvcr, Ias yci
offcrcd any oiIcr rcason wIy iIcsc pariisan lascs and fornaiions wcrc clininaicd.
Oncc Sialin Iad donc away wiiI iIc pariisan fornaiions in 1939, Ic did noi disniss iIc pariisan lcadcrs.
Aficr iIc war Iad cndcd, nucI naicrial was pullisIcd in iIc Sovici Union on iIc war and iIc pcriod wIicI
prcccdcd ii. I Iavc collccicd iIc casc Iisiorics of dozcns of pcoplc wIo wcrc lcing iraincd in 1939 io figIi in
pariisan fornaiions in iIc wcsicrn paris of iIc Sovici Union. Aficr 1939, iIc faic of iIcsc pcoplc was
idcniical. TIcy wcrc ciiIcr scni off io OSNAZ fornaiions of iIc NKVD, or clsc iIcy found iIcnsclvcs joining
vcry snall groups ncar iIc Sovici Union's wcsicrn froniicr, for sonc unclcar purposc.
Talc iIc iwo coloncls wc Iavc alrcady nci, Siarinov and VaupsIas; iwo vcicrans, onc fron niliiary
iniclligcncc, iIc oiIcr fron iIc sccrci policc. On 21 Junc 1941, Coloncl Siarinov found Iinsclf in iIc froniicr
iown of Drcsi-Liiovsl, in an arca of railway lincs lcading io iIc lridgcs across iIc froniicr. Hc did noi go iIcrc
io llow up iIc lridgcs. Hc Iad lcfi Moscow a fcw days carlicr, Ic was iold, on an ccrcisc. Dui wIcn Ic
arrivcd ai iIc froniicr, Ic was iold iIai iIcrc would noi lc any ccrciscs. So iIis cpcricnccd saloicur sai
down ai iIc froniicr io awaii furiIcr ordcrs. Hcrc is an inicrcsiing dciail wIicI wc sIall rcquirc laicr. A
soldicr nancd ScIlcgcr worlcd for Siarinov as Iis drivcr fron iIc day iIc war lcgan. Hc was a Ccrnan
naiional.
TIc war canc io iIc CIclisi S. VaupsIas, noi in iIc froniicr arca, lui on cncny icrriiory. VaupsIas Iad a
surprising lifc Iisiory. For nany ycars, up io and including 1926, Ic fougIi in a Sovici pariisan dciacIncni
on PolisI icrriiory and lillcd pcoplc in ordcr io furiIcr iIc world rcvoluiion. Aficr iIai Ic lccanc onc of iIc
nanagcrs of iIc grcai CULAC luilding siics. Laicr, in iIc coursc of iIc civil war in Spain, Ic proiccicd and
conirollcd iIc Poliiluro of iIc SpanisI Connunisi Pariy and iIc SpanisI Sccuriiy Scrvicc. Aficr iIai,
VaupsIas lccanc lcadcr of a pariisan dciacIncni in Dyclorussia. Aficr iIc pariisan dciacIncnis carnarlcd
for a dcfcnsivc war Iad lccn alolisIcd, VaupsIas, Iaving lccn givcn iIc connand of an OSNAZ laiialion of
iIc NKVD, sci off io 'lilcraic' Finland. Finally, in 1941, iIis icrrorisi, iIis CULAC ovcrsccr and scourgc, was
iransfcrrcd io iIc icrriiory of'iIc prolallc cncny' in ordcr io carry oui sonc sccrci nission iIcrc.
PcrIaps Ic was scni iIcrc for sonc dcfcnsivc purposc? No. lccausc as soon as iIc dcfcnsivc war lcgan, Ic
inncdiaicly rciurncd io Moscow.
"(&)*#% 02
WIy Did Sialin Nccd Tcn Airlornc Assauli Corps?
In tIc Iuttcs to conc, uc sIu opc)utc on tIc
tc))to)u o] tIc cncnu. TIut s p)csc)Icd Iu ou)
)ucs. Vc u)c ntu)u pcopc, und uc uc ucco)dng
to tIcsc )ucs.
COLONEL A. I. FODIMTSEV
(fron Iis spcccI ai iIc i8iI Congrcss
of iIc Pariy, 1939i
Airlornc assauli iroops arc inicndcd for aiiacl. Counirics conccrncd only wiiI iIcir dcfcncc did noi nccd
iIcn. Dcforc World War II, iIcrc wcrc iwo cccpiions. Hiilcr was gciiing rcady for aggrcssivc wars, and in
1936 Ic crcaicd Iis airlornc assauli iroops. Dy iIc iinc iIai World War II lcgan, iIc paracIuiisis anong
iIcsc iroops nunlcrcd 4,000. Sialin was iIc oiIcr cccpiion. Hc csiallisIcd Iis airlornc assauli iroops in
1930. Dy iIc lcginning of iIc war, iIc Sovici Union Iad no)c tIun onc non iraincd parairoopcrs - 200
iincs norc iIan all oiIcr counirics in iIc world pui iogciIcr, including Ccrnany.
TIc Sovici Union was iIc firsi couniry in iIc world io crcaic airlornc assauli iroops. WIcn Hiilcr canc io
powcr, Sialin alrcady Iad scvcral airlornc assauli lrigadcs. A paracIuic psycIosis was alrcady raging in iIc
Sovici Union. TIc oldcr gcncraiion can rcncnlcr iIc iinc wIcn no nunicipal parl could gci ly wiiIoui a
paracIuic iowcr, and iIc paracIuiisi's lrcvci lccanc an indispcnsallc synlol of nacIo nasculiniiy for
cvcry young nan. Ii was noi ai all casy io oliain sucI a lrcvci; iIcy wcrc only givcn io iIosc wIo Iad nadc
rcal paracIuic junps fron an aircrafi, and iIc only pcrsons wIo wcrc allowcd io nalc sucI junps wcrc
iIosc wIo Iad prcviously passcd icsis in running, swinning, sIooiing, grcnadc-iIrowing (loiI long-disiancc
and prccisioni, in surnouniing olsiaclcs, in iIc usc of anii-cIcnical dcfcnsivc rcsourccs and in nany oiIcr
slills indispcnsallc in war. ParacIuic-junping was in cffcci iIc concluding siagc of iIc individual iraining
givcn io fuiurc soldicrs of iIc airlornc infaniry.
In ordcr io apprcciaic iIc scriousncss of Sialin's inicniions, ii nusi noi lc forgoiicn iIai iIc paracIuic
psycIosis rcigncd in iIc Sovici Union ai iIc sanc iinc as did iIc icrrillc faninc. TIrougIoui iIc couniry,
iIc lcllics of cIildrcn wcrc swollcn wiiI Iungcr, lui Conradc Sialin was sclling grain alroad in ordcr io luy
paracIuic iccInology, io luild grcai sill-producing conplccs and paracIuic faciorics, io covcr iIc couniry
wiiI a nciworl of airficlds and acro cluls, io pui up paracIuic iowcrs in cvcry nunicipal parl, io irain
iIousands of insiruciors, io luild drying roons and sioragc dcpois for paracIuics, io irain onc nillion wcll-
fcd paracIuiisis and io luy iIc arns, cquipncni and paracIuics iIcy nccdcd.
ParacIuiisis arc noi nccdcd in a dcfcnsivc war. To usc a paracIuiisi as ordinary infaniry in dcfcnsivc
warfarc would lc a ridiculous wasic of rcsourccs. Sul-uniis of parairoopcrs do noi Iavc io carry iIc sanc
Icavy wcaponry as iIc ordinary infaniry do, and iIcrcforc iIcir sialiliiy in dcfcnsivc laiilc is considcrally
lowcr.
TIc cosi of iraining of onc nillion Sovici paracIuiisis was dcar, and Sialin paid for iIc iraining of iIcsc
paracIuiisis and for iIcir paracIuics wiiI iIc livcs of Sovici cIildrcn in grcai nunlcrs. For wIai purposc
wcrc iIcsc paracIuiisis iraincd? Ccriainly noi io proicci iIcsc cIildrcn wIo wcrc dying of Iungcr. Pcoplc in
our villagc in iIc Ulrainc siill rcncnlcr iIc young wonan wIo lillcd Icr own daugIicr and dcvourcd Icr
lody. Evcryonc rcncnlcrs ii lccausc sIc lillcd Ic) oun daugIicr. TIcy do noi rcncnlcr iIosc wIo lillcd
iIc daugIicrs of oiIcrs. In ny villagc pcoplc aic lclis and loois. TIcy aic acorns in iIc lcdragglcd wood
ncarly. TIc rcason for all iIis was iIai Conradc Sialin was prcparing for war. Hc was prcparing as no onc
Iad cvcr lcforc prcparcd. Truc, all iIcsc prcparaiions iurncd oui io lc unncccssary wIcn iIc dcfcnsivc war
canc.
Airlornc assauli iroops arc noi ncccssary in a dcfcnsivc war. TIcrc is no poini in iIrowing iIcn inio iIc
rcar of iIc cncny in sucI a conflici; ii is nucI sinplcr io lcavc pariisan dciacIncnis lcIind in iIc forcsis as
you wiiIdraw.
Ii could lc argucd iIai iIcsc nillion Sialinisi paracIuiisis wcrc sinply naicrial fron wIicI conlai sul-
uniis - laiialions, rcgincnis, lrigadcs - would lc csiallisIcd. Sul-uniis Iad io lc sci up and givcn inicnsivc
iraining.
In iIc 1930s, iIc wcsicrn rcgions of iIc couniry wcrc rcpcaicdly sIalcn ly vcry largc-scalc nanocuvrcs.
TIcsc nanocuvrcs Iad only onc iIcnc. TIai was iIc opcraiion in dcpiI, a surprisc aiiacl launcIcd ly a vasi
nunlcr of nasscd ianls siriling io a grcai dcpiI. TIc sccnario was always sinplc, lui fornidallc. In iIc
coursc of cacI ccrcisc, iIc surprisc aiiacl ly iIc land iroops would lc prcccdcd ly a no lcss uncpccicd
and no lcss crusIing sirilc ly iIc Sovici Air Forcc againsi 'cncny' airficlds. TIis would lc followcd ly a
paracIuic assauli landing wiiI iIc purposc of capiuring iIc airficlds. TIis firsi wavc of paracIuiisis would lc
followcd ly a sccond wavc of parairoopcrs carrying Icavy wcapons, wIo would land ly planc and iIcn
discnlarl on iIc capiurcd airficlds.
In iIc coursc of iIc nanocuvrcs Icld in Kicv in 1935, a paracIuic assauli forcc of 1,200 ncn was droppcd,
inncdiaicly followcd ly an air-landcd assauli forcc of 2,500 ncn arncd wiiI Icavy wcaponry including
ariillcry, arnourcd cars and ianls.
In Dyclorussia in 1936, in iIc coursc of praciising iIc sanc offcnsivc iIcnc, a paracIuic assauli forcc of
1,800 ncn was droppcd. TIcy wcrc followcd ly an air-landcd assauli forcc of 5,700 ncn arncd wiiI Icavy
wcaponry. In iIc sanc ycar, iIc full conplcncni of iIc 84iI Fiflc Division nadc an air-landcd assauli in iIc
coursc of offcnsivc nanocuvrcs in iIc Moscow Miliiary Division.
In 1938, as Ic could scc iIc 'lilcraiion canpaigns' coning, Sialin csiallisIcd a furiIcr si airlornc
lrigadcs wiiI a sircngiI of 18,000 paracIuiisis. In 1939, Sialin alolisIcd iIc pariisan lascs and fornaiions
wIicI Iad lccn inicndcd io opcraic on iIcir own icrriiory, and csiallisIcd ncw assauli landing sul-uniis,
rcgincnis and dciacIcd laiialions. In iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici, for canplc, iIrcc rcgincnis, cacI nadc
up of iIrcc laiialions, wcrc sci up along wiiI scvcral dciacIcd laiialions, cacI onc wiiI a sircngiI of
lciwccn 500 and 700 ncn. (O)dcnu Lcnnu MosIousIu Vocnnu OIng, Moscow 1985, P. 177i
Sovici assauli landing lrigadcs nadc iIcir firsi paracIuic landings in conlai condiiions in Junc 1940. TIc
201si and 204iI Drigadcs landcd in Fonania, and iIc 214iI in LiiIuania, ncar iis froniicr wiiI Easi Prussia.
DoiI assauli landings scriously worricd Hiilcr, cspccially iIc landing in Fonania. TIc cniirc Ccrnan Arny
was conccniraicd in Francc ai iIc iinc, and Fonania was iIc sourcc of iis oil supplics. Had Sovici iranspori
aircrafi gonc 200 liloncircs furiIcr lcforc discIarging iIcir loads, Ccrnany would Iavc lccn lcfi wiiIoui oil,
iIc vcry lifc-llood of war.
In 1940, Sialin crusIcd all iIc ncuiral counirics dividing iIc Sovici Union fron Ccrnany, so iIai iIc iwo
powcrs now sIarcd a connon froniicr. Sialin ougIi iIcn, ii would sccn, io Iavc rcduccd Iis airlornc uniis;
all iIai lay io iIc wcsi was Ccrnany and iis allics, wiiI wIon iIc Sovici Union Iad signcd a non-aggrcssion
paci.
Dui Sialin did noi disland Iis airlornc uniis. On iIc conirary, in April 1941 fivc airlornc corps wcrc
sccrcily dcploycd in iIc Sovici Union. All fivc wcrc sci up in iIc wcsicrn rcgions of iIc couniry. In ordcr io
apprcciaic iIc nagniiudc of iIis dcvclopncni, ii nusi lc rcncnlcrcd iIai cvcn ioday iIcrc is noi onc
fornaiion in cisicncc any wIcrc wIicI Ias iIc full rigIi io lcar iIc iiilc of airlornc corps. A corps is ioo
largc and ioo cpcnsivc io nainiain in pcacciinc.
In addiiion io iIc usual assauli landing infaniry, iIc airlornc corps Iad fairly powcrful ariillcry and cvcn
laiialions of ligIi anpIilious ianls. All iIc corps wcrc givcn inicnsivc iraining for airlornc assauli warfarc.
TIcy wcrc conccniraicd in woods far fron iIc gazc of ouisidcrs. TIcy wcrc all csiallisIcd sufficicnily closc io
iIc froniicr for iIcn io lc droppcd on iargci counirics wiiIoui furiIcr rcdcployncni io norc forward lascs.
TIc 4iI and 5iI Corps wcrc aincd ai Ccrnany, iIc 3rd ai Fonania, and iIc isi and 2nd ai loiI
CzccIoslovalia and Ausiria. Onc of iIcir nissions was io cui iIc oil pipc-lincs in iIc nouniainous arcas
iIrougI wIicI iIcy passcd on iIcir way fron Fonania io Ccrnany.
TIc Dirccioraic of Airlornc Troops was sci up in iIc Fcd Arny on 12 Junc 1941, folio wcd ly anoiIcr fivc
ncw airlornc corps in Augusi. TIis sccond scrics of airlornc corps was noi inicndcd as a rcsponsc io iIc
Ccrnan invasion, for ii is quiic inpossillc io usc parairoopcrs in sucI nassivc nunlcrs in a dcfcnsivc war.
Of all iIc corps of iIc sccond scrics, noi onc fougIi in iIc war in iis propcr funciion. Of all iIc corps in iIc
firsi scrics, only onc corps was uscd as inicndcd and on only onc occasion, in iIc coursc of a counicr-
offcnsivc in froni of Moscow. A iIird scrics of airlornc corps canc laicr, and onc of iIcsc corps nadc an air
assauli landing in 1943.
TIc fivc corps of iIc sccond scrics arc a good canplc of iIc Fcd Arny dcvcloping iIrougI incriia. TIc
dccision io csiallisI iIcsc corps was ialcn lcforc iIc Ccrnan invasion, and was ncvcr counicrnandcd. In
any cvcni, iIc paracIuics, iIc wcaponry and cvcn iIc parairoopcrs in iIc airlornc corps of iIc sccond scrics
wcrc all prcparcd lcforc iIc Ccrnan invasion.
Apari fron iIc airlornc corps, lrigadcs and rcgincnis, iIcrc wcrc also a grcai nunlcr of airlornc
laiialions in iIc ordinary Sovici infaniry. MarsIal Dagranyan siaics iIai in carly Junc 1941, in iIc 55iI
Fiflc Corps wIicI was iIcn dcploycd on iIc Fonanian froniicr, inicnsivc iraining was lcing givcn io scvcral
paracIuic assauli landing laiialions. Judging fron Dagranyan's dcscripiion, as wcll as fron oiIcr sourccs, ii
sccns iIai iIc 55iI Fiflc Corps (iIcrc wcrc in all 62 riflc corps in iIc Fcd Arnyi was norc iIc rulc iIan iIc
cccpiion.
Apari fron purcly paracIuic sul-uniis, sonc ordinary riflc divisions wcrc iraincd io nalc air-landcd
assaulis in iIc rcar of iIc cncny. On 21 Junc 1941, for canplc, a spccially iraincd division nounicd an air-
landcd assauli in iIc rcar of iIc 'cncny' in iIc coursc of ccrciscs lcing Icld in iIc Silcrian Miliiary Disirici.
Uniil iIcn, all Sovici cpcrincnis in airlornc assauli landings wcrc carricd oui in iIc wcsicrn rcgions of iIc
couniry. So wIy sIould sucI cpcrincnis suddcnly lc ialing placc in Silcria? Dccausc ai iIai poini in iinc
all iIc iroops in iIc Silcrian Miliiary Disirici Iad alrcady lccn sccrcily conlincd inio iIc 24iI Arny wIicI
was aloui io iurn up on iIc Ccrnan froniicr. TIc 24iI Arny was carrying oui iis final ccrciscs lcforc
loarding iIc wcsilound irains. No conncni is callcd for on iIc oljcciivcs ai wIicI iIis iraining was dirccicd.
No couniry in Iisiory, or indccd all counirics in iIc world pui iogciIcr, including iIc Sovici Union, Ias cvcr
Iad so nany parairoopcrs and air assauli landing sul-uniis as Sialin Iad in 1941. If onc counis up all iIc
airlornc iroops in iIc world, including iIc Sovici airlornc iroops in cisicncc ai iIc cnd of iIc iwcniiciI
ccniury, iIc ioial concs io only iIiriccn divisions, of wIicI cigIi arc Sovici. TIc rcasons wIicI inpcllcd
Sialin io csiallisI airlornc iroops in sucI nunlcrs, and cspccially iIc furious pacc ai wIicI iIcsc circncly
powcrful airlornc corps wcrc sci up in 1941, Iavc siill io lc siudicd and cplaincd.
WIilc gaiIcring naicrial on Sovici airlornc iroops, I iurncd ny aiicniion io an inicrcsiing dciail. EacI Sovici
connandcr wiiI iIc ranl of coloncl or najor-gcncral wIo ai iIai iinc ciiIcr lclongcd io iIc airlornc forccs
or was prcparing io join iIcn, Iad scrgcanis and soldicrs of Ccrnan ciraciion in Iis inncdiaic cniouragc.
Onc connandcr Iad a Ccrnan worling for Iin as Iis pcrsonal drivcr. AnoiIcr Iad a Ccrnan lainan, wIilc
a iIird Iad a Ccrnan ordcrly. EacI of iIcsc Sovici connandcrs spcals of ii as iIougI ii wcrc an anusing
dciail of no inporiancc. TIcy say, of coursc, iIai iIc Ccrnans lcgan iIc war, and Icrc an I wiiI a drivcr
wIo is a Ccrnan. Dui Ic is a good lad, of coursc, disciplincd and dcvoicd. Coloncl K. Sicin, wIo connandcd
iIc 2nd Drigadc of iIc 2nd Airlornc Corps Iad a soldicr of Ccrnan origin as Iis lainan. Coloncl A.
Fodiniscv, iIc connandcr of iIc 5iI Drigadc of iIc 3rd Airlornc Corps Iad a Ccrnan drivcr. TIis,
incidcnially, is iIc sanc Fodiniscv wIo proclaincd ai iIc Pariy Congrcss iIai iIc Fcd Arny would figIi only
on cncny icrriiory.
I Iappcncd io Icar Fodiniscv nalc a spcccI wIcn Ic Iad lcconc a coloncl-gcncral. Hc was vcry cloqucni.
Hc said iIai in 1942 Iis guardsncn wcrc Iolding iIc vcry lasi Iouscs rigIi on iIc Volga in Sialingrad. His
lrigadc, lilc cvcryonc clsc, Iad io lc rc-casi inio ordinary riflc divisions, and so iIcy Iad Iad iIcir
paracIuics ialcn fron iIcn. TIcy wcrc givcn dcfcnsivc wcapons insicad, and iIcy acquiiicd iIcnsclvcs noi
ai all ladly in iIc figIiing. Dui in 1941 nciiIcr Fodiniscv nor Iis sulordinaics Iad any iIougIi for dcfcncc.
TIcy Iad no dcfcnsivc wcaponry, nor Iad iIcy siudicd dcfcnsivc iaciics. Dui iIcy Iad siudicd offcnsivc
iaciics, and iIcy did Iavc paracIuics.
Ai iIc lcginning of 1941, Sialin nccdcd parairoopcrs, norc parairoopcrs and siill norc parairoopcrs. Many
Sovici gcncrals and scnior officcrs Iasicncd io cIangc iIc lrancIcs in wIicI iIcy wcrc scrving. A pariicularly
IigI nunlcr of connandcrs goi rcady io lcavc iIc cavalry, wIicI Iad ouilivcd iis iinc, in ordcr io lcconc
parairoopcrs, including Fodiniscv Iinsclf. To do iIis, an aliliiy io spcal Ccrnan was csscniial. Cavalry
gcncral Lcv Dovaior's widow, wriiing in iIc ncwspapcr Hcd Stu), rccallcd iIc lcginning of 1941. 'TIcrc was
onc Ccrnan in our rcgincni. So Lcv MilIailovicI lrougIi Iin Ionc prciiy wcll cvcry day. TIcy praciiscd,
you scc, in convcrsaiion. And ly iIc iinc iIc war siaricd, Ic could alrcady spcal Ccrnan flucnily.' (Hcd Stu),
17 Fclruary 1983i
TIc Fcd Arny's linls wiiI iIc Ccrnan connunisis wcrc closc and long-sianding. WIcn Ic canc io iIc
Sovici Union, Ernsi Tclnann Iinsclf was in no way sIy aloui appcaring in Sovici niliiary uniforn. Walicr
UllricIi was cnrollcd as a soldicr in iIc 4iI Ccrnan Prolciariai Fiflc Division. TIai was donc for cffcci, lui
iIcrc wcrc oiIcr lcss olvious iIings going on. As carly as 1918, iIc Spccial ScIool for Ccrnan Fcd
Connandcrs was sci up in iIc Sovici Union. Ii was run ly Oscar Olcri, a Ccrnan connunisi. TIc scIool
cIangcd iis nanc norc iIan oncc, firsi lcconing sccrci, iIcn ovcri, iIcn sccrci again. TIc scIool iurncd oui
quiic a fcw conlai connandcrs of Ccrnan naiionaliiy. Sonc of iIc graduaics fron iIc scIool aiiaincd iIc
ranl of gcncral in iIc Fcd Arny. Ai iIc lcginning of 1941, nany graduaics of iIis and oiIcr sinilar scIools
aspircd io narcI undcr iIc conlai lanncrs of iIc Sovici airlornc corps.
A siudy of pullicaiions on iIc Sovici airlornc corps wIicI wcrc forncd in 1941 lcads us io iIc conclusion
iIai iIc nunlcr of officcrs, NCOs and soldicrs lcaring clcarly Ccrnan surnancs was, noi io pui ioo finc a
poini on ii, IigIcr iIan nornal.
"(&)*#% 03
TIc Wingcd Tanl
TIc u) ]o)cc nust Ic )cndc)cd nc]]cctuc und
dcst)oucd on tIc u)]cds . . . Succcss n puttng
tIc u) ]o)ccs out o] ucton on tIc g)ound dcpcnds
on tIc su)p)sc ccncnt n tIc ucton tuIcn. It s
npo)tunt to cutcI tIc u) ]o)ccs on tIc u)]cds.
MarsIall. S. KONEV (VIZH, 1976,
No. 7, p. 75i
Training Iundrcds of iIousands of parairoopcrs and providing paracIuics for iIcir usc was only pari of iIc
iasl. Miliiary iranspori plancs and glidcrs wcrc also rcquircd. TIc Sovici lcadcrs undcrsiood iIis vcry wcll.
TIai is wIy iIc paracIuic psycIosis of iIc 1930s was also acconpanicd ly a glidcr psycIosis. Sovici glidcr
pilois and iIcir glidcrs wcrc wcll up io world siandards, and indccd IigIcr. Dy iIc lcginning of iIc Sccond
World War, oui of cigIiccn world gliding rccords, iIiriccn wcrc Icld ly iIc Sovici Union.
TIc lcsi luildcrs of Sovici niliiary aircrafi wcrc sonciincs dcflccicd fron iIcir nain worl in ordcr io nalc
glidcr plancs. Evcn Scrgci Korolcv, wIo was laicr io crcaic iIc firsi spuinil, was sci io worl on dcvcloping
glidcrs, wIicI Ic did wiiI grcai succcss. If luildcrs of war plancs and lallisiic nissilcs wcrc pui io worl on
naling glidcrs, iIc purposc was olviously noi sinply io win world rccords. Had Sialin lccn inicrcsicd in
lrcaling rccords, wIy did Ic noi pui iIc lcsi ninds io worl on crcaiing ncw racing licyclcs?
TIai Sovici gliding was Icading in a niliiary dircciion is lcyond dispuic. Evcn lcforc Hiilcr canc io powcr,
iIc Sovici Union Iad sccn iIc crcaiion of iIc firsi airlornc cargo glidcr in iIc world, iIc 6-63, nadc ly iIc
planc luildcr Doris DniiriycvicI Urlapov. Hcavy glidcrs wcrc invcnicd wIicI wcrc capallc of lifiing a frcigIi-
carrying vcIiclc. P. CorolIovsly cvcn crcaicd an inflaiallc rullcr glidcr; aficr iIcy Iad lccn uscd lcIind
cncny lincs, iIcy could lc loadcd on io a iranspori aircrafi and rciurncd io iIcir own icrriiory io lc uscd
again.
TIc Sovici gcncrals wcrc drcaning of iIrowing noi only Iundrcds of iIousands of airlornc infaniryncn inio
iIc Wcsi, lui Iundrcds and possilly iIousands of ianls as wcll. Sovici aircrafi dcsigncrs wcrc looling Iard
for a way in wIicI io rcalizc iIis drcan ly iIc nosi sinplc and lcasi cpcnsivc ncans. Olcg Anionov, wIo
was laicr io dcsign iIc largcsi niliiary iranspori aircrafi in iIc world, suggcsicd iIai iIc ordinary ianl,
produccd in scrics, sIould lc fiiicd wiiI wings and a iail unii, and iis Iull uscd as iIc francworl for iIc
wIolc of iIis surprisingly sinplc consiruciion. TIis sysicn was givcn iIc iniiials KT, wIicI siood for iIc
Fussian words for 'wingcd ianl'. TIc swiicIgcar for iIc air vancs was ficd on io iIc ianl cannon. TIc ianl
crcw conirollcd iIc fligIi fron insidc iIc ianl ly ncans of iurning iIc iurrci and raising iIc larrcl of iIc
cannon. TIc cniirc consiruciion was asionisIingly sinplc. Of coursc, iIc risls involvcd in flying in a ianl
wcrc unusually IigI, lui iIcn Iunan lifc was cIcap.
TIc KT flcw in 1942. TIcrc is a uniquc pIoiograpI of a ianl, conplcic wiiI wings and iailpiccc, flying
iIrougI iIc air, in a lool (Souct TunIs und ConIut VcIccs o] Vo)d Vu) Tuo, 1984i pullisIcd ly SicpIcn
Saloga, a pronincni Wcsicrn ianl cpcri.
Jusi lcforc landing, iIc ianl cnginc siaricd up and iis caicrpillar iracls lcgan rcvolving ai nainun
spccd. TIc KT iIcn landcd on iis own iracls and gradually lralcd. TIc wings and iailpiccc wcrc iIcn
discardcd, and iIc KT lccanc an ordinary ianl again.
Olcg Anionov nisscd iIc lcginning of iIc war wiiI Iis wingcd ianl; Iosiiliiics did noi lcgin as Sialin Iad
planncd, and iIis ciraordinary nacIinc iurncd oui io lc jusi as unncccssary as iIc nillion paracIuiisis.
TIc Sovici planc dcsigncrs Iad iIcir nisialcs and failurcs, iIcir frusiraiions and dcfcais. Dui iIcir
succcsscs wcrc lcyond douli. TIc Sovici Union cnicrcd iIc war wiiI nany iincs norc glidcrs and glidcr
pilois iIan iIc rcsi of iIc world pui iogciIcr. In 1939 alonc, iIc Sovici Union Iad 30,000 irainccs
sinuliancously undcr insiruciion in glidcr-flying. Piloiing slills oficn aiiaincd a vcry IigI siandard. In 1940,
for canplc, a dcnonsiraiion was givcn in iIc Sovici Union of a fligIi of clcvcn glidcrs lcing iowcd ly onc
aircrafi.
Sialin did cvcryiIing io cnsurc iIai iIcrc wcrc cnougI glidcrs availallc for Iis pilois. Ii was noi singlc-
scaicr sporis glidcrs iIai Ic Iad in nind, of coursc, lui nulii-scaicr oncs luili for airlornc assauli. TIc cnd
of iIc 1930s saw inicnsivc conpciiiion lciwccn norc iIan icn Sovici aircrafi dcsign officcs io scc wIo could
crcaic iIc lcsi airlornc assauli glidcr. Apari fron iIc wingcd ianl, Olcg Anionov also dcsigncd iIc nulii-
scaicr A-y airlornc assauli glidcr; V. Crilovsly invcnicd iIc cccllcni C-II airlornc assauli glidcr; D. N.
Kolcsnilov dcsigncd a glidcr, iIc KZ-2O, wIicI could carry iwcniy soldicrs; wIilc C. Korlula was worling on
iIc dcsign of a junlo glidcr.
In January 1940, iIc Ccniral Conniiicc (iIai is io say Sialini ordcrcd iIai a Dirccioraic for iIc Produciion
of Airlornc Assauli Transpori Clidcrs lc sci up undcr iIc Pcoplcs' Connissariai for iIc Aviaiion Indusiry.
1940 was ialcn up wiiI inicnsivc prcparaiory worl, lui fron spring 1941 onwards, nass produciion of
airlornc assauli glidcrs lcgan in iIc planis opcraiing undcr iIis ncw dirccioraic.
TIis lursi of glidcr produciion Ias inicrcsiing inplicaiions. TIc glidcrs produccd in iIc spring of 1941
would Iavc io Iavc lccn uscd in iIc sunncr of iIai ycar, or ly carly auiunn ai iIc laicsi, sincc ii would
Iavc lccn inpossillc io lccp iIcn safc uniil 1942. All iIc Iangars, and iIcrc wcrc noi vcry nany of iIcn,
Iad long lccn cranncd full of iIc glidcrs wIicI Iad alrcady lccn produccd. Ii would Iavc lccn sinply oui of
iIc qucsiion io lccp a grcai airlornc assauli glidcr in iIc opcn air for any lcngiI of iinc, cposcd io iIc rains
and winds of auiunn, io frosis and io Icavy snowfalls wcigIing nany ions.
TIc nass produciion of airlornc assauli iranspori glidcrs in 1941 ncani iIai iIcy wcrc inicndcd io lc uscd
in 1941. If Sialin Iad inicndcd io iIrow Iundrcds of iIousands of Iis parairoopcrs inio Wcsicrn Europc in
1942, iIcn iIc nass produciion of glidcrs would Iavc Iad io lc planncd for 1942.
TIc glidcr is a ncans of dclivcring cargocs and groups of parairoopcrs wiiIoui paracIuics. Parairoopcrs
cquippcd wiiI paracIuics arc convcycd inio iIc arcas lcIind cncny lincs ly niliiary iranspori aircrafi. TIc
lcsi niliiary iranspori planc in iIc world ai iIc ouilrcal of war was iIc lcgcndary Ancrican C-47 or
'Daloia'. TIis cccllcni aircrafi, allcii undcr anoiIcr nanc, forncd iIc lasc upon wIicI Sovici niliiary
iranspori aviaiion was luili. For sonc rcason or oiIcr, iIc Uniicd Siaics govcrnncni sold Sialin iIc liccncc
io producc ii lcforc iIc war, along wiiI iIc IigIly conplc cquipncni wIicI ii nccdcd. Sialin iool full
advaniagc of iIis opporiuniiy. So nany of iIcsc C-47s wcrc produccd in iIc Sovici Union iIai sonc Ancrican
cpcris lclicvc iIai, wIcn iIc war lcgan, iIc Sovici Union Iad norc of iIcsc aircrafi iIan iIc Uniicd Siaics
did.
In addiiion io iIc C-47s, iIc Sovici Union also Iad scvcral Iundrcd olsolcic TD-3 lonlcrs, wIicI Iad
lccn down-gradcd io niliiary iranspori aircrafi. All iIc largc-scalc airdrops wIicI iool placc in iIc 1930s
wcrc nadc fron TD-3 aircrafi. Sialin Iad cnougI of iIcn io airlifi scvcral iIousand paracIuiisis and Icavy
wcapons, including ligIi ianls, arnourcd cars and ariillcry, sinuliancously.
No naiicr Iow nany niliiary iranspori aircrafi Sialin luili, Ic would Iavc Iad io usc iIcn inicnsivcly, day
and nigIi, ovcr a pcriod of wccls or noniIs if Ic wanicd io carry a grcai lody of Sovici parairoopcrs inio iIc
cncny Iinicrland, and iIcn lccp iIcn in supplics. TIis gavc risc io iIc prollcn of Iow io lccp iIc aircrafi
undanagcd on iIcir firsi irip, so iIai iIcy could nalc sulscqucni runs. TIc losscs of aircrafi, glidcrs and
parairoopcrs on iIc firsi irip could lc cnornous; on iIc sccond, iIcy would lc cvcn grcaicr, lccausc iIc
clcncni of surprisc would Iavc lccn losi.
TIc Sovici gcncrals undcrsiood iIis vcry wcll. Ii was olvious iIai a nassivc drop of parairoopcrs could only
lc acIicvcd if iIc Sovici Union Iad alsoluic suprcnacy in iIc air. TIc ncwspapcr Hcd Stu) siaicd quiic
caicgorically on 27 Scpicnlcr 1940 iIai ii was inpossillc io land iIcsc grcai nunlcrs of paracIuiisis
succcssfully wiiIoui air suprcnacy.
TIc Fcd Sc)ucc Hcguutons is iIc lasic docuncni, gradcd iop sccrci, wIicI lays down iIc proccdurcs for
Fcd Arny opcraiions in war. TIc issuc wIicI was in forcc ai iIc iinc was Fcd Sc)ucc Hcguutons l939,
lnown as PU-39. Ii lays down sinply and clcarly iIai an 'opcraiion in dcpiI' in gcncral, and a nass drop of
paracIuiisis in pariicular, can only lc carricd oui in condiiions wIcrc iIc Sovici Air Forcc Ias suprcnacy in
iIc air. TIc Fcd Sc)ucc Hcguutons, as wcll as iIc Opc)utonu A) Fo)cc Hcguutons and iIc Inst)uctons on
tIc Indcpcndcnt Usc o] A) Fo)cc all cnvisagcd a vasi siraicgic opcraiion io lc carricd oui in iIc iniiial pcriod
of iIc war, wiiI iIc purposc of lnocling oui iIc cncny's air powcr. According io iIc dcsign of iIc Sovici
Connand, air arns fron various fronis and flccis, iIc air arn of iIc HigI Connand and cvcn iIc figIicr
arn of iIc Anii-Aircrafi Dcfcnccs (PVOi all Iad io ialc pari in iIai opcraiion. TIcsc rcgulaiions considcrcd
iIai iIc clcncni of surprisc was iIc nain guaranicc of iIc succcss of iIc opcraiion. TIc surprisc opcraiion io
lnocl oui cncny air powcr Iad io lc carricd oui 'in iIc inicrcsis of iIc war as a wIolc'. In oiIcr words, iIc
surprisc sirilc ai iIc airficlds Iad io lc so powcrful iIai iIc cncny air forcc would noi lc allc io rccovcr
fron ii lcforc iIc war cndcd.
In Dcccnlcr 1940, ai a sccrci ncciing aiicndcd ly Sialin and ncnlcrs of iIc Poliiluro, a scnior
connandcr of iIc Fcd Arny discusscd iIc dciails of sucI opcraiions. TIcsc wcrc callcd, in Sovici jargon,
'spccial opcraiions in iIc iniiial pcriod of war'. Ccncral Pavcl FycIagov, iIc officcr connanding iIc Sovici Air
Forcc, insisicd on iIc ncccssiiy of canouflaging iIc Sovici Air Forcc's prcparaiions in ordcr io 'caicI iIc
wIolc of iIc cncny air forcc on iIc ground'.
Ii is quiic olvious iIai ii is noi possillc 'io caicI iIc wIolc of iIc cncny air forcc on iIc ground' in iinc of
war. Ii is only possillc io do so in pcacciinc, wIcn iIc cncny docs noi suspcci iIc dangcr.
Sialin crcaicd so nany airlornc iroops iIai iIcy could only lc uscd in onc siiuaiion. aficr a surprisc aiiacl
ly iIc Sovici Air Forcc on iIc airficlds of iis cncny. Ii would lc sinply inpossillc io usc Iundrcds of
iIousands of airlornc iroops and iIousands of iranspori aircrafi and glidcrs in any oiIcr siiuaiion.
"(&)*#% 04
On io Dcrlin
O] u tIc ugg)cssuc u)ncs uIcI Iuuc cuc)
cxstcd n tIc pust, tIc Vo)Ic)s' und Pcusunts' Hcd
A)nu u Ic tIc nost ugg)cssuc.
(Ficld Scrvicc Fcgulaiions of iIc Worlcrs'
and Pcasanis' Fcd Arny, 1939, p. 9i
Anong iIc nany dcfcnsivc sysicns wIicI iIc Sovici Union posscsscd was iIc Dnicpcr Naval Floiilla. TIc
grcai Dnicpcr rivcr lars iIc road for any aggrcssor lcni on noving inio iIc Icari of Sovici icrriiory fron iIc
wcsi. All iIc lridgcs across iIc Dnicpcr wcrc nincd lcforc 1939, and iIcy could Iavc lccn llown up in sucI
a way iIai noiIing could Iavc lccn donc io rcpair iIcn. In all iIcir prcvious canpaigns, Ccrnan iroops Iad
ncvcr lcforc Iad io ford a waicr larricr as fornidallc as iIc Dnicpcr. In a dcfcnsivc war, iIc Ccrnan iIrusis
could Iavc lccn lrougIi io a conplcic Iali, ai lcasi in iIc niddlc and lowcr rcacIcs of iIc rivcr, sinply ly
prcssing a fcw luiions.
Ii was in ordcr io prcvcni iIc fording of iIc rivcr and iIc placing of icnporary crossings ovcr ii iIai iIc
Dnicpcr Naval Floiilla was sci up in iIc 1930s. Dy iIc lcginning of iIc Sccond World War, iIc Floiilla
consisicd of 120 naval vcsscls and launcIcs, including cigIi powcrful noniiors, cacI wiiI a displaccncni of
2,000 ions, arnour in cccss of loonn, and I52nn cannons. TIc Dnicpcr Floiilla also Iad iis own air arn,
as wcll as sIorc and anii-aircrafi laiicrics. TIc lcfi lanl of iIc Dnicpcr is cnincnily suiiallc for aciion ly
naval rivcr vcsscls. A nuliiiudc of islands, cIanncls, laclwaicrs and inlcis cnallc cvcn iIc largcsi naval
vcsscls io ialc covcr and launcI surprisc aiiacls io forcsiall any aiicnpi io ford iIc rivcr.
TIc fornidallc larricr forncd ly iIc Dnicpcr, iIc lridgcs rcady io lc dcionaicd, and iIc rivcr Floiilla
worling in coopcraiion wiiI iIc ficld iroops, ariillcry and air forcc, could Iavc safcly larrcd iIc way io iIc
indusirial rcgions of iIc souiIcrn Ulrainc and iIc Sovici lascs on iIc Dlacl Sca. TIc Ccrnan HtzI)cg
could Iavc lccn sioppcd on iIc rivcr-lanls, or ai lcasi Icld up iIcrc for scvcral noniIs. Had iIai Iappcncd,
iIc war would Iavc ialcn an cniircly diffcrcni coursc. Dui as soon as Hiilcr iurncd Iis lacl on Iin, Sialin
ordcrcd iIai iIc nincs lc clcarcd fron iIc Dnicpcr lridgcs, and iIai iIc Floiilla lc dislandcd. TIc Dnicpcr
Floiilla could lc uscd only on Sovici icrriiory, and only in a dcfcnsivc war. Sincc Sialin was noi aniicipaiing a
dcfcnsivc war, Ic Iad no nccd for iIc Floiilla.
Insicad of onc dcfcnsivc floiilla, Sialin iIcn crcaicd iwo ncw oncs, iIc Danulc Floiilla and iIc Pinsl Floiilla.
TIc Sovici Danulc Floiilla was forncd lcforc iIc Sovici Union acquircd an ouilci io iIc Danulc. In iIc
coursc of ZIulov's 'lilcraiion canpaign' in iIc Fonanian froniicr rcgions, Sialin iool Dulovina and
Dcssaralia fron Fonania. FigIi ai iIc nouiI of iIc Danulc, a sccior of iIc casicrn lanl of iIc rivcr, sonc
dozcns of liloncircs long, passcd inio iIc posscssion of iIc Sovici Union. TIc Danulc Floiilla, wIicI Iad
alrcady lccn sci up in cpcciaiion of iIis cvcni, was novcd iIcrc inncdiaicly. To iransfcr sIips iIcrc fron
iIc Dnicpcr was no casy naiicr. A fcw vcsscls wcrc iransporicd across ly rail, wIilc iIc largcr oncs wcrc
lrougIi iIrougI iIc Dlacl Sca wIcn iIc wcaiIcr was caln.
TIc Danulc Naval Floiilla includcd aloui 70 naval rivcr vcsscls and launcIcs, sul-uniis of iIc figIicr air
forcc, and anii-aircrafi and sIorc ariillcry. TIc condiiions wIcrc iIc lasc Iad io lc luili wcrc frigIiful. TIc
Sovici lanl of iIc Danulc Dclia was larrcn and cposcd. TIc vcsscls Iad io noor ai opcn lcriIs, wiiI
Fonanian iroops sonciincs only 300 ncircs away.
In iIc cvcni of a dcfcnsivc war, iIc cniirc Danulc Floiilla would Iavc fallcn inio a irap iIc noncni
Iosiiliiics lcgan. TIc cncny could sinply ralc iIc Sovici vcsscls wiiI nacIinc-gun firc, prcvcniing iIcn
fron raising ancIor and casiing off. In a dcfcnsivc war, norcovcr, iIc Danulc Naval Floiilla would Iavc Iad
no uscful funciion. Civcn iis locaiion, iIcrc wcrc sinply no dcfcnsivc iasls for ii io fulfil. TIc Danulc Dclia
consisis of Iundrcds of lalcs, inpassallc swanps and Iundrcds of squarc liloncircs of rccd narsIcs. Ii is
iIc lasi placc iIrougI wIicI an cncny would cIoosc io aiiacl iIc Sovici Union.
TIcrc was only onc way io cplain iIc siiing of iIc Danulc Floiilla; iis purposc was io carry oui conlai
opcraiions upsircan wIilc Fcd Arny iroops wcrc naling a gcncral advancc. If you gaiIcr 70 rivcr vcsscls in
iIc dclia of a grcai rivcr, iIcy Iavc nowIcrc io go cccpi upsircan. TIis ncani iIai iIcy would Iavc io
opcraic on iIc icrriiory of Fonania, Dulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, CzccIoslovalia, Ausiria and Ccrnany.
TIc Danulc Floiilla was of no usc io anyonc in a dcfcnsivc war, and ii was condcnncd io lc dcsiroycd
inncdiaicly in iis opcn noorings on a lanl ralcd ly cncny gunfirc. In an offcnsivc war, Iowcvcr, iIc
Danulc Floiilla would lc a norial dangcr io Ccrnany. Ii only Iad io novc 130 liloncircs upsircan for iIc
siraicgic lridgc ai CIcrnavada io conc undcr firc fron iis guns. TIai in iis iurn would ncan iIai iIc flow of
oil fron Plocsii io iIc pori of Consianza would lc cui off. AnoiIcr 200 liloncircs upsircan and iIc cniirc
Ccrnan war nacIinc would conc io a Iali sinply lccausc Ccrnan ianls, aircrafi and sulnarincs would
Iavc lccn lcfi wiiIoui fucl.
Ii is inicrcsiing iIai iIc Danulc Naval Floiilla Iad scvcral nolilc sIorc laiicrics, cquippcd wiiI I3onn and
I52nn cannons. If iIc Sovici HigI Connand Iad rcally concludcd iIai sonconc would aiiacl iIc Sovici
Union iIrougI iIc Danulc Dclia, iIcn ii ougIi io Iavc Iad iIc sIorc laiicrics dig in inncdiaicly, and luild
rcinforccd concrcic caponicrs for iIcn ai iIc firsi opporiuniiy. Yci no onc luili any caponicrs; iIc guns wcrc
nolilc and rcnaincd nolilc. TIcrc was only onc way io nalc usc of iIcir noliliiy, and only onc dircciion in
wIicI iIcy could lc novcd. In offcnsivc opcraiions, nolilc laiicrics acconpany a floiilla, noving along iIc
lanl and giving firc suppori io iIc conlai vcsscls.
TIc rcaciion of iIc connandcrs of iIc Danulc Naval Floiilla io iIc lcginning of iIc war lciwccn iIc Sovici
Union and Ccrnany was inicrcsiing. To iIc Sovici connandcrs, iIc word 'war' did noi ncan dcfcncc, lui
advancc. As soon as iIcy lcarni iIai iIc war Iad lcgun, iIc Sovici connandcrs pui iIc finisIing ioucIcs io
iIcir prcparaiions io launcI an assauli landing opcraiion. TIc aciion io lc ialcn ly iIc Sovici Floiilla
connandcrs, and also ly iIc connandcrs of iIc I4iI Fiflc Corps, wIosc divisions wcrc conccniraicd in iIc
Danulc Dclia arca, and ly iIc connandcrs of iIc 79iI Froniicr DciacIncni of iIc NKVD, Iad lccn
prcviously planncd and worlcd oui wiiI grcai carc. On 25 Junc 1941, iIc Danulc Floiilla vcsscls, undcr
covcr of firc fron iIc sIorc laiicrics and ariillcry of iIc I4iI Fiflc Corps, landcd rcconnaissancc and saloiagc
sul-uniis of iIc NKVD on iIc Fonanian lanl. Fcgincnis of iIc 5isi Fiflc Division of iIc i4iI Fiflc Corps wcrc
nci io lc landcd. Mcnlcrs of iIc Sovici assauli landing forcc acicd swifily and dccisivcly. A conplc
opcraiion involving rivcr vcsscls, aircrafi, ficld, sIorc and sIiplornc ariillcry, and sul-uniis of iIc Fcd Arny
and iIc NKVD Iad lccn succcssfully cccuicd wiiI cloclworl prccision. EvcryiIing Iad lccn prcparcd, co-
ordinaicd, agrccd and cIcclcd nany iincs ovcr. On iIc norning of 26 Junc 1941, iIc rcd flag was Ioisicd
ovcr iIc caiIcdral in iIc Fonanian iown of Kilia. A powcrful springloard on Fonanian icrriiory 70 liloncircs
long Iad fallcn inio iIc Iands of Sovici iroops. TIc Danulc Floiilla prcparcd for furiIcr offcnsivc aciion
IigIcr up iIc rivcr. Ii only Iad io sail anoiIcr 130 liloncircs upsircan io cui iIc oil supplics. In iIc alscncc
of any rcsisiancc, and iIcrc was Iardly any of iIai, ii could Iavc ialcn no norc iIan onc nigIi io gci iIcrc.
TIc 3rd Airlornc Corps, siaiioncd in iIc Odcssa rcgion, could lc droppcd io Iclp iIc Floiilla.
TIc Danulc Floiilla was pcrfccily capallc of noving a fcw dozcn liloncircs upsircan. Ii provcd iIis laicr.
Forncd a sccond iinc in 1944, iIougI wiiIoui aircrafi or Icavy noniiors, iIc Danulc Naval Floiilla fougIi
iis way 2,000 liloncircs up iIc Danulc and cndcd iIc war in Vicnna. In 1941 iIc Danulc Floiilla Iad
considcrally norc sircngiI and was faccd ly considcrally lcss rcsisiancc fron iIc cncny iIan was iIc casc
in 1944-
DoiI Hiilcr and Sialin fully undcrsiood iIc ncaning of iIc cprcssion 'oil is iIc lifc-llood of war'. Coloncl-
Ccncral Alfrcd Jodl quoics Hiilcr, in an arguncni wiiI Cudcrian, as saying 'You wani io advancc wiiIoui oil
all rigIi, wc sIall scc wIai will conc of ii.' As carly as 1927, Sialin was scriously occupying Iinsclf wiiI
naiicrs rclaicd io iIc approacIing World War. For Sialin, iIc ccniral siraicgic issuc was oil. On 3 Dcccnlcr
of iIai ycar, Ic dcclarcd iIai 'Ii is inpossillc io wagc war wiiIoui oil, and iIc sidc wIicI Ias an advaniagc in
oil Ias a good cIancc of viciory in iIc coning war.'
TIc inporiancc of iIc oil supply nusi lc lornc in nind wIcn irying io dccidc wIo was rcsponsillc for
lcginning iIc war lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany. In Junc 1940, wIcn no onc was iIrcaicning iIc
Sovici Union, dozcns of Sovici conlai rivcr vcsscls appcarcd in iIc Danulc Dclia. TIis sicp was of no
dcfcnsivc significancc. Ii was, Iowcvcr, a iIrcai io iIc Fonanian oil pipclincs, wIicI wcrc ioially unproiccicd.
Ii was also io lcconc a norial iIrcai io iIc wIolc of Ccrnany. In July 1940, Hiilcr Icld dciailcd
consuliaiions wiiI Iis gcncrals, and rcacIcd iIc dcprcssing conclusion iIai ii would lc no sinplc naiicr io
dcfcnd Fonania. If Ccrnany aiicnpicd io do so, iIc supply-lincs would lc ovcrsircicIcd and would Iavc io
pass iIrougI nouniainous arcas. If a largc nunlcr of iroops wcrc io lc iIrown inio iIc dcfcncc of Fonania,
iIcn wcsicrn Poland and casicrn Ccrnany, along wiiI Dcrlin iisclf, would lc opcn io a Sovici aiiacl. Nor
would ii Iclp io conccniraic a grcai nunlcr of iroops in Fonania and suppori Icr ai any pricc; iIc oilficlds
could lc dcsiroycd ly iIc fircs wIicI would lrcal oui if Fonania lccanc an arcna for figIiing.
In July 1940 Hiilcr firsi cprcsscd iIc iIougIi iIai iIc Sovici Union could lc dangcrous, cspccially if
Ccrnan iroops wcrc io lcavc iIc Coniincni for iIc DriiisI Islcs or for Africa. In a convcrsaiion wiiI Moloiov on
12 Novcnlcr 1940, Hiilcr cplaincd iIai ii was csscniial io lccp nany Ccrnan iroops in Fonania, clcarly
alluding, for Moloiov's lcncfii, io iIc Sovici niliiary iIrcai io Fonanian oil. Moloiov lci iIc allusion pass ovcr
Iis Icad. TIai is wIy Hiilcr, Iaving iIougIi cvcryiIing ovcr aficr Moloiov Iad dcparicd, gavc iIc ordcr in
Dcccnlcr iIai Opcraiion Darlarossa sIould go aIcad.
In Junc 1940, wIilc iIc Ccrnan Arny was figIiing in Francc, ZIulov, aciing on Sialin's ordcrs and
wiiIoui any prior consuliaiions wiiI iIcir Ccrnan allics, occupicd Dcssaralia, wIicI was iIcn a pari of
Fonania, and iniroduccd rivcr vcsscls inio iIc Danulc Dclia. Wcrc Hiilcr io ialc onc norc sicp wcsiwards
iowards Driiain, wIcrc was iIc guaranicc iIai ZIulov, again aciing on Sialin's ordcrs, would noi nalc
anoiIcr novc, of jusi anoiIcr 100 liloncircs, io dcal a faial llow io iIc Fonanian oilficlds?
Hiilcr aslcd iIc Icad of iIc Sovici govcrnncni io rcnovc iIc Sovici iIrcai io wIai, in icrns of oil, was in
cffcci iIc Icari of Ccrnany. Sialin and Moloiov did noi rcnovc iIc iIrcai, iIus provoling Hiilcr io ialc
rcciprocal aciion. D. H. Liddcll-Hari, iIc DriiisI niliiary Iisiorian wIo Ias nadc a dciailcd siudy of iIis
suljcci, Ias csiallisIcd iIai iIc Ccrnan plan in Junc 1940 was vcry sinplc. In ordcr io dcfcnd Fonania
fron Sovici aggrcssion, a Ccrnan aiiacl Iad io lc dclivcrcd in sonc oiIcr placc, in ordcr io draw iIc Fcd
Arny's aiicniion away fron iIc oilficlds. In iIc coursc of soriing oui iIc opiions, ii was rccognizcd iIai iIc
llow would Iavc io lc loiI powcrful and suddcn. TIc nunlcrs of iroops carnarlcd for sucI an aiiacl
gradually grcw, uniil finally, and iIis was noi rccognizcd ai iIc iinc, praciically all Ccrnan land forccs and a
largc pari of iIc Ccrnan Air Forcc wcrc down io ialc pari in ii.
Hiilcr's calculaiion was jusiificd. Dy siriling clscwIcrc, Hiilcr conpcllcd iIc Sovici iroops io lc wiiIdrawn
all along iIc froni. TIc Danulc Naval Floiilla was cui off fron iis iroops wiiI no way io cscapc. Mosi of iis
vcsscls Iad io lc scuiilcd, wIilc cnornous quaniiiics of siorcs, wIicI Iad lccn inicndcd io supply iIc
Floiilla as ii novcd upsircan in iIc Danulc, wcrc sinply iIrown away.
Hiilcr's aiiacl was powcrful, lui noi faial. MaccIiavclli olscrvcd iIai a powcrful aiiacl wIicI is noi faial
cniails iIc dcaiI of iis dclivcrcr. Sialin rccovcrcd fron iIc surprisc llow, aliIougI Ic did so wiiI difficuliy.
Hc forncd ncw arnics and floiillas io ialc iIc placc of iIosc wIicI Iad lccn losi in iIc carly days of iIc war,
and Ic cui Ccrnany's oil jugular, adniiicdly scvcral ycars laicr iIan planncd.
TIc rcason for Sialin's scizurc of Dcssaralia in Junc 1940 is cplaincd in a iclcgran daicd 7 July 1941,
wIicI Sialin scni io Ccncral of iIc Arny I. Tyulcncv, iIc connandcr of iIc SouiIcrn Froni. Sialin dcnandcd
iIai Dcssaralia sIould lc Icld ai all cosis, 'in vicw of iIc faci iIai wc nccd Dcssaralian icrriiory as a
springloard for aiiacl io organizc an offcnsivc'. AliIougI Hiilcr Iad launcIcd Iis surprisc aiiacl, Sialin was
siill noi iIinling aloui dcfcncc. His cIicf conccrn was organizing an advancc fron Dcssaralia. An advancc
fron Dcssaralia, Iowcvcr, was an advancc on iIc Fonanian oilficlds.
Sialin nadc fcw nisialcs in Iis carccr. Onc of iIc fcw, lui Iis nosi inporiani onc, was io scizc Dcssaralia
in 1940. Hc sIould ciiIcr Iavc scizcd Dcssaralia and iIcn novcd inncdiaicly on Plocsii; or clsc Ic sIould
Iavc waiicd uniil Hiilcr Iad landcd in Driiain, and iIcn scizcd Dcssaralia and iIc wIolc of Fonania. EiiIcr
coursc of aciion would Iavc narlcd iIc cnd of iIc 'iIousand-ycar FcicI'. Sialin Iad alrcady ialcn onc sicp
in iIc dircciion of iIc oil, and Iad capiurcd a springloard for a fuiurc offcnsivc. Hc iIcn sioppcd io lidc Iis
iinc. Dy doing iIis, Ic rcvcalcd Iis inicrcsi in Fonanian oil and scarcd Hiilcr, wIo uniil iIai noncni Iad
lccn waging war in iIc wcsi, souiI, and noriI, wiiIoui iurning any of Iis aiicniion io iIc 'ncuiral' Sialin.
TIc Sovici scizurc of Dcssaralia and iIc conccniraiion iIcrc of powcrful aggrcssivc forccs, including an
airlornc assauli corps and iIc Danulc Floiilla, conpcllcd Hiilcr io lool ai iIc siraicgic siiuaiion fron an
aliogciIcr diffcrcni vicwpoini and io ialc iIc appropriaic prcvcniivc ncasurcs. Dui ii was alrcady ioo laic.
Evcn iIc WcIrnacIi's surprisc aiiacl on iIc Sovici Union could no longcr savc Hiilcr and Iis cnpirc. Hiilcr
undcrsiood wIcrc iIc grcaicsi dangcr was coning fron, lui ii was alrcady ioo laic. Hc sIould Iavc iIougIi
aloui ii lcforc iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci was signcd.
In MarsIal ZIulov's ncnoirs iIcrc is a nap sIowing iIc locaiion of Sovici naval lascs in iIc firsi si
noniIs of 1941. Anong iIcsc lascs is onc ncar iIc iown of Pinsl in Dyclorussia, no lcss iIan 500 liloncircs
fron iIc ncarcsi sca. A naval lasc in iIc narsIcs of Dyclorussia is rcninisccni of iIc old Fussian cIildIood
jolc aloui a sulnarinc in iIc sicppcs of iIc Ulrainc. Dui iIcrc was noiIing vcry funny aloui iIis.
Aficr iIc Dnicpcr Naval Floiilla Iad lccn dislandcd, sonc of iis vcsscls wcrc iransfcrrcd io iIc Danulc
Dclia, wIilc oiIcrs wcrc ialcn upsircan io a iriluiary of iIc Dnicpcr, iIc rivcr Pripyai'. Far upsircan, ai a
poini wIcrc iIc rivcr narrowcd io a widiI of 50 ncircs, a lasc was luili for iIc ncw floiilla.
TIc Pinsl Naval Floiilla was Iardly infcrior in sircngiI io iIc Danulc Floiilla. Ii Iad no fcwcr iIan four
largc noniiors, and sonc iwo dozcn oiIcr vcsscls, an air squadron, conpanics of narincs and oiIcr sul-
uniis. TIc Pinsl Naval Floiilla could noi lc uscd in dcfcnsivc aciion. TIc noniiors wIicI Iad gonc iIcrc
could noi cvcn lc iurncd round. If iIc vcsscls wcrc nccdcd for dcfcncc, iIcy would sinply Iavc io rciurn io
iIc Dnicpcr, for iIcrc was alsoluicly noiIing for iIcn io do on iIc quici forcsi rivcr Pripyai', for iIc cncny
could Iardly nalc Iis way inio iIcsc inpcncirallc woods and swanpy narsIcs.
TIc purposc of iIc Pinsl Naval Floiilla would Iavc rcnaincd inconprcIcnsillc wcrc ii noi for iIc Dnicpcr-
Dug Canal. Inncdiaicly aficr wcsicrn Dyclorussia was 'lilcraicd', iIc Fcd Arny lcgan io dig a canal 127
liloncircs long fron iIc iown of Pinsl io Kolrin. Iis consiruciion wcni on in sunncr and in winicr. Taling
pari in iIc luilding worl wcrc sappcrs lclonging io uniis of iIc 4iI Arny, and 'consiruciion organizaiions of
iIc NKVD', iIai is, iIousands of CULAC prisoncrs. TIc faci iIai Coloncl (sulscqucnily MarsIali of
Enginccring Troops Alclsci ProsIlyalov was in cIargc of iIc luilding of iIc canal indicaics iIai iis purposc
was purcly niliiary. TIc condiiions undcr wIicI iIc canal was luili wcrc appalling. TIc cquipncni sanl inio
iIc swanps, wIicI lcfi only onc way io conplcic iIc canal wiiIin iIc iinc laid down ly Sialin. TIai was io do
cvcryiIing ly Iand. TIc canal was luili. How nucI ii cosi in Iunan livcs, scarccly anyonc lnows. Dui wIo
"was couniing?
TIc canal linlcd iIc Dnicpcr rivcr lasin wiiI iIc lasin of iIc rivcr Dug. WIy? To iradc wiiI Ccrnany? Dui
iradc wcni iIrougI iIc Daliic and ly rail. Ii was noi possillc for cargo sIips of any conncrcial frcigIi-
carrying capaciiy io pass cacI oiIcr in iIc canal. TIc journcy would lc a long onc; fron iIc Dnicpcr io iIc
Pripyai', fron iIc Pripyai' iIrougI iIc canal io MulIavcis, and fron iIcrc io iIc Dug (wIicI ai iIai iinc
carricd no conncrcial sIippingi, and iIcn fron iIc Dug finally io cncrgc on iIc Visiula. No, iIc canal was
nanifcsily noi luili for iradc; iis purposc was purcly niliiary.
Nor could iIis niliiary purposc Iavc lccn iIc dcfcncc of iIc Dug. TIc Sovici Union posscsscs only onc
snall sircicI of iIc Dug ncar Drcsi-Liiovsl, wIcrc iIc rivcr nalcs a sIarp iurn iowards Warsaw. No
dcfcnsivc prcparaiions wcrc lcing nadc in iIcsc rcgions. Evcn iIc Drcsi-Liiovsl forircss was io Iavc no norc
iIan onc laiialion in iIc cvcni of war, and iIai was noi for dcfcncc, lui for garrison duiics.
TIc only purposc of iIc canal was io lci sIips pass iIrougI io iIc Visiula lasin and iIcncc furiIcr
wcsiwards. Oncc iIc Sovici Union found iisclf in a dcfcnsivc war, ii Iad io lc llown up io prcvcni Ccrnan
rivcr vcsscls fron iIc Visiula fron rcacIing iIc lasin of iIc Dnicpcr. All iIc vcsscls of iIc Pinsl Floiilla wcrc
llown up as wcll.
A floiilla was again forncd on iIc Dnicpcr ai iIc cnd of 1943. Oncc again ii sailcd up iIc Pripyai', and oncc
again iIc Sovici sappcrs luili a canal fron iIc Pripyai' io iIc ninor rivcr MulIavcis, wIicI lcd io iIc Dug.
Adniral V. Crigor'cv, wIo iool ovcr iIc ncw floiilla ncar Kicv in 1943, rccalls a convcrsaiion wiiI MarsIal
ZIulov.
'Dy following iIc Pripyai' you will rcacI iIc wcsicrn Dug, iIc Narcv and iIc Visiula lcading io Warsaw, and
furiIcr on io cross inio iIc rivcrs of Ccrnany, pcrIaps lcading, wIo lnows, cvcn io Dcrlin iisclf!' Hc iurncd
round sIarply, loolcd ai nc scarcIingly, and rcpcaicd, sircssing cvcry word 'To Dcrlin iisclf, ycs?' (VIZH,
No. 7, 1984, p. 68i
Adniral Crigor'cv cvcniually goi io Dcrlin wiiI Iis floiilla. In TIc Marinc Infaniry in iIc Forcsis of
Dyclorussia any lool on iIc Iisiory of iIc Sovici Navy, wc sIall find iIc synlolic snapsIoi sIowing iIc flag
of iIc Sovici Navy wiiI iIc FcicIsiag in iIc laclground.
TIc way iIings iurncd oui, Sialin arrivcd in Dcrlin iIrougI rcsponding io Hiilcr's aiiacl. Dui iIis Iappcncd
in a way wIicI Sialin did noi forcscc. Had Ic lclicvcd in iIc possililiiy of a Ccrnan aiiacl, Ic would Iavc
pui nillions of CULAC prisoncrs io worl on digging anii-ianl diicIcs along iIc froniicr. Howcvcr, Sialin
inicndcd io gci io Dcrlin, noi in rcsponsc io an aiiacl, lui on Iis own iniiiaiivc. TIai is wIy iIc CULAC
prisoncrs and iIc Fcd Arny sappcrs wcrc noi digging anii-ianl diicIcs, lui filling iIcn in and luilding a
canal fron casi io wcsi.
Lci us noi forgci iIcsc CULAC prisoncrs wIon Sialin dcsiroycd in iIc quagnirc of iIc swanps in 1940, so
iIai iIc connunisi flag could onc day fly ovcr iIc capiial of iIc TIird FcicI.
"(&)*#% 0+
TIc Marinc Infaniry in iIc Forcsis of Dyclorussia
Vc Iuuc Iccn tuugIt tIut uu)s no ongc) Icgn
utI tIc cIuu)ous cus o] I'n conng u]tc) uou'.
Adniral N. KUZNETSOV,
(NuIununc, Moscow 1966, p. 306i
Prior io 1940, iIc Fcd Arny did noi Iavc any narinc infaniry. Ii was cIcapcr and sinplcr io usc ordinary
infaniry for land laiilcs, and landings on disiani sIorcs Iad noi yci cnicrcd Sialin's plans.
Dui iIcn Hiilcr lursi wcsiwards, and iurncd Iis unproiccicd lacl io Sialin. TIis inprudcni novc lrougIi
in iis irain iIc nosi radical siruciural cIangcs insidc iIc Fcd Arny, did away wiiI wIai rcnaincd of dcfcncc
and sIarply rcinforccd iIc sirilc forcc. In Junc 1940, wIilc Hiilcr was invading Francc, iIc Sovici narinc
infaniry was lorn.
Ai iIai iinc, iIc Sovici arncd forccs coniaincd iwo occangoing flccis, iwo sca-going flccis and iwo rivcr
floiillas on iIc Anur and on iIc Dnicpcr. TIc occan-going flcci was noi givcn any narinc infaniry; iIc Pacific
and Arciic Occans for iIc iinc lcing did noi inicrcsi Sialin. TIc Anur Floiilla, wIicI proiccicd iIc Sovici Far
Easi, was noi givcn any narinc infaniry ciiIcr. TIc Dnicpcr Naval Floiilla, as wc Iavc alrcady sccn, was
dividcd inio iwo offcnsivc floiillas. Of iIcsc, iIc Pinsl Floiilla, wIicI was dcploycd in iIc forcsis of
Dyclorussia, was givcn a conpany of narinc infaniry. Ii is inicrcsiing iIai narinc infaniry wcrc siaiioncd in
iIc Dyclorussian narsIcs, aliIougI iIcrc wcrc nonc on iIc IigI scas. A conclusion can lc drawn fron iIis
as io wIcrc Sialin was prcparing Iis dcfcnccs, and wIcrc Ic was prcparing for an offcnsivc.
TIc Sovici Daliic Flcci, wIosc only possillc cncny could lc Ccrnany and iis allics, was givcn a lrigadc of
narinc infaniry wiiI a sircngiI of scvcral iIousand ncn.
TIc Sovici narinc infaniry was givcn iis lapiisn on 22 Junc 1941 dcfcnding iIc Licpaja naval lasc. TIc
lasc was lcss iIan 100 liloncircs fron iIc Ccrnan froniicr. Ii Iad no land dcfcnccs and Iad noi lccn
prcparcd for dcfcncc. Dui according io iIc icsiinony of Sovici adnirals and of Ccrnan capiurcd docuncnis,
Sovici sulnarincs wcrc cranncd inio Licpaja 'lilc Icrring in a larrcl'. TIc official Iisiory of iIc Sovici Naval
Flcci pullisIcd ly iIc Acadcny of Scicnccs of iIc USSF opcnly adniis iIai Licpaja Iad lccn prcparcd as a
forward lasc for iIc Sovici Flcci io figIi an offcnsivc war ai sca. (Pot V VcIo O)ccIcstuc)no Vonu, Moscow
Naula 1980, p. 138i TIc narinc infaniry in Lcipaja wcrc so closc io iIc Ccrnan froniicr iIai iIcy wcrc
ialing pari in dcfcnsivc figIiing cvcn on iIc firsi day of iIc war, aliIougI iIcy ccriainly Iad noi lccn forncd
for iIis purposc. Ordinary infaniry arc lciicr for dcfcnsivc figIiing iIan iIc narinc infaniry.
TIc Danulc Naval Floiilla Iad iwo conpanics of land iroops, lui iIcsc arc noi officially rccordcd as narinc
infaniry. TIis, Iowcvcr, is noi cvidcncc of a grcai lovc for pcacc. Wc alrcady lnow iIai, cvcn lcforc Ccrnany
invadcd, ai lcasi iwo Sovici riflc divisions, iIc 25iI CIapacv and iIc 5isi Pcrclop, wIicI wcrc dcploycd ncar
iIc Danulc Dclia, wcrc iraincd (and vcry wcll iraincdi io go inio aciion as narinc infaniry.
TIc Dlacl Sca Flcci Iad cvcn norc powcrful forccs. Officially ii did noi posscss any narinc infaniry, lui in
carly Junc 1941 iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps undcr Licuicnani-Ccncral Paval Daiov
was sccrcily iransfcrrcd fron iIc Caucasus io iIc Crinca. TIis corps was unusual in iis conposiiion, iis
arnancni, and in iIc dircciion wIicI iis conlai iraining Iad lccn givcn. On 18 and 19 Junc 1941, iIc
Dlacl Sca Flcci carricd oui largc-scalc ccrciscs on an offcnsivc iIcnc. In iIc coursc of iIcsc ccrciscs, onc of
iIc divisions lclonging io iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps was pui aloard warsIips and carricd oui an assauli
landing on iIc 'cncny' coasi. TIis lind of assauli landing Iad ncvcr lccn praciiscd ly iIc Fcd Arny lcforc.
Moscow aiiacIcd pariicular inporiancc io iIc flcci and iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps Iaving joini ccrciscs.
TIcsc ccrciscs iool placc undcr iIc olscrvaiion of IigI-ranling connandcrs wIo Iad conc spccially fron
Moscow io aiicnd iIcn. Onc of iIcsc officcrs was Vicc-Adniral Ilya IlyicI Azarov. Hc laicr rccallcd Iow all
iIosc ialing pari fcli iIai iIc ccrciscs wcrc lcing Icld for an ulicrior noiivc, and iIai iIcy would soon Iavc
io pui iIcir ncwly-acquircd slills inio praciicc in a rcal war, wIicI would noi, of coursc, lc fougIi on iIcir
own icrriiory. (I. I. Azarov, OsuzIdcnnuuu Odcssu, Moscow Vocniz-dai 1962, pp. 3-8i
If war lrolc oui and iIc Sovici HigI Connand uscd iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps in a way appropriaic io iis
iypc and iIc iraining ii Iad lccn givcn, wIcrc could ii lc landcd? In iIcory, iIcrc wcrc only iIrcc
possililiiics. Fonania, Dulgaria and Turlcy. Dui wIcrcvcr iIc corps was landcd, ii would Iavc io lc supplicd
ai oncc. In ordcr io do iIis, ciiIcr norc iroops would Iavc io lc landcd, or clsc Sovici iroops would Iavc io
Iasicn io join up wiiI iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps. In any casc, iIc supplics would Iavc io conc iIrougI
Fonania.
Dy a sirangc coincidcncc, iIc 3rd Airlornc Assauli Corps was also in iIc Crinca ai iIc iinc. TIcy wcrc
carrying oui largc-scalc ccrciscs, in wIicI iIc corps Icadquaricrs and siaff wcrc airdroppcd along wiiI
lrigadc siaffs.
Sovici Iisiorians ncvcr linl iIcsc cvcnis iogciIcr iIc ccrciscs of iIc I4iI Fiflc Corps in naling assauli
landings fron sIips of iIc Danulc Floiilla; iIc 3rd Airlornc Assauli Corps naling assauli landings fron
aircrafi and glidcrs; and iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps naling assauli landings fron iIc warsIips of iIc Dlacl
Sca Flcci. Dui iIcsc cvcnis arc all connccicd in placc, iinc, and purposc. TIcy wcrc prcparaiions for
aggrcssion on a nassivc scalc; prcparaiions in iIcir final siagcs.
"(&)*#% 0,
WIai arc 'Arnics of Covcring Forccs'?
TIc Iusc und donnunt st)utcgc opc)utonu dcu
IcInd tIc nodc)n 'u)nu o] couc)ng ]o)ccs' is
aciivc surprisc invasion. It s ccu) ])on tIs tIut
tIc nodc)n dc]cnsuc tc)n 'u)nu o] couc)ng ]o)ccs'
s u sc)ccn to conccu u surprisc o]]cnsuc Iou to Ic
dcut Iu tIc 'nuudng u)nu'.
(P)oIcns o] St)utcgc Dcpouncnt,
Frunzc Miliiary Acadcny, 1935i
In iIc Europcan pari of iIc Sovici Union iIcrc wcrc fivc niliiary disiricis wIicI sIarcd connon froniicrs
wiiI forcign counirics. TIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon was nadc up of iroops fron iIcsc fivc froniicr disiricis and
iIrcc flccis. TIcsc froniicr and indccd all oiIcr disiricis Iad divisions and corps in iIcir siruciurc, lui no
arnics.
Arnics Iad cisicd in iIc Civil War, lui iIcy wcrc dislandcd aficr ii Iad cndcd. An arny is ioo largc a
fornaiion io lc nainiaincd in pcacciinc. TIc only cccpiion was iIc Spccial Arny of iIc Fcd Danncr. Wc
cannoi ialc ii inio accouni Icrc, Iowcvcr, sincc iIis lody includcd all iIc Sovici iroops in iIc Far Easi and
Trans-Dailal, and also iIc air forcc, naval forccs, niliiary sciilcncnis, and oiIcr clcncnis. TIis vasi
sIapclcss crcaiion cnlraccd collcciivc farns and cvcn Iad iis own conccniraiion canps. TIc unusual naiurc
of iIis fornaiion was IigIligIicd ly iIc faci iIai ii lorc no nunlcr, wIilc ai iIc Icad of iis Iugc organizaiion
siood a MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union.
In 1938, for iIc firsi iinc cvcr in pcacciinc, iwo arnics, iIc 1si and iIc 2nd, wcrc forncd in iIc Far Easi.
Ii was cniircly undcrsiandallc iIai iIc Sovici govcrnncni sIould ialc iIis sicp. Fclaiions wiiI Japan wcrc
vcry lad and prolongcd pcriods of Iosiiliiy frcqucnily ovcrflowcd inio rcal figIiing in wIicI grcai nunlcrs of
iroops wcrc uscd.
Up uniil iIis poini, iIcrc Iad ncvcr lccn any arnics in iIc Europcan pari of iIc couniry sincc iIc iinc of
iIc Civil War. Hiilcr's coning io powcr, iIc ccononic, poliiical and niliiary crisis in Europc, iIc dircci clasI
lciwccn Sovici connunisis and iIc fascisis in Spain, iIc Ccrnan AnscIuss in Ausiria and iis scizurc of
CzccIoslovalia; nonc of iIcsc cvcnis causcd Sovici arnics io lc sci up in iIc wcsicrn pari of iIc couniry.
Ai iIc lcginning of 1939, iIc Sovici Union, wiiI iIc Crcai Purgc lcIind ii, was cnicring a ncw cra of iis
cisicncc. Iis lcginning was narlcd ai iIc 18iI Pariy Congrcss ly a spcccI ly Sialin, wIicI in Fillcnirop's
words was 'acccpicd wiiI undcrsianding' in Dcrlin. Sovici forcign policy was rapidly cIanging coursc. Driiain
and Francc wcrc opcnly callcd warnongcrs, and if Sialin was noi aciually offcring Hiilcr iIc Iand of
fricndsIip, Sovici diplonais wcrc clcarly lciiing Hiilcr lnow iIai if Ic wcrc io cicnd Iis Iand, iIcn ii would
lc acccpicd.
TIai was iIc ouiward facc of iIis ncw cra. In 1939, Iowcvcr, iIc Sovici Union lcgan io forn arnics in iIc
Europcan pari of iis icrriiorics. For gcograpIical rcasons alonc, ii would Iavc lccn inpossillc io usc iIcsc
arnics againsi iIc 'warnongcrs' of Driiain and Francc. Againsi wIon iIcn? Surcly noi againsi Hiilcr, wiiI
wIon ncgoiiaiions aloui )upp)ocIcncnt wcrc lcing Icld wiiI sucI cniIusiasn lcIind iIc sccncs?
TIus wIilc Sovici diplonais wcrc 'sccling iIc road io pcacc', arnics sccrcily appcarcd on iIc wcsicrn
froniicrs, suddcnly and in wIolc scrics. iIc 3rd and 4iI Arnics in Dyclorussia, iIc 5iI and 6iI in iIc
Ulrainc, and iIc yiI, 8iI and 9iI on iIc FinnisI froniicr. TIcsc arnics wcrc growing in sircngiI, and ncw
arnics wcrc lcing addcd io iIcn. iIc loiI and niI in Dyclorussia, and iIc i2iI in iIc Ulrainc.
Connunisi propaganda sonciincs irics io prcscni iIc naiicr in sucI a way as io suggcsi iIai iIc Sovici
Union lcgan io forn iis arnics only aficr iIc Sccond World War lcgan. Dui ii was noi lilc iIis. TIcrc is
sufficicni cvidcncc io provc iIai Sialin dccidcd io forn iIc arnics Ic]o)c iIc war lrolc oui. Evcn according io
official Sovici sourccs, iIc arnics wcrc sci up lcforc iIc signing of iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci. TIc 4iI and
6iI Arnics arc lnown io Iavc lccn alrcady in cisicncc in Augusi 1939. TIcrc is also lnowlcdgc of iIc
cisicncc of iIc 5iI Arny in July. TIc 10iI and 12iI Arnics wcrc sci up 'lcforc iIc Sccond World War
lcgan', iIai is lcforc I Scpicnlcr 1939. (Souct Mtu)u Encuopucdu) Of iIc rcnaining arnics, iIcy arc also
lnown io Iavc lccn sci up in iIc arcas of foriIconing conflicis, and iIai iIcsc conflicis sulscqucnily lrolc
oui iIcrc.
SIorily aficr iIcy Iad lccn forncd, cacI of iIcsc arnics goi down io iis rcal iasl. All scvcn arnics
dcploycd on iIc PolisI froniicr wcrc involvcd in iIc 'lilcraiion' of Poland, wIilc iIc iIrcc arnics on iIc
FinnisI lordcr 'Iclpcd iIc FinnisI pcoplc iIrow off iIc yolc of iIc opprcssors'. TIrcc arnics wcrc noi cnougI
Icrc, so ncw oncs, iIc I3iI, 14iI and 15iI, wcrc addcd.
WIcn iIc Winicr War in Finland cndcd, four Sovici arnics on iIc FinnisI froniicr appcarcd io wiiIdraw
inio iIc sIadows and dissolvc. SIorily aficrwards iIc I5iI Arny appcarcd in iIc Far Easi, iIc 8iI was sccn
on iIc froniicrs wiiI iIc Daliic siaics, wIilc iIc 9iI iurncd up on iIc Fonanian froniicr. 'Fcqucsis fron iIc
worlcrs' in iIcsc counirics io conc and lilcraic iIcn wcrc soon foriIconing. And iIc valiani Sovici arnics
iIcn lilcraicd Esionia, LiiIuania, Laivia, Dcssaralia and noriIcrn Dulovina. Aficr iIis, iIc 9iI Arny again
wiiIdrcw inio iIc sIadows. Lilc iIc ijiI Arny, ii was rcady io nalc an appcarancc again ai any noncni.
And as wc sIall scc, ii did jusi iIai.
Aficr iIc 'lilcraiion' canpaigns Iad lccn conplcicd, noi onc of iIcsc arnics was dislandcd, in spiic of iIc
vasi cpcndiiurc nccdcd io nainiain iIcn. TIis was unprcccdcnicd in iIc wIolc of Sovici Iisiory. Uniil iIis
poini, arnics Iad only lccn forncd during wariinc, and only in ordcr io figIi in war. Now iIcrc was no onc
clsc lcfi in Europc io 'lilcraic' cccpi Ccrnany. Ii was jusi ai iIis poini iIai iIc proccss of forning ncw
arnics was apprccially sicppcd up.
Two arnics, iIc 16iI and iIc l7iI, wcrc csiallisIcd in Trans-Dailal in Junc 1940. TIc 16iI was sci up and
dcploycd in sucI a way iIai ii could lc iransfcrrcd wcsiwards ai any noncni. Dui ii is noi iIis arny wIicI
inicrcsis us. TIc 17iI Arny is iIc onc wIicI conpcls our aiicniion. During iIc Civil War, ai iIc nosi
dranaiic noncni in iIc llood-siaincd conflici io prcscrvc iIc connunisi diciaiorsIip, iIc IigIcsi nunlcr
uscd in iIc dcsignaiion of an arny was 16. TIrougIoui Sovici Iisiory iIc nunlcr 17 Iad ncvcr lccn uscd io
dcsignaic an arny. TIc appcarancc of an arny lcaring sucI a nunlcr ncani iIai iIc Sovici Union, wIilc ai
pcacc and noi cpcciing an aiiacl fron ouisidc, Iad surpasscd iIc IigIcsi nunlcr cvcr rcacIcd. (Prcviously
iIis nunlcr Iad lccn rcacIcd on onc occasion only, for a lricf pcriod in iIc coursc of a vcry liiicr war.i
TIc Sovici lcadcrs clcarly undcrsiood iIai in sciiing up a 17iI Arny, iIcy wcrc crossing a Fulicon wIicI
was noi visillc io iIc uniniiiaicd. Evcn iwo ycars prcviously, iIc siaic could noi allow iisclf io nainiain cvcn
onc fornaiion wIicI could Iavc lccn dcscrilcd ly iIc niliiary icrn 'arny'. Now norc arnics wcrc lcing
forncd iIan Iad cvcr lccn csiallisIcd in iIc pasi. A criiical dcgrcc in iIc Sovici Union's powcr Iad now lccn
ccccdcd. Fron iIcn onwards, iIc dcvclopncni of iIc couniry would procccd in cniircly ncw condiiions of a
lind iIai Iad ncvcr lcforc lccn cncounicrcd.
TIc crcaiion of iIc l7iI Arny was clcarly a nosi IigIly proiccicd siaic sccrci, and Sialin did Iis lcsi io
cnsurc iIai ii rcnaincd a sccrci loiI wiiIin iIc couniry and alroad. TIc 16iI and l7iI Arnics wcrc forncd
in sucI a way iIai ii was alnosi inpossillc for iIcn io lc sccn ly ouisidc olscrvcrs. Eira ncasurcs wcrc
ialcn io scoicI runours aloui growing Sovici niliiary nigIi. TIc ordcr io sci up iIc l7iI Arny was signcd
ly MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union K. S. TinosIcnlo on 21 Junc 1940. (O)dc) o] tIc Pcopcs' Connssu)ut ]o)
Dc]cncc, No. 4, poini 3i TIc nci day, Sovici radio lroadcasi a TASS rcpori. ScIulcnlcrg, iIc Ccrnan
anlassador, uncrringly dcduccd iIai Sialin Iad wriiicn ii Iinsclf, and iold Moloiov, wIo did noi considcr ii
ncccssary io rcfuic iIc suggcsiion.
In iIc TASS rcpori, Sialin rcsoricd io Iis favouriic dcvicc of aiiriluiing io Iis opponcnis words wIicI iIcy
did noi usc, iIus allowing Iinsclf casily io 'unnasl a lic'.
TIcrc arc runours circulaiing io iIc cffcci iIai noi jusi 100, noi cvcn 150 Sovici divisions arc conccniraicd
on iIc LiiIuanianCcrnan froniicr . . .
TIis is purc invcniion ly Sialin. I Iavc cIcclcd DriiisI, FrcncI and Ancrican ncwspapcrs, wIicI Sialin
cposcs Icrc as iIc slandcrcrs, and iIcrc is noi onc ncwspapcr wIicI quoics sucI faniasiic figurcs. Having
aiiriluicd io iIc Wcsicrn prcss sonciIing ii did noi wriic, Sialin casily rcfuicd iIis non-cisicni slandcr
lcforc passing on io Iis nain poini.
Ii is considcrcd in rcsponsillc Sovici circlcs iIai iIosc wIo arc sprcading iIcsc ridiculous runours arc
pursuing iIc spccial ain of casiing a sIadow ovcr Sovici-Ccrnan rclaiions. TIcsc gcnilcncn, Iowcvcr, arc
sinply cprcssing iIcir supprcsscd dcsircs as rcaliiy. TIcy arc apparcnily incapallc of undcrsianding iIc
olvious faci iIai iIc good ncigIlourly rclaiions wIicI Iavc lccn csiallisIcd lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and
Ccrnany as a rcsuli of iIc conclusion of iIc non-aggrcssion paci cannoi lc sIalcn ly any runours or
pciiy propaganda. (P)uudu, 23 Junc 1940i
TIcrc is sonc iruiI in iIis rcpori. Sialin was quiic corrcci in saying iIai Sovici iroops wcrc noi lcing
conccniraicd on iIc froniicr. Dui Ic passcd ovcr in silcncc iIc faci iIai, far fron inquisiiivc cycs in iIc dcpiI
of iIc couniry, powcrful fornaiions wcrc lcing sci up wIicI would onc day iurn up on iIc Ccrnan froniicr,
also undcr iIc covcr of anoiIcr and cqually falsc TASS rcpori.
Ii is quiic olvious iIai, in iIcir noliliiy, iIcir iccInical cquipncni, and iIcir firc, sirilc and figIiing
powcr, iIc arnics of iIc 'prc-war pcriod' wcrc inncasurally supcrior io iIc arnics wIicI fougIi in iIc Civil
War. Dui iIis was noi iIc only diffcrcncc. WIcrcas iIc arnics wcrc iIcn dispcrscd in si diffcrcni dircciions,
iIcy wcrc now nusicrcd inio only iwo. Againsi Japan, wiiI wIon conflicis wcrc unccasing, iIcrc wcrc fivc
arnics; wIilc facing Ccrnany and iis allics, wiiI wIon pcacc Iad lccn signcd, iIcrc wcrc iwclvc.
Nor did iIc rapid proccss of sciiing up arnics siop iIcrc. Yci anoiIcr arny, iIc 26iI, was forncd on July
1940 on iIc Ccrnan lordcr.
In iIc Fcd Arny, iIc scqucncc of nunlcrs Iad always lccn rigorously olscrvcd. TIc nci nunlcr in iIc
scqucncc sIould Iavc lccn 18. So wIy was iIc scqucncc lrolcn?
NciiIcr Sovici narsIals nor cnincni connunisi Iisiorians givc us iIc answcr io iIis qucsiion. Dui if a
closc siudy is nadc of iIc way in wIicI iIcsc arnics wcrc crcaicd, Iisiory iisclf will suggcsi iIc answcr. TIc
scqucncc of nunlcring arnics Iad noi in faci lccn lrolcn; in iIc sunncr of 1940 iIc Sovici lcadcrsIip sci
up anoiIcr ccucn arnics, onc dirccicd ai Japan, icn ai Ccrnany.
TIc 26iI Arny was forncd on iIc Ccrnan lordcr as pari of iIis long scrics, and iis fornaiion prcccdcd
iIai of iIc oiIcrs. Dui all iIc oiIcr arnics in iIc sanc scrics wcrc in iIc proccss of lcing sci up; ai iIc vcry
lcasi, iIc dccision Iad lccn ialcn io sci iIcn up. TIc fornaiion of iIcsc arnics was conplcicd soncwIai
laicr iIan iIai of iIc 26iI Arny, lui Ic]o)c iIc Ccrnan invasion lcgan.
TIc 23rd and 2yiI Arnics nadc iIcir sccrci appcaranccs in iIc wcsicrn niliiary disiricis in May 1941. TIc
sanc noniI, iIc pIanion arny alrcady lnown io us, iIc ijiI, canc floaiing oui of iIc nisis. A fcw wccls
laicr, anoiIcr sinilar arny, iIc 9iI, cIangcd fron lcing a vaguc niragc inio a solid rcaliiy. On 13 Junc
1941, iIc day iIc TASS rcpori was iransniiicd, all iIc oiIcr pIanions canc inio vicw. iIc 18iI, 19iI, 2OiI,
21si, 22nd, 24iI, 25iI (againsi Japani and iIc 28iI, iIus conplciing iIc uninicrrupicd scrics of nunlcrs.
Officially iIc fornaiion of all iIcsc arnics was conplcicd in iIc firsi Ialf of 1941. TIis, Iowcvcr, was only
iIc cnd of iIc proccss. Dui wIcrc was iis lcginning? Connunisi Iisiorians conccal iIis, and iIcy do so wiiI
good rcason. TIc crcaiion of iIcsc arnics lcirays Sialin's crafiincss - wIilc Hiilcr was iIc cncny, iIcrc wcrc
no arnics; wIilc Poland was lcing pariiiioncd, wIilc Sovici and Ccrnan iroops wcrc facing cacI oiIcr, ii was
sufficicni for Sialin io Iavc scvcn io iwclvc arnics in iIc wcsi of iIc Sovici Union. TIcn Hiilcr iurncd away
fron Sialin, and iIrcw iIc WcIrnacIi inio Dcnnarl, Norway, Dclgiun, Holland and Francc, wiiI iIc clcar
inicniion of landing in Driiain. Hardly any Ccrnan iroops wcrc lcfi on iIc Sovici froniicrs. Ii was prcciscly ai
iIis noncni iIai iIc Sovici Union lcgan sccrcily io sci up an cnornous nunlcr of arnics, anong iIcn iIc
26iI. TIc furiIcr iIc Ccrnan divisions novcd io iIc wcsi, io iIc noriI, and io iIc souiI, iIc norc Sovici
arnics wcrc crcaicd againsi Ccrnany. Supposing iIai Hiilcr Iad gonc cvcn furiIcr, and Iad landcd Iis
iroops in Driiain, Iad scizcd Cilraliar, Africa and iIc Ncar Easi, Iow nany arnics would Sialin Iavc iIcn
forncd on iIc undcfcndcd Ccrnan lordcr? And for wIai purposc?
TIc lasis of Sovici siraicgy was iIc 'opcraiion in dcpiI' iIcory. iIc dclivcry of surprisc sirilcs in grcai dcpiI
ai iIc cncny's nosi vulncrallc placcs. TIc iIcory of iIc sIocl arny was lorn ai iIc sanc iinc as iIc
'opcraiion in dcpiI' iIcory. TIc sIocl arny was io lc iIc insiruncni uscd io dclivcr iIosc sirilcs in dcpiI.
Sci up purcly io solvc offcnsivc iasls (Souct Mtu)u Encuo-pucdu, Vol. I, p. 256i, iIcsc sIocl arnics Iad on
iIcir conplcncni a considcrallc quaniiiy of ariillcry and infaniry wIosc purposc ii was io lrcal iIc cncny's
dcfcncc, and onc or iwo nccIanizcd corps wiiI 500 ianls cacI, wIicI would dclivcr a Icavy sIocl aiiacl in
dcpiI.
TIc Ccrnan HtzI)cg and iIc Sovici opcraiion in dcpiI arc sirilingly sinilar in loiI conccpi and dciail.
Tanl groups wcrc iIc spccial insiruncni wIicI Iad lccn crcaicd io carry oui iIc HtzI)cg. TIrcc sucI
groups wcrc uscd in iIc invasion of Francc, and four in iIc invasion of iIc Sovici Union. EacI onc usually
Iad lciwccn 600 and 1,000 ianls, and on occasions as nany as 1,250 ianls, along wiiI a considcrallc
nunlcr of infaniry and ariillcry wIosc purposc ii was io lrcal a way iIrougI for iIc ianls.
Onc diffcrcncc lciwccn iIc Sovici and Ccrnan war nacIincs was iIai in Ccrnany cvcryiIing was callcd ly
iis own nanc, so iIai iIc ianl groups lorc iIcir own nuncrical dcsignaiions, wIilc iIc ficld arnics Iad
iIcirs. In iIc Sovici Union sIocl arnics cisicd only in iIcory; and aliIougI iIai iIcory was soon iurncd
inio sulsiancc, iIcy siill did noi fornally lcar iIc iiilc of sIocl arny. TIis nanc was officially iniroduccd
only aficr iIc Ccrnans Iad invadcd. Dcforc iIis, all Sovici arnics Iad a singlc nuncrical dcsignaiion, and
lorc no disiinguisIing nanc. TIis was nislcading iIcn, and is nislcading now. In Ccrnany wc can scc iIc
cngincs of aggrcssion, iIc ianl groups, clcarly callcd ly iIcir own nancs. In iIc Fcd Arny, wc do noi scc
iIcn quiic so disiincily. TIis is noi cvidcncc of grcai pcaccallcncss, Iowcvcr, lui raiIcr of cccssivc
sccrciivcncss.
Ai firsi sigIi, Sovici arnics arc lilc soldicrs in a row. TIcy all lool iIc sanc. If onc ialcs a closcr lool,
Iowcvcr, iIc diffcrcnccs quiclly cncrgc. For sonc noniIs lcforc iIc 'FinnisI aggrcssion' occurrcd, scvcral
arnics inicndcd for iIc 'lilcraiion' of Finland wcrc dcploycd on Sovici icrriiory. TIis is Iow iIcy wcrc nadc
up in Dcccnlcr 1939, in iIc ordcr in wIicI iIcy wcrc dcploycd fron noriI io souiI.
14iI Arny no corps, iwo riflc divisions
9iI Arny no corps, iIrcc riflc divisions
8iI Arny no corps, four riflc divisions
7iI Arny 10iI Tanl Corps (660 ianlsi; iIrcc ianl lrigadcs (cacI wiiI 330 ianlsi; iIc 10iI, 19iI, 34iI
and 50iI Fiflc Corps (cacI wiiI iIrcc riflc divisionsi; a dciacIcd lrigadc. clcvcn dciacIcd
ariillcry rcgincnis, apari fron iIosc wIicI forn pari of iIc conplcncni of iIc corps and
divisions of iIis arny; scvcral dciacIcd ianl and ariillcry laiialions; and iIc arny's air arn.
Wc can iIcrcforc scc iIai aliIougI iIc 7iI Arny did noi diffcr in nanc fron iis ncigIlours, ii Iad scvcral
iincs norc ianls and ariillcry iIan iIc iIrcc oiIcr arnics pui iogciIcr. In addiiion, iIc 7iI Arny was
connandcd ly K. A. Mcrcislov, iIc connandcr of iIc Lcningrad Miliiary Disirici. A favouriic of Sialin's,
Mcrcislov was sIorily io lc appoinicd CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff and laicr pronoicd io MarsIal of iIc Sovici
Union. Nor was Ic iIc only fuiurc narsIal in iIc 7iI Arny. TIis arny was siaffcd ly iIc nosi pronising
officcrs, wIo Iad Icld scnior appoinincnis alrcady and wIo wcrc io risc cvcn IigIcr in fuiurc. L. A. Covorov,
for canplc, iIc CIicf of iIc Ariillcry Siaff of iIc 7iI Arny, also wcni on io lcconc MarsIal of iIc Sovici
Union. TIc oiIcr arnics, on iIc oiIcr Iand, wcrc lcd ly connandcrs wIo Iad noi lccn pronincni in iIc
pasi, nor would iIcy lcconc so in iIc fuiurc.
TIc posiiion of iIc 7iI (sIocli Arny was inicrcsiing. TIc FinnisI 'niliiarisis' lcgan iIcir arncd
'provocaiions' prcciscly in iIai arca wIcrc iIc Sovici HigI Connand, a fcw noniIs carlicr, Iad dcploycd iIc
7iI Arny, wIicI was iIus allc io dclivcr a llow in rcsponsc. For sonc curious rcason, iIc FinnisI
'niliiarisis' did noi siagc any provocaiions in iIosc arcas wIcrc wcal Sovici arnics Iad lccn dcploycd.
Sovici organizaiion was circncly flcillc. Any arny could lcconc a sIocl arny ai any iinc, sinply ly
adding a corps or norc io iis conplcncni, and iranslaicd jusi as quiclly lacl io iis nornal siaic. Fron lcing
iIc sirongcsi arny in 1940, iIc 7iI Arny Iad ly 1941 lcconc iIc wcalcsi; ii no longcr Iad any corps, and
consisicd of four riflc divisions only.
In ordcr io undcrsiand wIai Iad lccn ialing placc on iIc Sovici-Ccrnan froniicr, wc nusi nalc a clcar
dcfiniiion of wIicI wcrc sIocl arnics and wIicI wcrc ordinary oncs. Officially all arnics wcrc iIc sanc, and
nonc was callcd a sIocl arny. Yci sonc arnics Iad Iardly any ianls, wIilc oiIcr arnics Iad Iundrcds of
iIcn. In ordcr io idcniify sIocl arnics, wc sIould nalc an clcncniary conparison of iIc sirilc powcr of iIc
Sovici arnics wiiI iIc Ccrnan ianl groups, and wiiI iIc Sovici prc-war criicria uscd io dcfinc wIai a sIocl
arny was. TIc clcncni nccdcd io cIangc an ordinary arny inio a sIocl onc was a nccIanizcd corps
organizcd in a ncw way, wiiI an csiallisIncni of 1,031 ianls. WIcn onc sucI corps was includcd in an
ordinary arny, iis sirilc powcr would lcconc conparallc io iIai of any Ccrnan ianl group, or cvcn ccccd
ii.
Hcrc is a siriling rcvclaiion. On 21 Junc 1941, u iIc Sovici arnics on iIc Ccrnan and Fonanian lordcrs,
as wcll as iIc 23rd Arny on iIc FinnisI froniicr, wcrc of sIocl arny siandard, aliIougI, as wc Iavc alrcady
sccn, iIcy wcrc noi callcd sucI. TIcy wcrc, fron noriI io souiI, iIc 23rd, 8iI, 11iI, 3rd, 10iI, 4iI, 5iI, 6iI,
26iI, 12iI, 18iI and 9iI. TIc 16iI Arny was iIcn addcd io iIcn. TIis was a iypical sIocl arny, wiiI norc
iIan 1,000 ianls on iis conplcncni. (Ccniral ArcIivcs of iIc Minisiry of Dcfcncc of iIc USSF, ArcIivc No.
208, lisi 2511, iicn 20, p. 128i TIc 19iI, 20iI, and 21si Arnics, wIicI Iad lccn sccrcily novcd up io iIc
Ccrnan lordcr, Iad alrcady lccn fully lrougIi up io iIis siandard.
Ccrnany Iad a powcrful cnginc for aggrcssion in iis ianl groups. TIc Sovici Union Iad a sinilar cnginc.
TIc diffcrcncc lay in iIcir dcsignaiions and in iIcir nunlcrs. Hiilcr Iad four ianl groups, wIilc Sialin Iad
siiccn sIocl arnics.
Noi all nccIanizcd corps wcrc nadc up cniircly of ianls. Dui io apprcciaic Sialin's inicniions fully, accouni
nusi lc ialcn loiI of wIai Ic acIicvcd, and also of wIai Ic was prcvcnicd fron acIicving. TIc Ccrnan
aiiacl caugIi iIc Sovici Union in iIc proccss of sciiing up a grcai nunlcr of sIocl arnics. Firsi canc iIc
francworl for iIcsc cnornous siruciurcs, wIicI was iIcn fillcd in, conplcicd, and finally pui inio worling
ordcr. Noi all arnics rcacIcd iIc lcvcls planncd for iIcn, lui iIis worl was procccding wIcn Hiilcr
inicrrupicd ii. Hc Iad cnougI scnsc noi io waii uniil iIcy wcrc all rcady io lc iurncd loosc.
Sovici cpcris ai onc iinc uscd iIc icrn 'invasion arny'. TIis icrn did noi Iavc a pariicularly diplonaiic
ring, cspccially for iIc ncigIlouring counirics wiiI wIon Sovici diplonais wcrc doing iIcir lcsi io Iavc
'nornal rclaiions'. In iIc 19305, iIis cccssivcly franl icrn was rcplaccd ly iIc Iappicr-sounding cprcssion
'sIocl arny'. Sovici sourccs, Iowcvcr, sircss iIai iIcsc arc onc and iIc sanc iIing. (VIZH, 1963, No. 10, p.
31i
Dui cvcn iIc icrn 'sIocl arny', for purposcs of disguisc, was noi uscd uniil iIc war lcgan, cvcn iIougI iIc
grcaicr pari of iIc Sovici Arny dcscrvcd iIis iiilc. TIc Sovici gcncrals iIcn iniroduccd iIc icrn 'covcr arny'
io conccal iIcir dcsigns. TIcrc arc oiIcr sucI icrns in connunisi doullc-spcal. Sovici cprcssions lilc
'lilcraiion canpaign', 'counicr-aiiacl', 'scizc iIc siraicgic iniiiaiivc' ncan rcspcciivcly aggrcssion, aiiacl, and
lcginning a surprisc war wiiIoui dcclaring ii. Ii is a grcai piiy iIai sonc Iisiorians, ciiIcr iIrougI ignorancc
or dcsign, usc Sovici niliiary icrns wiiIoui cplaining iIcir iruc ncaning io iIcir rcadcrs.
TIc iruc purposc of a Sovici 'covcr arny' was io conccal iIai, in iIc iniiial pcriod of a war, iIc Fcd Arny
was fully nolilizing iis nain forccs, dcploying iIcn, and iIcn cnicring iIc war. 'Covcr', Iowcvcr, in no way
ncani dcfcncc. As carly as 20 April 1932 iIc Fcvoluiionary Miliiary Council of iIc USSF laid down iIai
powcrful nolilc invasion groups sIould lc lcpi ncar siaic lordcrs in pcacciinc, io cnallc iIcn io cross iIc
froniicr inncdiaicly war lrolc oui, in ordcr io disrupi iIc cncny's nolilizaiion and scizc siraicgic rcscrvcs
and inporiani arcas. In iIc vicw of iIc Sovici Union's iop niliiary and poliiical lcadcrs, iIcsc aciions would
lc iIc lcsi covcr for Sovici nolilizaiion. Ii was prcciscly in iIis scnsc iIai iIc arnics in froniicr arcas wcrc
callcd 'covcr arnics'.
July 1939 was iIc iinc wIcn iIcory was pui inio praciicc, and iIc crcaiion of 'covcr arnics' lcgan on iIc
Sovici wcsicrn froniicrs. Sialin was using iIc MoloiovFillcnirop Paci io pusI Hiilcr inio a war wiiI iIc
Wcsi, io csiallisI a connon froniicr wiiI Ccrnany, and io forn an incrcasing nunlcr of iIcsc 'covcr
arnics'.
Anong iIc ordinary Sovici invasion arnics, wIicI usually consisicd of onc nccIanizcd corps, iwo riflc
corps, and sonc dciacIcd divisions, wcrc sonc arnics iIai did noi conforn io iIc gcncral paiicrn. TIcrc
wcrc iIrcc of iIcn, iIc 6iI, 9iI and loiI. TIcsc arnics iogciIcr Iad noi iIrcc corps, lui si. Two wcrc
nccIanizcd, onc was cavalry, and iIrcc wcrc riflc. EacI of iIcsc arnics was novcd as closc as possillc io iIc
froniicr, so iIai if a largc salicni dcvclopcd on iIc cncny sidc, iIc spccial arnics would find iIcnsclvcs
prcciscly in iIcsc salicnis. EacI arny was cquippcd wiiI iIc laicsi wcaponry. TIc 6iI MccIanizcd Corps of
iIc 10iI Arny, for insiancc, was arncd wiiI 452 of iIc laicsi T-34 and K V ianls. TIc 4iI MccIanizcd Corps
of iIc 6iI Arny, Iad 460 of iIc laicsi T-34 and KV ianls, lcsidcs oiIcrs. TIc air divisions of iIcsc arnics
Iad Iundrcds of iIc laicsi plancs, including iIc YAK-1, MIC-3, IL-2, and PE-2.
Aficr cacI arny Iad lccn fully cquippcd, ii nusi Iavc Iad 2,3 50 ianls, 698 arnourcd vcIiclcs, ovcr 4,000
guns and noriars and norc iIan 250,000 soldicrs and officcrs. In addiiion io iIcir lasic conplcncnis, iIcsc
arnics wcrc givcn icn io iwclvc Icavy ariillcry rcgincnis, NKVD uniis and nucI clsc lcsidcs.
I do noi lnow wIai io call iIcsc oui-of-iIc-ordinary arnics. If wc usc iIcir official nancs, iIc 6iI Arny, iIc
9iI, and iIc loiI, iIcn wc involuniarily fall inio iIc irap wIicI was sci as long ago as 1939 ly iIc Sovici
Ccncral Siaff. Wc losc our awarcncss and lcgin io iIinl of iIcsc arnics as ordinary sIocl arnics, or
ordinary invasion arnics. TIcy wcrc conplcicly oui of iIc ordinary; cacI onc of iIcsc arnics, wiiI norc iIan
2,000 ianls cacI, was cqual io or cvcn ccccdcd onc Ialf of iIc cniirc Ccrnan WcIrnacIi, wIilc in qualiiy
iIc supcrioriiy of iIc Sovici ianls was asionisIing.
If wc call iIc Ccrnan ianl groups, cacI wiiI lciwccn 600 and 1,000 ianls, cngincs of aggrcssion, wIai
iIcn arc wc io call iIc 6iI, 9iI, and 10iI Sovici Arnics?
TIai was noi all, Iowcvcr. TIc Sovici HigI Connand Iad a fair nunlcr of corps ai iis disposal wIicI did
noi lclong io iIcsc arnics, lui wIicI wcrc dcploycd quiic closc io iIc froniicr. Any ordinary arny could lc
cIangcd inio a sIocl onc jusi ly including corps in iis conplcncni, and any sIocl arny could lc cIangcd
inio a Icavy sIocl onc wiiIoui cIanging ciiIcr iis nanc or nunlcr.
Of iIc iIrcc Icavy sIocl arnics, ii is iIc nosi powcrful of iIcn, iIc 9iI, wIicI aiiracis our aiicniion. Noi
vcry long lcforc, in iIc Winicr War againsi Finland, iIc 9iI Arny was sinply a riflc corps consisiing of iIrcc
riflc divisions wiiI a finc-sounding nanc. Aficr iIc Winicr War, iIc 9iI Arny dissolvcd inio iIc nisis,
appcarcd clscwIcrc, was dissolvcd oncc again, only io iurn up yci again undcr covcr of iIc TASS rcpori of 13
Junc 1941. Ii Iad noi yci lccn lrougIi up io full sircngiI, lui was siill iIc unfinisIcd sIcll for iIc nosi
powcrful arny in iIc world. Ii Iad si corps, iwo of wIicI wcrc nccIanizcd, and onc cavalry.
On 21 Junc 1941, iIc 9iI Arny Iad 17 divisions in all, including iwo air, four ianl, iwo noiorizcd, iwo
cavalry and scvcn riflc. Ii was vcry sinilar io oiIcr Icavy sIocl arnics, lui ii was planncd io add io iIc 9iI
Arny yci anoiIcr nccIanizcd corps, iIc 2yiI, connandcd ly Major-Ccncral I. E. Pcirov. TIis corps was
csiallisIcd in iIc Turlcsian Miliiary Disirici, and was sccrcily iransfcrrcd wcsiwards lcforc iis fornaiion
Iad lccn fully conplcicd. Aficr ii Iad lccn includcd, iIc Arny's conplcncni consisicd of 20 divisions,
including si ianl. Ai full sircngiI, iIc scvcn corps of iIc 9iI Arny Iad 3,341 ianls. TIis was rougIly iIc
sanc nunlcr as iIc WcIrnacIi Iad; in qualiiy, iIcy wcrc supcrior. According io Coloncl-Ccncral P. Dclov (ai
iIai iinc Ic was a najor-gcncral, connandcr of iIc 2nd Cavalry Corps of iIc 9iI Arnyi, ii was inicndcd io
givc T-34 ianls cvcn io iIc cavalry of iIis arny. (VIZH, 1959, No. u, p. 66i
TIc 9iI Arny Iad so far Iad undisiinguisIcd connandcrs. TIcn cvcryiIing cIangcd. TIc 9iI Arny was
givcn a coloncl-gcncral as iis connandcr. Ii was an cccpiionally IigI ranl ai iIc iinc. TIcrc wcrc only cigIi
coloncl-gcncrals in iIc wIolc of iIc arncd forccs of iIc Sovici Union, wIilc iIc ianl iroops Iad nonc, iIc air
arns Iad nonc, and iIc NKVD Iad nonc. TIiriy Sovici arnics wcrc lcd ly najor-gcncrals and licuicnani-
gcncrals. TIc 9iI Arny was iIc only cccpiion. In addiiion, sonc vcry lrigIi gcncrals and officcrs Iad joincd
iIis cccpiional arny, including iIrcc fuiurc narsIals of iIc Sovici Union, F. Ya Malinovsly, M. V. ZalIarov,
and N. I. Krylov; A. PorysIlin, a fuiurc air narsIal and iIrcc iincs Hcro of iIc Sovici Union; and I. E. Pcirov,
I. C. Pavlovsly, P. N. LasIcIcnlo, all fuiurc full gcncrals of iIc Arny. Many oiIcr ialcnicd and aggrcssivc
connandcrs, wIo Iad alrcady disiinguisIcd iIcnsclvcs in laiilc, joincd, including iIc 28-ycar-old Air Major-
Ccncral A. Osipncnlo. TIcrc is no cscaping iIc inprcssion iIai sonclody's soliciious Iand was sclcciing
cvcryiIing wIicI was lcsi and nosi pronising for iIis unusual arny.
Hcrc wc conc io a snall lui significani discovcry. TIc nosi powcrful arny in iIc world was sci up in iIc
Sovici Union in iIc firsi Ialf of Junc 1941. Ii was noi sci up on iIc Ccrnan froniicr, lui on iIc lordcr of
Fonania. Aficr iis firsi disappcarancc, iIc 9iI Arny Iad suddcnly iurncd up in Junc 1940 on iIc Fonanian
froniicr. Dy iIis siagc, ii Iad alrcady assuncd iis ncw capaciiy as a rcal sIocl arny. Ii was soon io
pariicipaic in iIc 'lilcraiion' of Dcssaralia; Sovici sourccs indicaic iIai 'iIc 9iI Arny was crcaicd spccially io
solvc iIis inporiani prollcn'. (VIZH, 1972, No. 10, p. 83i
TIc iraining of iIc arny Iad lccn acconplisIcd ly iIc nosi aggrcssivc of Sovici connandcrs, K. K.
Folossovsly, wIo ly iIcn Iad lccn rclcascd fron prison. TIc 9iI Arny lccanc pari of iIc SouiIcrn Froni
as iIc lcy lcad arny, playing iIc sanc rolc as iIc 7iI Arny Iad donc in Finland. TIc Froni was undcr
ZIulov's pcrsonal connand.
Aficr iIc lricf 'lilcraiion canpaign', iIc 9iI Arny disappcarcd again. TIcn, undcr covcr of iIc TASS rcpori
of 13 Junc 1941, ii iurncd up again in iIc sanc placc. Dy now, iIougI, ii was no longcr sinply a sIocl
invasion arny. Ii Iad lcconc a Icavy sIocl arny, and was on iIc way io lcconing iIc nosi powcrful arny
in iIc world. Iis purposc can Iardly Iavc lccn dcfcnsivc, for iIcrc wcrc vcry fcw iroops on iIc Fonanian sidc
of iIc froniicr. Evcn if iIcrc Iad lccn, no aggrcssor would Iavc dclivcrcd Iis nain sirilc iIrougI Fonania,
for iIc nosi clcncniary gcograpIical rcasons. AnoiIcr 'lilcraiion canpaign' ly iIc 9iI Arny inio Fonania,
Iowcvcr, could Iavc cIangcd iIc cniirc siraicgic lalancc in Europc and in iIc world. Fonania was
Ccrnany's lasic sourcc of oil. A sirilc ai Fonania would ground all Ccrnany's aircrafi, and lring all iis
ianls, nacIincs, sIips, indusiry and iranspori io a Iali.
TIai is wIy iIc nosi pronising connandcrs wcrc io lc found iIcrc. TIc 9iI Arny suddcnly appcarcd on
iIc Fonanian froniicr in iIc niddlc of Junc 1941. Dui iIis suddcnncss was only for iIc lcncfii of ouisidc
olscrvcrs; in faci, iIc 9iI Arny Iad ncvcr lcfi iIc arca sincc 'lilcraiing' Dcssaralia in iIc niddlc of 1940. Ii
was sinply iIai iis nanc Iad noi lccn uscd officially for sonc iinc, and ordcrs Iad gonc dirccily io iIc corps
fron iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc Miliiary Disirici. TIc Icadquaricrs of iIc 9iI Arny and iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc
Odcssa Miliiary Disirici (csiallisIcd in Ociolcr 1939i sinply ncrgcd inio onc cniiiy and iIcn cqually sinply
scparaicd again on 13 Junc.
Epcricncc sIows iIai, aficr a sIocl arny appcars on iIc lordcrs of a snall couniry, an ordcr io 'lilcraic'
iIc ncigIlour's icrriiory is surc io follow wiiIin iIc noniI. Irrcspcciivc of Iow cvcnis nigIi Iavc unfoldcd
Iad Sovici iroops invadcd Ccrnany (wIicI incidcnially was jusi as unprcparcd for dcfcncc as iIc Sovici
Union wasi, iIc ouiconc of iIc war could Iavc lccn dccidcd far fron iIc nain laiilcficlds. Sialin was clcarly
couniing on iIis. TIai was wIy iIc 9iI Arny was iIc sirongcsi. TIai was wIy, as carly as MarcI 1941, ai a
iinc wIcn iIc 9iI Arny officially siill did noi cisi, iIcrc arrivcd iIcrc a youngisI, IigIly audacious najor-
gcncral nancd Fadion YalovlcvicI Malinovsly. TIis was iIc sanc Malinovsly wIo four ycars laicr was io
asionisI iIc world wiiI iIc ircncndous sirilc Ic dclivcrcd across Iills and wildcrncss inio iIc vasi Icariland
of MancIuria.
In 1941 iIc iasl facing Malinovsly and Iis collcagucs in iIc 9iI Arny was a fairly sinplc onc. TIcy wcrc
faccd wiiI a disiancc of only 180 liloncircs io iravcrsc, as opposcd io 810 liloncircs in MancIuria; noi
across Iills and wildcrncss, lui across a plain wiiI rcally good roads. TIc aiiacl Iad io lc nadc, noi againsi
iIc Japancsc Arny, lui againsi iIc considcrally wcalcr Fonanian onc. WIai is norc, ii was planncd io givc
iIc 9iI Arny iIrcc iincs norc ianls iIan iIc 6iI Cuards Tanl Arny would Iavc in 1945.
Hiilcr allowcd nonc of iIis io Iappcn. A Ccrnan govcrnncni siaicncni Iandcd ovcr io iIc Sovici
govcrnncni on iIc ouilrcal of war in iIc Easi givcs iIc rcasons for Ccrnany's aciion. Onc of iIcsc rcasons
was iIai Sovici iroops wcrc lcing conccniraicd unjusiifially on iIc froniicr wiiI Fonania, and iIai iIis
rcprcscnicd a norial dangcr for Ccrnany. Nonc of iIis Ias lccn invcnicd ly Cocllcls's propaganda. TIc 9iI
(Icavy sIocli Arny Iad lccn csiallisIcd cclusivcly as an offcnsivc arny. According io cvidcncc fron
Coloncl-Ccncral P. Dclov, iIc 9iI Arny usually 'rcgardcd cvcry dcfcnsivc prollcn as sIori-icrn, cvcn aficr
Ccrnan opcraiions Iad lcgun on Sovici icrriiory'. (VIZH, 1959, No. n, p. 65i Dui iIcn iIis was iIc iroullc
wiiI noi jusi iIc 9iI Arny, lui wiiI all iIc oiIcr arnics as wcll.
TIrcc iincs Hcro of iIc Sovici Union, MarsIal of iIc Air Forcc A. I. PolrysIlin (iIcn a scnior licuicnani
and dcpuiy connandcr of a figIicr squadron lclonging io iIc 9iI Arnyi sIcds an inicrcsiing ligIi on iIc 9iI
Arny's nood. Hcrc is Iis convcrsaiion wiiI a 'filiIy lourgcois', wIosc sIop Iad lccn confiscaicd ly Iis
'lilcraiors'. TIc sccnc ialcs placc in iIc spring of 1941, in 'lilcraicd' Dcssaralia.
'AI, DucIarcsi! You sIould scc wIai a finc ciiy ii is.'
'I'll ccriainly scc ii sonciinc,' I answcrcd wiiI conviciion.
TIc sIop-owncr opcncd Iis cycs widc, waiiing for nc io go on. I Iad io cIangc iIc suljcci.
(A. I. PolrysIlin. NcIo uonu, Novosilirsl ZSKI, 1968, p. 10i
Wc Iavc a naiural rcluciancc io lclicvc Hiilcr's cplanaiion iIai Ic launcIcd Opcraiion Darlarossa io
dcfcnd Ccrnany fron a ircacIcrous aiiacl ly Sovici iroops on DucIarcsi and Plocsii. Dui iIc oiIcr sidc says
iIc sanc iIing; cvcn iIc Sovici licuicnanis lncw iIai iIcy would sIorily lc in Fonania. A Sovici officcr is
noi cniiilcd io wandcr across froniicrs as a iourisi. In wIai capaciiy could PolrysIlin gci iIcrc cccpi as a
'lilcraior'? Hiilcr did cvcryiIing Ic could io prcvcni iIis, lui all Ic succccdcd in doing was lricfly io dclay iIc
incviiallc.
"(&)*#% 0-
Mouniain Divisions on iIc Sicppcs of iIc
Ulrainc
A)Io)nc ussuut undngs u Ic c]]cctuc n
nountunous Iuttc u)cus. Sncc t)oops, Icudquu)-
tc)s und o)guns uIcI opc)utc n tIc )cu) u)c
pu)tcuu)u )cunt on )ouds, t s possIc to usc u)
ussuuts to cuptu)c cncnu t)oops opc)utng n tIc
)cu), to uttucI Is connuncutons und )ouds,
connundng IcgIts, )uuncs, pusscs, )uuuu
]unctons und so on, und tIs cun p)oducc cxccp-
tonuu npo)tunt )csuts. In gcnc)u tc)ns, tIc
d)oppng o] un ussuut undng ]o)cc u Iu)du Ic
cxpcdcnt outsdc tIc ])uncuo)I o] un o]]cnsuc
opc)uton.
(Vocnnu VcstnI, 1940, No. 4, pp. 76-77i
A siudy of iIc Sovici arnics in iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon rcvcals a surprising piciurc of iIc Sovici Union
prcparing iisclf painsialingly and iirclcssly for war. Wc nay lc surpriscd io discovcr iIai cacI arny Iad iis
own uniquc siruciurc, iis own pcculiariiics, and iis own cIaracicr. EacI 'covcr' arny was csiallisIcd io dcal
wiiI a clcarly dcfincd iasl in iIc foriIconing war of 'lilcraiion'.
Sufficicni naicrial Ias lccn pullisIcd io providc for a scparaic siudy io lc wriiicn on cacI of iIc 30 Sovici
arnics. If a siudy in dcpiI wcrc io lc nadc of iIc siruciurc, disposiiion, officcr corps and iIc dircciion givcn
io iIc iraining in only onc Sovici arny, and ii docs noi rcally naiicr wIicI onc, iIcn iIc aggrcssivc icndcncy
inIcrcni in all iIc Sovici prcparaiions would lcconc quiic olvious.
As iIcrc is no spacc availallc io dcscrilc all 30 arnics, I sIall allow nysclf io dwcll lricfly upon onc of
iIcn. Officially ii was callcd iIc 12iI Arny. Ii Iad onc nccIanizcd and iwo riflc corps and oiIcr uniis. Ii Iad
ninc divisions in all including iwo ianl and onc noiorizcd. Ii was indisiinguisIallc in nunlcr, nanc and
conposiiion fron oiIcr sinilar invasion arnics. Iis Iisiory is iIc usual onc. Ii was sci up wIcn iIc Moloiov-
Fillcnirop Paci was signcd. A fcw wccls aficr ii was forncd, ii sci io worl, and 'lilcraicd' Poland. Ii iIcn Iad
a ianl corps, iwo dciacIcd ianl lrigadcs, iwo cavalry corps, and iIrcc riflc divisions. Ii was noi wiiIoui
purposc iIai ii Iad liiilc ariillcry and infaniry. TIcrc was no nccd Icrc io lrcal iIrougI a powcrful dcfcncc.
Dui on iIc oiIcr Iand iIcrc wcrc nolilc iroops. 'TIc I2iI Arny . . . is in csscncc a froni-linc nolilc group.'
(SVE, Vol. 8, p. 181i
Iis sulscqucni Iisiory was also nornal. Ii conplcicd iIc 'lilcraiion' canpaign in Poland, lui iIcn for sonc
rcason or oiIcr iIc arny was noi dislandcd, and ii siaycd on iIc Ccrnan lordcr. For wIai purposc? Ii is
said iIai Sialin was naivc and lclicvcd Hiilcr. WIy iIcn did Ic noi disland Iis arnics, wIicI Iad lccn sci
up for iIc cvcni of war?
Laicr iIc 12iI Arny undcrwcni iIc sanc iransfornaiion as all iIc adjaccni invasion arnics. Iis nain sirilc
cnginc was no longcr callcd a ianl corps, lui a nccIanizcd corps. TIis was so iIai iIc lcadcrs of
ncigIlouring fricndly counirics sIould noi lcconc uncasy. TIc cIangc of nanc, ii is iruc, was followcd ly an
incrcasc raiIcr iIan a dccrcasc in iIc nunlcr of ianls in iIc arny. TIc cavalry was ialcn away fron ii. Iis
capaciiy for disrupiing iIc cncny's dcfcnccs was incrcascd. TIc nunlcr of riflc divisions was doullcd, as was
iIc anouni of ariillcry in cacI division. In addiiion io iIcsc, onc ariillcry lrigadc and four dciacIcd ariillcry
rcgincnis wcrc addcd io iIc arny's conplcncni. TIc capaliliiy io counicr iIc cncny's cnginccrcd dcfcnccs
also incrcascd wIcn a dciacIcd rcgincni of cnginccrs was lrougIi inio iIc arny.
WIai was unusual aloui iIc I2iI Arny was iis naiional conposiiion. WIcn Ic was prcparing io invadc
Poland in 1939, Sialin fillcd iIc I2iI Arny wiiI Ulrainians, apparcnily lcaring in nind iIc long-sianding
aninosiiy lciwccn iIc Polcs and iIc Ulrainians. TIc arny was Icadcd ly S. K. TinosIcnlo, and wc find a
nuliiiudc of connandcrs of Ulrainian origin alongsidc Iin. TIc arny was forncd in iIc Ulrainc. Ii follows
iIai iIc rcscrvisis wcrc also drawn fron iIcrc, and iIcy forncd a solid najoriiy in iIc I2iI Arny.
Aficr Poland Iad lccn 'lilcraicd', a slow and alnosi inpcrccpiillc cIangc in iIc I2iI Arny's naiional
conposiiion lcgan. Far-rcacIing cIangcs Iad alrcady ialcn placc in 1940. In ordcr iIai iIis arny's unusual
naiional conposiiion did noi lcconc ioo apparcni, ciInic Fussians wcrc appoinicd io lcy posis. TIc grcaicr
pari of iIc arny, Iowcvcr, was nciiIcr Ulrainian nor Fussian. Ii Iad lcconc Caucasian. TIcrc wcrc
Ccorgians, Arncnians, and Azcrlaijanis in oiIcr arnics, lui iIcir prcscncc was pariicularly sirong in iIc
I2iI. TIcrc wcrc Iundrcds of officcrs' surnancs lilc Parisvaniya, Crigoryan, Kalalava, Cuscin-zadc and
SarlosIyan. SucI officcrs wcrc noi only io lc found ai connand lcvcl in conpanics and laiialions. Ccncral
ZIulov, wIo connandcd iIc Miliiary Disirici, sougIi oui Coloncl I. KI. Dagranyan, anoiIcr Arncnian wIo
was a fricnd of long sianding, fron Iis jol as a niliiary acadcny lcciurcr, and appoinicd Iin CIicf of iIc
Opcraiions DrancI (War Planningi, noi of any old Icadquaricrs, lui io nonc oiIcr iIan iIc Icadquaricrs of
iIc I2iI Arny. Noi only iIc coloncls, lui quiic a fcw gcncrals, sucI as Dagrai ArasIunyan, iIc arny's cIicf of
siaff, now canc fron iIc Caucasus.
ZIulov was a frcqucni visiior io iIc I2iI Arny, and ii was noi wiiIoui purposc iIai Ic was gaiIcring
naiivcs of iIc Caucasus inio iis ranls. TIc I2iI was lcing sccrcily lui sicadily cIangcd inio a nouniain
arny. ZIulov pcrsonally dcnandcd of iis connand iIai iIc I2iI sIould Iavc a iIorougI lnowlcdgc of iIc
CarpaiIian passcs, noijusi on papcr, lui fron praciical cpcricncc. In 1940, Ic ordcrcd iIai 'spccially
rcinforccd groups, nadc up of various conlai vcIiclcs and ncans of iranspori, sIould lc scni iIrougI iIc
passcs in auiunn along all norc or lcss passallc rouics, in ordcr io lc convinccd iIcy could lc surnounicd
in praciical condiiions ly ianls, noior vcIiclcs, iraciors, aninal-drawn iranspori and lcasis of lurdcn.'
(MarsIal I. KI. Dagranyan, VIZH 1967, No. I, p. 54i
Hiilcr was waging war in Francc, wiiI Ccrnany's lacl cposcd io iIc Sovici Union. Yci Icrc was ZIulov
carrying oui cpcrincnis in Iow io nasicr nouniain passcs. ZIulov was, of coursc, unawarc iIai iIc
Ccrnan gcncrals Iad only rcccnily lccn carrying oui cacily iIc sanc cpcrincnis in ordcr io rcassurc
iIcnsclvcs iIai iroops, ianls, ariillcry iraciors and iranspori could pass iIrougI iIc Ardcnncs. Dui ii was
noi dcfcncc iIai ZIulov Iad in nind wIcn prcparing iIc I2iI Arny. Dagranyan, wIo was rcsponsillc for iIc
war plans, rccallcd iIai 'WIcn I was siudying iIc opcraiional plans, I was sirucl ly iIc following faci - our
froniicr arny Iad nciiIcr a dcployncni nor covcr plan for iIc froniicr.' (VIZH, 1967, No. I, p. 52i
'WIcn I was siudying iIc opcraiional plans' ncans iIai iIc safc of iIc opcraiions lrancI of iIc I2iI Arny
was noi cnpiy. TIcrc wcrc plans insidc ii. TIcy wcrc noi iIcrc sinply io lc faniliarizcd wiiI in a cursory
nanncr. TIcy wcrc conplc docuncnis wIicI Iad io lc siudicd. Yci anong iIcsc war plans iIcrc wcrc nonc
for dcfcncc.
TIcrc is an inicrcsiing dcscripiion of iIc I2iI Arny ccrciscs, wIicI ZIulov aiicndcd in pcrson. TIc
prollcns wcrc all offcnsivc in cIaracicr, and on iIc naps iIc war iool placc on Ccrnan icrriiory. TIc war
ganc was lcing playcd againsi iIc rcal cncny, and noi sonc ficiiiious onc, using rcal iop-sccrci iniclligcncc
infornaiion; and ii lcgan wiiI Sovici iroops fording iIc froniicr rivcr San. Diffcrcnccs arosc lciwccn ZIulov
and Parusinov, iIc officcr connanding iIc arny. TIcsc wcrc noi as io wIciIcr io advancc or io siand and
pui up a dcfcncc. 'Wc nusi do our lcsi,' insisicd Parusinov, 'io inflici nainun casualiics on iIc cncny wiiI
our firsi sirilc.' TIc wisc ZIulov undcrsiood iIai iIcsc wcrc good inicniions, lui a sirilc Iad io lc nadc,
noi on a widc froni, lui on a vcry narrow onc. TIai was wIai iIc arguncni was aloui.
Having dcnolisIcd iIc arny's connanding officcr in niliiary iIcory, ZIulov did noi siop iIcrc. Parusinov
was sIorily aficrwards rcnovcd fron iIc connand of iIc arny, and Iis placc was ialcn ly ZIulov's old
fricnd, Ccncral P. C. Poncdclin.
Aficr iIcsc cIangcs, iIc cpcrincnis in Iow io nasicr iIc nouniain passcs coniinucd. TIcy wcrc
conducicd ly Dagranyan in pcrson. Ii was during iIcsc cpcrincnis iIai Ic supcrviscd an 'olvious display of
dcfcnsivc worls'; in oiIcr words, iIc consiruciion, in clcar vicw of iIc cncny, of rcinforccd concrcic
foriificaiions rigIi on iIc lanl of iIc froniicr rivcr.
ZIulov's inicrcsi in iIc passcs is IigIly significani. If Iis purposc Iad lccn io rcndcr iIcn inpassallc io
iIc cncny, Ic would Iavc iIrown Iis iroops inio iIc nouniains, dug up all nouniain paiIs and roads, and
luili rcinforccd concrcic foriificaiions ncar iIc passcs, insicad of rigIi alongsidc iIc rivcr. Ii would Iavc lccn
norc ccononical, iIc cncny would noi Iavc olscrvcd iIc consiruciion worl, and would Iavc lccn unallc io
cross iIc passcs. Dui would anyonc rcally aiiacl iIc Sovici Union across nouniain rangcs wIcn iIcrc wcrc
opcn spaccs in alundancc? Mouniains wcrc of cccpiional inporiancc io iIc Sovici connand. Ccrnany, on
iIc oiIcr Iand, was scparaicd fron iis nain sourcc of oil ly a doullc larricr of nouniains, in CzccIoslovalia
and Fonania. A Sovici sirilc across iIc passcs in CzccIoslovalia and Fonania would cffcciivcly cui iIc oil
aricry.
According io MarsIal ZIulov, 'Ccrnany's wcal poini was oil supply, lui ii nadc up for iIis io sonc cicni
ly inporiing oil fron Fonania.' (C. K. ZIulov, Vosponnunuu )uznusI-cnuu, Moscow APN, 1969, p. 224i
EvcryiIing was sinplc, lui of gcnius. TIai ZIulov ncvcr suffcrcd onc dcfcai in Iis wIolc lifc was duc io Iis
invarially following onc sinplc principlc -find iIc cncny's wcal spoi, and iIcn Iii ii wiiI a suddcn sirilc.
TIc rcason wIy iIcsc cpcrincnis wcrc going on in iIc nouniains was lccausc ZIulov lncw Ccrnany's
wcal spoi. TIc capaliliiics of iroops of all linds, and cvcry iypc of conlai and iranspori vcIiclc opcraiing in
iIc condiiions wIicI prcvailcd in iIc CarpaiIian nouniain passcs, wcrc suljccicd io a scicniific siudy.
Siandards wcrc csiallisIcd and carcfully cIcclcd, and guidancc was conpilcd for iIc iroops. TIc iinc ialcn
ly iIc various iypcs of vcIiclc io ncgoiiaic iIcsc nouniain passcs was carcfully rccordcd and analyscd. All
iIis was vcry ncccssary for iIc planning of offcnsivc opcraiions; cspccially ligIining opcraiions. Jusi as in
planning a lanl rollcry, ii was csscniial io ialc inio accouni cvcry iiny dciail, and io calculaic cvcryiIing
wiiI iIc grcaicsi accuracy. All of iIis, ii sIould lc noicd, was ioially unncccssary for dcfcncc. If iIc
CarpaiIian passcs Iad io lc dcfcndcd fron iIc cncny, iIcn spccd was noi nccdcd; all iIc soldicrs Iad io lc
iold was io siay wIcrc iIcy wcrc and noi lci iIc cncny pass.
Evcnis wcni on apacc. ZIulov was pronoicd, as was Dagranyan in Iis walc. Dui nciiIcr of iIcn forgoi iIc
I2iI Arny. Slowly and unccasingly, iis siruciurc was cIanging undcr iIcir ordcrs.
As wc Iavc alrcady noicd, in iIc I2iI Arny, as in all oiIcr Sovici arnics, iIings wcrc noi callcd ly iIcir
nancs ai iIis iinc. Ai iIc lcginning of Junc 1941, four riflc divisions (iIc 44iI, 58iI, 6oiI, and 96iIi wcrc
convcricd inio nouniain riflc divisions. In addiiion, iIc rcccnily forncd I92nd Mouniain Fiflc Division was
sccrcily iransfcrrcd fron Turlcsian and addcd io iIc conplcncni of iIc I2iI Arny. WIai docs onc call a
corps wIicI Ias iwo divisions, cacI of iIcn nouniain riflc? WIai docs onc call anoiIcr corps, in wIicI, of iis
four divisions, iIrcc arc nouniain riflc? WIai docs onc call an arny wIicI, oui of iis iIrcc corps, Ias iwo
wIicI arc in csscncc nouniain riflc corps, and in wIicI iIc nouniain riflc divisions arc in a solid najoriiy? I
sIould call iIc corps nouniain riflc, and iIc arny a nouniain arny. TIc Sovici HigI Connand, Iowcvcr,
Iad rcasons for noi doing iIis. TIc corps wcni on lcing callcd, as lcforc, iIc 13iI and 17iI Fiflc Corps, wIilc
iIc arny was sinply callcd iIc 12iI Arny.
Hcrc wc scc only iIc final rcsulis of iIc rcorganizaiion; Iow ii was donc is Iiddcn fron us. Wc only lnow
iIai iIc nouniain riflc divisions wcrc givcn iIcir official nanc on i Junc 1941, wIilc iIc ordcr was issucd on
26 April; and iIai iIc iransfornaiion of iIc divisions fron riflc inio nouniain riflc divisions was going on as
carly as auiunn 1940, cvcn lcforc Dagranyan Iad lcgun Iis cpcrincnis. Noi only was ii cIangcd inio a
nouniain arny, iIc 12iI also Iad an influcncc on adjaccni arnics. TIc 72nd Mouniain Fiflc Division, undcr
iIc connand of Major-Ccncral P. I. Alranidzc, Iad lccn iraincd in iIc 12iI Arny, and was now iransfcrrcd
io iIc adjaccni 26iI Arny.
Licuicnani-Ccncral I. S. Koncv's 19iI Arny, wIicI was lcing iransfcrrcd fron iIc noriIcrn Caucasus, was
iIcn sccrcily dcploycd lcIind iIc 12iI and 26iI Arnics. Wc also find nouniain riflc divisions on iis
conplcncni, for insiancc iIc 28iI Division undcr iIc connand of Coloncl K. I. Novil. Ii was ai iIis iinc,
again undcr covcr of iIc T ASS rcpori of 13 Junc 1941, iIai dcployncni lcgan in iIc arca lciwccn iIc I2iI
(nouniaini and 9iI (Icavy sIocli Arnics in iIc casicrn CarpaiIians, of yci anoiIcr arny, iIc 18iI. Hiilcr did
noi allow iis dcployncni io lc conplcicd, Iowcvcr, and wc arc unallc io csiallisI wiiI any dcgrcc of
accuracy iIc sIapc wIicI iIc Sovici HigI Connand wanicd ii io ialc. Hiilcr iIrcw all iIc Sovici plans inio
disarray and iIcn sonciIing quiic uninaginallc lcgan. Dui cvcn so, iIcrc arc sufficicni docuncnis io cnallc
iIc conclusion io lc drawn iIai iIc original idca was iIai iIc 18iI Arny sIould lc a carlon copy of iIc 12iI
(Mouniaini Arny, aliIougI lilc iIc I2iI, ii did noi lcar iIis nanc. Any rcscarcIcr wIo siudics iIc arcIivcs of
iIc 12iI and 18 iI Arnics will lc surpriscd ly iIcir alsoluic sinilariiy in siruciurc. Ii is a nosi unusual
canplc of iwin arnics. TIc sinilariiy wcni as far as iIc sanc Caucasian gcncral running iIc Icadquaricrs
of loiI iIc 18iI and iIc 12iI Arnics in a conplcicly cvcn-Iandcd way. Hc was Major-Ccncral (laicr full
Ccncral of iIc Arnyi V. Ya. Kolpal cIi.
Jusi lcforc iIc war lcgan, a scIool for nouniain iraining was opcncd in iIc Caucasus. Ii iraincd iIc lcsi
Sovici nouniain clinlcrs io lc insiruciors. Oncc fully iraincd, iIcsc insiruciors wcrc scni io iIc Sovici
wcsicrn froniicr, sincc ii was prcciscly Icrc, and noi in iIc Caucasus or Turlcsian, iIai in Junc 1941 a grcai
nunlcr of nouniain riflc iroops wcrc conccniraicd. A sIori ariiclc aloui iIc scIool appcarcd in iIc
ncwspapcr Hcd Stu) on i Novcnlcr 1986, undcr iIc Icading 'Traincd io FigIi in iIc Mouniains'.
Ii is now iinc io asl iIc qucsiion-in uIcI nouniains? TIcrc is only onc conparaiivcly snall nouniain
rangc on iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicrs. TIis is iIc casicrn CarpaiIian nass, iIc IcigIis of wIicI arc norc lilc
gcnily sloping Iills iIan nouniains. TIcrc would Iavc lccn no poini in Iaving a powcrful dcfcncc in iIc
CarpaiIians in 1941, for iIc following rcasons.
1. TIai arca of iIc CarpaiIians would noi favour an aggrcssor coning fron wcsi io casi. TIc cncny would
conc down fron iIc nouniains on io iIc plain, and so Iis arny would Iavc io lc supplicd across iIc wIolc
of iIc CarpaiIians, iIc Tairy nouniains, iIc Fuda and Sudciy Iills and iIc Alps. All iIis is IigIly
unfavourallc and dangcrous for an aggrcssor.
2. TIc casicrn CarpaiIians forn a lluni wcdgc on iIc cncny's sidc of iIc froniicr. If nany Sovici iroops wcrc
io lc conccniraicd Icrc, for dcfcnsivc purposcs, cvcn in pcacciinc iIcy would lc surroundcd ly iIc cncny
on iIrcc sidcs. Dy naling usc of iIc plains furiIcr io iIc souiI, and cspccially norc io iIc noriI of iIc
casicrn CarpaiIians, iIc cncny could sirilc ai any iinc ai iIc rcsi of iIc iroops wIicI Iad dug iIcnsclvcs
in on iIc nouniains, iIcrcly cuiiing iIcir supply-lincs.
3. In 1941, iIcrc wcrc insufficicni cncny iroops in iIc CarpaiIians io carry oui an aggrcssion, and iIc Sovici
HigI Connand was fully awarc of iIis. (Scc for canplc Licuicnani-Ccncral Dagrai ArusIunyan, VIZH 1973,
No. 6, p. 61i
All iIcsc faciors, wIicI rcndcr iIc casicrn CarpaiIians unfavourallc for an aggrcssivc aciion noving fron
wcsi io casi, nalc iIcn suiiallc for an aggrcssion wIicI novcs in iIc opposiic dircciion.
1. As iIc iroops novc aIcad inio iIc nouniains, iIcir supply-lincs rcnain on Sovici icrriiory, nainly lying
across vcry flai icrrain.
2. TIc casicrn CarpaiIians forn a lluni salicni wIicI juis far oui inio iIc wcsi, iIcrcly cuiiing iIc cncny
grouping in iwo. TIis is a naiural springloard wIicI, if Icavy forccs arc luili up in ii cvcn in pcacciinc,
placcs iIcn as iIougI iIcy wcrc in iIc cncny's rcar. All iIcy iIcn Iavc io do is io coniinuc io novc forward,
iIrcaicning iIc cncny's rcar and iIus conpclling Iin io wiiIdraw along iIc wIolc froni.
3. Only ncgligillc cncny forccs wcrc locaicd in iIc CarpaiIians. TIc Sovici HigI Connand lncw iIis, and ii
was prcciscly for iIis rcason iIai iIcy Iad conccniraicd iwo arnics iIcrc.
TIc iwo arnics could noi siay on iIc spoi; iIcrc was no roon for iIcn. TIcy wcrc noi nccdcd for dcfcncc,
nor wcrc iIcy adapicd io ii. TIcrc was only onc way of using iIcsc arnics in war, and iIai was io novc iIcn
forward. Two nouniain ridgcs sprcad fron iIc casicrn CarpaiIians. Onc gocs wcsiwards io CzccIoslovalia,
iIc oiIcr souiIwards io Fonania. Two dircciions, iwo arnics; ii is cniircly logical. EacI dircciion was cqually
inporiani, for cacI lcd io iIc nain oil pipclincs. If only onc of iIc arnics succccdcd, ii would siill lc faial for
Ccrnany. Evcn in iIc cvcni of loiI arnics failing, iIcir opcraiions would lcsscn iIc flow of Ccrnan rcscrvcs
inio Fonania.
Apari fron iIc iwo sirilcs ovcr iIc nouniains ai iIc aricrics, iIcrc was also iIc 9iI (Icavy sIocli Arny,
wIicI was rcady io dclivcr a llow io iIc Icari of iIc oilficlds. Iis opcraiions wcrc covcrcd ly iwo nain
nouniain rangcs. In ordcr io dcfcnd Fonania fron iIc Sovici 9iI Arny, Ccrnan iroops would Iavc Iad io
ialc iIcsc rangcs, wiiI an cniirc Sovici arny on cacI onc.
Wc nay disagrcc ovcr iIc purposcs of iIc nouniain riflc divisions wIicI nadc up iIc I2iI and i8iI Arnics,
yci iIcsc arnics wcrc in iIc CarpaiIians. Dui wc cannoi arguc aloui iIc purposc of a sinilar division in iIc
9iI (Icavy sIocli Arny. TIc 9iI was siaiioncd ncar Odcssa, lui on iIc ordcrs of Ccncral ZIulov, wIo lorc
pcrsonal rcsponsililiiy for loiI iIc SouiI and SouiI-Wcsicrn Fronis, a nouniain riflc division was sci up as
pari of iIc 9iI Arny. WIai sori of nouniains arc io lc found ncar Odcssa? TIc 3OiI Irluisl, Ordcr of Lcnin,
Triplc Ordcr of iIc Fcd Danncr, Suprcnc Sovici of iIc FSFSF Mouniain Fiflc Division of iIc 9iI Arny could
only Iavc lccn uscd for iis prinary purposc in Fonania. Ii was ccriainly noi ly cIancc iIai iIis division,
connandcd ly Major-Ccncral S. C. Calaliio-nov, found iisclf in iIc 48iI Fiflc Corps of Ccncral P. Ya. Mali-
novsly. Firsi of all, Malinovsly was iIc nosi aggrcssivc corps connandcr noi jusi in iIc 9iI Arny lui on iIc
wIolc of iIc SouiIcrn Froni. On iIc oiIcr Iand, iIc 48iI Fiflc Corps was on iIc circnc rigIi flanl of iIc
9iI Arny. TIis was of no significancc on Sovici icrriiory. Dui if iIc 9iI Arny was novcd inio Fonania, ii
would lc wIolly on iIc plain, and iis rigIi flanl would lc rulling againsi iIc nouniain rangc. Ii was
iIcrcforc cnincnily rcasonallc io Iavc onc nouniain riflc division on iIc circnc rigIi flanl.
TIai was noi all. TIc 21si Mouniain Cavalry Division, connandcd ly Coloncl Ya. K. Kulicv, was sccrcily
novcd oui of Turlcsian in niliiary irains. Hiilcr's aiiacl upsci cvcryiIing, Iowcvcr, and ii iIcn lccanc
ncccssary io iIrow all iIc forccs wIicI Iad lccn dcsiincd for iIc souiI inio Dyclorussia, including iIc 19iI
Arny wiiI iis nouniain riflc divisions. TIc 21si Mouniain Cavalry Division also found iisclf iIcrc. Nolody
iIcrc nccdcd ii; ii was noi adapicd io figIiing in iIc narsIlands, and iIcrc ii ingloriously pcrisIcd. Dui ii
was noi for Dyclorussia iIai ii Iad lccn inicndcd.
TIc conccniraiion of iwo Sovici arnics in iIc casicrn CarpaiIians Iad caiasiropIic conscqucnccs. No onc,
of coursc, would Iavc aiiaclcd iIcsc arnics Icad-on. Dui iIc 1si Ccrnan Tanl Croup's aiiacl ai Fovno pui
iIc Sovici connand in a dilcnna. TIcy ciiIcr Iad io lcavc iIc iwo arnics in iIc CarpaiIians, wIcrc iIcy
would pcrisI wiiIoui annuniiion and provisions, or clsc io wiiIdraw iIcn ai oncc fron iIis nouscirap. TIc
sccond of iIcsc cIoiccs was adopicd. TIc iwo nouniain arnics, wIicI wcrc unadapicd for figIiing on iIc
plains, carrying ligIi arnancni and a nass of cquipncni wIicI was now rcdundani, flcd fron iIc nouniains
and inncdiaicly canc undcr aiiacl fron iIc spcarIcad of Ccrnan ianls. TIc 1si Tanl Croup casily rouicd
iIc flccing nouniain arnics and iIcn drovc forward io caicI iIc 9iI (Icavy sIocli Arny in iIc rcar.
Oncc again, lci Dagranyan spcal.
Knowlcdgc of iIc Easicrn CarpaiIians lcd io a norc clcar undcrsianding of Iow alsoluicly csscniial ii was
io rcforn as quiclly as possillc iIosc Icavy unwicldly riflc divisions, wIicI wcrc unsuiicd for aciion in iIc
nouniains, inio ligIi nouniain riflc .uniis. WIcn I rccall iIis now, I caicI nysclf iIinling of Iow
uninicniionally nisialcn I Iad lccn. Ai iIc ouilrcal of war, iIcsc divisions in iIc nain Iad io figIi iIcir
laiilcs in iIc condiiions prcvailing on iIc plains, so iIcir rcfornaiion inio nouniain divisions only scrvcd
io wcalcn iIcn. (MarsIal Dagranyan, VIZH, 1976, No. I, p. 55i
Oncc iIc Ccrnan iroops Iad dcali wiiI iIcsc arnics, iIc road opcncd oui lcforc iIcn io iIc ioially
undcfcndcd lascs of iIc Sovici Flcci, io iIc Don Dasin, KIar'lov, ZaporozI'c and Dnicpropcirovsl. TIcsc
wcrc indusirial rcgions of iIc uinosi inporiancc; oncc iIcy wcrc losi io iIc Ccrnans, iIc Sovici Union
succccdcd in producing only 100,000 ianls for iIc rcsi of iIc war ycars. TIis was nucI norc iIan was
produccd in Ccrnany, lui Iad iIcsc rcgions noi lccn losi, Sovici ianl, ariillcry, aircrafi and naval
produciion could Iavc lccn scvcral iincs IigIcr iIan iIcir alrcady rccord lcvcls.
WIcn iIc Ccrnans lrolc iIrougI io iIc souiI of iIc Ulrainc ii pui iIc Sovici iroops around Kicv in a vcry
scrious posiiion and opcncd iIc road for Ccrnany io iIc Caucasus - iIc Icari of iIc Sovici Union's oil-
produciion.
Connunisi propaganda Ias ii iIai iIc Fcd Arny was noi prcparing iisclf for war, and iIai iIis was iIc
causc of all iis sulscqucni iroullcs. TIis is noi iruc. Lci us rciracc, if only iIrougI iIc canplcs offcrcd ly
iIc 12iI Arny and iis carlon copy, iIc 18iI, wIai coud Iavc Iappcncd if iIc Sovici Union Iad rcally lccn
unprcparcd for war.
1. TIcrc would Iavc lccn cnornous savings of iIosc rcsourccs wIicI wcrc sinply wasicd on sciiing up iwo
nouniain arnics and nany dciacIcd nouniain riflc divisions. If only pari of iIcsc rcsourccs Iad lccn uscd
io csiallisI anii-ianl divisions, iIc war would Iavc ialcn a diffcrcni coursc.
2. TIcrc would noi Iavc lccn iwo arnics in iIc CarpaiIians; iIcy would noi Iavc Iad io lc ciricaicd in a
panic fron iIis nouscirap; nor would iIcy Iavc fallcn undcr iIc llow fron iIc Ccrnan spcarIcad as iIcy
wcrc wiiIdrawing.
3. TIc Ccrnan nasscd ianls io iIc noriI of iIc CarpaiIians would Iavc nci wiiI IcavywcigIi divisions
adapicd io figIiing on iIc plains and cquippcd wiiI anii-ianl guns and nany oiIcr iypcs of powcrful
ariillcry, insicad of iIc ligIi divisions iIcy aciually cncounicrcd flccing fron iIc nouniains.
4. If iIc Ccrnan ianl spcarIcad Iad lrolcn iIrougI iIc dcfcnccs of iIcsc divisions wIicI wcrc noi flccing
anywIcrc, iIc conscqucnccs would noi Iavc lccn caiasiropIic, for iIc cnornous luild-up of iroops on iIc
Fonanian froniicr would noi Iavc lccn iIcrc, and iIc Ccrnan sirilc would Iavc sinply landcd in an cnpiy
spacc, insicad of inio iIc rcar arca of iIcsc iroops.
If iIc Fcd Arny Iad noi lccn prcparing for war, cvcryiIing would Iavc lccn diffcrcni. Dui ii was prcparing
iisclf, and vcry assiduously ai iIai.
"(&)*#% 0.
TIc Purposc of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon
It Ius to Ic Io)nc n nnd tIut t s possIc
snutuncousu to cu))u out tuo o) cucn tI)cc
o]]cnsuc opc)utons on d]]c)cnt ])onts n u tIcut)c
o] ntu)u uctons, utI tIc ntcnton o] st)utcgcuu
)ocIng tIc cncnu's dc]cnsuc cupuItu on tIc
udcst possIc scuc.
MarsIal S. K. TIMOSHENKO,
Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc of
iIc USSF, 31 Dcccnlcr 1940
Wc Iavc dwcli vcry lricfly on sonc of iIc arnics lclonging io iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon. Wc saw iIc nosi
powcrful of iIcsc arnics on iIc Fonanian froniicr. Wc saw iIc nouniain arnics dcsiincd io cui off Fonania
and iis oil fron Ccrnany. Wc saw fivc airlornc assauli corps and a spccial corps for anpIilious assauli
opcraiions. TIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon of iIc Fcd Arny Iad in all siiccn arnics and scvcral dozcn dciacIcd
corps. TIcrc was a ioial of 170 divisions in iIis siraicgic ccIclon.
Inicrcsiingly, Sovici narsIals wcrc discussing iIc rolc of iIis ccIclon Ic]o)c iIc war. MarsIal A. I. Egorov
considcrcd iIai iIc foriIconing war would lc onc in wIicI nillions, and indccd icns of nillions of soldicrs
would ialc pari. Dui Ic propoundcd iIai an offcnsivc sIould lc cnlarlcd upon wiiIoui waiiing uniil full
nolilizaiion Iad lccn carricd iIrougI. Ii was Iis opinion iIai in pcacciinc ii was csscniial io nainiain
'invasion groups' in froniicr disiricis, so iIai iIcsc groups could cross iIc siaic froniicr on iIc firsi day of iIc
war, iIus disrupiing iIc cncny's nolilizaiion wIilc ai iIc sanc iinc covcring iIai of iIc Sovicis. (Fcpori of
iIc CIicf of Siaff of iIc Worlcrs' and Pcasanis' Fcd Arny io iIc Fcvoluiionary Miliiary Council of iIc USSF,
20 April 1932i
MarsIal M. N. TulIacIcvsly did noi agrcc wiiI iIis. In Iis vicw, wIai was nccdcd was noi 'invasion
groups' lui 'invasion arnics'. TulIacIcvsly insisicd iIai
iIc opporiuniiy io cross iIc lordcr inncdiaicly, along wiiI iIc dcclaraiion of nolilizaiion, nusi in iIc firsi
insiancc diciaic iIc conposiiion of iIc forward arny and iIc disposiiion of iis iroops . . . MccIanizcd corps
nusi lc siaiioncd sonc 50-70 liloncircs fron iIc froniicrs, so as io lc allc io cross iIc lordcr fron iIc
firsi day of nolilizaiion. (M. N. TulIacIcvsly. IzI)unnuc P)ozucdcnuu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1964, Vol. 2, p.
219i
TulIacIcvsly and Egorov wcrc of coursc nisialcn. TIcy Iad io lc sIoi, and iIc auiIoriiaiivc, inflcillc
and invincillc Ccncral C. K. ZIulov rosc io iIc sunnii of niliiary powcr. Lcasi of all was Ic disposcd io
alsiraci iIougIi. Hc was a praciical nan wIo Iad ncvcr losi a niliiary laiilc in Iis cniirc lifciinc. In Augusi
1939, ZIulov carricd oui an opcraiion, siaggcring in iis suddcnncss and daring, io inflici a crusIing dcfcai
on iIc Japancsc 6iI Arny. (TIis sanc nciIod was laicr io lc adapicd againsi iIc Ccrnan 6iI Arny ai
Sialingrad.i TIis ligIining roui of iIc Japancsc was iIc prologuc io World War II. WIcn Sialin Iad rcccivcd
ZIulov's iclcgran of 19 Augusi 1939 rcporiing iIai Ic Iad acIicvcd Iis nain oljcciivc of prcparing an aiiacl
wiiIoui iIc Japancsc cvcn suspcciing iIai Ic Iad donc so, Sialin gavc Iis agrccncni io iIc csiallisIncni of
a connon froniicr wiiI Ccrnany. Ii was aficr iIis iIai iIc dcsiruciion of iIc wcsicrn dcfcnccs lcgan, and
iIc largc sIocl fornaiions lcgan io lc sci up. TIc Kicv Miliiary Disirici, wIicI was iIc nosi inporiani and
nosi powcrful of all Sovici niliiary disiricis, was placcd undcr ZIulov's connand. ZIulov was iIcn
pronoicd cvcn IigIcr, io iIc posi of CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff. Ii was ai iIis poini iIai iIc Ccncral Siaff
rcacIcd a iIcorciical conclusion of cccpiional inporiancc. 'It s ncccssu)u to pucc tIc cxccuton o] tIc
nuuson u)ncs' tusIs on tIc uIoc o] tIc F)st St)utcgc EcIcon.' (VIZH 1963, No. 10, p. 31i TIus all siiccn
arnics of iIc firsi EcIclon, wIicI coniaincd 170 divisions, wcrc carnarlcd for invasion.
Noi only Iad iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon lccn givcn iIc iasl of carrying oui invasion aciion, lui ii Iad
aciually lcgun io carry ii oui. Covcrcd yci again ly iIc TASS rcpori of 13 Junc 1941, iIc cniirc Firsi
Siraicgic EcIclon Iad novcd up io iIc Ccrnan and Fonanian froniicrs. AliIougI ai iIis siagc iIcrc wcrc
only aloui iIrcc nillion soldicrs and officcrs, iIc powcr of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon grcw swifily. MarsIal S.
K. Kurloilin rcncnlcrcd iIai 'niliiary uniis wIicI Iad lcfi for iIc siaic froniicr lcforc iIc war, Iad ialcn
away wiiI iIcn cncrgcncy rcscrvc supplics of uniforns and fooiwcar'. (Tu SVS V VcIo O)ccIcstucnno
Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1977, p. 216i TIc MarsIal siaics iIai praciically no uniforns or fooiwcar rcnaincd
in iIc rcscrvcs ai iIc ccnirc. TIis ncans iIai divisions, corps and arnics iool wiiI iIcn cloiIing and
fooiwcar for nillions of rcscrvisis. WIai calculaiion did iIcy Iavc in nind, apari fron an inncdiaic call-up of
nillions of ncn?
WIcn spcaling of iIc powcr of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon, ncniion nusi noi lc confincd only io Iow nany
soldicrs ii Iad. A iIougIi nusi also lc sparcd for iIc nillions wIon Hiilcr did noi allow io lc callcd up,
cloiIcd and sIod closc io iIc froniicrs. Ii was noi planncd iIai iIis awcsoncly powcrful novcncni of iIc
Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon sIould conc io a Iali ncar iIc Ccrnan froniicr. TIai was wIy Sovici uniis of iIc
NKVD lcgan io cui iIc larlcd wirc on iIc froniicrs on 20 Junc 1941. TIc Ccrnan Arny, Iowcvcr, Iad lcgun
io cui iis wirc iIc wccl lcforc.
"(&)*#% 05
Sialin in May
In tIc ]cds o] ]o)cgn pocu, Stun Ius sct
Insc] un oI]cctuc o] tIc utnost
npo)tuncc, uIcI Ic Iopcs to uttun Iu Is
oun c]]o)ts.
Couni VON DEF SCHULENDUFC (sccrci
dispaicI daicd 12 May 1941i
In ordcr io undcrsiand wIai Iappcncd in Junc 1941, wc nusi incviially lool lacl io iIc noniI of May. Ii is
iIc nosi nysicrious noniI in iIc wIolc of Sovici Iisiory. Evcry day, cvcry Iour of iIai noniI is fillcd wiiI
cvcnis, iIc ncaning of wIicI can siill only lc gucsscd ai. Evcn iIosc cvcnis wIicI iool placc in iIc full vicw
of a waicIing world Iavc siill noi lccn fully cplaincd ly anyonc.
On 6 May 1941, Sialin lccanc iIc Icad of iIc Sovici govcrnncni. TIis novc puzzlcd nany pcoplc. Wc
lnow, for canplc, fron capiurcd Ccrnan docuncnis iIai iIc Ccrnan lcadcrs wcrc lilcwisc unallc io find a
saiisfaciory cplanaiion for iIis cvcni. For iIc firsi iinc in Sovici Iisiory, iIc suprcnc auiIoriiy of iIc Pariy
and iIai of iIc govcrnncni Iad lccn officially placcd in iIc sanc Iands. TIis did noi ncan iIai Sialin's
pcrsonal diciaiorsIip Iad lccn sircngiIcncd in any way; if sonorous iiilcs wcrc a ncasurc of powcr, iIcn
Sialin would Iavc lccn cniiilcd io a nagnificcni collcciion of iIcn sonc icn ycars carlicr. Dui Ic cIosc quiic
consciously noi io ialc iIis coursc, and aficr Ic Iad ialcn ovcr iIc posi of Ccncral Sccrciary of iIc Pariy in
1922, Ic dcclincd all siaic and govcrnncni posis.
Sialin raiscd Iis connand posi uIouc iIc govcrnncni and uIouc iIc siaic. Hc conirollcd cvcryiIing, lui
officially was rcsponsillc for noiIing.
As carly as 1931, Lcon Troisly dcscrilcd iIc nccIanisn io lc uscd for prcparing iIc connunisi coup in
Ccrnany.
SIould iIc ncw policy succccd, iIcn all iIc Manuilslys and all iIc Fcnnclcs would lc givcn full crcdii, lui
iIc iniiiaiivc would siill Iavc lccn Sialin's. Dui in iIc cvcni of iis failurc, Iowcvcr, Sialin Iad lcpi iIc way
conplcicly clcar for Iinsclf io find sonconc io llanc. TIis was iIc quinicsscncc of Iis siraicgy. Sialin was
sirong in iIis ficld. (DO, No. 24, p. 12i
TIc coup did noi ialc placc and Sialin did indccd find pcoplc io llanc, and gavc iIcn ccnplary
punisIncni. Hc rulcd iIc inicrnal affairs of iIc Sovici Union in iIc sanc way. TIc viciory of iIc IoIIoz
sysicn lclongcd io Sialin's gcnius, wIilc nillions of viciins of iIc sanc sysicn pcrisIcd lccausc of iis nany
cncnics and iIc carccrisi Iangcrs-on wIo Iad disioricd iIc Pariy linc. Ii nadc iIc Icads of sonc of iIcsc
conradcs ai rcgional lcvcl swin fron iIcir succcsscs. Sialin Iad no conncciion ai all wiiI iIc grcai purgcs -
iIcy wcrc YczIov's fauli! Nor did Sialin sign iIc Paci wiiI Hiilcr. TIc Paci passcd inio Iisiory lcaring iIc
nancs of Moloiov and Fillcnirop. In Ccrnany ii was Hiilcr, iIc CIanccllor, norc iIan Fillcnirop wIo lorc
iIc official rcsponsilliiy for iIis Paci, aliIougI Ic was noi prcscni wIcn iIc Paci was signcd. Sialin, wIo did
aiicnd iIc signing, did noi ai iIai iinc Iold any govcrnncnial or siaic appoinincnis; Ic aiicndcd sinply as
ciiizcn JoscpI Sialin, wIo Iad noi lccn invcsicd wiiI any siaic, govcrnncnial, niliiary or diplonaiic powcrs,
and conscqucnily was noi rcsponsillc for wIai was ialing placc.
Ii was in cacily iIc sanc way iIai iIc ircaiy wiiI Japan was signcd on 13 April 1941. Sialin was prcscni,
lui Ic did noi lcar any rcsponsililiiy for wIai was ialing placc. WIcn Sialin laicr siallcd Japan in iIc
lacl, ai a criiical noncni wIcn iIc couniry was worn oui ly war, Iis conscicncc was clcar; Ic Iad noi
signcd iIc Paci.
On 6 May 1941, Iowcvcr, Sialin officially iool upon Iinsclf iIc lurdcn of siaic rcsponsililiiy. For Sialin,
iIc ncw iiilc did noi sircngiIcn Iis auiIoriiy, lui rcsiricicd ii; fron iIai noncni onwards, Ic noi only iool
all iIc nosi inporiani dccisions lui official rcsponsililiiy for iIcn as wcll. Sialin's powcr Iad lccn rcsiricicd
uniil iIcn only ly iIc Sovici Union's cicrnal lordcrs, and noi always cvcn iIcn. WIai could Iavc conpcllcd
Iin uountu)u io ialc upon Iis sIouldcrs iIc Icavy rcsponsililiiy for Iis own aciions, if Ic could Iavc
rcnaincd ai iIc pcal of infallililiiy, wIilc lcaving ii io oiIcrs io nalc iIc nisialcs?
TIis cniirc circunsiancc soncIow rcninds nc of KIrusIcIcv's fanous cll Iuni. WIilc iIc aninal was siill
far off, Niliia sIouicd ai iIc Iunicrs and cIucllcd ai Iis gucsi Fidcl Casiro, wIo was noi Iaving nucI
succcss. KIrusIcIcv Iinsclf was noi in iIc sIooi and did noi cvcn Iavc a gun in Iis Iands. Dui wIcn iIc
aninal was lcing drivcn iowards iIc Iunicrs and iIcrc was no way anyonc could possilly niss iIc narl,
Niliia piclcd up a gun ...
Sialin Iad ncvcr ialcn iIc lcvcrs of siaic powcr inio Iis Iands in scvcniccn ycars. WIy sIould Ic do so
now? According io cvidcncc givcn ly Adniral of iIc Sovici Flcci N. C. Kuznci-sov, 'wIcn Sialin assuncd iIc
cIairnansIip of iIc Council of Pcoplc's Connissars, in praciicc iIc sysicn of lcadcrsIip in no way cIangcd'.
(VIZH 1965, No. 9, p. 66i
Von dcr ScIulcnlurg, iIc Ccrnan Anlassador in Moscow, rcporicd io Iis govcrnncni iIai 'I do noi lnow
of a singlc prollcn rclaicd io iIc inicrnal siiuaiion in iIc Sovici Union wIicI was so scrious as io inducc
Sialin io ialc sucI a sicp. Dui I vcniurc io asscri wiiI considcrallc confidcncc iIai iIc rcasons for Sialin's
dcciding io ialc ovcr iIc IigIcsi siaic posi arc io lc sougIi in forcign policy.' Sovici narsIals agrcc iIai
Sialin's appoinincni was connccicd wiiI cicrnal prollcns. (MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union I. KI. Dagranyan,
TuI nucInuus' uonu, Vocnizdai 1971, p. 62i
So wIai wcrc iIc cicrnal prollcns wIicI could Iavc inpcllcd Sialin io ialc sucI a sicp? In May 1941,
nany Europcan siaics Iad lccn crusIcd ly Ccrnany. Prollcns conccrning Sovici rclaiions wiiI Francc, for
insiancc, sinply could noi cisi. Driiain, wIicI Iad prcscrvcd iis indcpcndcncc, offcrcd Sialin iIc Iand of
fricndsIip in a lciicr fron CIurcIill scni on I July 1940. Fooscvcli's aiiiiudc io Sialin was norc iIan fricndly,
and Ancrican iccInology was alrcady flowing lilc a grcai rivcr inio iIc Sovici Union. TIcrc wcrc only iwo
poicniial cncnics. Dui Japan, wIicI Iad lccn givcn a pcrfornancc of Sovici niliiary nigIi in Augusi 1939,
Iad jusi signcd a ircaiy wiiI iIc Sovici Union and was iurning iis gazc in iIc opposiic dircciion. TIus
Ccrnany alonc nusi Iavc providcd iIc rcason for Sialin io ialc iIai apparcnily inconprcIcnsillc sicp.
WIai could Sialin do in rclaiion io Ccrnany ly naling usc of Iis ncw official iiilc of Icad of siaic? Hc Iad
only iIrcc opiions. Hc could Iavc csiallisIcd a lasiing and inviolallc pcacc. Hc could Iavc dcclarcd Iinsclf
official lcadcr of a fuiurc arncd conflici on iIc pari of iIc Sovici Union io rcpcl Ccrnan aggrcssion. Or Ic
could Iavc officially dcclarcd an arncd conflici on iIc pari of iIc Sovici Union in ordcr io wagc an aggrcssivc
war againsi Ccrnany.
TIc firsi opiion falls down ai oncc. Pcacc wiiI Ccrnany Iad alrcady lccn signcd ly Moloiov's Iand. Aficr
Ic iool ovcr Moloiov's placc as Icad of siaic, Sialin did alsoluicly noiIing io ncci Hiilcr and lcgin
ncgoiiaiions wiiI Iin. Sialin wcni on using Moloiov for pcacc ialls as lcforc. Moloiov was lnown io Iavc
iricd io ncci iIc Ccrnan lcadcrs cvcn on 21 Junc, lui Sialin nadc no sucI cfforis. TIis ncans iIai,
wIaicvcr Iis purposc in ialing ovcr iIis official posi, ii was noi io conduci pcacc ncgoiiaiions.
Connunisi propaganda cnpIasizcs iIc sccond opiion. iIai Sialin saw iIc Ccrnan aiiacl coning, and
dccidcd pcrsonally and officially io placc Iinsclf ai iIc Icad of iIc couniry's dcfcncc. Dui Ccrnany's
onslaugIi was nanifcsily uncpccicd. On 22 Junc, iIc Icad of iIc govcrnncni was olligcd io addrcss iIc
naiion and lrcal iIc icrrillc ncws. Dui Sialin avoidcd ncciing Iis dircci olligaiions, wIicI wcrc fulfillcd ly
Moloiov, Iis dcpuiy. WIy was ii ncccssary for Iin io sii in Moloiov's cIair in May, lui io Iidc lcIind Iis
lroad lacl in Junc?
On iIc cvcning of 22 Junc, iIc Sovici HigI Connand issucd a dircciivc io iIc iroops. Ii is MarsIal C. K.
ZIulov wIo spcals.
Ccncral N. F. Vaiuiin said iIai J. V. Sialin Iad approvcd drafi dircciivc No. 3 and ordcrcd iIai ny
signaiurc lc placcd on ii ... 'All rigIi,' I said. 'Pui ny signaiurc down on ii.' (C. K. ZIulov, Vosponnunuu
)uznusIcnuu, APN 1969, P- 251i
Wc lcarn fron official Iisiory iIai iIis dircciivc cncrgcd lcaring iIc signaiurcs of MarsIal S. K.
TinosIcnlo, Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc, C. M. Malcnlov, ncnlcr of iIc council of iIc sccrciary of iIc
Ccniral Conniiicc of iIc CPSU and Ccncral ZIulov, CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff. (Hsto)u o] tIc Sccond Vo)d
Vu), Vol. 4, p. 38i Sialin iIus conpcllcd oiIcrs io sign iIc ordcr, wIilc avoiding any pcrsonal rcsponsililiiy
for ii Iinsclf. So wIy did Ic ialc on iIc rcsponsililiiy in May? TIc dircciivc wcni oui io iIc arncd forccs io
roui iIc invading cncny. Ii is a docuncni of iIc uinosi inporiancc. WIai Iad iIc 'ncnlcr of iIc council of
iIc sccrciary' goi io do wiiI ii?
TIc following day iIc conposiiion of iIc Siavla, iIc suprcnc organ of niliiary lcadcrsIip in iIc Sovici
Union, was announccd. TIc word is uniranslaiallc, lui iIc Siavla consisicd of Sialin and a Iandful of Iis
nosi irusicd collcagucs. Sialin caicgorically rcfuscd io Icad ii, agrccing io join iIis suprcnc lody of niliiary
lcadcrsIip wiiI iIc rigIis of an ordinary ncnlcr only. TIis gavc risc io a soncwIai anonalous siiuaiion.
Undcr iIc cisiing arrangcncnis, iIcrc was no way in wIicI S. K. TinosIcnlo, Pcoplc's Connissar for
Dcfcncc, could aci indcpcndcnily and ialc policy dccisions wiiIoui Sialin. TIc rcsuli was iIai iIcrc wcrc
iwo connandcrs-in-cIicf. Onc was Pcoplc's Connissar TinosIcnlo, wIo was iIc connandcr according io
iIc law and siaiuics. TIc oiIcr was J. V. Sialin, wIo was connandcr-in-cIicf in faci. (IId)
In a dcfcnsivc war, Sialin adapicd Iis wcll-iricd nciIod of lcadcrsIip. Hc iool all iIc policy dccisions, wIilc
rcsponsililiiy for iIcn was lornc ly iIc Moloiovs, iIc Malcnlovs, iIc
TinosIcnlos and iIc ZIulovs. Ii iool iIc ncnlcrs of iIc Poliiluro onc noniI io conpcl Sialin io ialc ovcr
iIc posi of Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc, and, on 8 Augusi, iIc posi of Suprcnc Connandcr-in-CIicf. Had
ii rcally lccn woriI Sialin's wIilc io assunc rcsponsililiiy wIcn iIc dcfcnsivc war Iad lccn forcsccn, in ordcr
io do cvcryiIing Ic could io avoid rcsponsililiiy as soon as iIai war lcgan?
Wc arc conpcllcd io confinc oursclvcs io iIc iIird opiion. iIai Sialin Iad cploiicd Hiilcr io crusI Europc,
and was ai iIai poini prcparing a surprisc aiiacl ai Ccrnany's lacl. Sialin inicndcd io Icad iIc 'lilcraiion'
of Europc in pcrson, and as Icad of iIc Sovici govcrnncni.
TIc Connunisi Pariy Iad condiiioncd iIc Sovici pcoplc and arny io lclicvc iIai iIc ordcr io launcI a war
of 'lilcraiion' in Europc would lc givcn ly Sialin Iinsclf. Connunisi oriIodoy now clains iIai iIc Fcd
Arny was prcparing 'counicraiiacls'. Nolody was ialling aloui counicr-aiiacls ai iIc iinc. TIc Sovici
pcoplc lncw iIai iIc war would lcgin on Sialin's ordcrs, and noi as a rcsuli of an aiiacl ly sonc cncny or
oiIcr.
And wIcn MarsIal of iIc Fcvoluiion Conradc Sialin givcs iIc signal, Iundrcds of iIousands of pilois,
navigaiors and paracIuiisis will rain down upon iIc Icads of iIc cncny wiiI iIc full forcc of iIcir arns,
iIc arns of socialisi jusiicc. TIc Sovici arnics of iIc air will lring Iappincss io Iunaniiy! (P)uudu, 18
Augusi 1940i
In Iis posi as Sccrciary-Ccncral of iIc Pariy, Sialin could givc any ordcr, and iIai ordcr would lc insianily
and cacily olcycd. Dui any ordcr givcn ly Sialin was unofficial, and iIcrcin lay Sialin's invulncraliliiy and
infallililiiy. Dui now iIis siiuaiion no longcr saiisficd Iin; Ic Iad io givc an ordcr, iIc nosi inporiani of Iis
lifc, in sucI a way iIai ii would lc o]]cuu Iis.
According io iIc cvidcncc of MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union K. K. Folossovsli (SodutsIu dog, Moscow 1968,
p. ni, cacI Sovici connandcr Icld a 'spccial sccrci opcraiions cnvclopc' in Iis safc. TIis 'lciicr M rcd
cnvclopc', as ii was lnown, could only lc opcncd on iIc ordcrs of iIc CIairnan of iIc Council of Pcoplc's
Connissars (uniil 5 May 1941 iIis was VyacIcslav Moloiovi, or of iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc,
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union, S. K. TinosIcnlo. Dui according io MarsIal ZIulov, TinosIcnlo 'could noi
ialc any policy dccisions wiiIoui Sialin'. So Sialin iool Moloiov's posi so iIai iIc Princ Ordcr sIould conc
fron Sialin, and noi fron Moloiov.
A rcd cnvclopc lay in iIc safc of cvcry connandcr, lui on 22 Junc 1941 Sialin issucd no ordcr iIai iIcy lc
opcncd. Folossovsli Ias iold us iIai scvcral connandcrs iool iIcir Icads in iIcir Iands and opcncd iIcir
cnvclopcs. (TIc 58iI Ariiclc laid down iIai anyonc opcning a rcd cnvclopc wiiIoui auiIorizaiion would lc
sIoi.i Dui iIcy did noi discovcr in iIcn anyiIing nccdcd for dcfcncc.
Of coursc, wc Iad dciailcd plans and insiruciions on wIai io do on M-Day . . . EvcryiIing was wriiicn down
ninuicly and in dciail . . . All iIcsc plans cisicd. Unforiunaicly, Iowcvcr, iIcy said noiIing aloui wIai io
do sIould iIc cncny suddcnly go ovcr io iIc offcnsivc. (Major-Ccncral M. Crcisov, VIZH l9b5, No. 9, p. 84i
So aliIougI iIc Sovici connandcrs did Iavc war plans, iIcy Iad no plans for a dc]cnsuc war. TIc iop
Sovici lcadcrs wcrc awarc of iIis; in iIc firsi ninuics and Iours of iIc war, iIcy rcsoricd io inprovisaiion,
conposing ncw dircciivcs for iIc iroops insicad of scnding a sIori ncssagc ordcring iIc cnvclopcs io lc
opcncd. In a dcfcnsivc war, all iIcsc cnvclopcs, and cvcryiIing iIai Iad lccn 'wriiicn down ninuicly and in
dciail', wcrc no longcr nccdcd.
Nor, ly iIc way, did iIc firsi dircciivcs issucd ly iIc iop Sovici lcadcrs oricniaic iIc iroops iowards digging
iIcnsclvcs in. TIcsc wcrc nciiIcr dcfcnsivc nor cvcn counicr-offcnsivc dircciivcs. TIcy wcrc in csscncc purcly
offcnsivc dircciivcs. TIc Sovici lcadcrs wcni on iIinling and planning only on iIcsc lincs cvcn aficr iIc
dcfcnsivc war Iad lccn iIrusi upon iIcn. TIc conicni of iIc rcd cnvclopcs was quiic dcfiniic in naiurc. In an
olscurc siiuaiion iIc offcnsivc urgc of iIc iroops Iad io lc Icld lacl soncwIai uniil ii Iad lcconc quiic
clcar wIai was Iappcning. TIai is wIy iIc firsi dircciivcs wcrc aggrcssivc in cIaracicr, lui iIcir ionc was
rcsiraining - advancc, lui noi in iIc way ii is wriiicn in iIc rcd cnvclopcs!
Sialin did noi wani io ialc risls in an olscurc siiuaiion. TIai is wIy Sialin's signaiurc docs noi appcar on
iIc nosi inporiani dircciivcs of iIc 'Crcai MoiIcrland War'; Ic Iad prcparcd Iinsclf io carry oui iIc
Ionourcd duiy of launcIing a nission io lilcraic iIc pcoplcs of iIc world, and noi io figIi a dcfcnsivc war
wIicI Iad lccn forccd upon Iin.
Hiilcr rcad ScIulcnlurg's iclcgrans and undcrsiood iIai Sialin was Ioping 'io aiiain an oljcciivc of iIc
uinosi inporiancc ly Iis own cfforis in iIc ficld of forcign policy'. Hiilcr apprcciaicd iIc dangcr Ic was in,
and dcprivcd Sialin of iIc opporiuniiy io givc iIc Princ Ordcr, for wIicI Ic Iad assuncd iIc nanilc of Icad
of siaic.
On ialing up Iis duiics, cacI Icad of govcrnncni announccs a policy progrannc. On 5 May 1941, wIcn
Sialin's appoinincni Iad lccn prc-dcicrnincd, Ic nadc a spcccI in iIc Krcnlin ai a rcccpiion Icld in
Ionour of graduaics of niliiary acadcnics. Sialin spolc for 40 ninuics. Dcaring in nind Iis inprcssivc
aliliiy io lccp silcni, 40 ninuics was a siaggcringly long iinc.
Sialin spolc of sonciIing of iIc uinosi inporiancc. His spcccI was ncuc) pullisIcd, and iIis is a onc
iIousand pcr ccni guaranicc of iis inporiancc. Sialin spolc aloui inicrnaiional rclaiions, and aloui war.
Sovici official pullicaiions coniain quiic a fcw rcfcrcnccs io iIis spcccI.
J. V. Sialin, iIc Sccrciary-Ccncral of iIc CPSU (li, in iIc coursc of a spcccI Ic nadc ai a rcccpiion for
graduaics of niliiary acadcnics on 5 May 1941, gavc ii clcarly io lc undcrsiood iIai iIc Ccrnan Arny was
iIc nosi prolallc cncny. (VIZH No. 4 1978, p. 85i
TIc Hsto)u o] tIc Sccond Vo)d Vu) (Vol. 3, p. 439i confirns iIis accouni. MarsIal ZIulov, Iowcvcr, wIo
is a nucI norc auiIoriiaiivc sourcc, rclaics sonc norc inicrcsiing dciails. In ZIulov's words, Sialin adopicd
Iis usual nanncr of asling rIciorical qucsiions, wIicI Ic iIcn answcrcd Iinsclf. 'Was iIc Ccrnan Arny
invincillc?' Ic aslcd.
TIc Ccrnans nisialcnly considcr iIai iIcir arny is pcrfcci and invincillc . . . Ccrnany will ncvcr Iavc
succcss figIiing undcr iIc slogans of aggrcssivc wars of conqucsi, undcr slogans of suljugaiing oiIcr
counirics, or of forcing oiIcr counirics and siaics inio sulnission. (C. K. ZIulov, Vospo-nnunuu
)uznusIcnuu, p. 236i
So iIc spcccI was aloui war wiiI Ccrnany. WIy iIcn did ii rcnain sccrci? Ii is undcrsiandallc iIai ii
could noi lc pullisIcd lcforc iIc war, lui ii is lcss casy io undcrsiand wIy iIc spcccI was noi nadc pullic
oncc war Iad lrolcn oui. Evcn if ii Iad noi lccn possillc io pullisI ii in iis cniirciy, Sialin could Iavc
rcfcrrcd io ii in iIc spcccI Ic nadc on b Novcnlcr 1941, for canplc. 'Did I noi warn you all! I was cvcn
ialling aloui war wiiI Ccrnany as carly as 5 May!'
Dui Sialin did noi say iIis, and iIcrc can only lc onc rcason for iIis silcncc. On 5 May, Ic spolc of iIc
incviiallc war, and nancd Ccrnany as iIc nain cncny, lui said noi onc word aloui iIc possililiiy of a
Ccrnan aiiacl. Had Ic donc so, Ic or Iis aidcs would Iavc rccallcd ii aficrwards as confirnaiion of Iis
gcnius and sagaciiy. Dui iIcy did noi. TIrougIoui Sialin's lifciinc and cvcn aficr Iis dcaiI, iIc spcccI
rcnaincd a Sovici siaic sccrci. Collcciions of Sialin's worls coniain noi jusi Iis spcccIcs, lui cvcn iIc noics
Ic nadc in iIc nargins of lools wriiicn ly oiIcrs, yci iIis IigIly inporiani spcccI was ncvcr pullisIcd.
WIai is norc, nucI Ias lccn donc io nalc surc iIai ii was forgoiicn for cvcr. Inncdiaicly aficr iIc war Iad
cndcd, Sialin's lool TIc G)cut MotIc)und Vu) was pullisIcd in cdiiions of nillions of copics in nany
languagcs. TIc lool lcgins wiiI Sialin's radio lroadcasi on 3 July 1941. TIc purposc of iIc lool was clcar.
Ii was io Ianncr iIc idca inio our Icads iIai Sialin firsi lcgan io spcal aloui iIc SoviciCcrnan war only
aficr Ccrnany Iad invadcd iIc Sovici Union, and iIai Ic spolc only aloui dcfcncc. Sialin in faci lcgan io
iall aloui iIc war lcforc iIc Ccrnan invasion, noi aficr ii, and Ic spolc noi aloui dcfcncc lui aloui
sonciIing clsc. If iIc spcccI Iad lccn aloui dcfcncc, iIcn wIy lccp ii sccrci, pariicularly aficr iIc Ccrnans
Iad invadcd?
Wc Iavc alrcady sccn Iow, aficr iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci Iad lccn signcd, ZIulov and Mcrcislov, iwo
pronincni Sovici niliiary lcadcrs, and Lavrcniy Dcria, iIc nosi ouisianding cIicf of policc of all iincs and of
all naiions, did a grcai dcal io dcsiroy cvcryiIing connccicd wiiI iIc dcfcncc of Sovici icrriiory. TIcn Sialin
lcgan io iall aloui war wiiI Ccrnany. Hc spolc ai a sccrci gaiIcring, lui in sucI a way iIai Ic was Icard
ly all iIc narsIals, all iIc gcncrals, and all iIc graduaics fron iIc niliiary acadcnics. WIai would ZIulov,
Mcrcislov and Dcria do in iIis siiuaiion? Surcly iIcy would lcgin io lay down nincs in iIc froniicr arcas
and, crcci larlcd wirc, and ninc lridgcs? No, iIcy did jusi iIc opposiic .
Ai iIc lcginning of May 1941, following Sialin's spcccI ai iIc rcccpiion for niliiary acadcny graduaics, iIc
lralc was applicd cvcn norc sirongly io all iIc worl iIai was lcing donc io luild cnginccrcd dcfcnccs and
io lay down nincs. (I. Siari-nov, op. ct., p. 186i
If wc do noi lclicvc Coloncl Siarinov, wc nay iurn io iIc Ccrnan arcIivcs io find cacily iIc sanc iIing
iIcrc. Ccrnan iniclligcncc apparcnily ncvcr oliaincd iIc full ici of Sialin's spcccI, lui iIcrc arc nany dircci
and indircci signs wIicI indicaic iIai Ccrnan iniclligcncc lclicvcd iIai Sialin's spcccI of 5 May 1941 was
aloui war wiiI Ccrnany. TIc sanc Ccrnan iniclligcncc olscrvcd iIai Sovici nincficlds and oiIcr cnginccrcd
dcfcncc olsiaclcs wcrc lcing rcnovcd in May and Junc 1941.
May 1941 narlcd a sIarp iurning-poini for iIc wIolc of Sovici propaganda. Dcforc iIai, connunisi
ncwspapcrs Iad glorificd war and rcjoiccd iIai Ccrnany was dcsiroying an incrcasing nunlcr of counirics,
govcrnncnis, arnics and poliiical pariics.
TIc Sovici lcadcrs wcrc dcligIicd wiiI 'nodcrn war in all iis icrrillc lcauiy!' (P)uudu, 19 Augusi 1940i, and
rullcd iIcir Iands glccfully ovcr iIc sigIi of Europc rcduccd io 'a puirid scrap-Icap, a pornograpIic
spcciaclc wIcrc jaclal cais jaclal'. (P)uudu, 25 Dcccnlcr 1939i A fricndly grcciings iclcgran fron Sialin 'To
iIc Hcad of iIc Ccrnan Siaic, Hcrr Adolf Hiilcr' appcars on iIc sanc pagc. TIc words jaclal cais jaclal'
appcarcd dirccily undcr iIis iolcn of fricndsIip.
TIcn suddcnly cvcryiIing cIangcd. TIc day aficr Sialin's sccrci spcccI, P)uudu adopicd a vcry diffcrcni
ionc.
TIc firc of iIc Sccond Inpcrialisi War llazcs lcyond iIc froniicrs of our MoiIcrland. TIc wIolc wcigIi of iis
incalculallc nisforiuncs is laid on iIc sIouldcrs of iIc worlcrs. TIc pcoplc do noi wani war. TIcir gazcs
arc ficd on iIc counirics of socialisn wIicI arc rcaping iIc fruiis of pcaccful lalour. TIcy scc wiiI cvcry
jusiificaiion a solid lasiion for pcacc in iIc arncd forccs of our MoiIcrland, in iIc Fcd Arny and Navy. In
iIc prcscni conplc inicrnaiional siiuaiion ii is ncccssary io lc rcady for surpriscs of all linds . . . (P)uudu,
b May 1941, lcading ariiclci
In MarcI 1939, Sialin Iad accuscd Driiain and Francc of waniing io drivc Europc inio war, wIilc iIcy
rcnaincd aloof so iIai iIcy could laicr 'sicp on io iIc siagc .wiiI frcsI forccs, in iIc "inicrcsis of pcacc", of
coursc, and diciaic iIcir condiiions io iIc wcalcncd pariicipanis in iIc war'. (Sialin, Fcpori, 10 MarcI 1939i
Dui only onc lcadcr was prcscni ai iIc signing of iIc paci wIicI was iIc lcy io iIc war, and iIai was Sialin.
NciiIcr Japancsc, Ancrican, DriiisI nor FrcncI lcadcrs aiicndcd iIc signing of iIc paci wIicI lcgan iIc war.
Evcn iIc Ccrnan CIanccllor was alscni. Dui Sialin was iIcrc, and ii was Sialin wIo for iIc iinc lcing siood
asidc fron iIc war.
SIorily aficrwards, on 17 Scpicnlcr 1939, iIc Fcd Arny dclivcrcd iis surprisc aiiacl on Poland. Nci day
iIc Sovici Union announccd iis rcasons ly radio.
Poland Ias lcconc a convcnicni springloard for Iazards and surpriscs of all linds wIicI could consiiiuic
a iIrcai io iIc Sovici Union . . . iIc Sovici govcrnncni can no longcr rcnain indiffcrcni iowards iIcsc facis
... in vicw of sucI circunsianccs, iIc Sovici govcrnncni Ias dirccicd iIc HigI Connand of iIc Fcd Arny
io ordcr iis iroops io cross iIc froniicr and io ialc inio iis proicciion iIc livcs and propcriy of iIc populacc .
. . (P)uudu, 18 Scpicnlcr 1939i
Dui wIo, ii nigIi lc aslcd, iurncd Poland inio a 'convcnicni springloard for Iazards of all linds?'
Moloiov's and Sialin's cynicisn and cffronicry lncw no lounds. Hiilcr wcni inio Poland in ordcr 'io cicnd
LcIcns)uun for iIc Ccrnans'. Moloiov Iad a diffcrcni purposc. 'in ordcr io Iclp iIc PolisI pcoplc oui of an ill-
siarrcd war inio wIicI iIcy Iavc lccn drivcn ly foolisI lcadcrs, and io givc iIcn iIc opporiuniiy io lcad a
pcaccful lifc'. (IId.)
Dui Sovici connunisis cvcn io iIc prcscni day Iavc noi cIangcd iIcir vicw on iIc naiurc of iIcsc cvcnis.
TIc official collcciion of docuncnis on iIc Hisiory of Sovici Froniicr Troops (Pog)uncInuc uosIu SSSH l939-
4l, Moscow Naulai was pullisIcd in 1970. Docuncni No. 192 siaics iIai iIc ain of Sovici opcraiions in
Scpicnlcr 1939 was io 'Iclp iIc PolisI pcoplc io lcavc iIc war'.
TIc Sovici Union Ias always Iclpcd cvcryonc aliruisiically io find iIc way io pcacc. Moloiov signcd a
ncuiraliiy paci wiiI Japan on 13 April 1941
io upIold pcaccful and fricndly rclaiions, and nuiually io rcspcci icrriiorial inicgriiy and inviolaliliiy ... in
iIc cvcni of onc of iIc Pariics io iIc ircaiy lcconing iIc oljcci of Iosiiliiics on iIc pari of onc or scvcral
iIird powcrs, iIc oiIcr Pariy io iIc ircaiy will rcnain ncuiral iIrougIoui iIc wIolc of iIc conflici.
WIcn Sialin was on iIc vcrgc of lcing dcsiroycd, Japan lcpi iis word. Dui wIcn Japan was on iIc vcrgc of
dcsiruciion, iIc Fcd Arny dclivcrcd a crusIing surprisc aiiacl on Icr. Aficrwards iIc Sovici govcrnncni
cplaincd iIai sucI a policy is iIc only ncans capallc of lringing pcacc ncarcr, of frccing iIc pcoplcs fron
furiIcr sacrificcs and suffcrings and io givc iIc Japancsc pcoplc iIc opporiuniiy io savc iisclf fron furiIcr
dangcrs and dcsiruciion . . . (Sovici govcrnncni siaicncni, 8 Augusi 1945i
Ii nusi lc noicd iIai iIc dcclaraiion was fornally nadc on 8 Augusi, wIilc iIc Sovici iroops dclivcrcd iIcir
llow on 9 Augusi. In praciicc, iIcrc was a iinc-gap. TIc aiiacl was nadc ai local Far Easi iinc. TIc
announccncni was aciually nadc scvcral Iours laicr ai Moscow iinc.
In niliiary languagc iIis is callcd 'prcparaiion and dclivcry of a surprisc firsi sirilc wiiI iIc opcning of a
ncw siraicgic froni'. (Ccncral S. P. Ivanov, NucIu'nu Pc)od Vonu, Moscow Vocn-izdai 1974, p. 281i In
poliiical languagc ii is callcd 'a jusi and Iunanc aci ly iIc USSF'. (Coloncl A. S. Savin, VIZH 1985, No. 8, p.
56i
Aficr iIc firsi crusIing sirilc Iad lccn dclivcrcd, MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union P. Ya Malinovsly addrcsscd
Iis iroops, saying iIai
TIc Sovici pcoplc cannoi livc and worl in pcacc wIilc iIc Japancsc inpcrialisis arc raiiling iIcir arns on
our far casicrn froniicrs wIilc awaiiing iIc rigIi iinc io aiiacl our MoiIcrland. (Konnunst, No. 12, 1985,
p. 85i
Malinovsly gavc iIis spcccI on 10 Augusi 1945, jusi four days aficr HirosIina Iad disappcarcd. Did iIc
'Japancsc inpcrialisis' rcally Iavc noiIing io do lui sii and waii for 'iIc rigIi iinc'?
Modcrn Sovici pullicaiions siill insisi iIai 'iIc Sovici Union was pursuing iIc ain of saving iIc pcoplcs of
Asia, iIc Japancsc pcoplc includcd, fron furiIcr sacrificcs and suffcring'. (VIZH 1985, No. 8i
In May 1941 iIc Sovici prcss suddcnly lcgan io iall aloui Iow iIc pcoplcs of Europc wanicd pcacc and
wcrc looling wiiI Iopc io iIc Fcd Arny. TIcsc wcrc iIc sanc words and ionc wIicI wcrc invarially uscd
lcforc cvcry connunisi 'lilcraiion'.
TIc Crcai Purgc in iIc Sovici Union was conplcicd ai iIc cnd of 1938. A ncw siagc lcgan. TIcrc wcrc ncw
iincs, ncw ains and ncw slogans. Ii was in MarcI 1939 iIai Sialin firsi lcgan io iall aloui iIc nccd io lc
rcady for sonc 'surpriscs', noi insidc iIc couniry lui in iIc inicrnaiional arcna. In Augusi 1939 Sialin
prcscnicd iIc firsi surprisc, iIc firsi 'uncpccicd cvcni' for wIicI iIc wIolc of iIc Sovici pcoplc and indccd
iIc wIolc world wcrc sigIing - iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci. TIcrcupon Ccrnan iroops, quiclly followcd ly
Sovici iroops, invadcd Poland. TIc official Sovici cplanaiion is iIai 'Poland Iad lccn convcricd inio a ficld of
various uncpccicd cvcnis'. Oncc iIis iIrcai Iad lccn rcnovcd ly iIc unsclfisI aciion of iIc Sovici
govcrnncni, iIc Fcd Arny and iIc NKVD, Sialin lcgan calling for rcadincss io ncci 'ncw uncpccicd cvcnis',
sincc 'iIc inicrnaiional siiuaiion is lcconing incrcasingly conplicaicd'.
Ii would sccn iIai iIcrc was noiIing norc sinplc; pcacc Iad lccn signcd wiiI Ccrnany, so wIcrc was iIc
conplciiy in iIc siiuaiion? Dui Sialin wcni on rcpcaiing Iis warning noi io Iavc faiiI in iIc apparcni lacl of
conplicaiions, io lc rcady io facc uncpccicd cvcnis and any sIarp iurns and cIangcs.
May 1941 was iIc noniI wIcn iIc slogan 'Dc rcady for uncpccicd cvcnis' suddcnly soundcd iIrougIoui
iIc couniry lilc an alarn lcll. Ii soundcd on iIc firsi day of May fron iIc froni pagc o]P)uudu and was
rcpcaicd a iIousand iincs ovcr ly all oiIcr ncwspapcrs, and ly Iundrcds of iIousands of voiccs of
connissars, poliiical worlcrs, and propagandisis, all inicrprciing Sialin's slogan for iIc nasscs. TIc call 'io
lc rcady for uncpccicd cvcnis' rcsoundcd in iIc ordcr No. 191 of iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc issucd
io 'all conpanics, laiicrics, squadrons, air squadrons and on sIips'.
Was Sialin pcrIaps warning iIc couniry and arny of iIc possililiiy of a suddcn Ccrnan aiiacl? No; iIc
Ccrnan aiiacl canc as a conplcic surprisc io Sialin Iinsclf; and Ic could Iardly Iavc givcn warnings aloui
dangcrs wIicI Ic did noi forcscc. All iall aloui uncpccicd cvcnis ccascd on 22 Junc 1941, and iIis slogan
was ncvcr rcpcaicd again. Conicnporary Sovici pullicaiions coniain no ncniion ai all of iIc slogan 'prcparc
for uncpccicd cvcnis', aliIougI iIis was onc of iIc nosi siridcni noiifs of Sovici propaganda during iIc
'prc-war pcriod'.
Ai firsi glancc ii is surprising iIai Sialin Iinsclf ncvcr sulscqucnily rcncnlcrcd Iis slogan. Hc could
Iavc said soncwIcrc, 'Hiilcr Ias suddcnly aiiaclcd us - I warncd you io lc rcady for uncpccicd cvcnis!' Dui
Sialin ncvcr said iIis. 'Fcncnlcr Ordcr No. 191?' MarsIal TinosIcnlo could Iavc rccollccicd on occasion
aficr iIc war. 'I cvcn warncd you aloui ii in iIai ordcr!' Sovici Iisiorians and Pariy lurcaucrais could Iavc
cplaincd wIai a wisc Pariy wc Iad cvcn wiiIoui naning Sialin and TinosIcnlo. TIc pagcs of iis nain
ncwspapcr carricd calls alnosi cvcry day io lc rcady for uncpccicd cvcnis. Dui nciiIcr Sialin, nor
TinosIcnlo, nor anyonc clsc cvcr rccallcd iIai alarn cry of May and Junc 1941. WIy was iIai? Dccausc
wIai was undcrsiood ly iIc slogan 'prcparc for uncpccicd cvcnis' was noi iIc Ccrnan invasion, lui
sonciIing quiic iIc opposiic. Undcr iIis slogan iIc CIclisis wcrc rcnoving nincficlds on iIc froniicrs, noi
laying iIcn down, and iIcy lncw iIai iIis was prcparaiion for iIc Ccniral Uncpccicd Evcni of iIc
iwcniiciI ccniury.
In ordcr io Iavc an idca of iIc iruc ncaning of iIis slogan, wc nusi wiiIoui fail lool ai iIc firsi pagc of
P)uudu of 1 May 1941. Ii was iIis pagc wIicI sci iIc ionc for a grcai cIoir of nany voiccs, wIicI sinply
rcpcaicd P)uudu's siaicncni. On iIc nain froni pagc of iIc ncwspapcr, iwo quoiaiions siand oui. DoiI arc
Sialin's. TIc firsi, wIicI concs rigIi ai iIc lcginning of iIc lcading ariiclc, siaics iIai 'wIai Ias lccn
acconplisIcd in iIc USSF can also lc acconplisIcd in oiIcr counirics'. TIc sccond is in an ordcr fron iIc
Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc aloui iIc nccd io lc rcady io facc up io Iazards and 'iricls' on iIc pari of
our forcign cncnics.
EvcryiIing clsc on iIc froni pagc is aloui iIc lruial war gripping Europc, iIc suffcrings of iIc worlcrs,
iIcir longing for pcacc and iIc Iopcs iIcy placc in iIc Fcd Arny. MucI is said aloui Sovici cfforis io
prcscrvc pcacc. Japan (wIosc Iour Iad noi yci sirucli is givcn as an canplc of a ncigIlour, wiiI wIon
good rclaiions Iad finally lccn csiallisIcd; Ccrnany, Iowcvcr, is noi nunlcrcd anong iIc good fricnds.
Sincc iIc cncny is cunning and pcrfidious, iIc arguncni runs, wc nusi rcply io Iis nacIinaiions noi sinply
ly dcfcnding our own icrriiory lui ly lilcraiing iIc pcoplcs of Europc fron iIc disasicrs of a llood-lciiing
war.
Aficr fivc days of iIis noisy, orcIcsiraicd prcss canpaign, Sialin iool ovcr iIc posi of Icad of iIc
govcrnncni and nadc Iis sccrci spcccI in wIicI Ic nancd Ccrnany as iIc nain cncny. Having iIus
assuncd siaic rcsponsililiiy for forcsccing 'uncpccicd cvcnis', Sialin was suddcnly faccd wiiI Hiilcr's
onslaugIi in Junc. TIis was sucI an 'uncpccicd cvcni' iIai ii conpcllcd Sialin io do cvcryiIing possillc io
avoid assuning rcsponsililiiy for any siaic dccisions ai all. Evidcnily Sialin Iad lccn prcparing, noi for a
Ccrnan invasion, lui for 'uncpccicd cvcnis' of quiic iIc opposiic lind.
"(&)*#% 26
Words and Aciions
Vo)ds do not uuuus nutcI uctons.
MOLOTOV (in convcrsaiion wiiI Hiilcr, 13
Novcnlcr 1940i
In iIc lcsi-lnown fragncni of Iis sccrci spcccI of 5 May 1941, Sialin said iIai 'iIc war wiiI Ccrnany will
noi lcgin lcforc 1942'. Fron iIc vaniagc poini of wIai wc lnow ioday, Sialin's nisialc is olvious.
Dui lci us noi lc ioo quicl io nocl Sialin's crrors. If iIc spcccI was sccrci, iIcn Sialin surcly wanicd io
conccal iis conicnis fron iIc cncny. In iIc Krcnlin, Iowcvcr, Sialin was Icard ly all iIc lcciurcrs and
graduaics fron all iIc niliiary acadcnics, as wcll as ly iIc couniry's IigIcsi poliiical lcadcrs and iIc nosi
scnior Fcd Arny officcrs. WIai is norc, iIc conicni of Iis spcccI was passcd on io all Sovici gcncrals and
coloncls. 'In iIc niddlc of May 1941,' wroic Major-Ccncral D. Trann,
Air Forcc Major-Ccncral P. P. Kolclcv, cIairnan of iIc Ccniral Council of OSOAVIAKHIM (Sociciy for iIc
Dcfcncc of iIc Sovici Union and for iIc Dcvclopncni of iis Aviaiion and CIcnical Indusiricsi, gaiIcrcd
iogciIcr iIc scnior siaff of iIc Council, and rcporicd io us iIc lasic poinis of iIc spcccI nadc ly J. V.
Sialin ai iIc govcrnncni rcccpiion Icld in iIc Krcnlin in Ionour of graduaics fron iIc niliiary acadcnics.
(VIZH 1980, No. 6, p. 52i
Dcspiic iIc supposcd sccrccy of Sialin's spcccI, iIousands of pcoplc lncw iis conicni. Is iIcrc an
cplanaiion for sucI a parado? Indccd iIcrc is. Wc lnow fron iIc ncnoirs of Adniral of iIc Flcci of iIc
Sovici Union I. C. Kuzncisov iIai aficr ZIulov Iad lccn appoinicd CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff, a vcry
inporiani dircciivc was wriiicn wIicI 'aincd iIc aiicniion of iIc gcncral officcrs connanding niliiary
disiricis and flccis ai Ccrnany as iIc nosi prolallc cncny in iIc foriIconing war'. (NuIununc, Moscow
Vocnizdai 1966, p. 313i
TIc dircciivc lay in iIc Ccncral Siaff luilding for iwo noniIs, and on 5 May 1941 ii was passcd on io iIc
Icadquaricrs of iIc froniicr niliiary disiricis for aciion. TIcrc is nucI io indicaic iIai ii was rcccivcd ly iIc
Icadquaricrs on iIc day ii Iad lccn scni. MarsIal Dagranyan, for insiancc, Ias spolcn aloui ii. In faci
Sovici narsIals oficn iall aloui iIis IigIly sccrci dircciivc, aliIougI iIcy ncvcr nalc quoiaiions fron ii. In
iIc coursc of Ialf a ccniury, only onc singlc scnicncc fron iIis iop sccrci docuncni Ias cvcr goi inio iIc
prcss, and iIis was 'io lc rcady, on iIc ordcrs of iIc HigI Connand, io dclivcr swifi llows uiicrly io dcsiroy
iIc cncny, io carry oui conlai opcraiions ovcr Iis icrriiory and scizc inporiani posiiions'. (V. A. An]ou,
Hcssc)nc)tnu podug, Moscow Naula 1971, p. 171i
Had iIcrc lccn onc word aloui dcfcncc in iIai dircciivc, iIc narsIals and iIc connunisi Iisiorians would
noi Iavc failcd io quoic ii. TIc wIolc of iIc rcnaining ici of iIc 5 May dircciivc is noi, Iowcvcr, suiiallc for
quoiaiion. TIc dircciivc is io rcnain iop sccrci cvcn Ialf a ccniury aficr iIc war Ias cndcd.
Sovici ccnsorsIip lci slip only onc scnicncc, lui iIis was cnougI io rcvcal fully iIc scnsc of iIis carcfully
conccalcd docuncni. In a dcfcnsivc war, a soldicr docs noi waii for ordcrs. For Iundrcds of ycars iIc Fussian
soldicr Ias gonc in io do laiilc wiiI aggrcssors wiiIoui waiiing for ordcrs fron alovc. WIcn iIc cncny
crosscs iIc rivcr narling iIc froniicr, iIai ncans io iIc ordinary soldicr iIai iIc war Ias lcgun. TIc
froniicrs of Fussia Iavc lccn crosscd ly grcai arnics of icrrifying conqucrors. Evcry iinc iIai iIis Ias
Iappcncd, iIc Fussian soldicr, lilc iIc soldicr of any oiIcr couniry and naiion, Ias lnown fron iinc
inncnorial iIai wIcn iIc cncny crosscs iIc froniicr ii ncans war, and Ic gocs inio aciion wiiIoui awaiiing
ordcrs io do so. Cuard-duiy scrvicc Ias lccn dcviscd in sucI a way iIai ii frcqucnily placcs cvcry soldicr in a
siiuaiion wIcrc Ic Ias io nalc Iis own indcpcndcni dccision as io wIcn Ic sIould usc Iis wcapons. TIc
rigIi and duiy of a soldicr is io lill anyonc wIo irics io rcacI iIc iargci Ic is proicciing. Sovici law cspccially
prcscrvcs iIc rigIi of cacI soldicr io usc Iis wcapons indcpcndcnily. TIc sanc law scvcrcly punisIcs any
soldicr wIo docs noi usc Iis arns wIcn iIc siiuaiion dcnands iIai Ic do so.
A soldicr on a siaic froniicr is a soldicr ai an aciion siaiion. In a dcfcnsivc war Ic nccds nciiIcr ordcrs nor
dircciivcs.
A dcfcnsivc war would usually lcgin lilc iIis. A soldicr wIo Ias lccn frcczing all nigIi is gciiing rcady io
wrap Iinsclf up in Iis grcaicoai and siand down. Hc givcs Iis rclicf a walcning prod wiiI Iis fooi, lui
suddcnly ruls Iis cycs - cncny soldicrs arc crossing iIc rivcr. TIc soldicr opcns rapid firc, lilling iIc lcading
cncny soldicrs and warning Iis own conradcs. TIc connandcr of iIc dciacIncni walcs up, swcars wIilc
siill Ialf-awalc and, grasping wIai is Iappcning, cIascs Iis oiIcr soldicrs inio iIc ircncIcs. Dy iIcn, figIiing
Ias flarcd up along iIousands of liloncircs of froniicr. TIc plaioon connandcr concs on iIc sccnc. Hc co-
ordinaics iIc firc of Iis dciacIncnis. TIcn oiIcr connandcrs of norc scnior ranl iurn up. TIc figIiing
lcconcs norc organizcd. A rcpori flics off io rcgincnial Icadquaricrs, and fron iIcrc io iIc divisional
Icadquaricrs.
TIai is Iow a dcfcnsivc war lcgins. Yci iIc iop-sccrci dircciivc of 5 May 1941 providcd for nillions of Fcd
Arny soldicrs io cnicr iIc war in rcsponsc io a singlc ordcr wIicI was io lc rcccivcd fron iIc Sovici HigI
Connand. A Ialf-aslccp soldicr on iIc froniicr can scc iIc cncny naling an aiiacl, lui Iow can iIc
conradcs in iIc Krcnlin lnow iIai a war Ias siaricd? Unlcss, pcrIaps, iIcy iIcnsclvcs Iad ficd iIc daic
on wIicI ii was io lcgin.
TIc firsi io cnicr a dcfcnsivc war is iIc privaic soldicr, folio wcd ly iIc scrgcani, and iIcn iIc plaioon
connandcr. In an offcnsivc war, cvcryiIing is iIc oiIcr way round. TIc firsi io cnicr ii is iIc Connandcr-in-
CIicf, and iIcn iIc CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff, followcd ly iIc connandcrs of iIc fronis, iIc navics and iIc
arnics. TIc ordinary soldicr is iIc lasi io lnow iIai an aggrcssivc war Ias lcgun. Millions of soldicrs cnicr a
dcfcnsivc war individually, wIilc iIcy all cnicr an aggrcssivc war as onc nan.
Hiilcr's soldicrs cnicrcd cncny icrriiory as onc nan, ninuic ly ninuic, Iour ly Iour. Sialin's soldicrs also
did iIc sanc iIing in Finland, in Mongolia and in Dcssaralia. TIai was iIc way in wIicI iIcy wcrc io Iavc
gonc io war wiiI Ccrnany.
TIc 5 May dircciivc was issucd, lui iIc daic wIcn iIc war was duc io lcgin was lcpi a closc sccrci. Awaii
iIc signal and lc rcady ai any noncni, iIc dircciivc iold iIc Sovici gcncrals. Oncc Ic Iad issucd iIis
dircciivc, Sialin inncdiaicly iool ovcr iIc posi of Icad of iIc Sovici govcrnncni so iIai Ic pcrsonally would
givc iIc signal for iIc dircciivc io lc carricd inio cffcci.
Hiilcr gavc Iis own iroops iIc ordcr io carry oui a sinilar dircciivc a liiilc carlicr . . .

Wc do noi lnow, and apparcnily wc sIall ncvcr find oui, wIai iIc iop-sccrci dircciivc of 5 May 1941
coniaincd. Ii is clcar, Iowcvcr, iIai ii was a dircciivc aloui a war wiiI Ccrnany, lui a war wIicI was noi io
lc siaricd ly a Ccrnan invasion, lui ly sonc oiIcr ncans. If iIc dircciivc Iad Iad scvcral alicrnaiivc
vcrsions, and onc of iIosc Iad covcrcd iIc coniingcncy of Ccrnany siariing iIc war, iIcn all iIc Sovici
lcadcrs in iIc Krcnlin nccd iIcn Iavc donc on 22 Junc 1941 was io iclcpIonc iIc officcrs connanding iIc
froniicr niliiary disiricis and icll iIcn, 'Opcn your safcs, ialc oui iIc dircciivc daicd 5 May and carry oui
wIai ii says.'
If iIc 5 May dircciivc Iad coniaincd scvcral alicrnaiivc scis of ordcrs, and onc of iIcn Iad lccn dcfcnsivc,
iIcn iIc officcr connanding iIc froniicr niliiary disirici could Iavc lccn iold, 'Pui a linc iIrougI iIc firsi
ninc vcrsions, lui carry oui iIc icniI, iIc final onc.' Hut tIc)c uc)c no dc]cnsuc uc)sons n tIc d)cctuc.
TIai is wIy iIc dircciivc of 5 May was ncvcr pui inio cffcci. TIc Sovici dircciivc conplcicly losi iis poini iIc
noncni iIc Ccrnans invadcd. Ii lccanc insianily ouidaicd, in iIc sanc way iIai all Sovici noiorway ianls
lccanc olsolcic.
Sincc iIc dircciivc was now usclcss, iIc Sovici lcadcrs in iIc Krcnlin wcrc conpcllcd io inprovisc.
TinosIcnlo and Malcnlov wcrc olligcd io wasic iinc conposing a conplcicly ncw dircciivc. TIcn norc iinc
Iad io lc wasicd cncipIcring ii, iransniiiing ii, rccciving ii, and dccipIcring ii. TIc 22 Junc dircciivc,
incidcnially, was a iIorougIly aggrcssivc docuncni. Dui ii sligIily danpcncd down iIc offcnsivc urgc of iIc
Sovici iroops.
Ii nusi noi lc iIougIi iIai all iIc copics of iIc 5 May dircciivcs Iad sinply lain in iIc safcs, waiiing
for iIc Iour io conc io usc iIcn. TIc dircciivc Iad lccn issucd io lc cccuicd, and in accordancc wiiI iis
insiruciions, iroops wcrc rcgroupcd on a grand scalc on iIc lordcrs. In iIc froniicr arcas, Iundrcds of
liloncircs of larlcd-wirc cnianglcncnis and iIousands of nincs wcrc rcnovcd. Hundrcds of iIousands
of ions of annuniiion wcrc novcd rigIi up io iIc froniicr and sioclpilcd in iIc opcn. Hundrcds of
iIousands of ions of siorcs of all linds, nccdcd for a swifi and unavoidallc war, wcrc lrougIi inio iIc froniicr
arcas.
On 15 Junc 1941, iIc iinc canc for iIc gcncrals in connand of arnics, corps and divisions io lcarn norc
aloui iIc Sovici lcadcrs' inicniions. TIai day, iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc fivc froniicr niliiary disiricis issucd
conlai ordcrs wIicI Iad lccn wriiicn on iIc lasis of iIc iop-sccrci 5 May dircciivc. TIc circlc of iIc iniiiaicd
now cicndcd io scvcral Iundrcd ncn. TIc ordcrs issucd on 15 Junc 1941 io niddlc-ranl connandcrs in
iIc Fcd Arny also rcnaincd iop sccrci, lui iIcrc wcrc scvcral of iIcsc, so iIcy arc quoicd norc fully and
norc oficn. TIc opcraiivc scnicncc fron iIc ordcr issucd on 15 Junc 1941 ly iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc Daliic
Spccial Miliiary Disirici io iIc officcrs connanding iis arnics and corps is wcll lnown io Iisiorians. 'Wc
nusi lc rcady ai any iinc io carry oui iIc conlai nission.'
Now lci us rciurn io Sialin's sccrci spcccI of 5 May 1941. In a scc)ct spcccI io a full audiioriun, Sialin
spolc of iIc aggrcssivc war againsi Ccrnany, wIicI would lcgin in 1942. On iIc vcry sanc day, in a top
scc)ct dircciivc, iIc officcrs connanding iIc froniicr niliiary disiricis wcrc insirucicd io lc rcady for
aggrcssion ai any noncni.
TIcrc is anoiIcr coincidcncc. On 13 Junc 1941, TASS iransniiicd a rcpori wIicI said iIai iIc Sovici
Union did noi inicnd io aiiacl Ccrnany. Ii was noving iroops up io iIc Ccrnan lordcrs solcly for ccrcisc
purposcs. Yci iwo days laicr, on 15 Junc, iIc Sovici gcncrals in iIc froniicr niliiary disiricis rcccivcd an
ordcr wIicI was siricily for iIcir cycs alonc io lc rcady ai any noncni io scizc posiiions on forcign
icrriiory.
Dy May and Junc of 1941, Sialin lncw iIai ii was no longcr possillc io Iidc iIc prcparaiions wIicI iIc
Sovici Union was naling io 'lilcraic' Europc. TIai was wIy Ic 'naivcly' dcclarcd io iIc wIolc world in iIc
TASS rcpori iIai iIc Sovici Union was noi prcparing io nalc an aiiacl. Naiurally, Ccrnan iniclligcncc did
noi lclicvc sucI a crudcly forgcd docuncni, and ii was wiiI iIis in nind iIai Sialin 'sccrcily' inforncd
iIousands of Iis officcrs, and Ccrnan iniclligcncc ai iIc sanc iinc, iIai iIc Sovici Union would aiiacl
Ccrnany in 1942.
AliIougI ii was no longcr possillc for Sialin io conccal Iis inicniions, ii uus possillc io conccal iIc daic.
TIis is jusi wIai Sialin's 'sccrci' spcccI was calculaicd io acIicvc. If Hiilcr did noi lclicvc Sialin's ovcri
siaicncnis, iIc iIcory wcni, iIcn naylc Ic would fall for Iis 'sccrci' onc. Hiilcr Iad cnougI scnsc io lclicvc
nciiIcr.
"(&)*#% 20
Living Pcaccally wiiI SIarp TcciI
TIc cncnu nust Ic cuugIt unuuu)cs, und tIc tnc
cIoscn uIcn Is t)oops u)c scuttc)cd.
STALIN (Vol. 6, p. 158i
On 8 May 1941, iwo days aficr Sialin's 'sccrci' spcccI, TASS lroadcasi a vigorous dcnial of a Japancsc prcss-
agcncy rcpori of nassivc Sovici iroop novcncnis.
Japancsc ncwspapcrs arc pullisIing rcporis issucd ly iIc Donci Tsusin Agcncy in wIicI ii siaics iIai iIc
Sovici Union is conccniraiing sirong niliiary forccs on iis wcsicrn froniicrs ... In iIis conncciion, passcngcr
iraffic along iIc Trans-Silcrian Failway Ias lccn sioppcd, so iIai iroops fron iIc Far Easi can lc
iransfcrrcd nainly io iis wcsicrn froniicrs. Sirong niliiary forccs arc also lcing iransfcrrcd iIcrc fron
ccniral Asia ... A niliiary nission Icadcd ly Kuzncisov Ias lcfi Moscow for TcIran. TIc purposc of iIc
nission, iIc Agcncy noics, is connccicd wiiI iIc graniing of airficlds io iIc Sovici Union in ccniral and
wcsicrn arcas of Iran.
TASS is auiIorizcd io siaic iIai iIis suspiciously siridcni Donci Tsusin rcpori, lorrowcd fron sonc
unlnown Uniicd Prcss corrcspondcni, is iIc fruii of iIc sicl inaginaiion of iis auiIors . . . TIcrc is no
'conccniraiion of sirong niliiary forccs on iIc wcsicrn froniicrs of iIc USSF, nor arc any cnvisagcd. TIc
Donci Tsusin rcpori coniaincd onc grain of iruiI, wIicI norcovcr is givcn oui in a crudcly disioricd forn,
and iIis is iIai onc riflc division is lcing iransfcrrcd fron iIc Irluisl arca io ncar Novosilirsl, lccausc
iIcrc arc lciicr lillciing condiiions in Novosilirsl. EvcryiIing clsc coniaincd in iIc Donci Tsusin rcpori is
sIccr faniasy.
TIrougI iIcir Ancrican sourccs, iIc Japancsc ncwspapcrs accuraicly forccasi cvcnis. TIrcc noniIs laicr,
Sovici iroops wcni inio Iran and luili noi only airficlds, lui nucI clsc lcsidcs. Donci Tsusin's rcfcrcncc io
'iroop conccniraiions on an cccpiionally largc scalc' was corrcci. in addiiion io oiIcr forccs, Sialin
conccniraicd 20 nccIanizcd corps and fivc airlornc assauli corps on iIc lordcrs wiiI Ccrnany.
TASS spolc of onc riflc division lcing scni 'fron Irluisl io Novosilirsl'. Lci us Icar oiIcr wiincsscs.
Licuicnani-Ccncral C. SIclalIov was a najor-gcncral ai iIc iinc, and CIicf of Siaff of iIc isi Arny of iIc
Fcd Danncr on iIc Easicrn Froni. 'According io a dircciivc fron iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Dcfcncc of 16
April 1941,' Ic wroic, 'iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc 18iI and 3 isi Fiflc Corps, iIc 2isi and 66iI Fiflc Divisions,
iIc 2iiiI and iIc 212iI Airlornc Assauli Drigadcs and scvcral spccial purposc uniis wcrc novcd fron iIc
conplcncni of iIc Far Easicrn Froni io iIc wcsi of iIc couniry.' (VIZH, 1969, No. 3, p. 56i
TIc iransfcr of airlornc assauli lrigadcs io rcinforcc iIc fivc alrcady in iIc wcsicrn arcas of iIc couniry is
cvidcncc iIai an offcnsivc opcraiion on a nassivc scalc was lcing prcparcd. TIc logus TASS 'dcnial' lcni
sccrccy io iIc opcraiion, in ordcr iIai ii would ialc iIc cncny ly surprisc.
TIc 212nd Airlornc Assauli Drigadc was MarsIal ZIulov's favouriic. In Augusi 1939, ii was scrving along
wiiI iIc OSN AZ laiialion of iIc NK VD in ZIulov's pcrsonal rcscrvc; wIcn Ic launcIcd Iis crusIing
surprisc aiiacl againsi iIc Japancsc, iIc lrigadc was uscd as cracl infaniry in iIc sirilc wIicI Iii ai iIc
rcar of iIc Japancsc 6iI Arny.
ZIulov iIcn sccrcily iransfcrrcd iIis, iIc lcsi lrigadc in iIc Fcd Arny, fron iIc Far Easi io join iIc
conplcncni of iIc 3rd Airlornc Assauli Corps on iIc Fonanian froniicr. Hiilcr did noi allow iIis lrigadc
or any of iIc nassivc conccniraiion of Sovici iroops on iIc wcsicrn lordcrio lc uscd for iIcir inicndcd
purposcs. Opcraiion Darlarossa forccd iIc Sovici Union onio iIc dcfcnsivc, and iIc 3rd Airlornc Assauli
Corps was no longcr nccdcd. Ii was iIcn rc-forncd inio iIc 87iI Fiflc Division (laicr io lcconc iIc 13iI
Cuards Divisioni, and disiinguisIcd iisclf in dcfcnsivc figIiing.
Wc can follow iIc sccrci novcncni of iIcsc iroops fron iIc Far Easi iIrougI nany sourccs. DoiI MarsIals
ZIulov and I. KI. Dagranyan confirn iIai iIc 3isi Fiflc Corps arrivcd in iIc Kicv Spccial Miliiary Disirici on
25 May 1941. TIis ncans iIai wIcn iIc TASS 'dcnial' was issucd, iIc 3isi Fiflc Corps was soncwIcrc on iIc
Trans-Silcrian Failway. Coloncl-Ccncral I. Lyudnilov siaics iIai, aficr Ic Iad sci up, nolilizcd and iIcn
ialcn ovcr connand of iIc 2OOiI Fiflc Division, Ic was ordcrcd io join iIc conplcncni of iIc 3isi Fiflc
Corps. TIcn, lilc all iis nuncrous lroiIcrs-in-arns, iIis corps was sccrcily novcd rigIi up io iIc Ccrnan
froniicr. Dui Hiilcr did noi allow iIc 31si Fiflc Corps io conplcic iIc journcy wIicI ii Iad lcgun.
Anyonc wIo wisIcs io do so nay rc-iracc iIc rouics wIicI iIcsc oiIcr corps, divisions and lrigadcs iool
wIcn iIcy wcrc sccrcily iransfcrrcd fron iIc Far Easi, ly rcfcrring io iIc nany rccollcciions pullisIcd ly
Sovici narsIals and gcncrals; io cvidcncc fron Sovici soldicrs wIo wcrc iransfcrrcd fron iIc Far Easi and
wIo, on finding iIcnsclvcs on iIc Ccrnan and Fonanian lordcrs on 22 July, lccanc prisoncrs of war; io
Ccrnan iniclligcncc rcporis, and io nany oiIcr sourccs.
TIc TASS dcnial ncniioncd a riflc division wIicI was iransfcrrcd fron Irluisl io Novosilirsl lccausc iIc
lillciing condiiions iIcrc wcrc lciicr. For nany ycars now I Iavc lccn unsucccssfully scarcIing for sonc
iracc of iIis nysicrious division. I Iavc found noiIing; lui in iIc proccss, I Iavc iurncd up a nass of
infornaiion aloui oiIcr divisions; in Irluisl and Novosilirsl, in CIiia and Ulan Udc, in DlagovcsIcIcnsl
and Spassl, in Inan and DaralasI, in KIalarovsl and VorosIilov. All of iIcn cniraincd, noi sinply io off-
load in a ncigIlouring iown a fcw Iundrcd liloncircs up iIc linc, lui io discnlarl ai iIc wcsicrn froniicrs.
An official Iisiory, wIicI was in faci pullisIcd in Irluisl (ZuIuIu'sIu uocnnu oI)ug, Irluisl 1972i, iclls of
nany divisions lcing loadcd on irains, all Icadcd for iIc wcsicrn lordcrs. TIc 57iI Tanl Division,
connandcd ly Coloncl V. A. MisIulin, sccrcily cniraincd Icrc in April. MisIulin Iad no idca for wIai
purposc. Fron Irluisl ii was convcycd io iIc Kicv Spccial Miliiary Disirici, and was ordcrcd io off-load ncar
SIcpciovla.
McanwIilc iIc flow of iroops along iIc Trans-Silcrian Failway (and along all oiIcr nain lincsi was growing.
Wc lnow iIai corps fron iIc Far Easi lcgan io dc-irain in iIc Ulrainc on 25 May 1941. iIc 3 isi Fiflc Corps,
for canplc, off-loadcd ncar ZIiionir. TIc following day, iIc officcr connanding iIc Urals Miliiary Disirici
was ordcrcd io iransfcr iwo riflc divisions io iIc Daliic. (Major-Ccncral A. Crylcv and Profcssor V. KIvosiov,
Konnunst, 1968, No. 12, p. 67i TIai sanc day, iIc Trans-Dailal Miliiary Disirici and iIc Far Easicrn Froni
wcrc ordcrcd io prcparc io scnd a furiIcr ninc divisions, including iIrcc ianl divisions, io iIc wcsicrn pari of
iIc couniry. (IId) TIc i6iI Arny was alrcady on iIc Trans-Silcrian Failway; iIc 22nd and iIc 24iI Arnics
wcrc Icading iowards ii.
TIc grcaicsi falscIood in iIc TASS 'dcnial' was noi aloui 'lillciing condiiions', Iowcvcr, lui aloui iIc
conccniraiion of iroops on iIc wcsicrn lordcr. 'TIcrc is no conccniraiion,' ii siaicd, 'und nonc s ]o)csccn.'
TIai was iIc nosi inporiani poini. Firsi, iIc conccniraiion was iIcrc, and iIc Ccrnan invasion confirncd
iIai ii ccccdcd cvcn iIc nosi daring forccasis. Sccondly, wIilc all iIcsc lrigadcs, divisions and corps wcrc
lcing iransfcrrcd, plans wcrc lcing laid for an cvcn grcaicr and iruly unprcccdcnicd railway opcraiion,
nancly iIc iransfcr ly rail of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon of iIc Fcd Arny. TIc dircciivc ordcring iIc
officcrs connanding iIc iroops io lcgin iIc iransfcr of iIis ccIclon was givcn on 13 May. TIc TASS 'dcnial'
was pullisIcd wIilc iIis was lcing sci up.
Major-Ccncral A. A. LolacIcv, wIo was a ncnlcr of iIc Miliiary Council of iIc i6iI Arny ai iIc iinc,
rccallcd iIc cvcnis of 26 May 1941.
TIc CIicf of Siaff rcporicd iIai an inporiani cncipIcrcd ncssagc conccrning iIc i6iI Arny Iad
arrivcd fron Moscow . . . iIis ordcr rcquircd iIai iIc i6iI Arny lc rcdcploycd io a ncw locaiion. M. F. Lulin
Iad io rcpori inncdiaicly io iIc Ccncral Siaff io lc givcn insiruciions, wIilc Coloncl M. A. SIalin and
nysclf Iad io arrangc io scnd off iIc niliiary irains.
'WIcrc io?' I aslcd KurocIlin.
'Wcsiwards.'
Wc iool advicc and dccidcd io scnd iIc ianl crcws firsi, iIcn iIc I52nd Division and iIc rcnaining
fornaiions, and finally iIc arny Icadquaricrs and iIc uniis appcndcd io ii.
'Scnd iIc irains ly nigIi. No onc nusi lnow iIai iIc arny is lcaving,' iIc Officcr Connanding warncd.
Dy iIc iinc iIc irains carrying iIc ianls Iad lcfi, KurocIlin and Zinin arrivcd, gaiIcrcd iogciIcr iIc
connand pcrsonncl of iIc 5iI Corps, and cprcsscd iIc wisI io Ccncral Alclsccnlo and io all iIc
connandcrs iIai iIcy would noi lci down iIc Trans-Dailal iradiiions . . . TIc ncn lisicncd io iIcsc warn
pariing words, and cvcrylody iIougIi noi so nucI aloui niliiary iraining, lui iIai iIc suljcci nigIi
sIorily lcconc onc of niliiary aciion. (Ccncral A. A. Lola-cIcv, Tndnun Do)ogun, Moscow Vocnizdai
1960, p. 123i
Ccncral LolacIcv was io rclaic sonc surprising iIings laicr. Ccncral Lulin, iIc officcr connanding iIc
16iI Arny, LolacIcv Iinsclf, and Coloncl M. A. SIalin, iIc i6iI Arny CIicf of Siaff and fuiurc Icad of iIc
CFU, all lncw iIai iIc i6iI Arny was lcing iransfcrrcd wcsiwards, lui iIcy did noi lnow cacily wIcrc. All
iIc oiIcr gcncrals in iIc i6iI Arny wcrc 'sccrcily' inforncd iIai iIc arny's dcsiinaiion was iIc Iranian
froniicr. TIc lcss scnior officcrs on iIc connand siaff wcrc iold iIai iIc purposc of iIc displaccncni was
iraining ccrciscs, wIilc iIc wivcs of iIc officcrs wcrc iold iIai iIc arny was off io canp.
In a dcfcnsivc war, iIcrc is no nccd io dcccivc iIc gcncrals in iIis way. In iIc Ccrnan Arny, iIc sanc
iIing was lcing donc ai iIc sanc iinc, wIcn disinfornaiion was lcing sprcad aloui Opcraiion Sca Lion. Ii is
a surc sign iIai a surprisc aiiacl is in prcparaiion wIcn iIc iroops arc dclilcraicly dcccivcd aloui wIcrc
opcraiions arc going io ialc placc. In ordcr io disscnllc fron iIc cncny, onc nusi also disscnllc fron onc's
own iroops. Aggrcssors Iavc always donc iIis. Hiilcr did ii, and so did Sialin.
Ii is inicrcsiing iIai in April 1941, cvcrylody lroadly undcrsiood iIai iIc i6iI Arny was going off io war.
'Arc you going off io figIi,' LolacIcv's wifc aslcd Iin poini-llanl.
'WIcrc did you gci iIai fron?'
'Conc off ii! I rcad iIc papcrs, don'i I?'
(IId)
TIis was a IigIly inicrcsiing psycIological noncni. I Iavc qucsiioncd Iundrcds of pcoplc wIo lclongcd io
iIai gcncraiion, and iIcy all Iad a prcscniincni iIai war was coning. I was anazcd, and aslcd wIcrc iIcsc
prcscniincnis Iad conc fron. Fron iIc ncwspapcrs, iIcy all rcplicd.
Wc, pcoplc of ioday, scldon find dircci cvidcncc of an innincni and unavoidallc war wIcn wc scan iIc
ycllowing ncwspapcr pagcs of iIosc ycars. Yci iIc pcoplc of iIai gcncraiion lncw, ly rcading lciwccn iIc
lincs, iIai war was unavoidally approacIing. TIosc pcoplc in Silcria could noi Iavc lnown aloui iIc
prcparaiions wIicI Hiilcr was naling; iIcir fccling iIai war could noi lc avoidcd nusi Iavc lccn lascd on
Sovici prcparaiions.
Ccncral LolacIcv rccalls iIc incrcdillc dcgrcc of sccrccy in wIicI iIc arny was iransfcrrcd. iIc niliiary
irains only noving ly nigIi; irains wIicI sioppcd ai nciiIcr inporiani siaiions nor ai ncdiun-sizcd oncs;
iIc iransfcr of iIc i6iI Arny Icadquaricrs in goods wagons wiiI iIcir doors and windows conplcicly closcd;
iIc snall siaiions wIcrc iIc irains Ialicd, wiiI no onc allowcd io lcavc iIc wagons. In iIosc days a passcngcr
irain iool norc iIan clcvcn days and nigIis io cross iIc Trans-Silcrian Failway, wIilc goods irains iool
longcr. Officcrs and ncn can lc iransporicd in conplcicly closcd wagons. Dui Icrc wc arc ialling aloui an
arny Icadquaricrs. SucI a dcgrcc of sccrccy is unusual cvcn ly Sovici siandards. In 1945 a sircan of iroops
was io flow lacl along iIc Trans-Silcrian Failway in iIc opposiic dircciion io ialc pari in iIc surprisc sirilc
againsi Japancsc iroops in MancIuria and CIina. For purposcs of conccalncni, all gcncrals iravcllcd in
officcrs' uniforns wIicI Iad far fcwcr siars on iIcir sIouldcr-siraps iIan iIcir ranls cniiilcd iIcn io wcar,
lui cvcn so, iIcy iravcllcd in passcngcr wagons. Yci in 1941 iIc gcncrals Iad iravcllcd in goods wagons.
WIy?
"(&)*#% 22
TIc TASS Fcpori
Stun uus not onc o] tIosc ]gu)cs uIosc
)cu ntcntons uc)c cuc) opcnu dccu)cd.
FODEFT CONOUEST
(TIc G)cut Tc))o), London, 1968i
On 13 Junc 1941, Moscow Fadio lroadcasi an unusual and puzzling rcpori fron TASS. Ii claincd iIai 'lilc
iIc Sovici Union, Ccrnany is also sicadfasily olscrving iIc condiiions of iIc SoviciCcrnan non-aggrcssion
paci . . .' and iIai 'iIcsc runours of a Ccrnan aiiacl on iIc Sovici Union| arc propaganda clunsily
concocicd ly forccs wIicI arc Iosiilc io iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany, and wIicI arc inicrcsicd in furiIcr
cicnding and dcvcloping iIc war . . .' TIc nain Sovici ncwspapcrs pullisIcd iIis rcpori iIc nci day. Yci
wiiIin iIc wccl, Ccrnany Iad aiiaclcd iIc Sovici Union.
Evcrylody lncw wIo Iad wriiicn iIc TASS rcpori. Sialin's cIaracicrisiic siylc was rccognizcd ly gcncrals
scrving in iIc various Sovici Icadquaricrs, ly CULAC prisoncrs, and ly Wcsicrn cpcris. AliIougI Sialin
purgcd TASS aficr iIc war, nonc of iIc lcading figurcs in iIis insiiiuiion wcrc cvcr accuscd of Iaving sprcad
rcporis wIicI could Iavc lccn considcrcd 'nanifcsily Iarnful'. Sialin could also Iavc pui iIc llanc for
lroadcasiing iIc TASS rcpori onio any ncnlcr of iIc Poliiluro, lui Ic did noi do iIis ciiIcr; Ic iool iIc
cniirc rcsponsililiiy for ii Iinsclf.
MucI Ias lccn wriiicn aloui iIis TASS rcpori in loiI iIc forcign and iIc Sovici prcss. Evcryonc wIo Ias
dcali wiiI iIc suljcci Ias laugIcd ai Sialin's ioucIing naivciy. TIc TASS rcpori, Iowcvcr, is noi so nucI
anusing as nysicrious and inconprcIcnsillc. Only onc iIing is clcar. iIc idcniiiy of iis auiIor. All iIc rcsi is
an cnigna.
TIc TASS rcpori appcars io coniradici cvcryiIing wc lnow aloui Sialin's cIaracicr. Doris DazIanov, wIo
was Sialin's pcrsonal sccrciary and lncw Iin lciicr iIan anyonc, dcscrilcs Iin as 'sccrciivc and cunning in
iIc circnc . . . Hc posscsscd iIc gifi of silcncc io a IigI dcgrcc, and in iIis Ic was uniquc in a couniry
wIcrc cvcryonc ialls ioo nucI.'
Many wriicrs Iavc icsiificd io Sialin's iaciiurniiy. 'Hc was an irrcconcilallc cncny of vcrlal inflaiion, or
garrulousncss,' wroic AlduracInan AviolIranov. 'Don'i say wIai you iIinl, and don'i iIinl wIai you say,
could lc anoiIcr noiio for Iis lifc.' Folcri Conqucsi, a pronincni rcscarcIcr inio iIc Sialin pcriod, Ias
olscrvcd iIai 'wc siill Iavc io pccr iIrougI iIc darlncss of Sialin's cccpiional sccrciivcncss', and iIai
'Sialin ncvcr said wIai was on Iis nind, cvcn wIcn spcaling aloui Iis poliiical ains'. (TIc G)cut Tc))o))
TIc aliliiy io lccp silcni, in Dalc Carncgic's api words, is iIc nosi rarcly found ialcni of all in Iunan
lcings. Fron iIis vicwpoini Sialin was a gcnius. Nor was iIis only a vcry sirong iraii in Iis cIaracicr; ii also
scrvcd as a vcry sirong wcapon in dispuic. Hc lullcd Iis cncnics wiiI Iis silcncc, so iIai iIc suddcnncss of
Iis llows nadc iIcn irrcsisiillc. WIy iIcn did Sialin suddcnly pullicizc Iis iIougIis aloui rclaiions wiiI
Ccrnany in a Fadio Moscow lroadcasi? WIcrc was Iis sccrciivcncss and cunning iIcn? If Sialin Iad any
iIougIis aloui Iow fuiurc cvcnis would dcvclop, wIy did Ic noi discuss iIcn in iIc closc circlc of Iis
conradcs-in-arns? WIo passcs inporiani ncssagcs io Iis arny iIrougI iIc radio siaiion of iIc capiial and
iIc nain ncwspapcrs? TIc arny, navy, sccrci policc, conccniraiion canps, indusiry, iranspori, agriculiurc,
and iIc cniirc populaiion of iIc Sovici Union forncd pari of iIc siaic sysicn. TIcy wcrc all sulordinaicd, noi
io ncwspapcr rcporis, lui io iIcir supcriors, wIo in iurn rcccivcd ordcrs iIrougI spccial, oficn sccrci
cIanncls fron iIcir cIicfs. Sialin's cnpirc was ccniralizcd lilc no oiIcr and, pariicularly aficr iIc Crcai
Purgc, iIc nccIanisn of siaic govcrnncni was luili in sucI a way iIai any ordcr was inncdiaicly
iransniiicd fron iIc IigIcsi lcvcl down io iIc lowcsi funciionarics, wIo rigorously carricd ii oui. TIc largc-
scalc opcraiions in 1939 involving iIc arrcsi and clininaiion of YczIov's supporicrs, and iIc aciual
rcplaccncni of iIc cniirc dirccioraic of iIc sccrci policc, wcrc carricd oui quiclly and cffcciivcly, in sucI a
way iIai no onc ouisidc cvcr dccodcd iIc signal io lcgin iIc opcraiions, or lncw Iow or wIcn Sialin gavc iIc
signal io sci iIcn in noiion.
If Sialin, in Junc 1941, Iad Iad idcas io pui lcforc nillions of funciionarics wiiIoui dclay, wIy did Ic noi
avail Iinsclf of iIai snooiI nacIinc of govcrnncni, wIicI would iransnii any ordcr inncdiaicly and
wiiIoui disioriion? If ii wcrc a siaicncni of sonc graviiy, ii could lc duplicaicd on sccrci cIanncls. TIc TASS
rcpori, according io MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union A. M. Vasilcvsly, 'was noi followcd ly any ncw policy
insiruciions aloui iIc arncd forccs, or ly any rcvicw of prcviously ialcn dccisions'. (A. M. Vasilcvsly. Dco
Vsc ZIzn, Moscow IPL 1973, p. 120i. TIc MarsIal gocs on io say iIai ii cIangcd noiIing in iIc worl of iIc
Ccncral Siaffcr of iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Dcfcncc. Indccd, 'ii was csscniial iIai noiIing sIould
cIangc'.
No confirnaiion of iIc TASS rcpori was scni along sccrci niliiary cIanncls. On iIc conirary, iIcrc arc
docuncnis wIicI sIow iIai, ai iIc sanc iinc as iIc TASS rcpori was pullisIcd, an ordcr was givcn io iIc
iroops in iIc niliiary disiricis, including iIc Daliic Spccial Miliiary Disirici, wIicI in loiI scnsc and spirii
was dirccily conirary io iIc TASS rcpori. (ArcIiv MO SSSF, ArcIivc 344, scIcdulc 2459, iicn n, p. 31i TIc
naicrial pullisIcd in niliiary ncwspapcrs, cspccially iIosc wIicI arc unavailallc io ouisidcrs, was also in
dircci conflici io iIc conicni of iIc TASS rcpori. (Scc for canplc Vicc-Adniral I. I. Azarov; OsuzIdcnnuuu
Odcssu, Moscow Vocnizdaii
TIc TASS rcpori was noi only oui of lccping wiiI Sialin's cIaracicr; ii did noi ially wiiI iIc ccniral idca.of
all connunisi nyiIology. TIrougIoui Iis cniirc lifc, any connunisi iyrani, and cspccially Sialin, consianily
rcpcais a sinplc and cnincnily conprcIcnsillc scnicncc. 'TIc cncny is waicIing.' TIis nagic scnicncc
cplains iIc alscncc of ncai in iIc sIops, iIc 'lilcraiion canpaigns', ccnsorsIip, ioriurc, nass purgcs and
closcd froniicrs. PIrascs lilc 'iIc cncny is on iIc waicI' and 'wc arc surroundcd ly cncnics' arc noi jusi
idcology; iIcy arc iIc sIarpcsi wcapon iIc Pariy Ias. TIis wcapon dcsiroycd all forns of opposiiion. Yci oncc,
and only oncc in iIc Iisiory of all connunisi rcgincs, iIc Icad of iIc nosi powcrful of iIcn all iold iIc
wIolc world iIai iIc iIrcai of aggrcssion did noi cisi.
13 Junc 1941 was onc of iIc nosi inporiani daics in Sovici Iisiory. Iis significancc is considcrally grcaicr
iIan iIai of 22 Junc 1941, and Sovici gcncrals, adnirals and narsIals dcscrilc iIis daic in iIcir ncnoirs in
far norc dciail. 'On 13 Junc 1941,' wroic Licuicnani-Ccncral N. I. Diryulov, wIo ai iIc iinc was a najor-
gcncral in connand of iIc 186iI Fiflc Division lclonging io iIc 62nd Fiflc Corps in iIc Urals Miliiary
Disirici, 'iIc Miliiary Disirici Icadquaricrs scni us a dircciivc of spccial inporiancc, wIicI ordcrcd iIc
division io lcavc for a "ncw canp". TIc addrcss of iIc ncw quaricring was noi cvcn connunicaicd io nc, iIc
connandcr of iIc division. I only lcarni on a irip io Moscow iIai our division was io lc conccniraicd in iIc
woods io iIc wcsi of Idriisa.' ( VIZH 1962, No. 4, p. 80i
In pcacciinc, a division Iolds sccrci and sonciincs iop-sccrci docuncnis. A docuncni gradcd 'of spccial
inporiancc', Iowcvcr, can lc scni io a division only in wariinc, and only in cccpiional circunsianccs wIcrc
opcraiions of circnc inporiancc arc lcing planncd. Many Sovici divisions passcd iIrougI iIc war wiiIoui
cvcr Iolding cvcn onc docuncni wiiI iIis IigIcsi sccrccy grading. TIc faci iIai Diryulov cIosc io pui
invcricd connas around iIc words 'ncw canp' is also significani.
TIc 186iI Division was noi iIc only onc in iIc Urals Miliiary Disirici wIicI rcccivcd iIis ordcr. u iIc
divisions in iIc disirici rcccivcd ii. TIc official Iisiory of iIc disirici (K)usnoznuncnnu U)u'sIu, Moscow
Vocnizdai 1983, p. 104i rccords Iow 'iIc loading lcgan of iIc 112iI Fiflc Division. TIc niliiary irain lcfi iIc
snall railway siaiion on iIc norning of 13 Junc . . . OiIcr niliiary irains followcd. TIcn iIc cnirainncni
lcgan of uniis lclonging io iIc 98iI, 153rd, and 186iI Fiflc Divisions.' TIc 170iI and I74iI Fiflc Divisions,
along wiiI ariillcry, sappcr, anii-aircrafi and oiIcr uniis wcrc goi rcady for dcpariurc. Hcadquaricrs of iIc
iwo corps wcrc sci up io Iandlc iIc Urals divisions. TIcsc Icadquaricrs in iurn canc undcr iIc connand of
iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc ncw 22nd Arny, wIosc connanding officcr was Licuicnani-Ccncral F. A. ErsIalov.
Covcrcd ly iIc sooiIing TASS rcpori, iIis grcai nass of Icadquaricrs and iroops novcd off sccrcily for iIc
forcsis of Dyclorussia.
TIc 22nd Arny was noi iIc only onc on iIc novc. 'Jusi lcforc iIc war lcgan, addiiional forccs wcrc
asscnllcd for posiing in iIc siricicsi sccrccy io iIc froniicr disiricis. Fivc arnics wcrc novcd wcsiwards fron
iIc Icari of iIc couniry.' (Ccncral S. M. SIicncnlo, Gcnc)u'nu sItuI u Godu Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1968,
p. 26i
Ccncral S. P. Ivanov adds iIai 'wIilc iIis novc was in progrcss, a furiIcr iIrcc arnics wcrc prcparcd for
rcdcployncni'. (NucIu'nu Pc)od Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1974, p. 211i
TIc qucsiion now ariscs as io wIy all cigIi arnics did noi novc ai iIc sanc iinc. TIc answcr is sinplc.
TIc largc-scalc sccrci iransfcr of Sovici iroops wcsiwards iool placc in MarcI, April and May. TIc couniry's
cniirc railway iranspori was involvcd in iIis vasi sccrci opcraiion. Ii was conplcicd on iinc, lui icns of
iIousands of wagons Iad io lc scni lacl across iIousands of liloncircs of railway. TIcrcforc on 13 Junc,
wIcn anoiIcr sccrci largc-scalc iransfcr of iroops lcgan, iIc arnics found iIai iIcrc wcrc noi cnougI railway
wagons availallc.
Ii is alnosi inpossillc io givc iIc scalc of iIcsc iroop novcncnis, as wc do noi Iavc caci figurcs. Sonc
idca of iIc sizc of iIc opcraiion can lc gaiIcrcd fron pullisIcd accounis, Iowcvcr.
In May and carly Junc, iIc iranspori sysicn of iIc USSF Iad io novc aloui 800,000 rcscrvisis . . . iIcsc
novcncnis Iad io ialc placc sccrcily. (I. V. Kovalcv, forncrly Dcpuiy Pcoplc's Connissar for Siaic Conirol,
T)unspo)t u VcIo OtccIcstucnno Vonc, Moscow Naula 1981, p. 41i
In May ... an airlornc assauli corps was conccniraicd ncar ZIiionir and in iIc forcsis io iIc souiI-wcsi of
ii. (Coloncl-Ccncral I. I. Lyudnilov, VIZH 1961, No. 9, p. 66i
MarsIal Dagranyan, lascd in iIc Kicv Spccial Miliiary Disirici ai iIc iinc, laicr rccallcd Iow
TIc Icadquaricrs of iIc 3isi Fiflc Corps fron iIc Far Easi was io arrivc on 25 May io join iIc iroop
conplcncni Icrc ... in iIc sccond Ialf of May iIc Ccncral Siaff scni us a dircciivc insiruciing us io acccpi
iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc 34iI Fiflc Corps, four divisions, cacI wiiI a sircngiI of 12,000 and onc nouniain
riflc division, all coning fron iIc NoriIcrn Caucasus Miliiary Disirici . . . Alnosi a wIolc arny Iad io lc
lillcicd in a vcry sIori spacc of iinc ... ai iIc cnd of May, onc niliiary irain aficr anoiIcr lcgan io arrivc in
iIc disirici. TIc opcraiions lrancI cIangcd inio sonciIing rcscnlling a novcncnis officc, inio wIicI all
infornaiion flowcd aloui iIc arriving iroops. (VIZH 1967, No. I, p. 62i
TIc siiuaiion was vcry sinilar on 13 Junc, wIcn anoiIcr sccrci rc-grouping of iroops lcgan. TIcsc wcrc io
forn iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon of iIc Fcd Arny. I now Iavc infornaiion aloui 77 divisions and a vcry
grcai nunlcr of rcgincnis and laiialions wIo Iad sccrcily lcgun io novc wcsiwards undcr covcr of iIc TASS
rcpori.
Licuicnani-Ccncral of Ariillcry C. D. Plaslov, wIo was a coloncl ai iIc iinc, Ias givcn a vivid dcscripiion of
iIc cvcnis of iIai day.
TIc 53rd Division, in wIicI I was officcr in connand of ariillcry, was dcploycd on iIc Volga. Our scnior
Connand Siaff wcrc sunnoncd io iIc Icadquaricrs of our 63rd Corps.
V. F. Ccrasincnlo, iIc connandcr of iIc Disirici, canc io iIc ncciing. TIc arrival of iIc iop lrass pui
cvcryonc on Iis guard, for ii ncani iIai sonciIing inporiani was in iIc offing. A. C. Pcirovsly, iIc corps
connandcr, wIo was usually a quici unrufflcd nan, was noiiccally agiiaicd.
'Conradcs,' Ic said. 'TIc corps Ias lccn ordcrcd io nolilizc fully. Wc nusi lring our uniis up io iIcir
full war-csiallisIncni sircngiI, for wIicI cncrgcncy rcscrvcs arc io lc uscd. Wc nusi call up our
rcnaining rcscrvc conplcncni inncdiaicly. Major-Ccncral V. S. Dcnsly, iIc cIicf of siaff of iIc corps, will
givc you iIc plan wiiI iIc loading roia, iIc niliiary irains availallc, and iincs of dcpariurc.'
TIc ncciing did noi lasi long. EvcryiIing was clcar. And aliIougI Ccncral Ccrasincnlo Iinicd iIai wc
wcrc going off on an ccrcisc, cvcryonc lncw iIai iIc naiicr was nucI norc scrious iIan iIai. A full
conplcncni of conlai cquipncni Iad ncvcr lcforc lccn ialcn off on a iraining ccrcisc. Nor wcrc pcoplc
callcd up fron iIc rcscrvc . . . (Pod G)oIIot Kunonudu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1969, p. 125i
TIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon, ncanwIilc, wIicI Iad cniraincd for iIc froniicr rcgions carlicr in iIc ycar, was
lcing novcd rigIi up io iIc froniicr iisclf. On 14 Junc iIc niliiary council of iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici was
ordcrcd io csiallisI iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc 9iI Arny in Tiraspol (VIZH 1978, No. 4, p. 86i, and iIc Miliiary
Council of iIc Daliic Spccial Miliiary Disirici raiificd a plan io rcdcploy a nunlcr of divisions and dciacIcd
rcgincnis in iIc froniicr arca. (Souct Mtu)u Encucopcdu, Moscow, Vol. 6, p. 517i
Ccncral S. P. Ivanov rccalls iIai
wIilc iroops wcrc lcing novcd fron iIc dcpiI of iIc couniry, a covcri rcgrouping lcgan of fornaiions
insidc iIc niliiary disiricis on iIc froniicr. Fornaiions wcrc novcd ncarcr iIc froniicr, undcr iIc guisc
of cIanging iIc locaiions of sunncr canps . . . Mosi fornaiions wcrc novcd ai nigIi . . . (NucIu'nu
Pc)od Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1974, p. 211i
Many oiIcr officcrs corroloraic Iis accouni of iIcsc cvcnis. Major-Ccncral S. Iovlcv, wIo was iIcn
connandcr of iIc 64iI Fiflc Division of iIc ijiI Arny's 44iI Fiflc Corps, wroic iIai 'on 15 Junc 1941 Ccncral
D. C. Pavlov, iIc officcr connanding iIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici, ordcrcd iIc divisions in our corps
io prcparc io rcdcploy in full conplcncni . . . Wc wcrc noi iold wIcrc our dcsiinaiion was . . .' (VIZH 1960, No.
9, p. 56i
According io Coloncl-Ccncral L. M. Sandalov, wIo was iIcn a coloncl and cIicf of siaff of iIc 4iI Arny of
iIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici, 'a ncw division, iIc 75iI Fiflc, appcarcd on iIc souiIcrn wing of iIc 4iI
Arny. Ii Iad lccn novcd up fron Mozyr' and Iad pui up Icavily canouflagcd icni cncanpncnis in iIc
forcsis. (Pc)czItoc, Moscow Vocniz-dai 1966, p. 71i
TIc official Iisiory of iIc Kicv Miliiary Disirici siaics iIai on 14 Junc,'Major-Ccncral F. F. AlyalusIcv's
87iI Fiflc Division was novcd up io iIc siaic froniicr undcr iIc guisc of ccrciscs.' (KcusIu
K)usnoznuncnnu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1974, p. 162i
TIc nciIod of noving iroops up io iIc froniicr undcr iIc guisc of ccrciscs is noi adopicd on local
iniiiaiivc. MarsIal ZIulov's rccollcciions nalc ii clcar iIai iIc ordcr canc fron alovc.
S. K. TinosIcnlo, iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc, rcconncndcd io iIc officcrs connanding iIc
iroops in iIc niliiary disiricis iIai iIcy Iavc iIcir fornaiions carry oui iaciical ccrciscs lcsidc iIc siaic
froniicr so iIai, in accordancc wiiI iIc plan for covcr, iroops could lc novcd up ncarcr io iIcir arcas of
dcployncni. TIc disiricis carricd oui iIis rcconncndaiion fron iIc Pcoplc's Connissar lui wiiI onc viial
proviso - a significani pari of iIc ariillcry did noi ialc pari in iIcsc novcncnis. (C. K. ZIulov,
Vosponnunuu )uznusIcnuu, Moscow APN 1969, p. 242i
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union K. K. Folossovsly, iIcn connandcr of iIc 9iI MccIanizcd Corps, cplains
wIy iIc iroops Iad novcd up io iIc siaic froniicr wiiIoui ariillcry; iIc ariillcry Iad lccn ordcrcd up io iIc
froniicr a sIori iinc lcforc. (SodutsIu Dog, Moscow Vocnizdai 1968, p. 8i
According io MarsIal Kirill Mcrcislov, iIcn a gcncral and Dcpuiy Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc, 'an
ccrcisc of iIc nccIanizcd corps was carricd oui on ny ordcrs. TIc corps was lrougIi up io iIc froniicr arca
in iraining ordcr, and ii siaycd iIcrc. I iIcn said io ZalIarov iIai Major-Ccncral F. Ya. Mali-novsly's corps
was also in iIc disirici, and iIai ii ioo Iad io lc lrougIi up io iIc froniicr arca during iIc ccrciscs.' (Nu
SuzIIc Nu)odu, Moscow IPL 1968, p. 204i
MarsIal Fodion Malinovsly, iIcn a najor-gcncral in connand of iIc 48iI Fiflc Corps of iIc Odcssa
Miliiary Disirici, confirns iIai iIis ordcr was carricd oui. 'As carly as 7 Junc, iIc corps Iad lcfi iIc
Kirovograd arca for Dcl'isy, and ii was alrcady in placc ly 14 Junc. TIis displaccncni was carricd oui undcr
iIc guisc of largc-scalc ccrciscs.' (VIZH 1961, No. 6, p. 6i
MarsIal Dagranyan Ias said iIai 'wc Iad io prcparc all iIc opcraiional docuncniaiion nccdcd for noving
fivc riflc and four nccIanizcd corps oui of iIc arcas wIcrc iIcy wcrc siaiioncd pcrnancnily inio iIc froniicr
zonc'. (TuI NucInuus' Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1971, p. 64i 'On 15 Junc wc wcrc ordcrcd io lcgin noving
all fivc riflc corps io iIc froniicr . . . TIcy iool wiiI iIcn cvcryiIing ncccssary for conlai opcraiions. For iIc
purposcs of sccrccy, iIcsc novcncnis iool placc only ai nigIi.' (IId, p. 77i
Coloncl-Ccncral I. I. Lyudnilov, iIcn a coloncl in connand of iIc 20OiI Fiflc Division of iIc 3isi Fiflc
Corps, was onc of iIosc wIo carricd oui iIis ordcr. 'TIc Miliiary Disirici's dircciivc,' Ic rccallcd, 'wIicI
arrivcd in divisional Icadquaricrs on 16 Junc 1941, gavc iIc ordcr io sci oui on iIc narcI . . .wiiI full
conplcncni . . . and io conccniraic in iIc forcsi sonc 10-15 liloncircs io iIc noriI-casi of iIc froniicr iown
of Kovcl'. TIc ordcr was iIai iIc novc sIould lc carricd oui covcrily, and only ly nigIi, iIrougI forcsi-
covcrcd icrrain.' (SIuoz' G)ozu, Doncisl, Donlass, 1973, p. 24i
Ii was noi only arnics, corps and divisions iIai wcrc novcd io iIc siaic froniicrs. TIcrc arc Iundrcds of
picccs of cvidcncc io sIow iIai nucI snallcr sul-uniis wcrc also iransfcrrcd iIcrc.
Licuicnani-Ccncral V. F. Zoiov, for canplc, iIcn a najor-gcncral and cIicf of iIc SZF (NoriI-Wcsicrn Fronii
cnginccring iroops, rcporicd iIai 'iIc sappcr laiialions wcrc fully nolilizcd on a wariinc fooiing . . . icn
laiialions wIicI Iad conc fron iIc Far Easi wcrc arncd io iIc full'. (Nu Scuc)o-Zupudnon F)ontc, Moscow
Naula 1969, p. 172i
Coloncl S. F. KIvalci, iIcn dcpuiy connandcr of iIc 2O2nd Moiorizcd Division of iIc 8iI Arny's I2iI
MccIanizcd Corps, siaicd iIai 'on iIc nigIi of 18 Junc 1941, our division sci oui on ficld ccrciscs'. (Nu
Scuc)o-Zupudnon F)ontc, Moscow Naula 1969, p. 310i TIc coloncl adds iIai ly iIc iinc iIc war lcgan, iIc
sul-uniis of iIc divisions found iIcnsclvcs dirccily lcIind iIc froniicr sccuriiy dciacIncnis, in iIc
inncdiaic proiniiy of iIc siaic froniicr.
A lricf cccrpi fron iIc opcraiional ordcr issucd on 18 Junc 1941 io Coloncl I. D. CIcrnyalIovsly Ias
lccn pullisIcd in iIc Sovici Union. CIcrnyalIovsly, wIo was laicr io lcconc a gcncral of iIc arny, was
iIcn iIc connandcr of iIc ianl division of iIc sanc I2iI MccIanizcd Corps.
On rcccipi of iIis ordcr iIc Connandcr of iIc 28iI Tanl Division Coloncl CIcrnyalIovsly is io lring all
uniis io a siaic of conlai prcparcdncss in accordancc wiiI iIc laiilc alcri plans, lui iIc alcri iisclf is noi
io lc dcclarcd. EvcryiIing is io lc carricd oui quiclly, lui noisclcssly, wiiIoui panic or carclcss iall, and
iIc prcscrilcd lcvcls nusi lc aiiaincd in loiI individual poriallc rcscrvcs and iransporiallc rcscrvcs wIicI
will lc nccdcd for pIysical susicnancc and laiilc . . . (VIZH 1986, No. 6, p. 75i
Ii is a grcai piiy iIai iIc wIolc ordcr was noi pullisIcd. Ii rcnains jusi as nucI a sccrci as ii was Ialf a
ccniury ago. According io capiurcd Ccrnan docuncnis, iIcir firsi cncounicr wiiI iIc 28iI Tanl Division
iool placc ncar SIaulya. Dui iIai division Iad lccn givcn iIc iasl of noving rigIi up io iIc froniicr iisclf.
MarsIal of Arnourcd Tanl Troops P. P. Polyloyarov, iIcn a coloncl and cIicf of iIc noiorizcd arnourcd ianl
Icadquaricrs of iIc NoriI-Wcsicrn Froni, siaicd iIai
'iIc division (iIc 28iI Tanli Iad io lcavc Figa for a posiiion on iIc SoviciCcrnan froniicr.' (Nu Scuc)o-
Zupudnon F)ontc, Moscow Naula 1969, p. 114i TIc Ccrnan invasion sinply caugIi iIis division, lilc nany
oiIcrs, on iIc way io iIc froniicr.
In ny privaic lilrary iIcrc arc sufficicni docuncnis on iIc novcncnis of iroops iowards iIc froniicrs io fill
scvcral voluninous lools. Lci us iry io lcar in nind iIc ovcrall piciurc iIai cncrgcs fron iIis nass of dciail.
TIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon Iad in all 170 divisions, ciiIcr ianl, noiorizcd, cavalry or riflc; 56 of iIcsc wcrc
siaiioncd rigIi up againsi iIc siaic froniicrs.
TIc rcnaining 114 divisions of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon wcrc lying insidc iIc icrriiory of iIc wcsicrn
froniicr disiricis, wiiIin noving disiancc of iIc froniicr. Onc qucsiion inicrcsis us - Iow nany of iIcsc 114
divisions lcgan io novc iowards iIc froniicrs undcr covcr of iIai sooiIing TASS rcpori? TIc answcr is iIai
iIcy all did. 'Dciwccn 12 and 15 Junc, iIc wcsicrn niliiary disiricis wcrc ordcrcd io novc all divisions in iIc
inicrior of iIc couniry inio posiiions closcr io iIc siaic froniicrs.' (V. KIvosiov, Major-Ccncral A. Crylcv,
Konnunst 1968, No. 12, p. 68i To iIcsc 114 divisions of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon wc nay add iIc 77
divisions of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon wIicI, as wc alrcady lnow, Iad ciiIcr lcgun io novc wcsiwards, or
clsc wcrc prcparing io do so.
TIc 13 Junc 1941, iIcrcforc, narls iIc lcginning of iIc grcaicsi displaccncni of iroops in iIc Iisiory of
civilizaiion. TIc TASS rcpori, pullisIcd on iIc sanc day, spcals noi only aloui Ccrnan inicniions, lui also
aloui Sovici plans.
Funours io iIc cffcci iIai iIc Sovici Union is prcparing for war wiiI Ccrnany arc falsc and provocaiivc . . .
iIc sunncr iraining courscs now lcing Icld for Fcd Arny rcscrvisis, as wcll as iIc inpcnding nanocuvrcs,
Iavc as iIcir purposc noiIing norc iIan iIc iraining of rcscrvisis and icsiing Iow iIc railway sysicn
worls. Ii is gcncral lnowlcdgc iIai iIcy arc Icld cvcry ycar, and ii is iIcrcforc alsurd, io say iIc lcasi, io
poriray iIcsc ncasurcs as Iosiilc io Ccrnany.
WIcn iIis dcclaraiion is conparcd wiiI wIai in faci was aciually Iappcning, wc discovcr iIai iIc words
uscd do noi always ially wiiI iIc facis.
TIc TASS rcpori aiicnpis io cplain iIcsc iroop novcncnis as 'icsiing iIc railway sysicn'. Lci us lcg lcavc
io douli iIis. TIc Sovici iroop novcncnis lcgan in Fclruary. TIcy wcrc sicppcd up in MarcI, rcacIcd
cnornous proporiions in April and May, and lccanc iruly all-cnlracing in Junc. TIcsc novcncnis involvcd
iIosc divisions wIicI Iad alrcady lccn novcd up closc io iIc Ccrnan froniicr; iIosc wIicI wcrc prcparing io
invadc Iran; and iIosc wIicI Iad rcnaincd in iIc Far Easi. TIc full luild-up of Sovici iroops on iIc Ccrnan
froniicr was planncd io Iavc lccn conplcicd ly lojuly. (Ccncral of iIc Arny S. P. Ivanov, NucIunu Pc)od
Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1974, p. 211i TIc railways, wIicI wcrc iIc couniry's principal ncans of iranspori,
wcrc paralyscd for alnosi si noniIs ly iIcsc sccrci niliiary novcncnis. In iIc firsi Ialf of 1941, all iIc
indiccs in iIc Siaic Plan wcrc disrupicd, cccpi iIc niliiary oncs. TIc principal rcason for iIis was iranspori.
TIc sccond was iIc covcri nolilizaiion of iIc nalc populaiion inio iIc ncw arnics wIicI wcrc iIcn lcing
forncd. Ii is surcly noi quiic rigIi io usc iIc icrn 'icsiing' io dcscrilc sucI widcsprcad disrupiion of iIc Siaic
Plan.
TIc TASS Fcpori dcscrilcs iIcsc nanocuvrcs as 'iIc usual ccrciscs', lui iIc accounis of Sovici narsIals,
gcncrals and adnirals rcfuic iIis. Major-Ccncral S. lovlcv, for canplc, rccallcd Iow 'iIcsc call-ups for
iraining wcrc so unusual, and Iad noi lccn providcd for in niliiary iraining plans, iIai iIcy pui pcoplc on
iIcir guard'. (VIZH 1960, No. 9, p. 56i
Vicc-Adniral Ilya Azarov Ias poinicd oui iIai 'as a rulc, iraining ccrciscs wcrc Icld ncarcr io auiunn, and
Icrc iIcy wcrc lcginning in iIc niddlc of iIc sunncr'. (VIZH 1962, No. 6, p. 77i Coloncl-Ccncral I. Lyudnilov
lacls iIis up. 'Fcscrvisis arc usually callcd up aficr iIc Iarvcsi Ias lccn gaiIcrcd in ... TIis rulc was lrolcn
in 1941.' (VIZH 1966 No. 9, p. 66i
Ccncral MilIail Kazalov was in iIc Ccncral Siaff ai iIc iinc and pcrsonally nci Licuicnani-Ccncral
MilIail FcrdorovicI Lulin and oiIcr connandcrs wIo Iad lccn sccrcily scni io iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicr.
Hc is quiic caicgoric iIai, 'ii was clcar iIai ii was noi nanocuvrcs iIcy wcrc going on'. (Nud Ku)to HuuII
S)uzIcnu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1971, p. 64i
Lci us noic iIai all iIcsc narsIals and gcncrals usc iIc icrn 'undcr iIc guisc of ccrciscs'. TIc prcicncc
iIai iIcsc novcncnis wcrc ccrciscs sinply conccalcd iIc iruc purposc of iIis rcgrouping and luild-up of
Sovici iroops. Dui nolody Ias cvcr said wIai iIis iruc purposc was. Four dccadcs aficr iIc war cndcd, iIc
iruc ain of iIcsc iroop novcncnis siill rcnains a Sovici siaic sccrci.
Ai iIis poini iIc rcadcr nigIi suggcsi iIai iIc rcason for all iIis was iIai Sialin pcrIaps scnscd iIai
sonciIing Iosiilc was afooi, and conccniraicd iIcsc iroops iIcrc for dcfcnsivc purposcs. Dui iIcsc
prcparaiions Iad noiIing io do wiiI dcfcnsivc ncasurcs. Troops wIo arc prcparing for dcfcncc dig iIcnsclvcs
in. TIis is an inviolallc rulc, wIicI cvcry Sovici non-connissioncd officcr Ias ialcn io Icari cvcr sincc iIc
Fusso-Japancsc War, and all iIc wars wIicI followcd ii. TIc firsi iIing wIicI iroops wIo arc prcparing for
dcfcncc do is io covcr iIc widcsi ficlds ovcr wIicI iIc cncny will advancc, covcr iIc roads, pui up larlcd-
wirc cnianglcncnis, dig anii-ianl diicIcs, and crcci dcfcnsivc and covcr insiallaiions lcIind waicr dcfcnccs.
Dui iIc Fcd Arny did noiIing lilc iIis. As wc Iavc sccn, iIc Sovici divisions, arnics and corps pullcd down
iIc dcfcnsivc insiallaiions wIicI Iad lccn crccicd prcviously. TIc iroops wcrc noi conccniraicd IcInd iIc
waicr dcfcnccs, as is donc io aid dcfcncc, lui n ])ont of iIcn, wIicI can only aid aiiacl. Sovici iroops did noi
inicrccpi iIcsc widc ficlds wIicI would suii an cncny advancc. TIcy Iid in iIc forcsis insicad, jusi as iIosc
Ccrnan iroops wcrc doing as iIcy iIcnsclvcs prcparcd io aiiacl.
Dui wcrc noi all iIcsc ncasurcs pcrIaps jusi a display of powcr? Of coursc noi; io lc cffcciivc, sucI a
display nusi Iavc lccn visillc io iIc cncny. TIc Fcd Arny was noi giving a display lui, quiic iIc rcvcrsc,
was irying io conccal iis prcparaiions. TIc TASS rcpori was noi wriiicn io frigIicn iIc cncny, lui io sci Iis
nind ai rcsi.
Ii is siriling Iow iIc Ccrnan Arny was doing cacily iIc sanc iIing in iIosc days. Ii novcd up io iIc
lordcr and Iid in iIc forcsis, lui iIcsc novcncnis wcrc vcry difficuli io Iidc. Sovici rcconnaissancc aircrafi
flcw ovcr Ccrnan icrriiory 'ly nisialc'. Dui no onc sIoi iIcn down. Nor was ii only ordinary pilois wIo flcw
ovcr Ccrnan icrriiory. Connandcrs of nucI norc scnior ranl nadc iIcsc fligIis as wcll. Air Major-Ccncral
C. N. ZalIarov, wIo connandcd iIc 43rd FigIicr Division of iIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici, loolcd
down upon Ccrnan iroops fron alovc and said 'onc Iad iIc inprcssion iIai iIcrc was lcing gcncraicd, in
iIc dcpiI of iIis vasi icrriiory, novcncni wIicI canc io a Iali ai iIc froniicr, pusIing againsi ii as againsi
sonc invisillc larricr, and rcady ai any noncni io pour ovcr iIc iop'. (Poucst' oI Ist)cItcuuII, Moscow, Izd
DOSAAF 1977, p. 43i
Inicrcsiingly, Ccrnan pilois also flcw ovcr Sovici icrriiory 'in crror', and nolody sIoi iIcn down ciiIcr. I
Iavc found in old capiurcd arcIivcs inprcssions givcn ly a Ccrnan piloi wIo dcscrilcs iIc Sovici iroops in
cacily iIc sanc words. TIc accounis of Sovici officcrs arc fully corroloraicd ly Ccrnan niliiary iniclligcncc.
prior io 22 Junc 1941, iIc Fcd Arny was noving iowards iIc froniicr in a nassivc iidc.
Many oiIcr indcpcndcni sourccs say iIc sanc iIing. Ccorgy AlcandrovicI Ozcrov was onc of iIc dcpuiics
io Andrci NilolaiycvicI Tupolcv, iIc aircrafi dcsigncr. In Junc 1941, Ic was in prison along wiiI Tupolcv and
Iis cniirc dcsign ican. Ozcrov laicr wroic a lool iIai was disiriluicd in iIc Sovici Union in sunzdut forn,
ly-passing iIc usual ccnsorsIip. Fron iIcrc ii rcacIcd iIc Wcsi, wIcrc ii was pullisIcd in Ccrnany.
Ozcrov's accouni capiurcs iIc awcsonc rIyiIn of iIc Fcd Arny's nassivc novcncni iowards iis wcsicrn
lordcr, wIicI nadc iisclf fcli cvcn in Sovici prisons. 'Pcoplc living in Iouscs on iIc roads of Dyclorussia and
Windau,' Ic wroic, 'arc conplaining iIai iIcy cannoi slccp ai nigIi for iIc noisc of irains ladcn wiiI ianls
and guns runlling pasi.' (TupocusIuuu SIu)ugu, Franlfuri-an-Main, Poscv, 1973, p. 90i
Aficr ny firsi ariiclcs on iIis suljcci wcrc pullisIcd, I rcccivcd nany lciicrs wIicI givc a piciurc of iIc
cnornous novcncni wcsiwards of Sovici iroops. Pcoplc of iIc nosi varicd naiionaliiics and iypcs wroic io
nc. Esionians, Jcws, Polcs, Moldavians, Fussians, Laivians, Ccrnans, Hungarians, LiiIuanians, Ulrainians,
and Fonanians. All of iIcn for a variciy of rcasons wcrc in iIc 'lilcraicd' icrriiorics ai iIc iinc. TIc war was
laicr io scaiicr iIcsc pcoplc io iIc four corncrs of iIc cariI. TIcir lciicrs conc fron Ausiralia, iIc Uniicd
Siaics, Francc, Ccrnany, Argcniina, Wcsi Ccrnany, and cvcn fron iIc Sovici Union. I rcccivcd a lciicr fron
sonconc in Canada wIo Iad lccn a soldicr in iIc Fussian Lilcraiion Arny. Hc was in iIc Fcd Arny in 1941,
was scni io iIc froniicr, and was Iiding wiiI Iis rcgincni in iIc forcsis in iIc lordcr arca wIcn Ic was
caugIi ly iIc war. Hc was ialcn prisoncr, joincd iIc Fussian Lilcraiion Movcncni, was ialcn prisoncr
again, and cscapcd io spcnd a long lifc undcr sirangc nancs in sirangc lands. TIc soldicr sIowcd nc scvcral
lools wriiicn ly forncr connandcrs and iroops of iIc Fussian Lilcraiion Arny (FOAi, wIo niraculously
survivcd aficr iIc war. Inicrcsiingly, iIcy all lcgin iIcir lools fron iIc noncni wIcn Sovici iroops lcgan io
novc iowards iIc lordcr.
Many oiIcr wiincsscs, and pcoplc wIo lncw iIcn wcll, Iavc wriiicn io scicniific journals, and on occasions
sonc of iIcsc lciicrs arc pullisIcd. Jancs FusIlrool, a DriiisI ciiizcn, draws aiicniion io a lool cniiilcd
TIc P)onsc VIcI Htc) Kcpt, wriiicn in 1944 ly Sicfan Siscndc, and pullisIcd in 1945 in Swcdcn. TIc
auiIor is a PolisI Jcw wIo was in L'vov in 1941. Hcrc is Iis inprcssion of iIcsc days wIicI prcccdcd 22
Junc.
Miliiary irains cranncd full of iroops and niliiary cquipncni passcd wiiI incrcasing frcqucncy iIrougI
L'vov Icading wcsiwards. Moiorizcd uniis drovc iIrougI iIc nain sirccis of iIc iown, and ai iIc railway
siaiion all iraffic was purcly niliiary. (FUSI, Junc 1986, p. 88i
I an graicful io all iIosc wIo wriic io nc and io journals, as iIcy lccp adding ncw fragncnis io iIc piciurc
of iIc Fcd Arny's gcncral novcncni wcsiwards. In addiiion, iIcrc arc iIousands of docuncnis prcscrvcd in
Sovici arcIivcs wIicI lcar oui wIai I say. Vcry fcw pcoplc Iavc acccss io iIcsc arcIivcs, and iIc nosi
inicrcsiing docuncnis Iavc long sincc lccn dcsiroycd. Traccs of iIis dcsiruciion arc all ioo apparcni;
sonciincs as nany as a Iundrcd pagcs nay lc nissing fron a docuncni. (Evcn so, I asl iIosc wIo worl in
iIc arcIivcs io pay Iccd io iIc cnornous anouni of confirnaiion wIicI cisis iIcrc of iIcsc Sovici iroop
displaccncnis wcsiwards. I do noi asl you io pullisI iIc corroloraiion you find, lui sinply iIai you
yoursclvcs lcar ii in nind, for your own pcrsonal inicrcsi.i In addiiion io sccrci arcIivcs, iIcrc is an anplc
supply of ovcri official pullicaiions, including iIc Iisiorics of iIc Sovici niliiary disiricis, arnics, corps and
divisions. Anyonc inicrcsicd in iIis suljcci can quiclly find iIousands of siaicncnis lilc iIis onc.
Evcn lcforc iIc war lcgan, on iIc insiruciions of iIc Ccncral Siaff of iIc Fcd Arny sonc fornaiions of iIc
Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici lcgan io novc up io iIc siaic froniicr. (K)usnoznuncnnu Huco)ussIu
Vocnnu OI)ug, Moscow Vocnizdai 1983, p. 88i
SIould anyonc considcr all iIcsc sourccs io lc unrcliallc, iIcrc is onc corroloraiion wIicI ii is inpossillc
io rcfuic. iIc sulscqucni Iisiory of iIc war iisclf. Aficr iIc Ccrnans Iad rouicd iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon
and lrolcn iis dcfcnccs, iIcir advancc uniis suddcnly canc up againsi ncw divisions, corps and arnics -
sucI as iIc i6iI Arny ncar SIcpciovla - wIosc cisicncc iIc Ccrnan connandcrs Iad noi cvcn suspccicd.
TIc wIolc HtzI)cg plan Iad lccn luili on iIc calculaiion iIai iIc Sovici iroops siaiioncd rigIi on iIc
froniicr would lc rouicd ly a ligIining sirilc. Dui oncc ii Iad succcssfully carricd iIai plan inio cffcci, iIc
Ccrnan Arny iIcn discovcrcd iisclf up againsi anoiIcr wall of arnics wIicI Iad novcd up fron lcyond iIc
Volga, iIc NoriIcrn Caucasus, iIc Urals, Silcria, Trans-Dailal and iIc Far Easi. TIousands of railway
wagons wcrc nccdcd for onc arny alonc. TIcy Iad io lc lrougIi up io iIc siaiions for loading, and iIcn iIc
iroops, Icavy arnancni, vcIiclcs and supplics all Iad io lc pui on iIc irains and iIcn iransporicd across
iIousands of liloncircs. If iIc Ccrnan iroops cncounicrcd Silcrian, Urals and Trans-Dailal arnics ai iIc
cnd of Junc, iIis ncans iIai iIcir iransfcr io iIc wcsi nusi Iavc lcgun, noi on 22 Junc, lui carlicr.
WIilc iIis was going on Sovici naval forccs wcrc also on iIc novc. TIc official Esionian Iisiory of iIc war
siaics iIai iIc Sovici Daliic Flcci lcfi iIc casicrn pari of iIc Culf of Finland on iIc cvc of Iosiiliiics. (EstonsIu
Nu)od u VcIo OtccIcstucnno Vonc, Tallinn EcsiiFaanai 1973, Vol. i,p. 143i Lci us lool ai iIc nap. If iIc
flcci cncrgcd fron iIc casicrn pari of iIc Culf of Finland ii Iad only onc dircciion io go in, wcsiwards. Ii was
ccriainly noi sailing on an ccrcisc; iis iasl 'was aciivcly io worl on iIc cncny's sca connunicaiions'. (IId)
TIc war Iad noi yci lcgun, Sialin siill did noi lnow iIai Hiilcr was going io aiiacl Iin, yci a Sovici flcci Iad
alrcady lcfi iis lasc wiiI iIc conlai iasl of aciivc offcnsivc opcraiions!
Ai iIc sanc iinc, iransfcrs fron onc air lasc io anoiIcr wcrc procccding ai an inicnsivc raic in iIc air
forccs. WIolc air divisions and rcgincnis, flying ai nigIi and in snall groups in iIc guisc of carrying oui
ccrciscs, rcdcploycd io airficlds, sonc of wIicI wcrc lcss iIan 10 liloncircs fron iIc froniicr. Ii was noi jusi
conlai sul-uniis of iIc air forcc wIicI wcrc lcing scni wcsiwards. TIcrc wcrc also, in incrcasing nunlcrs,
iIc laicsi iypcs of aircrafi wIicI Iad noi yci lccn givcn io any rcgincnis or divisions. Coloncl-Ccncral L. M.
Sandalov rccallcd iIai 'Wc lcgan io rcccivc ncw opcraiional iccInical arnancni fron 15 Junc onwards. TIc
Korlin and iIc PruzIan figIicr rcgincnis wcrc givcn Yal-i figIicrs arncd wiiI cannon; iIc ground-aiiacl
rcgincni was givcn 11-2 aircrafi, and iIc lonlcr rcgincni Pc-2s.' (Nu MosIousIon Nup)uucnu, Moscow
Naula 1970, p. 63i
Ai iIai iinc figIicr rcgincnis cacI Iad 62 figIicr aircrafi, 63 ground-aiiacl aircrafi and 60 lonlcrs cacI.
Onc division alonc (iIc loiI Micd Aircrafi Divisioni cpccicd io lc givcn 247 of iIc laicsi aircrafi. Sandalov
also siaics iIai wIcn iIc division lcgan rccciving iIc ncw aircrafi, iIc old oncs wcrc noi pIascd oui. In iIis
way iIc division was iurncd inio a grcai figIiing nacIinc nunlcring scvcral Iundrcd aircrafi. ArcIival
docuncnis sIow iIai iIis proccss was going on cvcrywIcrc. TIc 9iI Micd Aircrafi Division, for insiancc,
wIicI was locaicd alongsidc and Iad also lccn novcd up closc io iIc froniicr, Iad 409 aircrafi, including 176
of iIc laicsi MIC-3s and also a fcw dozcn Pc-2s and I1-2S. Dui ncw aircrafi lcpi on coning.
On iIc norning of 22 Junc, iIc sanc Wcsicrn Froni was ordcrcd io acccpi 99 MIC-3 aircrafi ai OrsIa
airficld. (Konundo-uunc SItuI VVS u VO V, Moscow Naula 1977, p. 41i If iIcy wcrc ordcrcd io acccpi iIcn
on iIc norning of 22 Junc, iIcn olviously iIc aircrafi wcrc rcady for scnding on iIc cvcning of 21 Junc.
CIicf Air MarsIal A. A. Novilov Ias siaicd iIai on 21 Junc, iIc NoriIcrn Froni (wIcrc Ic was iIcn Officcr
Connanding VVS
10
wiiI iIc ranl of air najor-gcncrali was givcn an ccIclon of MIC-3 figIicrs. (VIZH1969,
No. 1, P. 6li
In addiiion io iIc figIicr aircrafi, iIcrc was a solid flow of ianls, ariillcry, annuniiion and fucl. 'A niliiary
irain carrying a Icavy ariillcry rcgincni arrivcd for off-loading ai iIc SIaulyai siaiion ai dawn on 22 Junc.'
(Htuu zu Lcnng)ud, Moscow Vocnizdai 1964, p. 22i Noi jusi onc niliiary irain, of coursc, and noi only wiiI
guns. 'Dy iIc cnd of Junc 1941, iIcrc wcrc 1,320 irains ladcn wiiI noior vcIiclcs sianding on iIc railways.'
(VIZH 1975, No. I, p. 81i TIc siandard wcigIi for a niliiary irain ai iIai iinc was 900 ions (45 wagons cacI
wcigIing 20 ionsi. Assuning iIai iIcrc was onc vcIiclc io cvcry wagon, iIis would ncan iIai ai lcasi 59,400
vcIiclcs wcrc cpccicd io lc offloadcd. Howcvcr, ii oficn Iappcncd iIai, in condiiions wIcrc an cncny aiiacl
Ias noi lccn forcsccn (and iIis onc was noi forcsccni, iIc vcIiclcs wcrc loadcd 'lilc a snalc', iIai is wiiI iIc
froni wIccls of cacI vcIiclc placcd on iIc lody of iIc onc in froni. In iIis way an incrcascd nunlcr of
vcIiclcs can lc loadcd onio onc irain.
10
Sovici Air Forcc.
Sonconc nusi Iavc gaiIcrcd iogciIcr iIis grcai quaniiiy of railway wagons and noior vcIiclcs, loadcd iIc
vcIiclcs on io iIc wagons, and convcycd iIcn across a vasi disiancc io iIc wcsicrn froniicr. TIis proccss
clcarly lcgan lcforc iIc war siaricd. Yci no onc succccdcd in unloading iIcsc vcIiclcs. McanwIilc, niliiary
irains carrying annuniiion lcpi arriving onc aficr iIc oiIcr in a ncvcr-cnding sircan. TIc Hcd Stu)
ncwspapcr wroic on 28 April 1985 iIai 'on iIc cvcning of 21 Junc 1941, iIc nanagcr of iIai sccior of railway
lincs conirollcd ly iIc Licpaja siaiion was iold io "acccpi a spccial irain. Ii's carrying annuniiion. Ii Ias io
lc scni on io iis dcsiinaiion ai iIc firsi opporiuniiy."' Ai iIai iinc Licpaja was vcry closc io iIc froniicr. TIc
irain was in iransii, and iIcrc was nowIcrc ii could Iavc lccn lound for cccpi iIc froniicr iisclf.
Annuniiion was Icld in grcai quaniiiics in railway wagons on all fronis. TIis is usually donc lcforc
prcparing for an offcnsivc in grcai dcpiI. Ii is sinplcr, norc rcliallc and cIcap in a dcfcnsivc war io lccp
annuniiion in prcviously prcparcd dcfcnsivc posiiions. WIcn iIcy Iavc uscd up iIc annuniiion ai onc
dcfcnsivc posiiion, iIc iroops can casily and quiclly wiiIdraw io iIc sccond posiiion wiiI iis prcviously
prcparcd supply of annuniiion, and iIcn io a iIird posiiion and so on. Dui lcforc an offcnsivc, annuniiion
is siorcd on nolilc iranspori, wIicI is a vcry cpcnsivc and dangcrous iIing io do. 'Ai iIc snall railway
siaiion of Kalinovla alonc, iIc SouiI-Wcsi Froni Iad 1,500 wagons ladcn wiiI annuniiion.' (SouctsIc
ZIccznodo)ozInI u Godu VcIo OtccIcstucnno Vonu, Izd. AN. SSSFI963, p. 36i
I Iavc nucI naicrial sIowing Iow niliiary irains ladcn wiiI annuniiion wcrc savcd in 1941. Ii did noi of
coursc provc possillc io savc iIcn all. Ariillcry Coloncl-Ccncral Ivan IvanovicI Volloirulcnlo rclaics iIai in
1941 iIc Wcsicrn Froni alonc losi 4,216 wagons carrying annuniiion. ( VIZH, No. 5, 1980, p. 71i Dui iIcrc
was noi jusi onc froni, lui fivc, and iIc Wcsicrn Froni was noi alonc in losing annuniiion wagons. Lci us iry
io inaginc iIc anouni of annuniiion on all fivc fronis wIicI fcll inio cncny Iands, and iIc anouni wIicI
was allc io lc savcd. In iIc niddlc of Junc, undcr covcr of iIc TASS siaicncni, all iIis annuniiion was
rolling in closcd wagons siraigIi for iIc Ccrnan froniicr.
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union Sinion KonsianiinovicI Kur-loilin rcporis iIai ai iIc lcginning of Junc, 'on a
proposal fron iIc Ccncral Siaff, iIc Sovici govcrnncni approvcd a plan io sIifi 100,000 ions of fucl fron iIc
inicrior rcgions of iIc couniry'. (Tu Voo)uzIcnnuII S SSH u VOV, Moscow Vocnizdai 1977, p. 59i OiIcr
dccisions sinilar io iIis onc wcrc apparcnily also lcing ialcn. 'Aloui 8,500 railway cisicrn wagons, all
coniaining fucl, pilcd up ai railway junciions and cvcn ai Ialis lciwccn siaiions.' (IId, p. 173i Assuning iIai
only iIc snallcsi 2O-ion cisicrn wagons wcrc uscd, iIcn wc arc noi jusi spcaling aloui 100,000 ions, lui of
a nucI grcaicr quaniiiy. TIc usual cisicrn wagon in usc in 1940 was noi of 20 ions, lui of 62 ions.
Conscqucnily wc can scc iIai iIcrc wcrc Iugc quaniiiics of fucl involvcd Icrc. Dui iIcsc 8,500 wcrc only
iIosc cisicrn wagons wIicI wcrc sianding ai siaiions in iIc carly days of iIc war, waiiing io lc off-loadcd. Wc
nusi also ialc inio accouni wIai Iad alrcady lccn dcsiroycd ai railway siaiions ly iIc cncny air forcc as iIc
war was lrcaling oui. Coloncl-Ccncral Ivan VassilycvicI Doldin, iIcn a licuicnani-gcncral and dcpuiy officcr
connanding iIc Wcsicrn Froni, laicr rcnarlcd iIai iIc loiI Arny, iIc nosi powcrful in Iis froni, Iad
sufficicni rcscrvcs of fucl in sioragc ianls and in railway cisicrn wagons, lui iIai all iIis was losi in iIc firsi
ninuics and Iours of iIc war. (St)untsu zIzn, Moscow Vocnizdai 1961, p. 92i
On iIc cvc of war, iIis grcai nass of cisicrn ianls, along wiiI irains ladcn wiiI iroops, iccInical
cquipncni, arns and annuniiion, was noving up io iIc froniicr.
WIcn wc spcal of iIc rcasons for iIc Fcd Arny's dcfcais in iIc iniiial pcriod of iIc war, wc sonciincs forgci
iIc nain rcason, wIicI is iIai iIc Fcd Arny was in railway wagons ai iIc iinc. Ccncral of iIc Arny, Sinion
PavlovicI Ivanov, iIcn a coloncl in cIargc of iIc opcraiions lrancI of iIc I3iI Arny Icadquaricrs, dcscrilcs
Iow Diryuzov's 132nd Fiflc Division was caugIi unprcparcd.
TIc cncny suddcnly aiiaclcd iIc irain, in wIicI pari of iIc sircngiI of iIc division, along wiiI iis
Icadquaricrs, was lound for iIc froniicr. TIcy Iad io go inio laiilc siraigIi fron iIc wagons and iIc
railway plaiforns. (Hcd Stu), 21 Augusi 1984i
MarsIal Diryuzov, iIcn a najor-gcncral rccallcd iIc cIaos iIai cnsucd.
Wc wcrc addcd io iIc conplcncni of iIc 2OiI MccIanizcd Corps ai iIc vcry lasi ninuic. I could noi find
ciiIcr iIc connandcr or iIc cIicf of siaff of iIc corps, in faci I did noi cvcn lnow wIcrc iIcir connand
posi was. TIc 137iI Fiflc Division, undcr iIc connand of Coloncl I. T. CrisIin, was opcraiing io iIc lcfi of
us. Ii Iad conc fron Cor'lii . . . Our ncigIlour on our rigIi was iIrown inio laiilc as wc wcrc, siraigIi
fron iIc railway wagons, cvcn lcforc all iIcir niliiary irains Iad rcacIcd iIcir off-loading poinis. (Kogdu
G)cnc PusII, Moscow Vocnizdai 1962, p. 21i
Ccncral of iIc Arny, Scrgci SIicncnlo, iIcn a coloncl in iIc opcraiions Icadquaricrs of iIc Ccncral Siaff,
rcporicd iIai
iroop irains wcrc noving wcsi and souiI-wcsi in an uninicrrupicd sircan. Firsi onc of us, iIcn anoiIcr
wcni io iIc offloading siaiions. TIc cvcr-cIanging siiuaiion and iis conplciiy oficn conpcllcd iIc off-
loading io lc sioppcd and iIc irains io lc scni on io sonc oiIcr siaiion. Ii Iappcncd on occasions iIai iIc
divisional connand and iis Icadquaricrs wcrc off-loadcd in onc placc, and iIc rcgincnis in anoiIcr, or
cvcn in scvcral placcs all sonc considcrallc disiancc apari. (Gcnc)u'nu SItuI u Godu Vonu, Moscow
Vocnizdai 1968, P. 30i
Sovici pullicaiions coniain iIousands of accounis of Iow iIc Ccrnan aiiacl found iIc Fcd Arny in iransii
and unprcparcd for sucI an onslaugIi. Coloncl-Ccncral A. S. Klcnin rccallcd Iow, in carly July 'iIcrc wcrc
47,000 wagons carrying niliiary loads noving on iIc railways'. (VIZH 1985, No. 3, p. 67i
'Many rail junciions wcrc alnosi conplcicly paralyscd ly iIis grcai accunulaiion of wagons. Ai nosi
siaiions only onc iracl was lcfi frcc io allow oiIcr irains io pass iIrougI.' (I. V. Kovalcv. T)unspo)t u VO V,
Moscow Naula 1981, p. 59i
Ii nigIi lc suggcsicd iIai iIis vasi nass of iroops and cquipncni Iad lccn pui on iIc irains aficr 22 Junc
and iIcn scni io iIc fronis. TIis is a nisialcn proposiiion. Aficr 22 Junc, iIc fronis nccdcd cnpiy wagons
only, io rcnovc iIc vasi rcscrvcs of arns, annuniiion, fucl and oiIcr niliiary supplics wIicI Iad alrcady
lccn sioclpilcd ai iIc lordcr.
In ordcr io rcalizc iIc iragcdy of iIc siiuaiion, onc nusi rcncnlcr Ccncral Lulin. Hc was alrcady figIiing
ncar SIcpciovla as officcr connanding Iis arny wIilc iIc Icadquaricrs of Iis arny was siill in Trans-
Dailal. TIc irains carrying Iis arny wcrc iIousands of liloncircs apari. TIcn iIc Icadquaricrs arrivcd, lui
iis connunicaiions laiialion was siill soncwIcrc on iIc way. Siiuaiions lilc iIis wcrc occurring cvcrywIcrc.
Hcadquaricrs wiiIoui iroops wcrc off-loadcd ai sonc siaiions, wIilc iroops wiiIoui Icadquaricrs wcrc off-
loadcd ai oiIcrs. Ii was worsc wIcn a irain sioppcd in iIc opcn couniry insicad of ai a siaiion. A ianl
laiialion is a grcai forcc, lui ii is conplcicly dcfcncclcss on a irain. If iIc figIiing caugIi a irain ladcn wiiI
Icavy iccInical arnancni ai a placc wIcrc iIcrc was nowIcrc io unload ii, iIcn iIc irain ciiIcr Iad io lc
dcsiroycd or alandoncd. TIc losscs in niliiary irains wcrc cnornous.
Dui cvcn iIosc divisions wIicI wcrc in iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon and wcrc naling iIcir own way io iIc
froniicr wcrc in no lciicr a posiiion. A division narcIing in colunns is an cccllcni iargci for any air forcc.
TIc cniirc Fcd Arny Iad nadc an cccllcni iargci of iisclf.
Many pcoplc saw iIc iransfcr of Sovici iroops ialing placc, lui cacI individual saw only a pari of ii. Fcw
could Iavc inagincd iis iruc scalc. Ccrnan niliiary iniclligcncc Iad asscsscd iIai a grcai luild-up of figIiing
sircngiI was ialing placc, lui all ii saw was iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon, ncvcr suspcciing iIai iIcrc was a
sccond, and indccd a iIird, wIicI wc sIall conc io in anoiIcr lool. I lclicvc iIai nany Sovici narsIals and
gcncrals, wiiI iIc cccpiion of iIc nosi cnincni, or iIosc wIo wcrc dirccily involvcd in iIcsc iroop iransfcrs,
lilcwisc Iad no idca of iIcir iruc dincnsions, and conscqucnily, of iIcir significancc. TIai is wIy nany of
iIcn iall aloui iIcn in so scrcnc a nanncr. TIcir ignorancc aloui iIc gcncral siiuaiion and iIc iruc cicni
of iIc luild-up of Sovici iroops was in no way foriuiious. Sialin iool draconian ncasurcs io covcr ii up. His
TASS rcpori was onc of iIcsc ncasurcs. Ii was clcarly inpossillc io conccal iIc aciual faci iIai iroop
iransfcrs wcrc ialing placc. Dui anazingly Sialin succccdcd in conccaling loiI iIc dincnsions of iIcsc
iransfcrs and iIcir purposc fron iIc cniirc couniry, fron Ccrnan iniclligcncc and cvcn fron fuiurc
gcncraiions.
Air Coloncl-Ccncral Alcandcr ScrgciycvicI Yalovlcv, wIo was a pcrsonal aidc io Sialin ai iIc iinc, lcars
wiincss iIai 'ai iIc cnd of May or lcginning of Junc' a ncciing was Icld in iIc Krcnlin io discuss naiicrs
rclaicd io canouflagc and dcccpiion. (TscV ZIzn, Moscow IPL 1968, p. 252i
An incidcni rccounicd ly MarsIal Maivci VassilycvicI ZalIarov rcvcals iIc dcgrcc of sccrccy surrounding
iIcsc iroop novcncnis.
Ai iIc lcginning of Junc, Coloncl P. I. Funyaniscv, iIc cIicf of VOSO
11
of iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici,
canc round io scc nc in ny officc wIcn I was cIicf of siaff of iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici and iold nc in
sccrci iIai ovcr iIc pasi fcw days ' AnnusIlas' Iad lccn passing iIrougI iIc Znancnla railway siaiion
fron iIc Fosiov dircciion and would lc off-loadcd ncar CIcrlassy.' AnnusIla' is a icrn wIicI is uscd in
iIc VOSO io ncan a division. Two days laicr, I rcccivcd an cncipIcrcd ncssagc fron CIcrlassy, signcd ly
M. A. Fciicr, dcpuiy officcr connanding iIc iroops in iIc NoriIcrn Caucasus Miliiary Disirici, in wIicI Ic
aslcd pcrnission io ialc ovcr sonc cloiIing-sioragc Iuincnis in our disirici for sioring iIc lclongings of
iroops wIicI Iad jusi arrivcd in iIis arca fron iIc NoriIcrn Caucasus. As iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc Odcssa
Miliiary Disirici Iad noi lccn inforncd aloui any conccniraiion of iroops Icrc, I rang iIc opcraiions
Icadquaricrs of iIc Ccncral Siaff on iIc VCI.
12
A. F. Anisov, iIc dcpuiy cIicf of iIc Icadquaricrs canc io
iIc iclcpIonc. I iold Iin aloui iIc cncipIcrcd ncssagc I Iad rcccivcd fron M. A. Fciicr, and aslcd Iin io
cplain wIai ii was all aloui. Anisov rcplicd iIai I nusi dcsiroy Fciicr's ncssagc ai oncc, iIai Ic (Fciicri
would lc givcn iIc ncccssary insiruciions fron iIc Ccncral Siaff, and iIai iIc Miliiary Disirici
Icadquaricrs was noi io inicrfcrc in iIis naiicr. (Vop)osu Isto)u, 1970, No. 5, p. 42i
MarsIal ZalIarov also siaics iIai Coloncl-Ccncral Yalov TinofcycvicI CIcrcvicIcnlo, wIo was
connanding iIc iroops in iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici, lilcwisc lncw noiIing aloui iIc 'AnnusIlas'. Ii nay
lc argucd iIai wIcn Sovici iroop novcncnis ialc placc, prccauiionary ncasurcs arc always ialcn, and iIai
Sovici iroops always lccp iIcir inicniions sccrci. TIis is quiic iruc. Dui cvcryiIing Ias a linii. An officcr
11
Ccniral Officc of Miliiary Failway Connunicaiions.
12
High-Frcquency Governmental Communications.
connanding a niliiary disirici in iIc Sovici Union - pariicularly onc wIo connands a niliiary disirici on iIc
froniicr - and Iis cIicf of siaff arc pcrsons wIo Iavc lccn invcsicd wiiI spccial plcnary powcrs and auiIoriiy.
TIcy ialc full rcsponsililiiy for cvcryiIing wIicI ialcs placc on iIc icrriiory wIicI is undcr iIcir conirol.
Evcn in iIc casc wIcrc iIc connandcr of iIc Odcssa niliiary disirici lcarni ly cIancc iIai a conccniraiion
of ouisidc iroops was ialing placc on Iis icrriiory, iIc Ccncral Siaff, wIicI was connandcd ly C. K. ZIulov,
ordcrcd Iin io forgci iIc infornaiion Ic Iad lccn scni, and io dcsiroy iIc sccrci cncipIcrcd ncssagc wIicI
Iad lccn inicndcd only io lc rcad ly iIc niliiary disirici cIicf of siaff. TIis cncipIcrcd ncssagc rcprcscnicd
a dangcr cvcn as ii lay in iIc cIicf of siaff s safc.
Licuicnani-Ccncral M. A. Fciicr's lcIaviour was inicrcsiing. Ma Fciicr was a disciplincd Ccrnan. Hc Iad
lccn a coloncl in iIc Fussian Arny in World War I, an old Iand of Prussian siocl. Hc lncw vcry wcll Iow io
lccp a sccrci. Dui cvcn Ic rcgardcd ii as pcrfccily naiural, wIcn Ic iurncd up wiiI Iis 'AnnusIlas' on iIc
icrriiory of anoiIcr niliiary disirici, io gci in ioucI wiiI Iis counicrpari and asl Iis pcrnission (in pcrsonal
codcd ncssagc of coursc!i io do sonciIing. TIc Ccncral Siaff quiclly sci Iis iIinling siraigIi, and Ic did noi
wriic a cipIcr ncssagc lilc iIai again.
Moloiov sunnoncd iIc Ccrnan anlassador on 13 Junc and Iandcd Iin iIc ici of iIc TASS rcpori. (V.
KIvosiov and Major-Ccncral A. Crilcv, Konnunst, No. 12, 1968, p. 68i TIis siaicd iIai Ccrnany did noi
wisI io aiiacl iIc Sovici Union, and iIc Sovici Union did noi wisI io aiiacl Ccrnany, lui iIai 'forccs Iosiilc
io iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany wIicI wcrc inicrcsicd in dcvcloping and cicnding iIc war' wcrc irying io
causc iroullc lciwccn iIcn ly sprcading provocaiivc runours iIai war was ncar. TIc rcpori nancs iIcsc
'Iosiilc forccs' as Sir Siafford Cripps (iIc DriiisI anlassador in Moscowi, London and iIc DriiisI prcss.
Ii would lc rcasonallc io supposc iIai a ncciing also iool placc iIai day in London lciwccn AniIony
Edcn, iIc DriiisI Forcign Sccrciary, and Ivan Maisly, iIc Sovici anlassador in London. Inaginc iIc sccnc.
Maisly iIrows iIc TASS rcpori on iIc iallc, sianps Iis fooi and dcnands iIai anlassador Cripps lc
wiiIdrawn fron Moscow, iIai iIc sowing of disscniion lciwccn iIc good fricnds Sialin and Hiilcr sIould
siop, and iIai provocaiivc runours aloui war lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany sIould ccasc.
On 13 Junc 1941 a ncciing did in faci ialc placc lciwccn Maisly and Edcn. Maisly did noi Iand ovcr a
copy of iIc TASS rcpori io iIc DriiisI govcrnncni, Ic did noi sianp Iis fooi, and iIc ncciing passcd off in a
fricndly ainospIcrc. TIc discussion was conccrncd wiiI wIai ncasurcs iIc DriiisI govcrnncni could ialc io
Iclp iIc Fcd Arny 'sIould war lrcal oui lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany in iIc ncar fuiurc'. Spccific
ncasurcs includcd dircci conlai opcraiions ly iIc Foyal Air Forcc io Iclp iIc Fcd Arny, niliiary supplics,
and co-ordinaiion of opcraiions undcrialcn ly iIc niliiary connands of iIc iwo counirics. (Isto)uu Vtouo
M)ouo Vonu, Vol. 3, p. 352i
On 13 Junc, Sialin's diplonais wcrc laying iIc foundaiions of wIai would soon lc callcd iIc Anii-Hiilcr
Coaliiion. TIcrc was noiIing wrong wiiI iIis fron iIc DriiisI sidc. Driiain was ai war wiiI Ccrnany. TIc
Sovici Union, Iowcvcr, was playing a diriy ganc. Ii Iad concludcd a non-aggrcssion paci wiiI Ccrnany and,
inncdiaicly aficr iIis, a ircaiy of fricndsIip. If iIc Sovici govcrnncni Iad dccidcd iIai iIcsc docuncnis wcrc
no longcr rclcvani io a siiuaiion wIicI Iad rcally lcconc vcry conplc, iIcy sIould Iavc alrogaicd iIcn.
Dui Sialin did noi do iIis. Hc wcni on assuring Hiilcr of Iis ardcni fricndsIip and claincd in iIc TASS rcpori
iIai ii was iIc DriiisI poliiicians wIo wanicd io cicnd iIc war.
TIc ncuiral diplonaiic ionc conccalcd sonc IigIly scrious naiicrs. Sovici diplonais Iad quiic rcccnily
Icld ncgoiiaiions wiiI Ccrnany ovcr Poland 'sIould cIangcs occur on iIc icrriiory of iIc PolisI siaic'. TIc
iinc Iad now conc wIcn Sovici diplonais wcrc siriling a sinilar ionc aloui Ccrnany lcIind Icr lacl. Ii is
surprising iIai, in iIc ncgoiiaiions in London, loiI sidcs uscd iIc pIrasc 'if war lcgins', insicad of saying 'if
Ccrnany aiiacls'; io pui ii anoiIcr way, iIc inicrlocuiors wcrc noi in any way ccluding iIc possililiiy iIai a
war could lcgin, noi as a rcsuli of Ccrnan aggrcssion, lui in sonc oiIcr way. Ii is inicrcsiing iIai ai iIc
ncgoiiaiions in London, iIc Sovici Union pui iisclf down firsi 'if war lrcals oui lciwccn iIc USSF and
Ccrnany'. TIc TASS rcpori ioo, spcals of 'runours iIai war is ncar lciwccn iIc USSF and Ccrnany'. If
Ccrnany was considcrcd iIc nosi lilcly aggrcssor, wIy noi pui ii iIc oiIcr way round?
Sonconc nay pcrIaps arguc iIai iIc Sovici anlassador was Iolding iIcsc ncgoiiaiions wiiIoui Sialin's
lnowlcdgc, ccccding Iis auiIoriiy as did iIosc Sovici gcncrals wIo asscnllcd iIcir iroops on iIc lordcrs
'wiiIoui noiifying Sialin'. Dui Maisly Iinsclf Ias cnpIasizcd iIai wIcn Ic was lcaving for London in 1932,
Ic Iad a ncciing wiiI M. M. Liivinov. Liivinov, wIo was Pcoplc's Connissar for Forcign Affairs, warncd
Maisly iIai wIilc cn pustc Ic would lc carrying oui insiruciions, noi fron Liivinov, lui 'fron IigIcr
insianccs'. Only Moloiov, wIo was Icad of iIc govcrnncni of wIicI Liivinov was a ncnlcr, and Sialin wcrc
'IigIcr' ai iIai iinc. In 1941, Liivinov Iad alrcady lccn disnisscd, so iIcrc rcnaincd only iwo 'IigIcr
insianccs', Moloiov and Sialin. Maisly survivcd iIc purgcs, and rcnaincd in Iis posi for a vcry long iinc. His
Icad rcnaincd on Iis sIouldcrs only lccausc Ic did noi infringc any of iIc insiruciions scni Iin ly iIc
'IigIcr insianccs'.
In ordcr io Iavc a clcar undcrsianding of Conradc Maisly and Sovici diplonais gcncrally, ii nusi lc addcd
iIai aficr Ic rciurncd io Moscow aficr Iaving scrvcd in London for clcvcn ycars, Ic acconpanicd Sialin io
confcrcnccs wiiI CIurcIill and Fooscvcli, in ordcr io asl iIai aid lc incrcascd. Hc iIcn wroic a lool cniiilcd
VIo Hcpcd Htc) (Kto Ponogu Gtc)u, Moscow IML 1962i Wc lcarn fron iIis lool iIai Hiilcr could noi
Iavc lcgun World War II ly Iinsclf, and iIai Driiain and Francc Iclpcd Iin io do so. TIc Sovici anlassador
iIcn wcni on io lay iIc llanc for 'suffcring and sacrificcs wiiIoui nunlcr' on iIc sIouldcrs of iIc couniry
wIicI offcrcd Sialin niliiary and ccononic Iclp as far lacl as 13 Junc 1941.
TIc purposc of iIc TASS rcpori was io pui an cnd io runours iIai war lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and
Ccrnany was incviiallc. Sialin wagcd dcicrnincd warfarc on iIcsc runours. On iIc nigIi of 13-14 Junc,
iIcrc was a suddcn ouilursi of icrror in Moscow. Hcads canc off, including sonc vcry cnincni oncs.
Hiilcr Iad iIc sanc prollcn. War prcparaiions arc difficuli io conccal. Pcoplc scc iIcn, and cprcss all
soris of supposiiions aloui iIcn. On 24 April, iIc Ccrnan naval aiiacIc scni an anious rcpori io Dcrlin
iIai Ic was Iaving io counicr 'clcarly alsurd runours aloui a foriIconing Ccrnan-Sovici war'. On 2 May,
anlassador Von dcr ScIulcnlcrg rcporicd iIai Ic was Iaving io counicr runours, lui all Ccrnan officials
wIo wcrc arriving fron Ccrnany wcrc lringing 'noi only runours, lui facis io lacl iIcn up'. On 24 May,
Karl DoIncr, Icad of iIc forcign prcss dcparincni of iIc Ccrnan Minisiry of Propaganda, goi inio a drunlcn
siaic and said sonciIing indiscrcci aloui rclaiions wiiI iIc Sovici Union. Hc was inncdiaicly arrcsicd.
Hiilcr iool up iIc naiicr pcrsonally, and in Cocllcls's words 'aiiacIcd ioo scrious a significancc' io ii. On 13
Junc, iIc day iIc TASS rcpori was givcn oui, Karl DoIncr siood lcforc a pcoplc's couri (Iow siaggcring - a
pcoplc's couri, jusi as in iIc Sovici Unioni and dcclarcd iIai wIai Ic Iad said Iad lccn drunlcn gillcrisI.
TIis did noi savc iIc unforiunaic DoIncr fron Icavy punisIncni, wIicI scrvcd as a good lcsson for all
Ccrnany iIcrc would lc no war! TIcrc would lc no war! TIcrc would lc no war! And jusi so iIai nolody
alroad sIould Iavc any doulis aloui ii, Fillcnirop scni iop-sccrci iclcgrans io Iis anlassadors on 15
Junc, saying iIai ii was planncd io Iold IigIly inporiani ncgoiiaiions wiiI Moscow. TIc anlassadors Iad io
rclay iIis infornaiion io ccriain pcoplc in iIc siricicsi sccrccy. For insiancc, iIc counscllor ai iIc Ccrnan
Enlassy in Dudapcsi Iad io convcy iIc ncws io iIc Hungarian prcsidcni as a spccial sccrci.
TIc principlcs of disinfornaiion arc iIc sanc for cvcryonc. If you do noi wani iIc cncny io lcarn iIc sccrci,
iIcn lccp ii away fron your fricnds as wcll! On 8 May 1940, Ccrnan radio announccd iIai Driiain inicndcd
io invadc iIc NciIcrlands. TIcrc iIcn followcd iIc nosi inicrcsiing pari of iIc announccncni, wIicI was
iIai infornaiion io iIc cffcci iIai iwo Ccrnan arnics Iad lccn novcd up io iIc lordcr wiiI Holland was
'alsurd runour' pui inio circulaiion ly 'DriiisI warnongcrs'. WIai Iappcncd iIcrcaficr is connon
lnowlcdgc. TIcsc iwo announccncnis, onc fron Ccrnan radio and iIc oiIcr fron iIc Sovici agcncy T AS S,
rcpcai onc anoiIcr alnosi word for word.
Following iIc appcarancc of ny firsi pullicaiions, Sovici Iisiorians cclaincd iIai ycs, Sovici iroop
novcncnis Iad ialcn placc, lui iIai Sovici sourccs Iad long ago givcn a saiisfaciory (iIai is, a dcfcncc-
rclaicdi cplanaiion of wIai Iad occurrcd. TIis is vcry far fron iIc iruiI. Ii was iIc alscncc of sucI an
cplanaiion wIicI aiiracicd ny aiicniion in iIc firsi placc. Noi onc Sovici narsIal or gcncral Ias cvcr givcn
iIc caci nunlcr of iIc divisions wIicI iool pari in iIcsc vasi novcncnis. As wc Iavc sccn, ii was 191, lui
noi onc of iIcn Ias cvcr givcn cvcn an approinaic figurc. Dui can wc rcally cpcci a saiisfaciory
cplanaiion fron a gcncral if Ic docs noi lnow, or is conccaling iIc iruc dincnsions of cvcryiIing wIicI iool
placc?
TIc ncnoirs of iIc gcncrals and narsIals wIo Iad ciiIcr dirccicd or ialcn pari in iIcsc iroop novcncnis
display a surprising flcililiiy on iIc pari of Sovici Iisiorical scicncc. Coloncl-Ccncral Ya. T. CIcrcvicIcnlo,
officcr connanding iIc iroops of iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici, was in iIc Crinca lciwccn 9 and 12 Junc,
wIcrc Ic rcccivcd iIc iroops of iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps. Wc lcarn iIis fron MarsIal M. V. ZalIarov.
(Vop)osu Isto)u, 1970, No. 5, p. 44i Wc sIall rciurn io iIis corps laicr. Ii was a nosi unusual onc, and ii was
noi for noiIing iIai ii was officially nancd 'spccial'. Dui for sonc rcason or oiIcr, Ccncral CIcrcvicIcnlo
passcs ii ovcr in silcncc. TIis, incidcnially, is iIc sanc CIcrcvicIcnlo wIo was unawarc iIai an cniirc arny
undcr iIc connand of Licuicnani-Ccncral I. S. Koncv and Iis dcpuiy Licuicnani-Ccncral Ma Fciicr was
sccrcily lcing conccniraicd on iIc icrriiory of Iis own niliiary disirici.
I. S. Koncv lccanc a narsIal of iIc Sovici Union during iIc war, and I piclcd up Iis lool in iIc Iopc of
finding sonc cplanaiion as io Iow Ic found Iinsclf wiiI Iis 'AnnusIlas' in sonclody clsc's niliiary
disirici, and wIy. Surprisingly, iIc gallani narsIal Ias sinply oniiicd iIc cniirc iniiial pcriod of iIc war. Hc
prcfcrrcd io wriic aloui 1945, and so Ic cniiilcd Iis lool Fo)tu-Fuc. I iIcn piclcd up iIc ncnoirs of Ccncral
of iIc Arny P. I. Daiov. Ii was Iis corps wIicI CIcrcvicIcnlo was ncciing in iIc Crinca, lui alas, Daiov
sinply lcavcs oui iIc facis. Daiov was iIc dcpuiy of iIc officcr connanding iIc Trans-Caucasian Miliiary
Disirici. WIai was Ic doing in iIc Crinca ai iIc Icad of a corps on iIc cvc of iIc war? WIicI divisions
lclongcd io iIis corps? WIy was iIc corps callcd 'spccial'? WIo was iIc dcpuiy connandcr of iIc corps, and
wIo was iis cIicf of siaff? WIy was iIc corps iraincd io loard sIips, land on a Iosiilc coasi, and dcsiroy oil
dcrricls? Wc can find answcrs io all iIcsc qucsiions, aficr prolongcd rcscarcI, fron nany diffcrcni sourccs,
lui iIcsc do noi includc iIc ncnoirs of Daiov, wIo sinply oniis iIc cniirc pcriod.
Having failcd io find iIc cplanaiions iIcrc, I iIcn raiscd ny sigIis. Dui nciiIcr Sialin nor any of iIc
ncnlcrs of iIc Poliiluro wroic any ncnoirs. TIc only rcally scnior figurc io lcavc an accouni of Iis wariinc
cpcricnccs was MarsIal ZIulov. Hc was CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff ai iIc iinc, and was pcrsonally
rcsponsillc for iIc dcployncni, garrisoning and novcncnis of iroops. WiiIoui Iis official sianp, ii would
Iavc lccn inpossillc io novc cvcn onc laiialion, lci alonc rcgincnis and divisions. WIai was norc, iIc
VOSO scrvicc, iIai is, cvcryiIing rclaicd io iIc niliiary usc of iIc railways, was dirccily sulordinaicd io Iin.
ZIulov adniis iIai iroop novcncnis did in faci ialc placc, and iIai iIcy wcrc of nonuncnial dincnsions.
Dui insicad of giving figurcs and cplaining iIcn fron iIc IcigIi of Iis posiiion as CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff,
iIc iIrcc pagcs ZIulov dcvoics io iIc iroop novcncnis sinply quoic Iis fricnd I. KI. Dagranyan, wIo was a
coloncl ai iIc iinc. Lisicn io wIai Dagranyan iIinls aloui iIis Dagranyan wIo Iad no acccss io siaic
sccrcis! Lisicn io Dagranyan, wIo was in iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon wIcrc Ic only carricd oui ordcrs scni ly
Moscow, wIo only acccpicd onc niliiary irain aficr anoiIcr wiiIoui lcing givcn any cplanaiions as io wIai
iIcy wcrc nccdcd for.
Dcar Ccorgy KonsianiinovicI, conradc MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union! If wc wani io find oui Ivan
KIrisioforovicI Dagranyan's opinions, wc sIall sinply opcn Iis cccllcni lools and rcad iIcn. Dui wc arc
inicrcsicd in finding oui fron your ncnoirs your poini of vicw, your figurcs and your cplanaiions. Wc wani
io scc iIc siiuaiion fron iIc dizzy IcigIi of your posiiion and noi fron Ivan KIrisioforovicI's parocIial posi.
Hc spcals wcll and ai lcngiI. Hc posscsscs sIining crudiiion, a finc analyiical nind, an cccllcni ncnory
and grcai lnowlcdgc of iIc siiuaiion. Dui Ic playcd no pari in iIc iroop novcncnis, nor did Ic dircci iIcn.
TIc iroop novcncnis wcrc dirccicd ly you. ZIulov's sIarp nanocuvrc lcIind Dagranyan's lacl, and iIc
lacl of caci figurcs and cplanaiions only sircngiIcn iIc suspicion iIai noi cvcryiIing was siraigIiforward,
iIai noi cvcryiIing Iad lccn said, and iIai iIcrc was sonciIing Icrc wIicI, iIcn as now, was noi for
pullicaiion.
"(&)*#% 23
TIc Miliiary Disiricis
TIc)c s u ong-cstuIsIcd p)occdu)c n tIc
Hcd A)nu uIc)cIu tIc connund cuucs ]o)
tIc pucc uIc)c tIc opc)utons u)c to tuIc
pucc Ic]o)c tIc t)oops u))uc tIc)c.
MarsIal K. FOKOSSOVSKY
(Sodu)sIu dog, Moscow 1968, p.
166i
As iIc Sovici gcncral novcs up iIc pronoiional laddcr, Ic passcs in iurn iIrougI iIc posis of connandcr of
a division, connandcr of a corps, and iIcn of officcr connanding an arny. TIc nci posi, officcr
connanding a niliiary disirici, is noi jusi a sicp upwards. Ii is a sIarp quaniun lcap. TIc faci is iIai an
officcr connanding a niliiary disirici is noi sinply a vcry IigI-ranling niliiary cIicf; Ic is in Iis way iIc
niliiary govcrnor of grcai icrriiorics wIcrc nillions and indccd icns of nillions of pcoplc livc. Hc is noi only
rcsponsillc for iIc iroops and iIcir niliiary iraining, lui also for prcparing iIc populaiion, indusiry,
iranspori and agriculiurc io figIi a war. Hc is rcsponsillc for proicciing iIc connunisi rcginc in iIc icrriior-
ics cnirusicd io Iin and, sIould iIc nccd arisc, io rcsori io arncd forcc io dcfcnd iIai rcginc.
Dcforc World War II, iIc icrriiory of iIc Sovici Union was dividcd inio siiccn niliiary disiricis. EigIi of
iIcn Iad connon froniicrs wiiI forcign siaics. TIc rcnaining cigIi Iad no froniicrs and wcrc iIcrcforc
considcrcd inicrnal niliiary disiricis. EacI disirici, of coursc, was inporiani in iis own way. Ii was in iIc
inicrnal disiricis iIai vasi indusirial poicniial, iranspori aricrics and grcai Iunan rcsourccs wcrc
conccniraicd.
On 13 May 1941, iIc officcrs connanding scvcn of iIcsc inicrnal niliiary disiricis (iIc cccpiion was iIc
Moscow Disiricii wcrc givcn a dircciivc of 'spccial inporiancc'. TIc Icadquaricrs of iIc niliiary disiricis wcrc
io lc convcricd inio arny Icadquaricrs. TIc officcrs connanding iIc niliiary disiricis wcrc io Icad iIcsc
arnics pcrsonally; iIcy wcrc io ialc along wiiI iIcn all iIc corps and all iIc divisions wIicI nadc up iIc
conplcncni of iIcir disiricis. WiiIin cacily onc noniI, on 13 Junc 1941, iIcy wcrc ordcrcd io lcgin a sccrci
rcgrouping in iIc wcsicrn pari of iIc couniry.
On 13 Junc 1941, undcr covcr of iIc TASS rcpori, all iIc divisions wIicI lclongcd io iIc Urals Miliiary
Disirici lcgan io novc sccrcily wcsiwards. TIc divisions wcrc conlincd inio corps, and iIc corps wcrc in
iurn conlincd inio iIc 22nd Arny. Licuicnani-Ccncral Filipp ErsIalov, iIc officcr connanding iIc Urals
Miliiary Disirici, pcrsonally siood ai iIc Icad of iIis arny. Diniiri ScrgcycvicI Lconov, corps connissar and
ncnlcr of iIc Miliiary Council of iIc Disirici, and Major-Ccncral Ccorgy FcrdorovicI ZalIarov, CIicf of Siaff
of iIc Disirici, lccanc rcspcciivcly ncnlcrs of iIc Miliiary Council and CIicf of Siaff in iIc cncrgcni arny.
Officcrs in cIargc of ariillcry, cnginccrs, iIc rcar, connunicaiions and all iIc rcsi, iool all iIosc undcr iIcir
connand inio iIc 22nd Arny, and pui iIcn aloard niliiary irains wIicI iIcn novcd off Icading wcsi.
WIo iIcn was io rcnain lcIind in iIc Urals? TIc Urals coniaincd (and coniinuc io coniaini iIc world's
largcsi siccl, ianl and sIcll produciion conplccs. TIc Urals ncani lincs of connunicaiion of iIc uinosi
inporiancc. TIc Urals also ncani conccniraiion canps, wiiI Iundrcds of iIousands and, quiic possilly,
nillions of prisoncrs. Would ii noi lc ioo dangcrous io lcavc all iIcsc icrriiorics wiiIoui a niliiary govcrnor?
Ii nigIi lc suggcsicd iIai cvcry connandcr Ias a dcpuiy wIo siands in for Iin during Iis alscnccs. Dui iIc
iroullc Icrc was iIai Licuicnani-Ccncral M. F. Lulin, iIc dcpuiy officcr connanding iIc Urals Miliiary
Disirici, Iad alrcady lccn givcn ordcrs io lcavc for Trans-Dailal. Hc Iad sci up iIc i6iI Arny iIcrc, and ai
iIc iinc wIcn iIc TASS rcpori was issucd, Iis arny was sccrcily noving wcsiwards. Aficr all iIc Connand
Siaff Iad dcparicd, iIcrcforc, iIc conplcicly unlnown Major-Ccncral A. D. Kailov was lcfi in cIargc of iIc
Urals Miliiary Disirici, wiiI praciically no siaff io suppori Iin.
TIc sanc iIing Iappcncd in iIc KIar'lov Miliiary Disirici. Wc lnow iIai iIc .8iI Arny was forncd on iIc
cvc of iIc war on iIc Fonanian froniicr. TIc connand and Icadquaricrs of iIis arny was iIc connand and
Icadquaricrs of iIc KIar'lov Miliiary Disirici. Licuicnani-Ccncral A. K. Snirnov, iIc officcr connanding iIc
disirici, Major-Ccncral V. Ya. KolpacIli, iis cIicf of siaff, Major-Ccncral S. K. Coryunov, iis air connandcr,
and cvcryonc undcr iIcir connand, wcrc iransfcrrcd io iIc i8iI Arny on iIc Fonanian froniicr, iIcrcly
lcaving iIcir niliiary disirici wiiIoui any lcadcrs ai all.
TIc 19iI Arny was forncd fron iIc iroops and Icadquaricrs of iIc NoriIcrn Caucasian Miliiary Disirici.
Licuicnani-Ccncral I. S. Koncv, officcr connanding iIc disirici, conlincd all iIc iroops of Iis disirici inio
iIc I9iI Arny, siood ai iis Icad and novcd ii wcsiwards in sccrci, iIcrcly lcaving iIc disirici wiiIoui any
niliiary conirol wIaicvcr. In iIcory Major-Ccncral Ma Fciicr, iIc Ccrnan connunisi and Koncv's dcpuiy,
sIould Iavc ialcn Iis placc, lui as wc arc alrcady awarc, Ic was noi in iIc Caucasus ai iIc iinc, lui in
CIcrlassy, wIcrc iIc niliiary irains of iIc ipiI Arny wcrc arriving.
Lci us glancc ai iIc connand siaff of iIc Air Forcc (iIc V VSi in iIc NoriI Caucasus Miliiary Disirici. TIc
officcr connanding iIc VVS was Air Major-Ccncral E. M. Nilolacnlo, iIc VVS CIicf of Siaff was Coloncl N. V.
Kornccv, iIc connandcr of iIc FigIicr Air Division was Air Major-Ccncral E. M. Dclcisly. Wc find iIcn in
cacily iIc sanc posis aficr iIc TASS rcpori was pullisIcd, lui no longcr in iIis niliiary disirici. TIcy wcrc
in iIc iOiI Arny, wIicI was sccrcily lcing novcd inio iIc Ulrainc.
TIc 2oiI Arny, lilcwisc, was sinply iIc officcrs and iroops of iIc Orcl Miliiary Disirici undcr anoiIcr
nanc. Licuicnani-Ccncral F. N. Fcnczov, iIc officcr connanding iIis disirici, conlincd all Iis iroops wiiI
iIosc of iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici undcr Iis connand. Hc iurncd iIc disirici Icadquaricrs inio iIc
Icadquaricrs of iIc 2OiI Arny and novcd sccrcily wcsiwards, iIcrcly lcaving iIc Icari of Fussia ai iIc
ncrcy of faic and wiiIoui any niliiary conirol.
TIc 21si Arny was iIc Volga Miliiary Disirici. TIc officcr connanding iIc disirici, Licuicnani-Ccncral V.
C. Ccra-sincnlo, lccanc officcr connanding 2isi Arny, Ccncral V. N. Cordov, cIicf of siaff in iIc disirici
lccanc 2isi Arny CIicf of Siaff. Connandcrs of all soris of iroops and scrviccs, and Iundrcds of oiIcr
connandcrs, sinply cIangcd iIc words in iIcir iiilcs fron 'Volga Miliiary Disirici' io '2isi Arny'. If for
insiancc you wcrc io lcarn iIai Air CIicf MarsIal C. A. Voro-zIcilin was Icad of iIc air forccs in iIc Volga
Miliiary Disirici ai iIc lcginning of Junc 1941 (wiiI a lowcr ranl ai iIai iinc, of coursci, you could lc
alsoluicly surc wiiIoui looling up iIc rccords iIai aficr 13 Junc Ic lccanc Air CIicf in iIc 2isi Arny and
iIcn novcd io iIc Ccrnan froniicr. If you lncw iIai Coloncl-Ccncral Yu. V. Dordzilovsly, wIo connandcd
iIc cnginccring iroops in iIc disirici, aliIougI of coursc wiiI a lowcr ranl, was scrving ai iIc sanc iinc and
in iIc sanc placc in iIc cnginccring lrancI, iIcn you could say wiiIoui fcar of coniradiciion iIai aficr iIc
TASS rcpori canc oui, Ic scrvcd in iIc cnginccring lrancI of iIc 2isi Arny.
TIc 24iI Arny was forncd in iIc Silcrian Miliiary Disirici, wIosc connanding officcr was Licuicnani-
Ccncral S. A. Kalinin, wIilc iIc 28iI Arny was forncd fron iIc ArlIangclsl Miliiary Disirici, undcr iIc
connand of Licuicnani-Ccncral V. Ya. KacIalov.
On 13 Junc 1941, iIc vcry sanc day iIai sirangc rcporis wcrc lcing lroadcasi ly Sovici radio, iIc
csiallisIcd ordcr of niliiary and icrriiorial govcrnncni wIicI Iad lccn in forcc in iIc vasi icrriiorics of
ccniral Fussia, NoriIcrn Caucasus, Silcria, iIc Urals fron ArlIangclsl io Kulan' and fron Orcl io CIiia io
all inicnis and purposcs ccascd io cisi. If a rcvoli Iad crupicd, iIcrc was noiIing iIcrc io supprcss ii. All
divisions Iad gonc off io iIc Ccrnan froniicr. WIai was norc, iIcrc was nolody lcfi io ialc a dccision io pui
down a rcvoli. Praciically all iIc gcncrals Iad also gonc off sccrcily io iIc wcsicrn pari of iIc couniry. Fcvolis
wcrc usually pui down ly iIc NKVD, lui a vcry scrious onc would Iavc lccn ioo nucI for iIc NKVD iroops
alonc io Iandlc. TIc arny would Iavc lccn nccdcd.
TIc qucsiion now ariscs - wIai was going on? Did Sialin pcrIaps noi irusi Iis officcrs connanding in iIc
inicrnal niliiary disiricis and dccidcd io rcplacc iIcn all ai iIc sanc iinc? No, ii was noi lilc iIai. Sialin
iool iIc prccauiion of sIooiing all iIosc wIon Ic did noi irusi, and rcplaccd iIcn wiiI oiIcrs in wIon Ic
Iad confidcncc. Ii is csscniial io rcalizc iIai praciically no onc was lcfi lcIind io ialc iIc placcs of iIc
gcncrals wIo Iad lcfi. Aficr Licuicnani-Ccncral S. A. Kalinin, iIc officcr connanding iIc Silcrian Miliiary
Disirici, convcricd all Iis iroops and Iis Icadquaricrs inio iIc 24iI Arny, wIicI Ic iIcn sccrcily iransporicd
wcsiwards, no ncw gcncral arrivcd in Silcria uniil 1942. (SouctMtu)u Encucopcdu, Vo. 7, p. 338i In all
oiIcr inicrnal niliiary disiricis, ncw connanding officcrs did noi arrivc for scvcral noniIs, or clsc iIosc wIo
canc wcrc iIird-raic gcncrals wIo, ciiIcr lcforc or aficrwards, wcrc ncvcr givcn iIc Ionour of connanding a
niliiary disirici or an arny. Major-Ccncral Maivci TinofcycvicI Popov in iIc Volga Miliiary Disirici is a
siriling canplc of iIis.
Ii only rcnains for us io supposc iIai all connandcrs and iIcir iroops Iad gonc off io do sonciIing norc
scrious iIan proicciing Sovici auiIoriiy in iIc couniry's inicrnal arcas. If ii Iad lccn conicnplaicd iIai iIcy
sIould do sonciIing lcss inporiani iIan iIis, iIcy would of coursc all Iavc siaycd wIcrc iIcy wcrc.
Moscow was iIc cccpiion anong iIc cigIi inicrnal niliiary disiricis. TIis is undcrsiandallc, as iIc capiial
lay wiiIin ii. In conirasi io all oiIcr inicrnal niliiary disiricis, ii was connandcd noi ly a licuicnani-gcncral,
nor cvcn ly a coloncl-gcncral, lui ly Ccncral of iIc Arny Ivan Tyulcncv. Dui cvcn iIc cccpiional posiiion of
iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici did noi savc ii fron lcing dcnudcd of iis Icadquaricrs and iroops. All iis iroops
wcrc scni io rcinforcc iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon and iIc 2OiI Arny of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon. All
rcscrvcs of arns, annuniiion and propcriy wcrc scni fron iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici io iIc wcsicrn
froniicrs. TIcn canc iIc iurn of iIc connand. Ai iIai iinc Ccncral I. V. Tyulcncv Icld a vcry IigI ranl, as
wcll as cnjoying Sialin's spccial irusi; ioo IigI a ranl for sonconc wIo was jusi io connand an arny. TIc
Poliiluro iIcrcforc dccidcd in Sialin's prcscncc io appoini Tyulcncv officcr connanding iIc SouiIcrn Froni.
WIcn Ic lcfi for iIcrc, Ic iool wiiI Iin iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici's cniirc Icadquaricrs, wIicI was Icadcd
ly Major-Ccncral Cavrill SIisIcnin.
TIc dccision io rc-forn iIc connand and Icadquaricrs of iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici inio iIc connand
of iIc SouiIcrn Froni and iransfcr iIcn io Vinniisa was ialcn on 21 Junc 1941, lui iIcrc is sufficicni
cvidcncc io sIow iIai iIis dccision canc as no surprisc io iIc officcrs in iIc Icadquaricrs. Many lrancIcs of
iIc Icadquaricrs wcrc alrcady on iIc novc; Major-Ccncral A. S. Osipcnlo, for canplc, dcpuiy officcr
connanding iIc air forcc of iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici, was alrcady on iIc Fonanian froniicr ai iIc
lcginning of Junc 1941.
TIc connand and Icadquaricrs lcfi for Vinniisa, cffcciivcly alandoning iIc niliiary disirici of iIc capiial
ciiy wiiIoui Ianding ovcr iIcir duiics io anyonc, sincc nolody Iad lccn appoinicd io ialc iIc placcs of iIc
dcpariing connandcrs. Licuicnani-Ccncral P. A. Aricn'cv did noi ialc ovcr iis connand uniil 26 Junc, u]tc)
Ccrnany Iad aiiaclcd. (O)dcnu Lcnnu MosIousIu Vocnnu OI)ug, Moscow, Moslovsly FalocIy 1985, p.
204i Aricn'cv, norcovcr, was noi a soldicr lui a CIclisi. TIc posi wIicI Ic wcni on Iolding and lrougIi
along wiiI Iin io iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici was iIai of Icad of iIc Dirccioraic of Opcraiional Troops of iIc
NKVD. TIcn in July, Sialin appoinicd K. F. Tclcgin, wIo was a divisional connissar for NKVD iroops, and
wIo laicr lccanc a licuicnani-gcncral, io lc a ncnlcr of iIc Miliiary Council of iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici.
Hc also was a purc-lloodcd CIclisi, wIo Iad prcviously scrvcd in OSNAZ uniis. During iIc Crcai Purgc, Ic
was poliiical connissar for iIc NKVD inicrnal iroops of iIc Moscow Disirici, and following iIai Ic Icld sonc
rcsponsillc posiiion insidc iIc ccniral apparaius of iIc NKVD.
Evcn during iIc Crcai Purgc, iIc niliiary disiricis Iad rcnaincd niliiary. Now, in iinc of war, iIcrc was no
diffcrcncc lciwccn iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici and iIc Moscow NKVD Disirici. TIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici
did cisi in iIcory, lui iIcrc wcrc no Fcd Arny niliiary uniis in Moscow. TIcrc wcrc only iwo NKVD divisions
and 25 dciacIcd figIicr laiialions, also of iIc NKVD.
Licuicnani-Ccncral Konsianiin FcrdorovicI Tclcgin rccalls iIai wIcn iIcsc 'ncw pcoplc', iIai is iIc
CIclisis, firsi arrivcd in iIc Moscow Miliiary Disirici Icadquaricrs, nany lrancIcs in iIc Icadquaricrs losi
nucI of iIcir siaff. TIc iwo nosi inporiani lrancIcs, opcraiions and iniclligcncc, Iad conplcicly ccascd io
cisi. TIc ncw pcoplc Iad liiilc undcrsianding of iIc inIcrcni cIaracicrisiics of niliiary naiicrs, and iIcy
Iad io 'wasic no snall anouni of iinc and cffori lcarning aloui iIc siaic of iIc disirici and iis prollcns and
capaciiics'. (VIZH, 1962, No. I, p. 36i
TIus, undcr iIc covcr of iIc TASS siaicncni, iIc nosi IigI-ranling niliiary connandcrs ai iIc Icad of
arnics, and including cvcn onc wIo connandcd a froni, wcrc sccrcily iransfcrrcd io iIc Ccrnan froniicr,
iIcrcly lcaving all iIc inicrnal niliiary disiricis ai iIc ncrcy of foriunc and iIc NKVD. Ii is lcyond dispuic
iIai noiIing lilc iIis Ias cvcr Iappcncd in Sovici Iisiory ciiIcr lcforc or sincc. Ii is also indispuiallc iIai
iIcsc novcncnis wcrc connccicd wiiI a war wIicI, for iIc Sovici Union, was quiic unavoidallc. If iIcrc Iad
lccn iIc sligIicsi douli iIai war nigIi possilly lc avoidcd, ai lcasi sonc connandcrs Icrc and iIcrc would
Iavc rcnaincd ai iIcir posis.
Nor wcrc iIcsc aciions in any way prcparaiions for a dcfcnsivc war. In a lcngiIy dcfcnsivc war, noi all iIc
connandcrs arc scni off io iIc cncny froniicr. Sonclody siays lcIind in iIosc icrriiorics wIcrc iIc cncny
nigIi suddcnly appcar. Ii is also alsoluicly csscniial in a prolongcd dcfcnsivc war iIai gcncrals and rcal
soldicrs, and noi policcncn, rcnain in iIc nosi inporiani indusirial arcas and iranspori ccnircs, in ordcr
loiI io dcfcnd iIcn and io cnsurc iIai iIc full poicniial of iIcsc grcai icrriiorics in iIc Icariland of iIc
couniry is fully and propcrly uscd io ncci iIc nccds of war.
TIcrc is only onc circunsiancc in wIicI iIc gcncrals would Iavc noiIing io do in iIcsc indusirial ccnircs.
TIai would lc wIcrc iIc Sovici HigI Connand was planning a suddcn war on cncny icrriiory, rclying on
rcscrvcs wIicI Iad lccn nolilizcd lcforc iIc war lcgan, raiIcr iIan on arnancnis io lc produccd in iIc
coursc of ii. In iIai cvcni, iIcir placc would lc on iIc cncny froniicr.
Licuicnani-Ccncral K. F. Tclcgin Iinsclf nalcs iIc posiiion quiic clcar. 'Insofar as ii was supposcd iIai iIc
war would lc fougIi on iIai cncny icrriiory wIicI, in iIc prc-war pcriod, lordcrcd iIc disirici, sioclpilcs of
nolilizcd rcscrvcs of arns, cquipncni and annuniiion wcrc iransfcrrcd io iIc niliiary disiricis on iIc
froniicr.' (K. F. Tclcgin, op. ct.)
"(&)*#% 24
TIc Dlacl Divisions
Stun docs not Icstutc to usc ]o)cc on
un unp)cccdcntcd scuc.
TFOTSKY
(DO, Nos. 79-80, 1939.i
TIc nain sinilariiy lciwccn iIc Firsi and Sccond Siraicgic EcIclons was iIai iIc nosi powcrful arnics in
iIcir conplcncnis wcrc dcploycd noi againsi Ccrnany lui againsi iIc Fonanian oilficlds. TIc nain
diffcrcncc lciwccn iIcn was iIc colour of iIcir uniforns. TIc colour of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon was iIc
lIali of iIc iunics worn ly nillions of soldicrs. KIali was iIc doninaiing colour in iIc Sccond Siraicgic
EcIclon as wcll, lui ii Iad an alundani adniiurc of llacl.
I oncc Iad occasion io lc prcscni ai a ncciing wiiI iIc rciircd Ccncral F. N. Fcnczov, wIo Icadcd iIc
2OiI Arny. A convcrsaiion was going on anong ncnlcrs of Iis circlc. No ouisidcrs wcrc prcscni, so ii was
fairly franl. His lisicncrs wcrc officcrs and gcncrals of iIc disirici Icadquaricrs, wIo lncw iIcir suljcci vcry
wcll. TIcy lcgan io arguc. Ai iIc IcigIi of iIc arguncni, a lold coloncl wiiI a sIarp ionguc pui iIc qucsiion
dirccily io Ccncral Fcnczov. 'WIy do iIc Ccrnans call iIc 69iI Fiflc Corps of your 2OiI Arny iIc "llacl
corps" in iIcir docuncnis?' Ccncral Fcnczov did noi givc an insiruciivc rcply. Hc dcflccicd cvcryiIing ai iIc
56iI Arny, wIicI Ic was laicr io connand, saying iIai lccausc of a sIoriagc of grcy niliiary grcaicoais,
sonc of iis divisions Iad io wcar llacl railway ovcrcoais. TIai did Iappcn, lui in Dcccnlcr.
Fcnczov clcarly cvadcd giving an answcr. Hc was lcing aslcd aloui Junc 1941, wIcn iIcrc wcrc no
sIoriagcs, and wIcn ii would Iavc lccn ioo Ioi for soldicrs in laiilc io run aloui in a grcaicoai. Many
soldicrs in iIc 69iI Fiflc Corps worc llacl uniforns n sunnc). TIcrc wcrc sufficicni nunlcrs of iIcsc
soldicrs io draw iIc aiicniion of Ccrnan niliiary iniclligcncc, wIo iIcn unofficially callcd iIc 69iI Corps iIc
'llacl corps'.
TIis was noi iIc only corps of iis lind. TIc 63rd Fiflc Corps of iIc 2 isi Arny is also rcfcrrcd io in Ccrnan
docuncnis as a 'llacl corps'. Konlor Lconid CrigorycvicI Pcirovsly, wIo connandcd iIc 63rd Fiflc Corps,
was an ouisianding niliiary lcadcr ly any siandards. Hc iool pari in iIc siorning of iIc Winicr Palacc wIcn
Ic was fificcn, wcni iIrougI iIc cniirc Civil War and was scriously woundcd iIrcc iincs. Hc finisIcd iIc war
as a connandcr of a rcgincni ai iIc agc of cigIiccn. WIcn Ic was iwcniy, Ic passcd oui fron iIc Acadcny
of iIc Ccncral Siaff in lrilliani fasIion. Hc connandcd iIc lcsi uniis in iIc Fcd Arny, including iIc isi
Moscow Prolciariai Fiflc Division. Ai iIc agc of 35 Ic was dcpuiy officcr connanding iIc Moscow Miliiary
Disirici.
In laiilc, Konlor Pcirovsly sIowcd Iinsclf io lc a niliiary lcadcr of siraicgic dincnsions. Hc was givcn iIc
ranl of licuicnani-gcncral in Augusi 1941 ;nd was appoinicd io connand iIc 2 isi Arny. Ai iIai noncni,
iIc 63rd Fiflc Corps, aficr nucI ficrcc figIiing, found iisclf surroundcd. Sialin ordcrcd Iin io lcavc iIc corps
and io ialc connand of iIc arny inncdiaicly. Pcirovsly rcqucsicd iIai iIis ordcr lc dclaycd for a fcw days,
and scni lacl iIc aircrafi scni io collcci Iin full of woundcd soldicrs. Pcirovsly ciracicd Iis llacl corps
fron iis cncirclcncni, and Iaving donc iIai, Ic wcni lacl inio iIc cncny rcar arca io lring oui anoiIcr
division fron iIc cncirclcncni. TIis was iIc I54iI Fiflc Division, undcr iIc connand of Konlrig Ya. S.
Folanov. WIilc Ic was lrcaling oui, Pcirovsly was faially woundcd. TIc Ccrnan iroops wIo found
Pcirovsly's lody on iIc ficld of laiilc wcrc ordcrcd ly iIcir HigI Connand io lury iIc Sovici gcncral wiiI
full niliiary Ionours. A largc cross was crccicd ovcr Iis gravc lcaring iIc inscripiion in Ccrnan, 'Licuicnani-
Ccncral Pcirovsly, Connandcr of iIc Dlacl Corps'.
Sovici sourccs confirn iIis unusual gcsiurc. TIc opcraiions of iIc 63rd llacl corps nay lc rcad aloui in
dciail in iIc Mtu)u Hsto)cu Jou)nu .(VIZH 1966, No. 6, p. 66i TIc Souct Mtu)u Encucopcdu (Vol. 6, p.
314i confirns iIc accuracy of iIai ariiclc. Fcfcrcnccs io Pcirovsly's llacl corps nay lc found in Licuicnani-
Ccncral of Ariillcry C. D. Plaslov's lool, Pod G)oIIot Kunonudu (Vocnizdai 1969, p. 163i
Ccrnan iniclligcncc also noiiccd iIc unusual llacl uniforns in oiIcr arnics lclonging io iIc Sccond
Siraicgic EcIclon. WIcn iIcsc uniforns lcgan io prcdoninaic ovcr iIc usual grccn oncs, rcgincnis,
divisions, and sonciincs cniirc corps wcrc rcfcrrcd io as 'llacl'. TIc 24iI Arny of iIc Sccond Siraicgic
EcIclon, wIicI Iad sccrcily lccn novcd fron Silcria, was no cccpiion. TIc Ccrnans gavc iIc nanc 'llacl'
io sonc of iis rcgincnis and divisions during iIc figIiing. Dui cvcn lcforc iIc divisions and corps of iIis
arny joincd in laiilc, sonc vcry inicrcsiing iIings wcrc Iappcning. Ai iIc cnd of Junc, iIc 24iI Arny was on
iIc novc across iIousands of liloncircs of railway iracl. Iis connanding officcr, Licuicnani-Ccncral Sicpan
AndrcycvicI Kalinin, was alrcady in Moscow irying io solvc iIc prollcn of Iow io fccd ii. Hc laicr rccallcd
Iow Ic was rcccivcd ly iIc sccrciary of iIc Moscow Municipal Conniiicc of iIc Pariy.
TIc sccrciary of iIc Moscow Municipal Conniiicc rang up iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Inicrnal Affairs.
'TIc conradc wiiI wIon I Iavc jusi lccn ialling,' cplaincd iIc Municipal Conniiicc sccrciary, wIcn Ic
Iad Iung up, 'Iad considcrallc cpcricncc in organizing food caicring. Hc was doing iIis iypc of worl for a
long iinc wIcn iIc Volga-Moscow Canal was lcing luili. Hc will Iclp you.'
Aloui iwcniy ninuics laicr iIc iall siaicly figurc of a connandcr of iIc NKVD iroops canc inio iIc
sccrciary's officc. Hc worc iIrcc dianond-sIapcd ladgcs on iIc collar of Iis soldicr's llousc, wIicI was
pullcd in round iIc waisi ly a iigIi lcli. Wc quiclly canc io an agrccncni wiiI Iin aloui cvcryiIing.
(HuznusIcnuu o MnuusIcn, Moscow Vocnizdai 1963, pp. 132-133i
Ii is a piiy iIai Ccncral Kalinin is sIy aloui naning iIc sccrciary of iIc Moscow Municipal Council and iIc
snari, iigIily lclicd visiior wiiI iIc iIrcc dianond-sIapcd ladgcs.
Aficr iIc vcry firsi laiilcs, iIc 24iI Arny fcll inio iIc rigIi Iands. Iis connand was ialcn ovcr ly NKVD
Major-Ccncral Konsianiin Faluiin. And Licuicnani-Ccncral S. A. Kalinin rciurncd io Silcria on Sialin's
pcrsonal ordcrs. Noi io connand iIc Miliiary Disirici, wIicI was siill alandoncd, lui io forn icn ncw
divisions.
TIc fornaiions wcrc io lc sci up in placcs wIcrc iIcrc Iad ncvcr lccn any uniis ai all lcforc. I Iad visiicd
iIcsc placcs and goi down io worl.
My firsi ccursion was io onc of iIc Silcrian iowns. Sonc ycars lcforc iIc war, a snall iown of Iuincnis
for lunlcrjacls Iad lccn luili iIcrc in iIc laclwoods of iIc forcsis. TIis was uscd io lillci uniis of iIc
fornaiion wIicI was lcing sci up.
Inpassallc iaiga surroundcd iIc iown alnosi on all sidcs. (IId, p. 182i
EvcryiIing onc nccds io lnow aloui 'iIc snall iown of Iuincnis for lunlcrjacls' is coniaincd in iIc iIrcc
voluncs of Alcandcr SolzIcniisyn's GULAG A)cIpcugo. Tcn ncw divisions (norc iIan 130,000 ncni wcrc sci
up in iIc Silcrian Miliiary Disirici, noi in placcs wIcrc niliiary uniis Iad lccn prcviously, lui in iIcsc 'snall
iowns of Iuincnis'. Ii nay lc argucd iIai conccniraiion-canp prisoncrs wcrc noi, of coursc, lcing iurncd
inio soldicrs. Ccncral Kalinin was sinply using iIc cnpiy Iuincnis io quaricr iIc rcscrvisis wIo wcrc
arriving, and Icrc iIcy would lc iraincd and iurncd inio soldicrs. Vcry wcll, lci us acccpi iIai. WIcrc iIcn
did iIc 'lunlcrjacls' go in iIai casc? WIy was iIc snall iown (and iIcrc was noi jusi onci cnpiy? TIc sinplc
answcr is iIai Ccncral Kalinin fillcd iIc ranls of iIc 24iI Arny wiiI 'lunlcrjacls' Ic]o)c tIc uu) and
prcparcd ii in sccrci io lc scni off wcsiwards. TIai is wIy iIc rcgincnis and divisions in iIis arny, and in all
oiIcr arnics of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, worc llacl. TIc 'lunlcrjacls' wcrc frcqucnily noi cvcn rc-
cloiIcd in niliiary uniforn. TIai is wIy iIc arny wIicI Kalinin sccrcily iransfcrrcd io iIc wcsicrn pari of iIc
Sovici Union was nainiaincd ly iIc CIicf Dirccioraic of Canps, or CULAC, of iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for
Inicrnal Affairs, and noi ly iIc Doard for Organizaiion of iIc Fcar of iIc Ccncral Siaff of iIc Worlcrs' and
Pcasanis' Fcd Arny. TIai is wIy Sialin placcd Faluiin, a purc-lloodcd CIclisi ai iIc Icad of iIc 24iI Arny
insicad of iIc Ialf-CIclisi Kalinin. Hc was iIc onc wIo lncw lcsi Iow io dcal wiiI 'lunlcrjacls'.
Sialin is widcly lnown io Iavc clcarcd oui iIc CULAC during iIc war, ly scnding cvcryonc wIo was
capallc of carrying arns io iIc froni. Sonciincs, duc io lacl of iinc or sIoriagc of uniforns, iIc lalour-
canp prisoncrs wcrc scni io figIi ai iIc froni wcaring iIcir own cloiIcs. In iIcory, iIcrc was no grcai
diffcrcncc. iIc sanc iniiaiion lcaiIcr loois, iIc sanc car-flappcd falc scalslin Iai for winicr, and a jaclci,
wIicI only diffcrcd fron iIc soldicr's in iis colour.
A lclicf pcrsisis, aliIougI nolody lnows wIcrc ii canc fron, iIai wIcn Hiilcr aiiaclcd, Sialin scni iIc
lalour-canp prisoncrs io iIc froni io 'cpiaic iIcir guili'.
McanwIilc, iIc Ccrnan iroops firsi cncounicrcd iIc llacl divisions and corps ai iIc lcginning of July
1941. TIcsc Iad lcgun iIcir novcncnis io iIc wcsicrn froniicrs of iIc couniry on 13 Junc 1941. TIc
fornaiion of iIc arnics of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, wIicI cnlraccd all iIcsc llacl divisions and corps,
lcgan in Junc 1940, wIcn Hiilcr iurncd away fron iIc Sovici Union ly rcnoving alnosi all Iis divisions fron
iIc Sovici froniicr.
EacI arny lclonging io iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon was forncd wiiI iIc spccial idca iIai iIcy would iIcn
nalc a suddcn appcarancc on iIc wcsicrn froniicr. EacI arny was forncd on iIc rouic of iIc grcaicsi
aricrial railway linc. EacI onc was sci up in iIc arca of conccniraiion canps. TIc innaics of iIcsc canps
wcrc iraincd io olscrvc ordcr, iIcy lcd an undcnanding cisicncc, and ii was casicr io picl iIcn up fron iIc
canps iIan fron iIc villagcs. So iIcy wcrc all roundcd up and organizcd inio lrigadcs. Dui iIc nain iIing
was iIai Iad iIc ncn in iIc villagcs lccn ialcn, ii would noi Iavc lccn possillc io avoid runours aloui
nolilizaiion and war. Ii was prcciscly io avoid sucI runours iIai iIc TASS siaicncni was wriiicn.
Many ycars laicr, lools arc siill lcing wriiicn and songs conposcd aloui iIai pcriod. Hcrc is a fragncni ly
Vladinir Vysoisly.
TIc gaics, ncw prisoncrs arriving,
TIc glass-francd cpiiapI is lluni,
WIcn io our ncnory proclaining
TIcy all wcni off io figIi iIc froni.
MilIail Dcnin, iIc forncr crininal, wroic iIai 'alnosi iIc wIolc of Folossovsly's arny consisicd of
innaics of iIc lalour canps'. (Hutno 'HusIu', Ncw Yorl 1981, p. 26i
Folossovsly connandcd only onc arny, iIc i6iI, in Iis lifciinc. Hc forgoi io say in Iis ncnoirs of wIai ii
consisicd. TIis forgcifulncss is iypical of Iin. Hc lcgins Iis ncnoirs wiiI iIc words, 'In iIc spring of 1940, I
was in SocIi a fanous Dlacl Sca rcsori| wiiI ny fanily,' forgciiing io say iIai lcforc iIai Ic Iad lccn in iIc
CULAC. Laicr in iIc lool, Folossovsly says in passing iIai 'lifc Ias convinccd nc iIai onc can cvcn irusi a
nan wIo ai sonc iinc Ias allowcd Iinsclf io lrcal iIc law. Civc sucI a nan iIc cIancc io aionc for Iis
guili and you will scc iIai iIc good in Iin will conc io iIc surfacc, and lovc for iIc MoiIcrland, for Iis
pcoplc, and Iis longing io rciurn iIcir irusi ai wIaicvcr iIc cosi, will nalc a couragcous figIicr of Iin.'
(MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union K. K. Folossovsly. SodutsIu Dog, Moscow Vocnizdai 1968, p. 136i
TIis is a iacii adnission iIai Folossovsly Iad Iad sufficicni opporiuniiy io lcconc convinccd iIai a
soldicr could lc nadc oui of a lalour-canp prisoncr. Dui iIai is noi iIc nain poini. WIai is inporiani is
iIai Sialin gavc iIc lalour-canp prisoncrs 'iIc opporiuniiy io aionc for iIcir guili' and 'lcconc couragcous
figIicrs' Ic]o)c Htc) uttucIcd. Arnics spccially adapicd io rccruii lalour-canp prisoncrs inio iIcir ranls as
cannon foddcr wcrc lcing raiscd cvcn lcforc iIc planncd Opcraiion Darlarossa was Icard of. TIc i6iI Arny,
wIicI was iIc prccursor of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, was forncd on iIc Trans-Silcrian Failway for iIc
purposc of rapid iransporiaiion wcsiward; and in Trans-Dailal lccausc iIcrc was an adcquaic nunlcr of
lalour-canp innaics availallc. A pcnal arny Iad cisicd iIcrc cvcn lcforc Folossovsly arrivcd in Augusi
1941. Dcforc Ic arrivcd ii was run ly anoiIcr gcncral wIo Iad also lccn a viciin of iIc Crcai Tcrror. TIis
was MilIail FcdorovicI Lulin, wIo was io disiinguisI Iinsclf in Icavy figIiing ai Snolcnsl. Cravcly
woundcd, Ic was ialcn prisoncr, and Iad a lcg anpuiaicd. WIcn Ic rcfuscd io co-opcraic wiiI iIc Ccrnans,
Ic suffcrcd four appalling ycars in Ccrnan conccniraiion canps. Aficr lcing lilcraicd fron iIc Ccrnan
canps, Ic was scni oncc again io iIc CULAC.
TIc Ccrnan HigI Connand's cncounicr wiiI Lulin's 16iI Arny ai iIc cnd of Junc 1941 canc as a
conplcic surprisc, as did iIc cisicncc of iIc cniirc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon. Ii is for iIai rcason iIai so
nany docuncnis aloui iIis cncounicr Iavc lccn prcscrvcd in Ccrnan rccords. Anyonc wIo so wisIcs can
find nany Iundrcds of pIoiograpIs in iIcsc arcIivcs of Sovici soldicrs fron iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon
lcing capiurcd. TIcrc, anong all iIc young lads, onc nay glinpsc now and again iIc facc of a nan wIo Ias
clcarly lccn Iardcncd ly lifc, a nan wcaring scni-niliiary uniforn. Sonciincs Ic is wcaring a grccn niliiary
jaclci wiiIoui any ladgcs of ranl. Dui cvcn iIc grccn niliiary jaclci docs noi nalc Iin lool lilc a soldicr.
EacI onc of iIcsc ncn Ias sirong callouscd Iands, a sIavcn Icad and cnaciaiion in Iis facc. TIcsc ncn Iad
noi yci passcd iIrougI iIc Gc)nun conccniraiion canps. Scnior officcrs sucI as Folos-sovsly canc inio iIc
arny fron iIc CULAC Iaving ialcn iIc prccauiion io faiicn iIcnsclvcs up in SocIi; lui SocIi passcd iIcsc
poor fcllows ly.
Civcn iIai iIc Ccrnan Arny canc across divisions and corps nadc up of lalour-canp prisoncrs ai iIc
lcginning of July, and if iIcsc divisions and corps forncd pari of arnics wIicI canc fron disiani provinccs
in iIc Urals, Silcria and Trans-Dailal, ii ncans iIai Sialin pui arns inio iIc Iands of lalour-canp prisoncrs
lcforc 22 Junc 1941.
I do noi now wIai Ccrnan niliiary iniclligcncc lncw in iIc firsi Ialf of Junc, lui lci us assunc iIai ii
lncw vcry liiilc no norc iIan iIc fragncnis wIicI arc lnown io us ioday.
1. Sonc arnics wcrc sccrcily noving iowards iIc wcsicrn froniicrs of iIc Sovici Union.
2. TIcsc arnics consisicd of a ficd nunlcr of soldicrs, sonciincs cniirc division, cacI wiiI a conplcncni
of sonc 15,000 ncn, and cvcn cniirc corps, cacI wiiI norc iIan 50,000 ncn clad in unusual llacl uniforns
sinilar io iIosc worn in prison.
3. Ai lcasi onc of iIcsc arnics was conplcicly fcd and nainiaincd ly iIc CULAC of iIc NKVD.
4. TIc Sovici govcrnncni pullicly and caicgorically dcnicd in iIc TASS siaicncni iIai iIcrc was anyiIing
unusual in iIcsc iroop novcncnis or in iIcir nass cIaracicr, spcaling sinply of 'nornal iraining ccrciscs'.
How was iIc Icad of Ccrnan niliiary inicllligcncc io inicrprci iIc facis lcforc Iin? TIcrc was, of coursc,
only onc inicrprciaiion. iIcy nusi aiiacl Sialin, oiIcrwisc iIcy would lc Iis viciins.
CHAPTEF 25
TIc KonI)gs and iIc Kondus
Onu Ic uIo Ius ])st conquc)cd Is oun
pcopc cun ouc)conc u st)ong cncnu.
SHAN VAN, 5iI ccniury D.C.
Wc lcgan iIc siory aloui iIc llacl divisions and corps wiiI iIc 63rd Fiflc Corps of iIc 2isi Arny. Mcniion
was nadc iIcrc of Konlor Pcirovsly and Konlrig Folanov. WIy wcrc iIcy noi gcncrals? TIc answcr is
sinplc. In iIc llacl corps and divisions ii was noi jusi iIc soldicrs and officcrs, lui also iIc scnior
connandcrs, wIo wcrc vcicrans of iIc 'snall iowns of Iuincnis for lunlcrjacls'.
TIc niliiary ranls of IonI)g, Iondu, IonIo) and Ionun-du)n wcrc in usc in iIc Fcd Arny for scnior
connand siaff officcrs lcforc 1940. Dianond-sIapcd ladgcs on uniforn collar ials wcrc uscd io disiinguisI
iIc diffcrcni ranls onc ladgc for a IonI)g, iwo for a Ionud, iIrcc for a IonIo), and four for a
Ionundu)n. In May 1940, wIcn Sialin was puiiing Iis scnior connand siaff in ordcr, Ic gavc ncw iiilcs of
ranl in iIc gcncrals' scrics, ordcrcd iIai gcncrals' uniforn irouscrs sIould Iavc sidc siripcs and, as insignia,
iIai iIcy sIould wcar siars insicad of dianond-sIapcd ladgcs. TIc ncw ranls of najor-gcncral, licuicnani-
gcncral, coloncl-gcncral and gcncral of iIc arny wcrc in no way connccicd wiiI old niliiary ranls. A Covcrn-
ncni Connission carricd oui a conplcic rc-grading of iIc cniirc scnior connand siaff, in iIc coursc of
wIicI nany IonI)gs lccanc coloncls, so iIai iIcy wcrc in cffcci dcnoicd
io iIc lcvcl iIcy wcrc ai scvcral ycars lcforc. Sonc IonI)gs lccanc najor-gcncrals, and Konlrig I. N.
MuzycIcnlo lccanc a licuicnani-gcncral. Many Ionundu)ns lccanc coloncl-gcncrals, aliIougI sonc wcrc
dcnoicd io licuicnani-gcncral. Dui Konlor C. K. ZIulov was givcn iIc IigIcsi gcncral's ranl, iIai of gcncral
of iIc arny. Onc liiilc lnown faci, incidcnially, is iIai ZIulov was iIc firsi officcr of iIc Fcd Arny io lc givcn
iIc ranl of gcncral. In all, 1056 scnior connandcrs wcrc givcn iIc niliiary ranls of gcncral and adniral in
Junc 1940.
TIc iniroduciion of iIcsc gcncrals' iiilcs was Sialin's offcring of Ioncy-calc aficr iIc grcai iIrasIings of
1937 and 1938. WIy was Conradc Sialin lcing so lind? Dccausc Ic was planning io sci iIcn io praciisc
iIcir iradc in iIc forcsccallc fuiurc. Had ii lccn oiIcrwisc, Ic would Iavc lccn in no Iurry wiiI iIc Ioncy-
calc.
Dui onc iIousand gcncrals was noi cnougI for Sialin. Divisions wcrc lcing raiscd in incrcasing nunlcrs,
corps and arnics wcrc lcing forncd. Coloncls wcrc lcing pui inio gcncrals' posis. Ai onc poini iIcrc wcrc no
fcwcr iIan onc Iundrcd coloncls Iolding gcncrals' posis, connanding divisions; wc Iavc alrcady cncounicrcd
Coloncl I. I. Fcdyuninsly in iIc posi of connandcr of iIc I5iI Fiflc Corps of iIc 5iI Arny.
TIcrc wcrc noi cnougI connandcrs ciiIcr. As long as Hiilcr siood facing Iin, Sialin could gci ly wiiI
availallc pcrsonncl. Dui as Hiilcr iurncd Iis facc wcsiwards, iIcn Sialin found Iinsclf in grcai nccd of
connandcrs of scnior ranl. TIai cplains wIy iIc prison wagons wcrc spccding iowards Moscow. Aficr
arrival, forncr connandcrs wIo Iad passcd iIrougI iIc CULAC wcrc nci wiiI poliicncss in Lulyanla jail,
wIcrc ii was cplaincd iIai iIcrc Iad lccn a nisialc. Crininal procccdings would lc sioppcd, and prcvious
conviciions cpungcd. TIc connandcrs iIcn Iasicncd io SocIi, and fron iIcrc io iIc colours.
Noi cvcry connandcr was ircaicd wiiI iIc sanc rcspcci. Sonc wcrc givcn a gcncral's ranl, including
Major-Ccncral Folossovsly, iIc fuiurc MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union. Dui nosi of iIosc wIo wcrc rclcascd
fron prison wcrc lcfi wiiI iIcir old niliiary ranl o] IonI)g, Iondu or IonIo). TIis lrougIi aloui a sirangc
siiuaiion in iIc Fcd Arny. TIcrc wcrc iwo parallcl sysicns of niliiary ranls for iIc scnior connand siaff,
iwo sysicns of ladgcs of ranl, and iwo diffcrcni forns of drcss. Sonc connandcrs wcni aloui proudly
wcaring iIcir siars, siripcd panis and snari drcss uniforns wIilc oiIcrs, doing cacily iIc sanc worl, worc
only iIcir nodcsi liiilc dianond-sIapcd ladgcs.
Onc nciIod uscd ly iIc CIclisis in Kicv during iIc Fcd Tcrror Ias lccn dcscrilcd ly iIc Fussian
Iisiorian, S. P. Mcl' gunov, and confirncd ly docuncnis. A prisoncr wIo rcfuscd io answcr qucsiions would
wiiIoui furiIcr ado lc placcd in a coffin and luricd. Hc would iIcn lc dug up, and iIc inicrrogaiion would
coniinuc.
Sialin did nucI iIc sanc iIing in iIc 'prc-war pcriod'. TIousands of connandcrs fcll inio iIc Iands of iIc
CULAC during iIc ycars of iIc Crcai Purgc. Sonc of iIcn Iad lccn condcnncd io dcaiI, oiIcrs givcn
lcngiIy prison scnicnccs wIicI iIcy wcrc scrving ai Kolyna. According io nany wiincsscs (for canplc,
Kounu Sto)cs, 1978, ly V. SIalanovi lifc iIcrc was ly no ncans prcfcrallc io lcing sIoi. And now Icrc
wcrc pcoplc wIo Iad alrcady said goodlyc io lifc, lcing iransporicd in conforiallc railway carriagcs, lcing
fcd and faiicncd in IcaliI ccnircs rcscrvcd for ncnlcrs of iIc govcrnncni, lcing givcn lacl iIcir forncr
auiIoriiy and allowcd an opporiuniiy io 'cpiaic iIcir guili'. Howcvcr, iIc ranl of gcncral was noi confcrrcd
pcrnancnily, and carricd no guaraniccs . . . Can wc inaginc Iow all iIcsc IonI)gs and Iondus wcrc
lursiing io gci down io worl?
Sialin's calculaiion was corrcci. Many of iIosc wIo wcrc rclcascd wcrc lursiing io go inio aciion and provc
iIai iIcy wcrc woriIy of irusi. TIcsc includcd Kondiv Crigory AlccycvicI VorozIcilin, wIo was pui in
cIargc of iIc air arn of iIc 21si Arny of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon. Hc disiinguisIcd Iinsclf in iIc iniiial
laiilcs in July 1941 and was granicd iIc ranl of air najor-gcncral. Dy Augusi Ic Iad lcconc CIicf of Siaff of
iIc Air Forccs of iIc Fcd Arny. Hc aiiaincd a ncw ranl cvcry ycar uniil Ic lccanc a narsIal in 1944.
Konlrig Alcandcr Corlaiov, rclcascd in MarcI 1941, was givcn iIc posi of dcpuiy connandcr of iIc 25iI
Fiflc Corps of iIc 19iI Arny, wIicI forncd pari of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon. Hc rosc io iIc ranl of
gcncral and io iIc posi of officcr connanding iIc airlornc assauli iroops of iIc Sovici Arny.
TIis is Iow Ic dcscrilcs Iis rclcasc.
My wifc Iad lccn io iIc NK VD, and was on wings wIcn sIc lcfi iIcrc. SIc said iIai iIcy Iad rcccivcd Icr
vcry wcll, spolc poliicly, wcrc inicrcsicd in Iow sIc was nanaging io livc, did sIc nccd Iclp wiiI noncy . . .
On iIc nigIi of 5 MarcI 1941 ai iwo o'clocl in iIc norning, an invcsiigaior drovc nc in a snall car io
fricnds of ninc in Konsonorslaya Squarc. Hc droppcd nc and poliicly iool Iis lcavc.
'Hcrc is ny iclcpIonc nunlcr. If you nccd anyiIing, ring nc ai any iinc. You can couni on nc io Iclp
you.'
Lilc a rclic, I was carrying along a lag coniaining cloiIcs, galosIcs and sugar lunps wIicI wcrc llacl as
coal, and dricd liscuiis wIicI I Iad lcpi sIould I fall ill. (Godu Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1965, pp. 168-
169i
Konlrig Corlaiov, lilc nany oiIcrs, was rclcascd on a carcfully calculaicd iinciallc. a noniI's lcavc in a
IcaliI ccnirc lcforc acccpiancc for duiy. Dy iIc iinc iIc TASS rcpori was pullisIcd, iIc gallani IonI)g was
sccrcily on Iis way wcsiwards wiiI Iis 'AnnusIlas'.
As a iruc lalour-canp prisoncr, Corlaiov collccicd 'souvcnirs' of iIc CULAC. Luclily for Iin, Ic did noi
nccd iIcn again. OiIcrs wcrc noi so foriunaic. Konlrig I. F. DasIicIcv pui Iis snow loois on for iIc sccond
iinc. Hc was rclcascd in MarcI 1941, only io lc inprisoncd again in Ociolcr. Hc rcnaincd in iIc CULAC
uniil ai lcasi 1953.
KonI)gs, Iondus and IonIo)s wcrc also uscd io rcinforcc iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon. Konlrig M. S.
TlacIcv, for canplc, was posicd io iIc 109iI Fiflc Division of iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps; Konlrig I. P.
Ivanov was appoinicd CIicf of Siaff of iIc 6iI Arny. Kondiv A. D. Sololov, Connandcr of iIc 16iI
MccIanizcd Corps of iIc 12iI Arny; Kondiv C. A. DuricIcnlov, officcr connanding iIc souiIcrn zonc of iIc
anii-aircrafi dcfcnccs; Kondiv P. C. Alclsccv, officcr connanding air forccs, 13iI Arny; Konlrig S. S.
KrusIin was nadc CIicf of Siaff for iIc Air Forcc in iIc NoriI Wcsi Froni; Konlrig A. S. Tiiov, Icad of
ariillcry in iIc 18iI Arny, and nany norc.
In addiiion, IonI)gs and Iondus wcrc uscd io fill iIc gaps lcfi in iIc IicrarcIics of iIc niliiary disiricis
wIcn iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon novcd off io iIc wcsicrn lordcr. Konlrig N. I. KIrisiofanov lccanc
niliiary connissar for iIc Siavropol' Fcgion; and Konlrig M. V. KIripunov, a cIicf of lrancI in iIc Moscow
Miliiary Disirici. TIc Icadquaricrs, as wc saw, Iad lccn occupicd ly CIclisis wiiI liiilc undcrsianding of
niliiary naiicrs aficr all iIc connandcrs Iad lcfi for iIc Fonanian froniicr. So poor old KIripunov was
sunnoncd fron iIc CULAC io Iclp iIcn.
Dui cvcn so, nosi of iIc Iondus, IonI)gs and IonIo)s uc)c carnarlcd for iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon.
Ii is Icrc wc find Konlor Pcirovsly. Wc rcncnlcr iIai Iis lasi posi Iad lccn dcpuiy officcr connanding iIc
Moscow Miliiary Disirici. Aficr iIis Ic was inprisoncd. Hc was rclcascd in Novcnlcr 1940 and ordcrcd io
forn iIc 63rd Fiflc Corps. TIis is wIcrc iIc llacl corps lcgan. Of iIc iIrcc divisions in iIc corps, iwo wcrc
connandcd ly Konlrigs Ya. S. Folanov and V. S. Falovsly. Coloncl N. A. PrisIcIcpa connandcd iIc iIird
division. Hc was noi a IonI)g, aliIougI Ic Iad also lccn a prisoncr. TIcrc wcrc najors, capiains and
licuicnanis ioo.
TIc ncigIlouring 67iI Corps of iIc sanc arny was full of IonI)gs. TIcrc was cvcn a IonI)g ai iIc Icad
of iIc corps, F. F. ZInacIcnlo, wIo laicr lccanc a coloncl-gcncral. Lool ai any of iIcsc arnics lcing
sccrcily novcd fron iIc dcpiI of iIc couniry, and cvcrywIcrc you will scc Iordcs of IonI)gs wIo Iad jusi
lccn rclcascd. TIcrc wcrc iwo corps in iIc 22nd Arny wiiI a IonI)g in cacI - Povcilin of iIc 5isi Corps and
I. P. Karnanov, of iIc 62nd. TIc cIicfs of siaff, of ariillcry, of cnginccrs, and of any oiIcr scrvicc, wcrc all
officcrs jusi rclcascd fron prison. Two divisions in iIis arny consisicd prcdoninanily of 'lunlcrjacls', wiiI
connandcrs fron iIc sanc nilicu - Konlrig Ya. S. Adanson of iIc H2nd Fiflc and Konlrig A. I. Zygin of iIc
I74iI.
TIc proccss of rclcasing IonI)gs, Iondus and IonIo)s was lcgun lcforc Opcraiion Darlarossa was
lnown aloui, and pcalcd ai iIc noncni wIcn Ccrnan iroops lcfi for Francc. Having forccd a corridor
iIrougI iIc ncuiral siaics wIicI siood lciwccn Iin and Ccrnany, Sialin now offcrcd a 'sccond liriI' io an
cnornous nunlcr of connandcrs wIo Iad lccn condcnncd io a rapid or slow dcaiI in iIc canps. TIcsc
pcoplc Iad oncc Icld arns and grcai powcr, lui cvcry onc of iIcn Iad lcconc a prisoncr undcr scnicncc of
dcaiI and was now lurning wiiI a dcsirc io gci lacl io iIc IcigIis fron wIicI Sialin Iad iopplcd iIcn.
WIilc Sialin officially rcassurcd Ccrnany iIai noiIing inporiani was Iappcning, iIcsc officcrs - ai iIc Icad
of vasi arnics of fcllow c-convicis - wcrc sccrcily Icading for iIc froniicr.
CHAPTEF 26
WIy iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon was Forncd
MoIzuton s uu), und uc do not contcnputc unu otIc) ntc)p)ctuton.
MarsIal D. M. SHAPOSHNIKOV
(Vosponnunuu M., Vocnizdai 1974, p. 558i
SIorily aficr iIc firsi Ccrnan iroops lcgan io invadc iIc Sovici Union, Ccncral I. V. Tyulcncv was Iaving a
convcrsaiion in iIc Krcnlin wiiI ZIulov. 'I rcporicd ii io Sialin', ZIulov said, 'lui ai firsi Ic didn'i lclicvc ii,
and iIougIi ii was a provocaiion ly sonc Ccrnan gcncrals.' (CIc)cz T) Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1960, p.
141i TIis crcaics a scrious coniradiciion for connunisi Iisiorians wIo arguc iIai Sialin carricd oui iIc
largcsi rcgrouping of iroops in Iisiory lccausc Ic scnscd iIai a Ccrnan aiiacl was innincni. Evcn u]tc) iIc
aiiacl Iad aciually lcgun, Sialin rcfuscd io lclicvc iIai ii was Iappcning.
Moving iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon was noi a rcaciion io wIai Hiilcr was doing. TIis vasi railway
opcraiion nccdcd long and dciailcd prcparaiion and accuraic prcparaiory planning. MarsIal of iIc Sovici
Union S. K. Kurloilin siaics iIai iIc Ccncral Siaff passcd all iIc ncccssary docuncnis on iIc iroop iransfcrs
io iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for railways on 21 Fclruary 1941. (Tu SouctsIuII Voo)uzIcnuII S u VcIo
OtccIcst-ucnno Vonc, Moscow Vocnizdai 1977, p. 33i Dui iIc Ccncral Siaff was aslcd for norc iinc io
prcparc iIcsc docuncnis wiiI duc iIorougIncss. TIcy would Iavc io icll iIc railwayncn wIai iranspori io
providc, Iow io canouflagc iIc loads and iIc novcncnis, wIai rouics io ialc, and wIcrc io prcparc for
nassivc iroop discnlarlaiions. In ordcr io Iavc all iIis rcady, iIc Ccncral Siaff would Iavc Iad io Iavc
lnown iIc dciails of iroop novcncnis in advancc. Ii ncans wc nusi go furiIcr lacl io find iIc dccision io
sci up iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, and wIcrc iIc planning lcgan for iis iransfcr and for iis conlai usc.
In faci, iIc proccss was sci in noiion ly a Poliiluro dccision, and lcgan on 19 Augusi 1939 - lcforc Hiilcr
Iad invadcd Poland or gonc io war wiiI Driiain and Francc. Ai no iinc did ii falicr, lui gradually gaiIcrcd
noncniun. Lci us ialc jusi onc Miliiary Disirici, iIc Urals, as an canplc. Two ncw divisions wcrc forncd
iIcrc in Scpicnlcr 1939, iIc 85iI and iIc 159iI. On 21 Junc 1941, wc find iIc 85iI rigIi on iIc Ccrnan
froniicr ncar Augusiow, in a sccior wIcrc iIc NK VD was cuiiing down iIc larlcd wirc. Wc also find iIc
I59iI Division rigIi on iIc froniicr in Fava-Fusslaya, wIcrc ii was pari of iIc 6iI (Icavy sIocli Arny. TIc
110iI, 125iI, and 128iI Fiflc Divisions wcrc forncd in iIc sanc Urals Miliiary Disirici ai iIc cnd of 1939,
and laicr wc find cacI onc of iIcn on iIc Ccrnan lordcr. Noi only iIai, Sovici sourccs icll us iIai iIc 125iI
was 'dirccily on iIc froniicr' of Easi Prussia. TIc Urals Disirici raiscd nany norc rcgincnis and divisions,
and iIcy wcrc all novcd quicily and wiiIoui fuss ncarcr io iIc lordcrs.
WIilc iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon siill did noi officially cisi, iIc scnior Sovici niliiary lcadcrsIip was
worling oui nciIods ly wIicI iIc iroops of iIc Firsi and Sccond Siraicgic EcIclons could co-opcraic. In iIc
sccond Ialf of 1940, Ccncral D. C. Pavlov Icld a ncciing wiiI iIc officcrs connanding iIc arnics and iIc
cIicfs of siaff in iIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici. Anong all iIc iIousands of Sovici gcncrals and
adnirals, D. C. Pavlov was fouriI IigIcsi in scnioriiy.
TIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici was naling grandiosc plans io Iold connand-siaff ccrciscs. Plans of
aciion wcrc worlcd oui for connandcrs, Icadquaricrs, and connunicaiions sysicns io lc uscd in iIc iniiial
pcriod of war. In iIc coursc of iIc ccrciscs, iIc Sovici Icadquaricrs Iad io novc io iIc wcsi in cacily iIc
sanc way as iIcy would prcparc io do as war lcgan. 'Dui iIcsc Icadquaricrs wIicI arc rigIi on iIc froniicr?'
Coloncl-Ccncral Sandalov, CIicf of Siaff of iIc 4iI Arny, aslcd pcrplccdly. 'WIcrc will iIcy novc io?' (L. M.
Sandalov, Pc)czItoc, Moscow Vocnizdai 1966, p. 65i Nolody lccps Icadquaricrs 'rigIi on iIc froniicr' wIcn
prcparing for a dcfcnsivc war, lui Sovici Icadquaricrs Iad lccn novcd iIcrc, and siaycd iIcrc, inncdiaicly
aficr iIc connon lordcr wiiI Ccrnany Iad lccn csiallisIcd. TIc rcaciion of iIis cIicf of siaff of an arny on
iIc froniicr is also inicrcsiing. In Iis nind iIc ordcr io novc was only associaicd wiiI iIc conccpis of 'novc
io iIc wcsi', and 'novc across iIc froniicr'; ii did noi occur io Iin iIai in a war iIc Icadquaricrs could lc
novcd clscwIcrc.
In addiiion io iIc connandcrs of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon, iIc ncciing was also aiicndcd ly IigIly-
placcd gucsis fron iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, lcd ly Ccncral I. V. Tyulcncv, officcr connanding iIc
Moscow Miliiary Disirici. Taling advaniagc of Tyulcncv's prcscncc, Ccncral D. C. Pavlov cplaincd io
Licuicnani-Ccncral V. I. CIuilov, iIc officcr connanding 4iI Arny and a fuiurc MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union,
iIc oljcciivcs of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon.
'WIcn iIc iroops gci Icrc fron iIc inicrnal niliiary disiricis,' said Pavlov, 'and wIcn a dcnsiiy Ias lccn
acIicvcd in your arny's zonc of scvcn and a Ialf liloncircs pcr division, iIcn iIcrc can lc novcncni
forward wiiIoui any doulis aloui succcss.' (IId)
TIc prcscncc of Ccncral Tyulcncv ai iIis ncciing is vcry significani. Hc alrcady lncw in 1940 wIai Iis rolc
would lc in iIc iniiial pcriod of war. TIis was io rcpori wiiI Iis Icadquaricrs io iIc froniicr niliiary disirici,
wIcn iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon would cross iIc siaic froniicr. TIis Sovici plan was cIangcd in Fclruary
1941 undcr prcssurc fron ZIulov, wIo Iad ly iIcn ialcn ovcr iIc Ccncral Siaff. In iIc cIangcd vcrsion,
insicad of going io iIc Ccrnan froniicr, Ccncral Tyulcncv and Iis Icadquaricrs Iad io novc sccrcily io iIc
Fonanian froniicr, for iIai was wIcrc iIc nain cfforis of iIc Fcd Arny wcrc io lc conccniraicd.
TIc iroop dcnsiiy of scvcn and a Ialf liloncircs pcr division wIicI iIc Sovici gcncrals wcrc using is iIc
siandard onc for an offcnsivc. Ai iIai iinc a division would Iavc lccn allocaicd a sircicI of icrrain sonc
iIrcc io four iincs grcaicr for dcfcnsivc opcraiions. TIis sanc ncciing also discusscd Iow iIc novcncni of
Sovici iroops io iIc froniicr could lc canouflagcd. 'Movcncnis . . . of ncw divisions,' iIc ncciing dccidcd,
'can lc carricd oui undcr iIc guisc of iraining rcfrcsIcr courscs.'
Dy 13 Junc 1941, 77 divisions fron iIc inicrnal niliiary disiricis wcrc Icadcd for iIc Sovici wcsicrn
froniicrs 'undcr iIc guisc of iraining rcfrcsIcr courscs'. In iIai siiuaiion, Hiilcr did noi sii lacl and waii.
WIilc iIc Sovici gcncrals wcrc csiallisIing 'iIc rcgulaiion dcnsiiy of scvcn and a Ialf liloncircs pcr division',
Ic sirucl iIc firsi llow.
Aficr Ccrnany Iad lcgun iis prcvcniivc war, iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, lilc iIc Firsi, was uscd for
dcfcncc. Dui iIis in no way ncans iIai iIis was iIc purposc for wIicI ii Iad lccn crcaicd. Ccncral MilIail
IlyicI Kazalov said of iIc Sccond EcIclon iIai 'aficr iIc war lcgan, cardinal cIangcs Iad io lc nadc in iIc
plan govcrning iis usc'. (VIZH1972, No. 12, p. 46i
Major-Ccncral Vassily IvanovicI Zcnslov cprcsscd Iin-' sclf norc cacily. 'Wc wcrc conpcllcd io usc
iIcsc rcscrvcs for dcfcncc, and noi in accordancc wiiI iIc plan for an offcnsivc.' (VIZH 1971, No. 10, p. 13i
Ccncral of iIc Arny Sinion PavlovicI Ivanov ouilincs iIc original plan lcIind iIc fornaiion of iIc Sccond
Siraicgic EcIclon.
If iIc iroops of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon wcrc io succccd ... in carrying niliiary opcraiions on io cncny
icrriiory cvcn lcforc iIc nain forccs Iad lccn dcploycd, iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon would Iavc io augncni
iIc cfforis of iIc Firsi EcIclon ly dcvcloping a rcsponsc aiiacl as laid down ly iIc gcncral siraicgic plan.
(NucIu'nu Pc)od Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1974, p. 206i
TIc rcadcr nusi noi lc nislcd ly iIc icrn 'rcsponsc aiiacl' in iIis scnicncc. Iis ncaning, as uscd Icrc,
nay lc undcrsiood ly glancing ai iIc Winicr War wiiI Finland. Alnosi 50 ycars laicr, iIc Sovici vcrsion is
siill iIai Finland aiiaclcd, and iIai iIc Fcd Arny only dclivcrcd a 'rcsponsc aiiacl'.
Licuicnani-Ccncral S. A. Kalinin iclls of iIc nood wIicI prcvailcd iIcn in iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon.
Dcforc iIc sccrci iroop novcncnis lcgan, Ic was iraining iroops in iIc Silcrian Miliiary Disirici for
opcraiional aciion. During iIc ccrciscs, iIc gcncral Icard iIis opinion cprcsscd ly a vcry junior officcr.
'TIosc foriificaiions iIcrc will noi lc uscd, iIai's for surc. Wc'rc gciiing rcady noi for dcfcncc lui aiiacl, you
scc. Wc'll Iii iIc cncny on Iis own icrriiory.' (HuznusIcnuu o MnuusIcn, Moscow 1963, p. 124i Ccncral
Kalinin rclaycd iIc young officcr's words wiiI a ccriain irony. Iow naivc can onc lc, Ic inplicd. Dui Ic did
noi say fron wIcrc iIc young officcr Iad goi sucI idcas. If iIc young officcr was wrong, Ccncral Kalinin
sIould Iavc corrccicd Iin, and iIcn poinicd oui io all iIc connandcrs iIai iIcrc was sonciIing wIicI iIc
junior officcrs wcrc failing io undcrsiand, and iIai was iIai iIc oricniaiion of iIc iraining was noi quiic rigIi.
Hc iIcn sIould Iavc inncdiaicly qucsiioncd iIc connandcrs in iIc adjaccni laiialions, rcgincnis and
divisions, and if Ic iIcn found iIai iIis 'incorrcci' opinion was lcing rcpcaicd, Ic sIould Iavc issucd a sicrn
connand iIrougIoui iIc 24iI Arny ordcring iIai iIc oricniaiion of iIc iraining lc corrccicd. Dui Ccncral
Kalinin did noi do iIis, and iIc iroops coniinucd io lc iraincd 'io figIi on cncny icrriiory'.
Ii was noi iIc fauli of iIc young connandcrs iIai iIcy wcrc noi lcing iraincd for dcfcncc. Ii was noi cvcn
iIc fauli of Ccncral Kalinin. Hc was only iIc officcr connanding onc arny, wIcn all arnics wcrc lcing
iraincd io figIi 'on cncny icrriiory'. Hc rcvcals Iis own aiiiiudc io iIc issuc in an inicrcsiing anccdoic. Aficr
Ic Iad Iandcd ovcr iIc connand of iIc 24iI Arny io Ccncral K. Faluiin, Kalinin rciurncd io Silcria, wIcrc
Ic iraincd icn ncw divisions 'in iIc snall iowns of Iuincnis for lunlcrjacls'. 'Fron wIcrc do I lcgin?' Ic
aslcd Iinsclf.
On wIai Ias iIc nain aiicniion of iIc iroops io lc conccniraicd wIcn iIcy do iIcir iraining, on dcfcncc or
aiiacl? TIc posiiion ai iIc fronis was siill icnsc. Fcd Arny iroops wcrc coniinuing io figIi Icavy dcfcnsivc
laiilcs.
Epcricncc gaincd in iIc figIiing sIowcd iIai wc wcrc far fron adcpi on occasions wIcn consiruciing our
dcfcncc. Dcfcnsivc posiiions wcrc frcqucnily ill-cquippcd in iIc cnginccring scnsc. Sonciincs iIcrc was noi
cvcn a ircncI sysicn ai iIc firsi posiiion. TIc laiilc fornaiion of iIc dcfcndcrs oficn consisicd of only onc
ccIclon and a snall rcscrvc, wIicI dininisIcd iIc iroops' rcsisiancc. In nany cascs iIc ncn wcrc ladly
iraincd in anii-ianl dcfcncc, and iIc noiorious ianlopIolia, or fcar of ianls, was prcscni anong iIc
iroops.
Dui ai iIc sanc iinc iIc iIougIi occurrcd - 'Wc sIall noi always lc dcfcnding oursclvcs. Aiiacl - iIai's
iIc conpulsory iIing . . .
'WIai is norc, dcfcncc is noi considcrcd, nor Ias ii cvcr lccn, io lc iIc nain forn of niliiary aciion . . .
iIis ncans iIai iIc iroops nusi lc iraincd for offcnsivc figIiing . . .' I sIarcd iIis vicw wiiI iIc
connandcrs. Wc all canc io iIc sanc conclusion. TIc principal cfforis in iraining nusi lc dirccicd ai
carcfully worling iIrougI offcnsivc aciion. (IId, pp. 182-183i
TIc firsi duiy of iIc siaic and iis arny ai iIc iinc was io siop iIc cncny, if only ai iIc walls of Moscow. Yci
ii was olvious io cvcryonc iIai iIc Fcd Arny was noi rcady for dcfcncc - ii was noi cvcn prcparing for ii.
Evcn aficr iIc Ccrnan aiiacl, wIcn iIc WcIrnacIi was iIrcaicning iIc vcry cisicncc of iIc connunisi
rcginc, Ccncral Kalinin was going on iraining Iis iroops only io aiiacl. WIai Iad Ic lccn iraining iIcn io do
lcforc iIc Ccrnan invasion lcgan?
As a rcsuli of Ccrnan prcvcniivc aciion, iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon Iad io lc uscd for dcfcncc, and noi for
iis inicndcd purposc. I Iavc sufficicni docuncniaiion io csiallisI iIc rolc wIicI Iad lccn assigncd io ii ly
iIc Sovici war plans. Hcrc, as in iIc Firsi EcIclon, cacI arny Iad iis own uniquc individualiiy, and iis own
pcrsonaliiy and cIaracicr. Mosi arnics iravcllcd ligIi, lilc a sirong franc wIicI Iad io lc fillcd in aficr ii Iad
arrivcd in iIc forcsis in iIc wcsicrn paris of iIc couniry and lccn dcploycd iIcrc. TIc siandard conplcncni
of iIc arnics in iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon was iwo riflc corps, cacI wiiI iIrcc riflc divisions. TIis was noi
a sIocl arny, lui an ordinary onc wiiI a rcduccd conplcncni.
On arrival in iIc wcsicrn arcas of iIc couniry, cacI arny inncdiaicly sci aloui conplciing iis nolilizaiion
and supplcncniing iis divisions and corps. Ii was quiic logical iIai nosi of iIc arnics in iIc Sccond Siraicgic
EcIclon did noi Iavc nccIanizcd corps wiiI largc nunlcrs of ianls. Firsi, sucI corps wcrc sci up nainly in
iIc wcsicrn paris of iIc couniry. If iIc nccd arosc, iIcy did noi Iavc io lc novcd wcsiwards fron provinccs
dccp in iIc Urals and Silcria. Ii would lc norc sinplc io rcinforcc iIcn wIcrc iIcy alrcady wcrc ly ligIi
arnics arriving fron iIcsc disiani provinccs. TIcrc was an cvcn lciicr alicrnaiivc. TIis was io usc ly far iIc
grcaicr pari of iIc nccIanizcd corps in iIc firsi surprisc sirilc, in ordcr io nalc ii an ciraordinarily
powcrful onc; iIcn io iIrow iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon inio laiilc, and iransfcr io iis ligIi arnics all iIc
ianls wIicI Iad survivcd iIc firsi opcraiions.
TIcrc was, Iowcvcr, an cccpiion anong iIc arnics of iIc Sccond EcIclon. TIc i6iI was nanifcsily a
sIocl arny. Iis conplcncni includcd a full-sircngiI nccIanizcd corps wIicI Iad ovcr 1,000 ianls. In
addiiion, iIc dciacIcd 57iI Tanl Division, undcr iIc connand of Coloncl V. A. MisIulin, was novcd
wcsiwards along wiiI iIis arny. TIc 57iI Tanl Division was undcr iIc opcraiional connand of iIc officcr
connanding iIc i6iI Arny. Taling iIis division inio accouni, iIc i6iI Arny Iad norc iIan 1,200 ianls, and
on full conplcncni iIis figurc nusi Iavc ccccdcd 1,340.
TIc 19iI Arny was cvcn norc powcrful. TIis Iad lccn novcd sccrcily fron iIc NoriIcrn Caucasus. Iis
conplcncni includcd four corps, including iIc 26iI MccIanizcd Corps. TIcrc is sufficicni cvidcncc io sIow
iIai iIc 25iI MccIanizcd Corps, undcr iIc connand of Major-Ccncral Sinion KrivosIcin, Iad also lccn
carnarlcd for iIc 19iI Arny. TIis clcarly was a Icavy sIocl arny. Evcn iis riflc corps wcrc organizcd in an
unusual way and wcrc Icadcd ly vcry IigI-ranling connandcrs. TIc 34iI Fiflc Corps, undcr Licuicnani-
Ccncral F. P. KIncl'niisly, for canplc, Iad four riflc and onc nouniain riflc divisions on iis conplcncni, as
wcll as scvcral Icavy ariillcry rcgincnis.
TIc prcscncc of iIc nouniain riflc divisions in iIcsc arnics was noi accidcnial. TIc I9iI Arny, iIc nosi
powcrful in iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, was sccrcily dcploycd, lui noi againsi Ccrnany. TIc wIolc Sovici
grand dcsign is rcvcalcd Icrc- iIc nosi powcrful arny in iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon was dcploycd againsi
Fonania; and iIc nosi powcrful arny in iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, rigIi ai iis lacl, againsi Fonania as
wcll.
TIc 16iI Arny, iIc sccond nosi powcrful in iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, was dcploycd alongsidc. Ii could
also Iavc lccn uscd againsi Fonania and iis viial oilficlds, lui ii was norc prolallc iIai iIc plan was io usc
ii againsi Hungary alongsidc iIc 26iI (sIocli and iIc I2iI (nouniain sIocli Arnics, cuiiing off iIc oil fron
iis uscrs.
Hiilcr disrupicd iIis dcployncni wiiI Iis invasion. TIc 16iI and 19iI Arnics Iad io novc inncdiaicly io
Snolcnsl, iIcrcly puiiing lacl iIc 'lilcraiion' of Fonania and Hungary ly scvcral ycars.
Inncdiaicly aficr iIc pariiiion of Poland in iIc auiunn of 1939, a grcai nunlcr of Sovici iroops wcrc
iransfcrrcd fron pcrnancni garrisons on io iIc ncw froniicr. TIc ncw icrriiorics, Iowcvcr, Iad noi lccn
adapicd io iIc siaiioning of largc nunlcrs of iroops, cspccially nodcrn iroops cquippcd wiiI a grcai dcal of
wcapons and iccInical cquipncni.
TIc official Hsto)u o] tIc Sccond Vo)d Vu) rccords Iow 'iIc iroops in iIc wcsicrn froniicr disiricis
cpcricnccd grcai difficuliics. EvcryiIing Iad io lc luili and cquippcd ancw, lascs and supply poinis,
airficlds, iIc road nciworl, junciions and lincs of connunicaiion . . .' (1973-77, Vol. 4, p. 27i
TIc official Hsto)u o] tIc Huco)ussun Mtu)u Dst)ct painis a sinilar piciurc.
TIc displaccncni of fornaiions and uniis of iIc Disirici io iIc wcsicrn arcas of Dyclorussia gavc risc io noi
inconsidcrallc difficuliics . . . TIc pcrsonncl of iIc 3rd, 4iI and loiI Arnics Iad io luild and rcpair
larracls, dcpois and canps, and cquip iraining grounds, firing rangcs and ianl iraining arcas. TIc iroops
wcrc undcr grcai sirain. (KHVO, Moscow Vocnizdai 1983, p. 84i
Ccncral Sandalov says iIai in 1939-40, dcpois, woodcn Iuis and any luildings ai all wcrc uscd for lillciing
iroops. Dui iIc iroops lcpi on coning. 'TIcrc was a grcai pilc-up of iroops in Drcsi-Liiovsl . . . four-iicrcd
lunls wcrc fiiicd up in iIc lowcr floors of larracl luildings.' (Nu MosIousIon Nup)uucn, Moscow Naula
1970, p. 41i
Licuicnani-Ccncral V. N. Kurdyunov, Icad of iIc Conlai Training Dirccioraic of iIc Fcd Arny said ai a
connand siaff ncciing in Dcccnlcr 1940 iIai iIc iroops in iIc ncw rcgions wcrc oficn conpcllcd io do
doncsiic worl insicad of doing conlai iraining. Ai iIc sanc ncciing, Licuicnani-Ccncral Ya. N. Fcdorcnlo
said iIai alnosi all Iis ianl uniis Iad novcd iIcir dcployncni garrisons iIrcc or four iincs iowards iIc
lordcr during 1939-40. TIc rcsuli was iIai norc iIan Ialf of iIc uniis wIo Iad gonc io ncw locaiions Iad
noi Iad any rangcs io irain on.
In 1939 and 1940, ai iIc cosi of sircnuous cffori, iIc cnornous nunlcr of iroops lclonging io iIc Firsi
Siraicgic EcIclon acconnodaicd and quaricrcd. Dui iIcn, in Fclruary 1941, slowly ai firsi and iIcn ai an
cvcr incrcasing spccd, iIc iransfcr lcgan of iIc Iugc nunlcrs of iroops in iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon.
Ai iIai poini, a cIangc of considcrallc inporiancc iool placc. Souct t)oops ccuscd to concc)n tIcnscucs
uIout Iou tIcu uoud spcnd tIc ]ooung untc). All iIc iroops of iIc Firsi Siraicgic EcIclon lcfi iIcir dug-
ouis and pariially luili larracls and novcd dirccily onio iIc froniicr. (MarsIal I. KI. Dagranyan, VIZH 1976,
No. I, p. 62i TIc iroops in iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon wIo wcrc lcing novcd fron iIc inicrior of iIc
couniry did noi usc iIc unconplcicd larracls and snall niliiary ccnircs wIicI iIc Firsi EcIclon Iad lcfi
lcIind. TIc arriving iroops did noi ncan io spcnd iIc winicr in iIcsc placcs, and wcrc in no way prcparing
iIcnsclvcs for winicr. TIcy no longcr nadc dug-ouis, iIcy did noi luild iraining grounds or firing rangcs;
iIcy did noi cvcn dig ircncIcs.
TIcrc arc nany official docuncnis and ncnoirs ly gcncrals and narsIals io sIow iIai iIc iroops wcrc
now quaricrcd only undcr canvas. In iIc carly spring of 1941, iIc 188iI Fiflc Division of iIc 11iI Arny's
16iI Fiflc Corps was lcing forncd in iIc Daliic arca. Ii iool in rcscrvisis in May. TIc division sirucl a
icnporary sunncr cncanpncni undcr canvas ncar Kozlovo-Fua, sonc 45-50 liloncircs fron iIc siaic
froniicr. Undcr covcr of iIc TASS rcpori, iIc division alandoncd iIis cncanpncni and novcd io iIc froniicr.
Any aiicnpi io find cvcn a Iini of prcparaiions for winicr would lc lound io fail. Ii was iIc sanc siory wiiI
iIc 28iI Tanl Division, wIicI was lcing dcploycd ncarly.
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union K. S. Moslalcnlo, wIo was iIcn a lrigadc connandcr wiiI iIc ranl of najor-
gcncral, rccalls iIc ordcrs givcn io Iin ly Major-Ccncral M. I. Poia-pov, officcr connanding iIc 5iI Arny.
'TIc fornaiion of your lrigadc Ias lcgun Icrc . . . You will ialc iIai scciion of forcsi, and luild a canp . . .'
TIis powcrful, full-sircngiI lrigadc, wiiI a conplcncni of norc iIan 6,000 ncn arncd wiiI norc iIan onc
Iundrcd Icavy guns of a calilrc of up io iO7nn, Iad iIc canp worling in iIrcc days. Aficr iIis, iIc
inicnsivc conlai iraining lcgan. Ii wcni on for cigIi io icn Iours daily, and iIis did noi includc nigIi worl,
Ioncworl, arns nainicnancc, and wcapons iraining. (Nu Yugo Zupudnon Nup)uucnu, Moscow Naula
1969, p. 18i
If iIc Sovici iroops Iad lccn prcparing for dcfcncc, iIcy would Iavc Iad io dig in and nalc a coniinuous
linc of ircncIcs sircicIing fron iIc Arciic io iIc nouiI of iIc Danulc. Dui iIcy did noi do iIis. If iIcy Iad
inicndcd io spcnd anoiIcr winicr in pcacc and quici, iIcn, fron iIc lcginning of April, iIcy sIould Iavc lccn
luilding. TIcy did noi do iIis ciiIcr. Sonc divisions Iad lcfi Ialf-luili larracls soncwIcrc lcIind. Dui
nany divisions forncd in iIc spring of 1941 Iad nciiIcr larracls nor Iuincnis, yci iIcy wcrc noi cvcn
naling dug-ouis. So wIcrc did iIcy inicnd io spcnd iIc winicr, if noi in ccniral and souiIcrn Europc?
Major-Ccncral A. ZaporozIcIcnlo Ias lcfi us a rcnarlallc dcscripiion of iIc novcncnis of iroops iowards
iIc froniicr.
TIc conccalcd novcncni of iIc sIocl groupings up io iIc arcas fron wIcrc iIc offcnsivc would lcgin was
iIc concluding pIasc of iIc siraicgic dcployncni. TIis novcncni was carricd oui ovcr scvcral nigIis prior
io iIc aiiacl. TIc covcring aciion for iIc novcncni was organizcd ly forccs of rcinforccd laiialions wIicI
Iad lccn prcviously novcd up io iIc froniicr, and wIicI wcrc conirolling iIosc scciors of iIc froni wIicI
Iad lccn alloiicd io iIc divisions, uniil iIc nain forccs arrivcd.
TIc rcdcployncni of air forcc uniis io oiIcr lascs lcgan in iIc lasi days of May and was concludcd ly 18
Junc. Ai iIc sanc iinc figIicr and niliiary aircrafi wcrc conccniraicd ai airficlds up io 40 liloncircs fron
iIc froniicr, wIilc lonlcrs wcrc pui on airficlds no norc iIan 180 liloncircs fron iIc lordcr. ( VIZH 1984,
No. 4, p. 42i
TIc only surprising iIing aloui iIis dcscripiion is iIc daic -18 Junc. TIc Sovici air forccs did noi conplcic
iIcir rcdcployncni io oiIcr lascs on iIai day - iIcy Iad only lcgan ii on 13 Junc undcr covcr of iIc TASS
rcpori. So wIy docs iIc gcncral iall aloui 18 Junc? TIc faci is iIai Ic was spcaling noi aloui iIc Fcd
Arny, lui aloui iIc Ccrnan WcIrnacIi. TIc sanc iIing was Iappcning in Ccrnany. iroops wcrc lcing
novcd up io iIc froniicr ai nigIi. Fcinforccd laiialions wcrc lcing scni aIcad. TIc arriving divisions wcrc
occupying iIc dcpariurc arcas for iIc offcnsivc, or io pui ii norc sinply, iIcy wcrc Iiding in iIc forcsis. TIc
aciions of onc colossal arny wcrc iIc nirror inagc of iIc aciions of iIc oiIcr. TIc only rcspcci in wIicI iIcy
failcd io coincidc was iinc. Ai firsi iIc Sovici iroops wcrc aIcad. TIcn Hiilcr wcni inio iIc lcad ly iwo wccls.
Hc Iad fcwcr iroops and Iad io novc iIcn ovcr vcry sIori disianccs. Inicrcsiingly, ai iIc lcginning of Junc
iIc Ccrnan Arny was in a nosi disadvaniagcous posiiion. A grcai nunlcr of iIc iroops wcrc in niliiary
irains. TIc guns wcrc in onc irain, iIc sIclls in anoiIcr. Conlai laiialions wcrc discnlarlcd in placcs
wIcrc iIcrc wcrc no Icadquaricrs; and Icadquaricrs wcrc sci down in placcs wIcrc iIcrc wcrc no iroops.
TIcrc wcrc no connunicaiions, so iIai for sccuriiy rcasons radio siaiions wcrc sinply forliddcn io opcraic
uniil niliiary aciion lcgan. TIc Ccrnan iroops did noi nalc dug-ouis ciiIcr, nor did iIcy luild rangcs. TIc
grcaicsi sinilariiy, Iowcvcr, was iIc nassivc quaniiiy of supplics, iroops, aircrafi Iospiials, Icadquaricrs
and acrodroncs, all up againsi iIc Sovici froniicrs. Fcw pcoplc lncw wIai was planncd; iIai was iIc nosi
closcly guardcd sccrci of iIc Ccrnan HigI Connand.
EvcryiIing iIai wc Iavc sccn in iIc Fcd Arny, and Iavc ialcn for foolisIncss and idiocy, Iad in faci lccn
donc iwo wccls lcforc in iIc Ccrnan Arny. Ii was nciiIcr foolisIncss nor idiocy, lui prcparaiion for a
nassivc offcnsivc.
WIai sIould Iavc Iappcncd following iIc full luild-up of iroops lclonging io iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon in
iIc wcsicrn paris of iIc couniry? TIc answcr io iIis qucsiion was givcn long lcforc World War II lcgan, ly
iIc CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff of iIc PolisI Arny, Ccncral V. Silorsly. 'A siraicgic waii cannoi lc coniinucd
aficr all forccs Iavc lccn nolilizcd and iIcir luild-up conplcicd.' (HudusIcIuuu Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai
1936, p. 240i. TIc Sovici Ccncral Siaff dccidcd iIai Iis lool sIould lc pullisIcd in Moscow for iIc lcncfii of
Sovici connandcrs. Ii corroloraicd Sovici niliiary iIougIi, wIicI was firnly convinccd iIai 'iIc worsi iIing
in nodcrn condiiions is iIc urgc io siicl io waiiing iaciics in iIc iniiial pcriod of war'. (Vonu Hcuouutsuu
1931, Dool 8, p. ni
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union Doris MilIailovicI SIaposIni-lov, CIicf of iIc Sovici Ccncral Siaff, Icld firn
vicws aloui iIis.
If rcscrvisis wIo Iavc lccn callcd up Iavc io spcnd a long iinc undcr iIc colours wiiIoui any prospcci of
war in vicw, iIc rcsuli can lc a ncgaiivc cffcci on iIcir noralc. TIcir conlai rcadincss dcicrioraics insicad
of inproving . . . In a word, no naiicr wIai iIc connand, and cvcn norc wIai iIc diplonais nigIi wisI,
oncc nolilizaiion Ias lccn dcclarcd, iIc guns nigIi siari firing on iIcir own for purcly niliiary rcasons.
TIus iIc proposiiion nusi lc considcrcd douliful iIai ii is possillc in nodcrn condiiions of warfarc for
nolilizcd arnics io rcnain for a long pcriod in a siaic of niliiary pcacc wiiIoui going ovcr io aciivc figIiing.
(Mozg A)nu, Vol. 3, CIZ, 1929i
Sovici niliiary iIinling considcrcd iIcn, as ii docs now, iIai 'nolilizaiion, conccniraiion, opcraiional
dcployncni and nouniing iIc firsi opcraiions arc all paris of onc and iIc sanc singlc uninicrrupicd proccss'.
(VIZH 1986, No. I, p. 15i Having lcgun io nolilizc and iIcrcly io conccniraic iroops and dcploy iIcn
opcraiionally, iIc Sovici connand could no longcr siop iIis proccss, or cvcn slow ii down. Ii is rougIly iIc
sanc iIing as iIrusiing onc's arn sIarply downwards, unfasicning iIc Iolsicr, pulling oui iIc rcvolvcr,
poiniing ii ai iIc cncny and cocling iIc iriggcr all in onc novcncni. Aficr iIai, wIciIcr you lilc ii or noi,
firing is incviiallc, for as soon as your Iand is iIrusi downwards, your opponcni is doing iIc sanc iIing jusi
as quiclly, or cvcn norc so.
In irying io answcr iIc qucsiion of wIo siaricd iIc Sovici -Ccrnan war in 1941, connunisi Iisiorians
apply iIc criicrion iIai iIc guiliy pariy was iIc onc wIo fircd iIc firsi sIoi. Dui wIy sIould wc noi apply
anoiIcr criicrion? WIy sIould wc noi iurn our aiicniion io iIc onc wIo was firsi io lcgin nolilizaiion, io
conccniraic Iis iroops and io dcploy iIcn opcraiionally? WIo firsi rcacIcd for Iis pisiol?
Sovici apologisis arguc iIai wIilc SIaposInilov - and nodcrn Sovici siraicgisis, for iIai naiicr -
undcrsiood iIai iIc novcncni of iroops was war, ZIulov did noi. TIis was vcry far fron iIc casc. In ordcr io
undcrsiand iIc dcicrninaiion lcing sIown ly iIc Sovici HigI Connand in wIai ii was doing, wc nusi go
lacl io 1932, io iIc 4iI Cavalry Division. TIis was noi jusi iIc lcsi division of Sovici cavalry; ii was iIc lcsi
in iIc wIolc of iIc Fcd Arny. Uniil 1931, iIis division was quaricrcd in iIc Lcningrad Miliiary Disirici in
placcs wIcrc iIc Inpcrial Horscguards Iad oncc lccn. TIc condiiions in wIicI iIis division livcd and iraincd
for laiilc can casily lc inagincd. TIcir living condiiions wcrc noiIing lcss iIan nagnificcni. In 1932, for
urgcni opcraiional rcasons, iIis division was novcd io anoiIcr, iIis iinc ioially unprcparcd, lasc. MarsIal
ZIulov wroic iIai
iIis division was conpcllcd io spcnd cigIiccn noniIs luilding iisclf larracls, siallcs, a Icadquaricrs,
living quaricrs, dcpois and an cniirc iraining lasc. TIc rcsuli was iIai iIis lrillianily iraincd division was
iurncd inio a lad, unslillcd niliiary unii. A sIoriagc of luilding naicrials, wci wcaiIcr and oiIcr
unfavourallc condiiions prcvcnicd iIc luilding lcing conplcicd ly iIc iinc winicr canc. TIis Iad an
circncly lad cffcci on iIc gcncral condiiion of iIc division and iis conlai prcparcdncss. Disciplinc
lccanc slacl . . . (Vosponnunuu HuznusIcnuu, Moscow, APN 1969, p. 118i
In spring, iIc lcsi division in iIc Fcd Arny was 'in a siaic of rapid collapsc' and 'was unfii for laiilc'. TIc
divisional connandcr was Icld io lc cIicfly io llanc for iIis and suffcrcd iIc conscqucnccs. A ncw
connandcr was iIcn sougIi for iIc division, and C. K. ZIulov was appoinicd io iIc posi. Ii was fron Icrc
iIai Iis asccni lcgan. ZIulov's worl was closcly followcd ly S. K. TinosIcnlo, iIc corps connandcr, and
cvcn ly iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc Iinsclf, K. E. VorosIilov. TIc division lorc Iis nanc and was
considcrcd io lc iIc lcsi. VorosIilov cpccicd ZIulov io rcsiorc pasi glorics io iIc 4iI Cavalry Division.
ZIulov acIicvcd iIis ly draconian ncasurcs, proving iIai Ic could lc cnirusicd wiiI any iIcorciically
inpraciicallc iasl.
Dy 1941, all iIc cIaracicrs in iIis siory Iad riscn considcrally in ranl. K. E. VorosIilov was a ncnlcr of
iIc Poliiluro, a MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union and cIairnan of iIc Dcfcncc Conniiicc; S. K. TinosIcnlo was a
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union and Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc; and ZIulov was a full gcncral, dcpuiy
Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc and CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff. TIcsc iIrcc iogciIcr dirccicd iIc sccrci Sovici
iroop novcncnis iowards iIc Ccrnan froniicr. TIcy lncw lciicr iIan wc did, and noi fron iIcorciical
dcduciion, iIai noi cvcn onc division could lc lcfi io spcnd iIc winicr in iIc opcn forcsi. A soldicr can spcnd
iIc winicr in any condiiions, lui iIai was noi iIc prollcn. TIc prollcn was iIai on iIc Sovici wcsicrn
froniicrs iIcrc wcrc no firing rangcs, iraining grounds, ianl iraining arcas, iraining ccnircs, or condiiions
nccdcd for conlai iraining. If iIc iroops wcrc noi pui inio laiilc inncdiaicly, iIcrc would lc an incviiallc
dcicrioraiion in iIcir conlai rcadincss. TIcy lncw iIai noi cvcn onc division could lc lcfi for iIc winicr in a
placc wIicI Iad noi lccn prcparcd in any way. TIcy lncw iIai culpriis would lc found, and iIcy also lncw
wIai Iappcncd io culpriis. Dui cvcn so, iIcy novcd praciically iIc cniirc Fcd Arny io placcs wIcrc iIcrc was
nowIcrc io do conlai iraining.
TIc war did noi lcgin as Sialin wanicd and iIcrcforc ii did noi cnd as Ic Iad wanicd ciiIcr. Sialin goi only
Ialf of Europc. Dui in ordcr io undcrsiand wIai Sialin inicndcd, lci us for a noncni cnvisagc a siiuaiion in
wIicI Hiilcr did noi aiiacl iIc Sovici Union on 22 Junc 1941, lui dccidcd io posiponc Opcraiion Darlarossa
and capiurc Cilraliar, for canplc, insicad.
WIai would Sialin Iavc donc in iIai siiuaiion? Hc could noi Iavc iurncd lacl Iis nassivc arnics. Many of
iIc arnics and corps wIicI wcrc sci up in iIc firsi Ialf of 1941 Iad nowIcrc io go lacl io, apari fron iIc
'snall iowns of Iuincnis for lunlcrjacls'. Ii would Iavc ialcn nany noniIs io novc iIc iroops lacl,
paralyscd iIc railways and lrougIi on an ccononic caiasiropIc. WIai would Iavc lccn iIc scnsc of
spcnding si noniIs conccniraiing iroops in sccrci, and iIcn spcnding anoiIcr si noniIs dispcrsing iIcn?
Dui cvcn if a ioial dispcrsal Iad inncdiaicly followcd iIc ioial conccniraiion, ii would Iavc lccn quiic
inpossillc io conplcic iIis proccss lcforc winicr sci in.
Nor could Sialin Iavc lcfi Iis vasi arnics io winicr in iIc forcsis of iIc froniicr arca. An arny quiclly loscs
iis figIiing capaliliiy wiiIoui inicnsivc conlai iraining. In addiiion, iIc proccss ly wIicI iIc arnics of iIc
Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon wcrc raiscd and novcd wcsiwards was lcpi, for wIaicvcr rcason, a closc sccrci ly
Sialin. For Iow long could Ic Iavc lccn surc of prcscrving iIai sccrci Iad Ic lcfi iIcsc arnics wiiI iIcir
counilcss iroops on iIc lordcr for cvcn a fcw wccls?
TIis is iIc ccniral qucsiion of iIis lool. if iIc Fcd Arny could noi go lacl, lui could noi siay long in iIc
lordcr arca ciiIcr, wIai was lcfi for ii io do? Ii is a qucsiion wIicI all connunisi Iisiorians arc afraid io
answcr. Dui wc nccd lool no furiIcr iIan iIc opinion of a gcncral wIo 'was a dcpuiy cIicf of iIc opcraiions
Icadquaricrs in iIc Ccncral Siaff fron May 1940 onwards, and wIo worlcd on iIc opcraiional pari of iIc
plan for iIc siraicgic dcployncni of iIc Sovici arncd forccs in iIc noriI, noriI-wcsi, and wcsicrn scciors'.
(Souct Mtu)u Encuopcdu, Vol. 2, p. 27i EvcryiIing was corrcci in Iis planning. TIai was wIy Ic lccanc a
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union only cigIiccn noniIs aficr lcginning iIc war as a najor-gcncral. Hc was onc of
iIosc wIo was closcsi io Sialin. Ii was Ic, and noi ZIulov, wIo conirollcd iIc Fcd Arny in iIc lasi ycars of
Sialin's lifc, and wIo fcll fron IigI ranl wIcn Sialin dicd.
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union Alcandcr MilIailovicI Vasi-lcvsly was pcrfccily franl in Iis appraisal of iIc
siiuaiion. 'TIc fcars iIai iIc allcgcdly aggrcssivc inicniions of iIc USSF nigIi causc a clanour in iIc Wcsi
Iad io lc iIrown ovcrloard. Wc Iad iIcn rcacIcd . . . iIc Fulicon of war, and Iad io ialc a firn sicp
forward.' ( VIZH 1978, No. 2, p. 68i
In cvcry grandiosc scIcnc, iIcrc concs a criiical poini aficr wIicI cvcnis lcconc irrcvcrsillc. For iIc Sovici
Union iIai poini was iIc daic of 13 Junc 1941. Aficr iIai day, war for Sialin noi only lccanc incviiallc. ii
lccanc incviiallc in iIc sunncr of 1941, no naiicr Iow Hiilcr nigIi aci.
"(&)*#% 2-
Undcclarcd War
In condtons uIc)c uc u)c su))oundcd Iu cncncs, u
suddcn uttucI ])on us, un uncxpcctcd nunocuu)c und
spccd u dccdc cuc)utIng.
STALIN (Vol. 5, p. 225, 1923i
TIc Sovici Union Iad fivc niliiary disiricis on iis lordcrs wIcrc iroops wcrc asscnlling unrcniiiingly and in
sccrci. All cigIi inicrnal niliiary disiricis Iad lccn cniircly alandoncd ly iIc Sovici HigI Connand. All
arnics, corps and divisions, and alnosi all gcncrals and iIcir siaffs Iad lcfi iIcsc inicrnal niliiary disiricis in
sccrci for iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicrs.
In addiiion io iIc fivc wcsicrn froniicr and iIc cigIi inicrnal niliiary disiricis, iIcrc wcrc iIc Far Easi Froni
and iIrcc casicrn froniicr niliiary disiricis. iIc Transcaucasian, iIc Ccniral Asian and iIc Trans-Dailal
disiricis.
In spiic of iIc TASS dcnial of 9 May 1941, inicnsivc prcparaiions Iad lccn going on in iIc Ccniral Asian
and Transcaucasian niliiary disiricis for iIc 'lilcraiion' of Iran. TIc Ccniral Asian disirici Iad lccn alloiicd
iIc nain rolc, wIilc iIc Transcaucasian Iad lccn givcn an auiliary pari io play. As was usual, iIc final
ioucI io iIc prcparaiions was a largc-scalc ccrcisc io lc aiicndcd ly iIc scnior connand siaff of iIc Fcd
Arny. Ccncral ZIulov and Iis dcpuiy Licu-icnani-Ccncral N. F. Vaiuiin wcrc io aiicnd iIcsc ccrciscs in
May.
Ccncral SIicncnlo, wIo was iIcn a coloncl in iIc CIicf Opcraiions Dirccioraic of iIc Ccncral Siaff,
rccallcd iIc uncasy ainospIcrc surrounding iIcsc prcparaiions.
TIc nain siaff of our lrancI sci off for Tiflis ai iIc cnd of May. Wc wcrc rcinforccd ly oiIcr lrancIcs . . .
Jusi lcforc wc lcfi, ii was cplaincd iIai nciiIcr iIc CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff nor Iis dcpuiy could conc,
and iIai iIc ccrciscs -would lc conducicd ly iIc officcrs connanding iIc iroops, D. T. Kozlov in iIc
Transcaucasian Miliiary Disirici and S. C. Trofincnlo in iIc Ccniral Asian Miliiary Disirici. Howcvcr, iIc
day aficr wc rcacIcd Tiflis, Licuicnani-Ccncral Kozlov was urgcnily sunnoncd io Moscow. TIcrc was a
fccling iIai iIcrc was sonciIing oui of iIc ordinary going on in Moscow. (Ccncral S. M. SIicncnlo,
Gcnc)u'nu SItuI u Godu Vonu, 1968, p. 20i
So iIc Transcaucasian Miliiary Disirici, wIicI was a froniicr onc, was lcfi wiiIoui a connanding officcr
rigIi on iIc cvc of iIc 'lilcraiion' of Iran. Ii nay lc argucd iIai Ccncral Kozlov's dcpuiy, Licuicnani-Ccncral
P. M. Daiov, could Iavc ialcn ovcr iIc connand of iIc disirici. Daiov, Iowcvcr, was oiIcrwisc cngagcd.
Using iIc lcsi iroops in iIc Transcaucasian Miliiary Disirici, Daiov sci up iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps. Hc
iIcn iransfcrrcd ii io iIc Crinca wIcrc, in co-opcraiion wiiI iIc Dlacl Sca Flcci, ii was givcn inicnsivc
iraining in naval assauli landing opcraiions. TIc Dlacl Sca Flcci also iraincd a division fron iIis corps in
naling assauli landings fron warsIips.
TIc Transcaucasian Miliiary Disirici rcnaincd wiiIoui iis connanding officcr and Iis dcpuiy uniil Augusi
1941, wIcn Ccncral Kozlov rciurncd io carry oui iIc 'lilcraiion' of Iran. Hcrc ioo, Hiilcr Iad upsci Sialin's
plans. Dccausc of Hiilcr's unforcsccn aciions, iIc 'lilcraiion' of Iran Iad io lc posiponcd for a fcw noniIs.
WIcn ii did ialc placc, ii Iad io lc donc wiiI rcduccd forccs, so iIc 'lilcraiion' Iad io do wiiIoui iIc planncd
'radical socio-poliiical rcforns'.
Ccncral S. C. Trofincnlo, iIc officcr connanding iIc Ccniral Asian Miliiary Disirici, Iad lccn sunnoncd
io Moscow ly Sialin, and iIc disirici's Icadquaricrs Iad lccn scriously wcalcncd and 'disposscsscd lilc
lulals'. In MarcI 1941, Coloncl N. M. KIlclnilov was callcd io Moscow fron iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc Ccniral
Asian Miliiary Disirici and appoinicd Connandcr of Ariillcry in iIc 2yiI Arny in iIc Daliic arca. TIc 2yiI
Arny nadc iis firsi official appcarancc in iIc wcsicrn pari of iIc couniry in May 1941, lui cadrcs alloiicd io
ii Iad gaiIcrcd along iIc froniicrs considcrally carlicr. Major-CcncralM. I. Kazalov, wIo was cIicf of siaff in
iIc disirici and laicr lccanc a full gcncral, was also callcd io Moscow in iIc walc of KIlclnilov and nany
oiIcr coloncls and gcncrals. Hc laicr wroic iIai Ic Iad olscrvcd fron iIc aircrafi an cnornous nunlcr of
niliiary irains carrying iroops and war naicrial oui of Ccniral Asia. (Nud Ku)to HuuII S)uzIcnu, Moscow
Vocniz-dai 1971i
Ccncral A. A. LucIinsly (iIcn a coloncl connanding iIc 83rd Mouniain Fiflc Divisioni was iravclling in
onc of iIcsc irains. Hc sIarcd a conparincni wiiI Major-Ccncral (laicr Ccncrali Ivan EfinovicI Pcirov.
LucIinsly's rccollcciions of Pcirov arc invaluallc. 'Wc Iad lccn sunnoncd io iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for
Dcfcncc. Wc wcrc iravclling iogciIcr in iIc sanc conparincni wIcn a radio announccncni proclaincd iIai
Nazi Ccrnany Iad aiiaclcd our couniry.' LucIinsly docs noi icll us wIy Ic Iad lccn sunnoncd io Moscow,
lui Ic says of Iis fricnd Ccncral Pcirov iIai 'Hc was appoinicd Connandcr of iIc 192nd Fiflc Division noi
long lcforc iIc war, and iIcn of iIc 27iI MccIanizcd Corps, ai iIc Icad of wIicI Ic ioo lcfi for iIc froni.'
(VIZHI976, No. 9, pp. 121-122i
Pcirov convcricd iIc I92nd Fiflc Division inio a nouniain riflc division; loiI ii and iIc 27iI MccIanizcd
Corps sccrcily novcd io iIc Fonanian froniicr. Pcirov, ncanwIilc, wcni io Moscow io lc givcn Iis conlai
nission. Wc conc across iIis proccdurc on norc iIan onc occasion. iIc i6iI Arny, for canplc, was sccrcily
novcd io iIc Fonanian froniicr, wIilc Licuicnani-Ccncral M. Lulin, iis connanding officcr, was in Moscow
lcing givcn Iis conlai insiruciions.
LucIinsly's lricf ariiclc aloui Ccncral Pcirov painis an apparcnily uncvcniful piciurc. Dui lci us lool ai
iIc ordcr in wIicI cvcnis occurrcd. Firsi of all, Pcirov sci up iIc 27
iI
MccIanizcd Corps, loadcd ii on io
niliiary irains, and scni ii off io iIc froni. TIcn, wIcn Ic was alrcady on iIc irain, Ic Icard iIc
announccncni iIai Ccrnany Iad siaricd iIc war. TIc nosi inicrcsiing iIing, Iowcvcr, Iappcncd scvcral
days laicr. iIc 27iI MccIanizcd Corps was dislandcd wIilc ii was iravclling. In a dcfcnsivc war, sucI purcly
offcnsivc fornaiions arc sinply noi nccdcd. In July 1941, all iIc oiIcr nccIanizcd corps wcrc dislandcd as
wcll. TIcrc wcrc 29 of iIcn in all.
TIis siiuaiion sccns quiic alsurd. TIc 27iI MccIanizcd Corps was on iis way io war Ic]o)c Hiilcr
aiiaclcd. Dui as soon as Hiilcr lcgan iIc war iIc 2y7I Corps was dislandcd cvcn lcforc ii Iad cncounicrcd
iIc cncny. TIis is noi as alsurd as ii sccns, Iowcvcr. For iIc 27iI MccIanizcd Corps was lcing iransfcrrcd
fron Ccniral Asia io iIc Fonanian froniicr in ordcr io figIi, noi in iIc war wIicI Hiilcr Iad jusi lcgun, lui
in a war wIicI sIould Iavc lccn siaricd ly sonc oiIcr ncans.
TIc incscapallc conclusion is iIai, Iad Hiilcr noi aiiaclcd, iIc 27iI MccIanizcd Corps would siill Iavc
ialcn pari in a war. Ii was prcciscly io do so iIai ii was iravclling io iIc froni. Dy launcIing Opcraiion
Darlarossa wIcn Ic did, Hiilcr avcricd iIc war for wIicI iIc 27iI MccIanizcd Corps and 28 of iis fcllow
corps, cacI wiiI an csiinaicd 1,000 ianls, Iad lccn crcaicd.
Travclling on irains fron Ccniral Asia along wiiI Pcirov and LucIinsly wcrc quiic a fcw fanous
connandcrs, and oiIcrs wIo wcrc dcsiincd io lcconc so. Anong iIcn was Major-Ccncral Alcci SinionvicI
ZIadov, wIo Iad lccn connanding a nouniain cavalry division in Ccniral Asia. On iIc cvc of iIc war, Ic
was nadc connandcr of iIc 4iI Airlornc Assauli Corps, and rcacIcd iIc froni ai iIc IcigIi of Iosiiliiics.
(VIZH l9?l, No. 3, p. 124i
If anyonc irics io provc io you iIai Sialin gaiIcrcd Iis gcncrals on iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicrs in ordcr io
rcpcl Ccrnan aggrcssion or io launcI 'counicr aiiacls', iIcn rcnind Iin of Ccncral ZIadov, wIo cIangcd a
nouniain cavalry division in Ccniral Asia for an airlornc assauli corps in Dyclorussia. Arc airlornc assauli
corps rcally inicndcd for naling counicraiiacls or rcpclling aggrcssion?
TIc Trans-Dailal Miliiary Disirici was alandoncd, cvcn iIougI iis iroops wcrc noi jusi on Sovici icrriiory,
lui in Mongolia wIcrc quiic rcccnily iIcrc Iad lccn a rcal war involving Iundrcds of ianls and aircrafi,
iIousands of guns and icns of iIousands of soldicrs.
Of all iIc inicrnal niliiary disiricis and froniicr disiricis in iIc casi, iIc Trans-Dailal was iIc only onc io
Iavc arnics on iis conplcncni. TIcrc wcrc iwo of iIcn, iIc 16iI and iIc l7iI. TIc l7iI Arny was siaiioncd
in Mongolia, lui in 1940 ii Iad lccn 'ligIicncd' io sucI an cicni iIai iIc posi of dcpuiy officcr connanding
iIc arny was occupicd ly a coloncl, P. P. Polu-loyarov, lccausc of a sIoriagc of gcncrals. As wc alrcady
lnow, Ic ioo was sunnoncd io Moscow and iIcn posicd io iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni.
TIc oiIcr arny in iIc Trans-Dailal Miliiary Disirici, iIc 16iI, Iad lcfi sccrcily, iravclling wcsiwards.
AliIougI runours aloui iIc Iranian froniicr wcrc sprcad anong iIc wivcs wIo Iad rcnaincd lcIind, iIc
i6iI Arny connandcrs lncw iIai iIcy wcrc going io wagc war, and iIcy also lncw againsi wIon.
WIcn iIc i6iI Arny lcfi, iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc Trans-Dailal Miliiary Disirici was also 'ligIicncd' wIcn
nany of iis officcrs and gcncrals wcrc iransfcrrcd io iIc divisions and corps of iIc 16iI Arny. Major-Ccncral
Pcir CIcrnysIcv, for insiancc, wIo connandcd iIc i6iI Arny's 152nd Fiflc Division, was pronoicd and
appoinicd connandcr of iIc conlai iraining lrancI of iIc Trans-Dailal Miliiary Disirici. Dui, 'wIcn iIc
arny lcfi, Pcir NilolacvicI siaicd iIai Ic would "go io figIi wiiI Iis division", and ficd ii so iIai Ic was scni
lacl io iIc 152nd'. (Major-Ccncral A. A. LolacIcv, T)udnun Do)o-gun, Moscow Vocnizdai 1960, p. 147i
Ii was noi only sccond-raic coloncls and gcncrals wIo wcrc ralcd in fron Trans-Dailal. Sonc iruly grcai
connandcrs wcrc gaiIcrcd fron Icrc. Anong iIc grcaicsi wcrc iIc officcrs connanding iIc disirici.
AliIougI only onc officcr connandcd iIc disirici ai any onc iinc, iIc posi was roiaicd wiiI surprising
frcqucncy. In 1940, iIc Trans-Dailal Disirici was connandcd ly Licuicnani-Ccncral F. N. Fcnczov. Hc was
iIcn scni off io ialc cIargc of iIc Orcl Miliiary Disirici, wIcrc Ic sccrcily forncd iIc 20iI Arny and, undcr
covcr of iIc TASS rcpori, novcd ii io iIc Ccrnan froniicr. Aficr Fcnczov, iIc Trans-Dailal Disirici was
flcciingly connandcd ly Licuicnani-Ccncral I. S. Koncv. Hc was iIcn iransfcrrcd fron iIcrc io iIc NoriIcrn
Caucasus Miliiary Disirici, wIcrc Ic sccrcily forncd iIc 19iI Arny and, again undcr covcr of iIc TASS
rcpori, posicd ii io iIc Fonanian froniicr. Ai iIis poini Licuicnani-Ccncral P. A. KurocIlin (wIo laicr lccanc
a full gcncrali iool ovcr connand of iIc Trans-Dailal Disirici. Dcforc iIc TASS rcpori, KurocIlin scni iIc
16iI Arny off, wisIing iis connandcrs and soldicrs succcss in carrying oui 'any ordcr givcn ly iIc
MoiIcrland'. TIc 16iI Arny Iad iIc longcsi road io iravcl. TIai was wIy ii sci off carly, so iIai ii could
appcar on iIc Sovici wcsicrn lordcrs ai iIc sanc iinc as all iIc oiIcr arnics of iIc Sccond Siraicgic
EcIclon.
And wIai of Licuicnani-Ccncral P. A. KurocIlin? Ii is no casy naiicr io scnd a wIolc arny off in niliiary
irains in sucI a way iIai nolody finds oui aloui ii. KurocIlin conplcicd Iis nission and Icavcd a sigI of
rclicf. On 13 Junc, wIcn iIc TASS rcpori was lcing givcn oui, KurocIlin was ordcrcd io lcavc iIc Trans-
Dailal Disirici inncdiaicly for Moscow, io lc givcn a ncw posi. TIc Hcd Stu) ncwspapcr of 26 May 1984
icsiifics iIai on 22 Junc 1941 KurocIlin was in a conparincni of an cprcss irain iIcn approacIing Irluisl
. . . TIc Trans-Dailal Miliiary Disirici Iad lccn alandoncd and lcfi wiiIoui a connandcr. TIc Souct Mtu)u
Encucopcdu (Vol. 3, p. 357i siaics iIai ii was Scpicnlcr 1941 lcforc anoiIcr connandcr appcarcd in
Trans-Dailal.
Ccncrals and officcrs wcrc lcing iransfcrrcd io iIc Ccrnan and Fonanian froniicrs noi only fron iIc inicrnal
and scni-froni niliiary disiricis, lui fron a rcal froni. A war was alrcady ialing placc in iIc Far Easi. Arncd
slirnisIcs frcqucnily grcw inio scrious clasIcs, wiiI Iundrcds of ianls and aircrafi ialing pari on loiI
sidcs. A full-scalc war lciwccn Japan and iIc Sovici Union appcarcd io lc cniircly possillc ai iIc iinc;
indccd sonc forcign olscrvcrs rcgardcd ii as incviiallc. TIai was wIy iIcrc was no niliiary disirici in iIc Far
Easi, lui a froni consisiing of iIrcc arnics.
Ai iIc cnd of 1940, iIc sccrci iransfcr wcsiwards of gcncrals and iroops, in cniirc divisions and corps,
lcgan. Many scnior connandcrs lcfi iIc Far Easi Froni wiiIoui lcing rcplaccd, or ai lcasi wiiIoui woriIy
succcssors. Major-Ccncral P. T. Koiov, iIc cIicf of opcraiions in iIc froni Icadquaricrs, was iransfcrrcd
sccrcily wcsiwards in iIis way.
Major-Ccncral P. C. Crigorcnlo, wIo was a licuicnani-coloncl ai iIc Far Easicrn Froni Icadquaricrs ai iIc
iinc, rccalls iIai 'Ivan SicpanovicI Koncv, Marlian MilIailovicI Popov, Vasily IvanovicI CIuilov, and nany
oiIcr scnior niliiary connandcrs wcrc callcd wcsiwards cvcn lcforc SIicrn was.' (Mcno)s. Dctnctz, Ncw
Yorl 1981, p. 246i Popov (laicr io lcconc a full gcncrali connandcd iIc 1si Arny, wIilc Koncv (sulscqucnily
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Unioni connandcd iIc 2nd Arny. I ioially rcjcci any idca iIai iIcsc gcncrals wcrc
lcing iransfcrrcd lccausc a Ccrnan invasion Iad lccn forcsccn. TIc war found Popov in iIc posi of officcr
connanding iIc NoriIcrn Froni on iIc FinnisI lordcr, wIilc Koncv novcd up io iIc Fonanian froniicr ai
iIc Icad of Iis Icavy sIocl arny.
Ccncral Koncv iool an inicrcsiing paiI fron Iis posiiion as officcr connanding an arny in iIc Far Easi io
a sinilar posi in an arny on iIc Fonanian lordcr. Koncv did noi iravcl in a siraigIi linc. Hc dodgcd and
wcavcd. Having givcn up iIc connand of iIc 2nd Arny in iIc Far Easi in April 1941 (Souct Mtu)u
Encucopcdu, Vo. 2, p. 409i, Ic iIcn assuncd connand of iIc Trans-Dailal Miliiary Disirici. Having nadc
Iis narl Icrc, Ic iIcn quicily nadc an unadvcriiscd appcarancc in Fosiov, and iool connand of iIc
NoriIcrn Caucasus Miliiary Disirici. Ii was Icrc iIai Koncv conplcicd iIc fornaiion of iIc 19iI Arny and
lccanc iis connanding officcr. Ai iIc cnd of May 1941, in wIai Ccncral S. M. SIicncnlo dcscrilcd as
'condiiions of iIc siricicsi sccrccy', Ic lcgan io novc iIc divisions and corps of Iis arny up io iIc Fonanian
froniicr. Hc Icld four posis in a sIori spacc of iinc. TIcsc sircicIcd fron iIc casicrnnosi froniicrs io iIc
nosi wcsicrn oncs. Sialin always Iid Iis lcsi gcncrals and narsIals lcforc cvcry offcnsivc opcraiion (lui
ncvcr lcforc a dcfcnsivc onci. TIis pariicularly applicd io ZIulov, Vasilcvsly, Koncv, Folossovsly and
Mcrcislov. In spring 1941, as always Iappcncd lcforc all iIc nosi inporiani offcnsivcs, Koncv was covcring
up Iis iracls in sucI a way iIai cvcn Iis closcsi fricnds would ncvcr lnow wIcrc Ic Iad gonc.
Koncv was noi iIc only onc wIo was covcring up Iis iracls. Koncv and oiIcr connandcrs icnporarily Icld
a nunlcr of posis as a llind; iIc sanc 'dccoy' posiing would oficn lc passcd fron onc officcr io anoiIcr.
Coloncl-Ccncral F. I. Kuzncisov gavc up iIc connand of iIc Ccncral Siaff Acadcny io ialc ovcr iIc NoriIcrn
Caucasus Miliiary Disirici. Hc Iandcd iIis ovcr io Koncv and iIcn appcarcd on iIc Easi Prussian lordcr,
Iolding iIc posi of officcr connanding iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni.
Aficr Ccncral Koncv Iad sccrcily disappcarcd fron iIc Far Easi, iIc 2nd Arny was lcfi in iIc Iands of
Ccncral M. F. TcrclIin, wIo was no sulsiiiuic for a nan of Koncv's aliliiics. TIc siiuaiion was cvcn norc
inicrcsiing in iIc isi Arny of iIc Far Easicrn Froni. Aficr Ccncral Popov Iad lcfi for iIc NoriIcrn Froni, a
woriIy rcplaccncni, in iIc pcrson of Licuicnani-Ccncral Andrci IvanovicI Ercncnlo (laicr MarsIal of iIc
Sovici Unioni iool Iis placc. Dui Ercncnlo did noi rcnain in cIargc for long. On 19 Junc 1941 Ic was
ordcrcd io Iand ovcr iIc 1si Arny and rcpori inncdiaicly io Moscow for anoiIcr appoinincni. Aficr iIc
Ccrnan invasion Iad lcgun, Ercncnlo lccanc officcr connanding iIc Wcsicrn Froni insicad of Ccncral D.
C. Pavlov. TIai was noi iIc purposc of Iis visii io Moscow, Iowcvcr. On 19 Junc, sucI a iurn of cvcnis Iad
noi lccn forcsccn. Pavlov was firnly scaicd in Iis posi of officcr connanding iIc Wcsicrn Froni. Sialin nusi
Iavc callcd on Ercncnlo io fulfil sonc oiIcr nission wIicI rcnains unlnown, and possilly also unfulfillcd.
I Iad iIc opporiuniiy io ncci Ercncnlo aficr Ic lccanc a MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union. I iricd io sound
Iin oui on iIis suljcci wiiIoui arousing Iis suspicions. My inprcssion was iIai Ercncnlo was noi
dissinulaiing, lui iIai Ic rcally did noi lnow wIai Sialin nccdcd Iin for on 19 Junc 1941. I poinicd oui io
iIc MarsIal iIai Ic Iad noi lccn iIc only onc in iIis posiiion. I said iIai Sivlov, Kurdyunov, ZIadov, Pcirov
and LucIinsly Iad all lccn iravclling on irains iowards Moscow ai iIc sanc iinc. TIc MarsIal was vcry
inicrcsicd in all iIis. I rcgrciicd iIai I was noi a Wcsicrn Iisiorian wiiI a passpori of sonc dcnocraiic
couniry in ny poclci, for I was sinply unallc io ialc iIc convcrsaiion wiiI iIc MarsIal any furiIcr.
Ercncnlo was inicrcsicd, and suggcsicd anoiIcr couplc of gcncrals wIo wcrc novcd fron iIc Far Easi.
Major-Ccncral N. E. Dcrzarin was dcpuiy officcr connanding iIc 1si Arny. Ercncnlo iold nc sonciIing
wIicI Ic Iad lcfi oui of Iis ncnoirs. WIcn Ic lcfi iIc Far Easi, Ic Iandcd ovcr iIc connand of iIc arny io
Iis dcpuiy Dcrzarin. Yci ai iIc cnd of May, Dcrzarin was sunnoncd ly Sialin io Moscow and sccrcily
appoinicd io connand iIc 27iI Arny, iIcn in iIc Daliic arca noi far fron iIc Ccrnan froniicr.
Major-Ccncral Vassily AndrcycvicI Clazunov (laicr Licuicnani-Ccncral and officcr connanding iIc Fcd
Arny airlornc assauli iroopsi was ai iIc lcginning of 1941 connanding iIc 59iI Fiflc Division in iIc 1si
Arny on iIc Far Easicrn Froni. Ercncnlo was vcry aiiacIcd io iIc 1si Arny, and did noi wani io scc ii lcfi
wiiIoui a connandcr and ai iIc ncrcy of SIclalIov, iIc 'Icadquaricrs rai'. Dui Sialin Iad alrcady piclcd
Ercncnlo's dcpuiy, as wcll as iIc corps connandcrs, and iIc cpcricnccd divisional connandcrs Iad long
sincc lccn iransfcrrcd wcsiwards. In iIc 59iI Division iIcrc was only iIc cpcricnccd, nariial clcar-sigIicd
Ccncral Clazunov. Ercncnlo iold nc iIai Ic inncdiaicly scni an cncipIcrcd ncssagc io iIc Ccncral Siaff
proposing iIai Ccncral Clazunov sIould lc givcn iIc 1si Arny. Ii was a lig junp io go siraigIi fron a
division io an arny. Dui wIai clsc was iIcrc io lc donc wIcn iIcrc wcrc no norc opcraiional connandcrs
lcfi in iIc Far Easi?
Moscow inncdiaicly agrccd iIai Clazunov was indccd a woriIy connandcr, and in iIc cncipIcrcd rcply
ordcrcd Clazunov io givc up connand of iIc division inncdiaicly, and insicad ialc ovcr connand of iIc 3rd
Airlornc Assauli Corps on iIc Fonanian froniicr.
Ai iIc lcginning of Junc 1941, Sialin ordcrcd iIai all Sovici airlornc assauli iroops, including iIosc wIicI
Iad rcccnily lccn iransfcrrcd fron iIc Far Easi, sIould lc conccniraicd on iIc wcsicrn froniicrs. TIcn ai iIc
lasi noncni Ic asscnllcd infaniry and cavalry gcncrals fron disiani froniicrs and nadc iIcn inio
connandcrs of airlornc assauli corps. TIis applicd noi only io Ccncrals Clazunov and ZIadov, lui io
Ccncrals M. A. Uscnlo, F. M. KIariionov, and I. S. Dczuglyi as wcll.
TIc urgcni iransfornaiion of infaniry and cavalry gcncrals inio airlornc assauli officcrs is noi a
prcparaiion for dcfcncc. Ii is noi cvcn a prcparaiion for a counicr-offcnsivc. Ii is a sign of aggrcssion in
prcparaiion; aggrcssion wIicI is incviiallc, innincni, and on a vasi scalc.
CHAPTEF 28
WIy Sialin Dcploycd iIc Fronis
TIc uu) o] tIc poo) ugunst tIc )cI u Ic tIc nost
Ioodu uu) uIcI Ius cuc) Iccn uugcd Ictuccn
pcopc.
F. ENCELS (Vo)Is, Vol. 2, p. 504,
Dcrlin 1959i
A 'froni' is an opcraiional-siraicgic grouping of arncd forccs. Ii includcs scvcral arnics, air forcc fornaiions,
anii-aircrafi dcfcncc, lacl-up uniis and fornaiions, and rcar uniis. Fronis do noi cisi in pcacciinc; niliiary
disiricis cisi in iIcir sicad. A froni is usually only crcaicd wIcn war lcgins. (Souct Mtu)u Encucopcdu,
Vol. 8, p. 332i
TIc Far Easicrn Froni was sci up wiiIin iIc Fcd Arny in rcsponsc io worscning rclaiions wiiI Japan in
1938. Ii consisicd of iIc 1si and 2nd Arnics, a iaciical air forcc and rcinforccncni uniis. On 13 April 1941, a
ncuiraliiy paci was signcd wiiI Japan. TIc Far Easicrn Froni, Iowcvcr, rcnaincd a froni, and was noi iurncd
inio a niliiary disirici.
Fronis wcrc csiallisIcd for sIori pcriods in 1939 and 1940 on iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicrs in ordcr io scrvc
iIc 'lilcraiion canpaigns' inio Poland, Fonania and Finland. Oncc iIcsc canpaigns Iad cndcd, iIc fronis
wcrc inncdiaicly dislandcd and niliiary disiricis wcrc sci up again io rcplacc iIcn. Hisiorians Iavc
rcproacIcd Sialin for cnicring inio pacis wiiI loiI Ccrnany and Japan, wIilc nainiaining a froni only
againsi Japan. TIis docs indccd sccn inconsisicni ai firsi glancc; lui Hiilcr was doing cacily iIc sanc
iIing. WIilc Ic was dcploying Icadquaricrs wiiI inprcssivc nancs againsi Driiain, Ic was sccrcily noving
Iis lcsi gcncrals up io iIc Sovici froniicr. TIai is Iow a surprisc sirilc is prcparcd.
Sialin Iad sci up a froni in iIc Far Easi, lui iIc iroops and iIc gcncrals wcrc sccrcily lcaving ii. Officially,
iIc wcsicrn froniicrs siill consisicd of niliiary disiricis, lui Icrc a luild-up of iroops was going on. Any
conparison of iIc powcr of iIc Far Easi Froni and iIai of any wcsicrn niliiary disirici would ccriainly noi
conc down in favour of iIc froni. WIilc iIc Far Easi Froni Iad iIrcc arnics, all of iIcn ordinary, iIc
Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici Iad four arnics, including iIrcc sIocl and onc Icavy sIocl. TIcn iIrcc
norc arnics lclonging io iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon arrivcd on Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici icrriiory.
No onc, on iIc oiIcr Iand, was going io iIc Far Easicrn Froni; divisions and corps wcrc lcing ialcn away
fron ii. TIcrc was only onc nccIanizcd corps on iIc Far Easicrn Froni, wIilc in iIc Wcsicrn Disirici iIcrc
wcrc si. TIcrc wcrc no airlornc assauli iroops on iIc Far Easicrn Froni, wIilc in iIc Wcsicrn Disirici iIcrc
was an cniirc corps. TIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici, norcovcr, was noi iIc nosi powcrful. TIc Kicv
Disirici was nucI norc so.
TIc Far Easicrn Froni was noi so nucI a froni as a scrccn inicndcd io sIow iIc wIolc world iIai war Icrc
was possillc. Dui iIc fivc wcsicrn niliiary disiricis wcrc also scrccns dcsigncd io sIow iIai no war was
cpccicd iIcrc. Dui iIc sirilc powcr conccniraicd in iIcsc disiricis aficr 1939 was rarcly cquallcd ly any
Sovici froni cvcn during iIc Icavicsi laiilcs of iIc war.
TIc froni in iIc Far Easi was sci up in sucI a way iIai cvcrylody lncw aloui ii. In iIc wcsicrn pari of iIc
Sovici Union, Iowcvcr, noi onc, lui fivc fronis Iad lccn csiallisIcd in sucI a way iIai nolody lncw aloui
iIcn. TIc NoriIcrn, NoriI-Wcsi, Wcsicrn, SouiI-Wcsi and SouiIcrn Fronis wcrc officially lrougIi inio lcing
only aficr iIc Ccrnan invasion. Fron Fclruary 1941, Iowcvcr, iIcsc nancs wcrc alrcady appcaring in
siricily sccrci Sovici docuncnis. TIis sccuriiy grading was laicr rcnovcd fron a nunlcr of iIcsc docuncnis,
and iIcy wcrc pui inio acadcnic circulaiion. I quoic fron onc of iIcn. 'In Fclruary 1941 iIc niliiary
councils in iIc froniicr disiricis wcrc scni insiruciions . . . iIai iIcy sIould inncdiaicly cquip iIc froni
connand posis.' (VIZH 1978, No.4, p. 86i
Officially iIcrc wcrc fivc niliiary disiricis on iIc Sovici wcsicrn lordcrs. Unofficially, cacI niliiary disirici
was alrcady prcparing a froni connand posi. Alongsidc iIc usual niliiary-icrriiorial siruciurcs, purcly
niliiary oncs wcrc lcing crcaicd -iIc lind of siruciurcs wIicI only spring up in iinc of war io lcad iIc iroops
inio laiilc.
Pro-Sovici Iisiorians assurc us iIai pcacc cisicd lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany uniil 22 Junc
1941, wIcn iIis pcacc was allcgcdly violaicd ly Ccrnany. TIis IypoiIcsis is noi lornc oui ly facis. TIc facis
spcal of iIc opposiic. Dy dcploying, connand posis of iIc fronis in Fclruary 1941, iIc Sovici Union cnicrcd
iIc war againsi Ccrnany, aliIougI ii did noi officially dcclarc ii.
In pcacciinc iIc officcr connanding a niliiary disirici Ias a dual rolc. On iIc onc Iand, Ic is a purcly
niliiary connandcr, wiiI scvcral divisions, sonciincs scvcral corps and cvcn on occasions scvcral arnics
undcr Iis connand. On iIc oiIcr, Ic conirols a siricily dcfincd icrriiory, and carrics oui iIc rolc of a niliiary
govcrnor.
In iIc cvcni of war, a niliiary disirici on iIc froniicr lcconcs a froni. WIcn iIis Iappcns, iIrcc siiuaiions
can arisc. TIc firsi of iIcsc is wIcrc iIc froni wagcs war in iIc icrriiorics of iIc forncr niliiary disiricis. In
iIis casc iIc officcr connanding iIc froni coniinucs io funciion loiI as a niliiary connandcr and as a
govcrnor of iIc icrriiorics cnirusicd io Iin.
TIc sccond siiuaiion is wIcrc iIc froni is forccd io rcircai undcr cncny prcssurc. In iIai cvcni, iIc officcr
connanding iIc froni will rcnain conlai connandcr, and as Ic wiiIdraws Ic will ialc along wiiI Iin iIc
organs of local govcrnncni of Iis icrriiory.
In iIc iIird sccnario, iIc froni novcs forward on io cncny icrriiory. Ii is only wIcn iIis siiuaiion Ias lccn
forcsccn iIai iIc funciions of iIc officcr connanding arc dividcd. Hc lcconcs a purcly niliiary connandcr
and lcads Iis iroops forward. Sonc onc of infcrior ranl nusi rcnain lcIind on iIc icrriiory of iIc disirici io
carry oui iIc funciions of niliiary govcrnor.
In Fclruary 1941, an cvcni occurrcd wIicI Ias so far lccn ovcrloolcd ly nodcrn Iisiorians. A ncw posi for
anoiIcr dcpuiy io iIc officcr connanding was crcaicd in iIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici. WIai did iIis
ncan? Surcly Ccncral D. C. Pavlov Iad cnougI dcpuiics wiiIoui yci anoiIcr onc! For scvcral noniIs iIis
cira posi of dcpuiy rcnaincd vacani. TIcn Licuicnani-Ccncral Vladinir NilolaycvicI Kurdunov arrivcd io
ialc ii up.
TIc significancc of iIis cvcni was considcrallc. In pcacciinc, Ccncral Pavlov, Iis dcpuiy, Licuicnani-
Ccncral I. V. Doldin, and CIicf of Siaff Major-Ccncral V. E. KlinovslilI wcrc all io lc found in Minsl. On
nolilizaiion, Iowcvcr, Pavlov was carnarlcd io lcconc iIc officcr connanding iIc Wcsicrn Froni,
KlinovslilI cIicf of siaff of iIc Wcsicrn Froni, and Doldin iIc officcr connanding iIc nolilc group in iIc
Wcsicrn Froni.
If iIc Wcsicrn Froni was ncani io figIi in Dyclorussia, wIcrc ii Iad lccn siiuaicd uniil iIc war lcgan,
iIcrc would Iavc lccn no nccd io nalc any siruciural cIangcs. Dui iIc Wcsicrn Froni was prcparing io
novc on io cncny icrriiory. Ii was for jusi sucI a circunsiancc iIai Licuicnani-Ccncral Kurdunov was
lrougIi in. Pavlov was io conccniraic on purcly niliiary prollcns, wIilc Iis ncw dcpuiy would dcal wiiI
icrriiorial oncs. WIcn Pavlov lcd iIc Wcsicrn Froni inio cncny icrriiory, Ccncral Kurdunov would siay
lcIind in Minsl io aci as a purcly icrriiorial niliiary govcrnor, proicciing iIc local auiIoriiics and lincs of
connunicaiion, conirolling indusiry and iranspori, carrying oui addiiional nolilizaiion and prcparing
rcscrvcs for iIc froni, wIicI ly iIcn would Iavc novcd far aIcad.
Kurdunov Iad connandcd iIc Conlai Training Dirccioraic of iIc Fcd Arny lcforc lcing appoinicd io
Minsl. Fron iIc vicwpoini of iIc war of'lilcraiion', ii was a splcndid dccision io Iavc sucI an cpcricnccd
gcncral siiiing in a placc iIrougI wIicI norc and norc young rcscrvisis would pass on iIcir way wcsiwards.
Hc, lciicr iIan anyonc, would lc allc io givc iIcn iIcir final insiruciions lcforc going inio laiilc.
Four arnics, icn dciacIcd corps and icn air divisions iIcn siaiioncd on iIc icrriiory of iIc Kicv Spccial
Miliiary Disirici wcrc also prcparing io lcavc for cncny icrriiory. TIcy would lc lcd ly Coloncl-Ccncral
MilIail PcirovicI Kirponos, iIc officcr connanding iIc SouiI-Wcsi Froni. WiiI iIis in vicw, ii lccanc
csscniial io splii iIc iwo funciions of iIc connanding officcr. Hcrc ioo an cira dcpuiy's posi was crcaicd,
and Licuicnani-Ccncral V. F. Yalovlcv was appoinicd io ii. Kirponos would advancc wiiI Iis iroops, wIilc
Yalovlcv would rcnain in Kicv.
Fron iIc lcginning of Fclruary onwards, iIc division of iIc iwo funciions lccanc incrcasingly cvidcni. A
sccrci connand posi was sci up in Tarnopol. TIis was iIc ccnirc of iIc niliiary siruciurc. TIc Icadquaricrs
was lcpi on in Kicv io funciion as iIc ccnirc of iIc icrriiorial siruciurc. A Icavily rcinforccd undcrground
connand posi for dircciing iIc icrriiorial sysicn was sci up in Drovary, in iIc Kicv rcgion. A connand posi
of a vcry ligIi iypc, consisiing of dug-ouis wiiI onc iinlcr plaiforn, was luili in Tarnopol. TIis was cniircly
logical; wIy pui up concrcic cascncnis wIcn iIc niliiary siruciurc was noi inicndcd io rcnain in iIc
Ulrainc for long?
TIc siruciurc was also dividcd in iIc Daliic Spccial Miliiary Disirici. TIc scnior connand siaff novcd io
Panivcjis, wIicI fron iIcn onwards was io lc iIc sccrci ccnirc of iIc purcly niliiary siruciurc of iIc NoriI-
Wcsi Froni. A sccond-raic gcncral, E. P. Safronov, was lcfi lcIind in Figa io ccrcisc niliiary-icrriiorial
conirol aficr iIc nain nass of Sovici iroops Iad novcd off wcsiwards.
TIcrc was a sligIi diffcrcncc in iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici. Hcrc ii was noi iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc froni
wIicI was splii off fron iIc niliiary disirici Icadquaricrs, lui iIc Icadquaricrs for iIc 9iI Arny. Mosi
officcrs lclonging io iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici Icadquaricrs, wiiI iis cIicf of siaff Major-CcncralM. V.
ZalIarov ai iIcir Icad, wcrc sccrcily iransfcrrcd io iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc 9iI Arny. MarsIal of iIc Sovici
Union I. S. Koncv icsiifics iIai on 20 Junc iIc 9iI Arny Icadquaricrs wcrc raiscd ly a siand-io alcri and
sccrcily novcd oui of Odcssa io iIc ficld connand posi. (VIZH 1968, No. 7, p. 42i Coloncl-Ccncral Ya. T.
CIcrcvicIcnlo, officcr connanding iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici, Iad noi lccn in Odcssa for sonc iinc. Hc
Iad sccrcily lccn in iIc Crinca, wIcrc Ic Iad ialcn connand of iIc 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps, wIicI Iad
arrivcd sccrcily fron iIc Caucasus. TIcn, passing iIrougI Odcssa ly irain, Ic wcni io iIc sccrci connand
posi of iIc 9iI Arny, wIicI Iad lccn cnirusicd io Iis connand. MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union M. V. ZalIarov
Ias siaicd iIai CIcrcvicIcnlo was on a irain wIcn iIc Ccrnan invasion lcgan. (Vop)osu Isto)u, 1970, No. 5,
p. 46i AnoiIcr gcncral, N. E. CIilisov, appcarcd in Odcssa Ic]o)c iIc Ccrnan invasion lcgan; Iis jol was io
rcnain lcIind io ccrcisc niliiary-icrriiorial conirol aficr iIc 9iI Arny Iad lcfi.
TIc Lcningrad Miliiary Disirici was an cccpiion. As in iIc oiIcr disiricis, a froni - iIc NoriIcrn - was
sccrcily sci up, lui in iIis casc iIc siruciurc was noi dividcd. TIis was also logical. TIc NoriIcrn Froni Iad
uniil iIcn nadc no prcparaiions io advancc far fron Karclian icrriiory, so iwo scparaic siruciurcs wcrc noi
ncccssary. No cira dcpuiy was appoinicd. Conirol of loiI niliiary opcraiions and of iIc icrriiory would lc
ccrciscd fron iIc sanc ccnirc, iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc NoriIcrn Froni.
On 13 Junc, iIc day iIc TASS rcpori was lroadcasi, iIcsc divisions in iIc conirol siruciurcs of all iIc
wcsicrn niliiary disiricis - cccpi Lcningrad - wcrc conplcicd. On iIc sanc day, iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai
for Dcfcncc ordcrcd all Icadquaricrs of iIc fronis io novc io iIc ficld connand posis.
Fron iIai poini onwards iIcrc wcrc iwo indcpcndcni niliiary sysicns of connand in Dyclorussia. iIc
sccrcily crcaicd Wcsicrn Froni, connandcd ly Ccncral Pavlov wiiI iis connand posi in iIc forcsi ncar iIc
Lcsno railway siaiion, and iIc Wcsicrn Spccial Miliiary Disirici, undcr Licuicnani-Ccncral Kurdunov, wiiI
Icadquaricrs in Minsl. Two indcpcndcni niliiary conirol siruciurcs also canc inio lcing in iIc Ulrainc, iIc
SouiI-Wcsi Froni and iIc Kicv Spccial Miliiary Disirici. According io MarsIal Dagranyan, ZIulov scni a
spccial cncipIcrcd ncssagc iIai iIis dcvclopncni 'nusi lc lcpi nosi siricily sccrci, and iIc Icadquaricrs
pcrsonncl of iIc disirici nusi lc warncd io lccp ii so'. (TuI NucIuus' Vonu, p. 83i
Licuicnani-Ccncral of Connunicaiions Troops P. M. Kur-ocIlin, wIo ai iIai iinc was a najor-gcncral and
CIicf of Connunicaiions of iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni, dcscrilcs iIc sanc siiuaiion in iIc Daliic.
Connand clcncnis and lrancIcs fron Icadquaricrs lcgan io arrivc in iIc rcgion of Panivcjis. TIc disirici
connand was in faci iurncd inio a froni connand aliIougI officially ii wcni on lcing callcd a disirici
connand uniil iIc war lcgan. A group of gcncrals and officcrs, wIo Iad lccn givcn iIc jol of running iIc
disirici, was lcfi lcIind in Figa. (Nu SZF, p. 196, 1969i
TIc crcaiion of iwo indcpcndcni sysicns of conirol incviially lcd io iIc crcaiion of iwo indcpcndcni sysicns
of connunicaiions. Major-Ccncral KurocIlin pcrsonally ran iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni connunicaiions, wIilc
Coloncl N. P. Ali-nov, Iis forncr dcpuiy, nanagcd iIc indcpcndcni connunicaiions sysicn in iIc disirici.
Ccncral KurocIlin worlcd Iard ai sciiing up iIc froni connunicaiion sysicn. In ordcr noi io alcri iIc
cncny wiiI a suddcn upsurgc in convcrsaiions on iIc ncw niliiary cIanncls, civilian connunicaiion lincs
wcrc uscd. Dui iIc word 'civilian' nusi lc placcd lciwccn invcricd connas. No sucI iIing cisicd in iIc
Sovici Union. TIc siaic connunicaiions sysicn Iad lccn pui on a conplcic war fooiing in 1939 and placcd
ai iIc scrvicc of iIc arny. TIc Pcoplc's Connissariai (or Minisiryi of Connunicaiions was placcd dirccily
undcr iIc ordcrs of iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Dcfcncc. In any nornal couniry iIc niliiary
connunicaiions sysicn is a conponcni pari of iIc gcncral siaic connunicaiions sysicn, lui iIc rcvcrsc is
iIc casc in iIc Sovici Union. Ccncral siaic connunicaiions arc a conponcni pari of niliiary
connunicaiions; Ivan TcrcniicvicI Pcrcsyplin, iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Connunicaiions of iIc USSF was
officially a dcpuiy io iIc cIicf of connunicaiions in iIc Fcd Arny.
WIcn iIc connand of iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni lcfi for iIc ficld connand posi, iIc wariinc connunicaiions
sysicn Iad lccn laid down lcforcIand.
All docuncnis wiiI iIc frcqucncy plan, call-signs, and auiIcniicaiion signals wcrc lcpi in iIc
Icadquaricrs, for disiriluiion io iIc iroops in iIc cvcni of war. TIcrc wcrc scvcral iIousand radio siaiions
in iIc disirici. Conscqucnily ai lcasi a wccl was nccdcd io pui iIc worl on a war fooiing. Ii provcd
inpossillc io do cvcryiIing rcquircd in iinc. (Licu-icnani-Ccncral P. M. KurocIlin, Pozuunuc F)ontu,
Moscow Vocnizdai 1969, p. 115i
TIc cniirc proccdurc for cIanging ovcr fron a pcacciinc connunicaiions sysicn io a wariinc onc was
lascd on iIc assunpiion iIai a prclininary signal would conc fron Moscow ai a iinc io lc dcicrnincd ly
Moscow. In oiIcr words, iIc plan was noi drawn up io ncci iIc condiiions of a dcfcnsivc war. Ii was drawn
up io ncci iIc condiiions of a war wIicI was offcnsivc, aggrcssivc and providcd for a pcriod of sccrci
prcparaiions.
TIc iinc for iIcsc final prcparaiions io invadc Iad now arrivcd. On 19 Junc Licuicnani-Ccncral P. S.
Klcnov, CIicf of Siaff of iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni, issucd an ordcr io KurocIlin.
'Talc aciion in accordancc wiiI iIc lig plan. Do you undcrsiand wIai I'n ialling aloui?'
'Ycs, I undcrsiand cvcryiIing,' I rcporicd. (KurocIlin, Nu SZF, p. 195i
Ii is a piiy iIai wc do noi undcrsiand cvcryiIing aloui iIc 'lig plan'; no Sovici gcncral Ias cvcr cplaincd
wIai ii was. Dui wc do undcrsiand iIai sonciIing connccicd wiiI iIc 'lig plan' sIould Iavc Iappcncd in iIc
nci fcw days. Dui, ly ialing iIc aciion Ic did, Hiilcr prcvcnicd iIc 'lig plan' fron lcing pui inio cffcci, and
conpcllcd iIc Sovici gcncrals io inprovisc insicad.
TIis is Iow Ccncral KurocIlin iricd io cnsurc iIai iIc 'lig plan' would lc carricd oui.
TIc disirici connunicaiions lrancI scni docuncnis dcaling wiiI iIc organizaiion of radio connunicaiions
... io iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc arnics and of fornaiions undcr disirici connand. All iIcsc docuncnis, duly
rcviscd, Iad io pass along a cIanncl lcading iIrougI iIc corps, divisions, rcgincnis, laiialions and
conpanics uniil iIcy finally rcacIcd iIc opcraiing ican ai cvcry radio siaiion. TIai would Iavc ialcn, as I
Iavc said alrcady, no lcss iIan a wccl. (IId, p. 118i
Top-sccrci infornaiion iIus rcacIcd iIousands of radio opcraiors. Ii was an irrcvcrsillc proccss. Ii was no
longcr possillc io rciricvc iIc sccrcis and Iidc iIcn in iIc safcs again. As soon as iIc naicrial Iad lcfi iIcsc
safcs, war Iad lcconc quiic unavoidallc. Prcparing an aggrcssivc war is sonciIing lilc IaicIing a coup
d'ctut. A vcry snall group of pcoplc nalc iIc plan. TIcy do noi irusi iIc iIousands wIo will ialc pari in ii
wiiI cvcn a fragncni of infornaiion. As soon as iIc lcadcrs of iIc conspiracy rcvcal cvcn iIc iinicsi pari of
iIc plan io iIc iIousands wIo will Iavc a rolc in ii, ii iIcn lcconcs ioially unavoidallc iIai iIc coup will
Iappcn. If iIcy do noi do iIis, iIc ploiicrs losc iIcir advaniagc of surprisc, wIicI is iIcir grcaicsi irunp, and
cnallc iIc cncny io rcspond wiiI cncrgcncy ncasurcs.
Dui pcrIaps ii was lccausc Licuicnani-Ccncral Klcnov aniicipaicd Ccrnan aggrcssion iIai Ic ordcrcd iIai
clcncnis of iIc 'lig plan' sIould lc rcvcalcd io iIcsc iIousands wIo wcrc io carry ii oui? Klcnov, Iowcvcr,
was quiic caicgoric in Iis lclicf iIai a Ccrnan invasion was noi possillc. Hc rcfuscd io lclicvc ii cvcn aficr ii
Iad lcgun, and did noiIing ai all io rcpcl iIc aggrcssion aficr ii Iad siaricd. Ai iIc Dcccnlcr 1940 ncciing
of iIc scnior connand siaff, Klcnov Iad suggcsicd iIai only aggrcssivc wars sIould lc fougIi, and iIai iIcsc
sIould lc siaricd ly surprisc aiiacls ly iIc Fcd Arny. Hc ccccdcd cvcn iIc lold ZIulov in aggrcssivcncss,
and Iad iIc couragc io arguc wiiI ZIulov in Sialin's prcscncc aloui Iow a surprisc aiiacl sIould lc nadc.
Lilc Andrci AndrcycvicI ZIdanov, Iis proiccior in iIc Poliiluro, and indccd lilc nany oiIcr Sovici niliiary
and poliiical lcadcrs ai iIc iinc including Sialin Iinsclf, Ic sinply ccludcd iIc possililiiy iIai anyonc clsc
could nalc a surprisc aiiacl on iIc Sovici Union.
In iIc days wIicI followcd iIc pullicaiion of iIc TASS rcpori on 13 Junc 1941, all iIc cngincs of war in iIc
Sovici Union wcni inio aciion. TIc dcployncni on iIc Sovici fronis Iad gonc so far iIai iIousands involvcd
Iad alrcady lccn lci inio sccrcis of ciraordinary inporiancc. TIc Sovici Union passcd iIc poini of no rciurn
in iIc niddlc of Junc 1941. Aficr iIai, war was incviiallc. If Hiilcr Iad dccidcd io launcI Opcraiion
Darlarossa a fcw wccls laicr, iIc Fcd Arny would Iavc rcacIcd Dcrlin nucI carlicr iIan 1945.
WIcn a largc-scalc offcnsivc ialcs placc, scvcral fronis arc cngagcd in opcraiional aciion ai iIc sanc iinc.
TIis aciion Ias io lc co-ordinaicd, and iIis co-ordinaiion is donc ly iIc Fcprcscniaiivcs of iIc HigI
Connand.
TIcsc Fcprcscniaiivcs can Iclp nalc iIc siraicgic lcadcrsIip considcrally norc flcillc in wariinc. TIcy
Iavc alnosi unliniicd powcr in iIc ficld of conlai. On iIc onc Iand, iIc Fcprcscniaiivc is a ncnlcr of iIc
suprcnc niliiary lcadcrsIip, and as sucI lnows plans wIicI iIc officcr connanding a froni docs noi Iavc
iIc rigIi io lnow. On iIc oiIcr, Ic dirccis conlai opcraiions noi fron sonc officc in Moscow lui dirccily
fron iIc connand posi of a froni or an arny, wIcrc Ic prcscnis Iinsclf jusi lcforc iIc opcraiion lcgins. TIc
Fcprcscniaiivc is frcc fron iIc daily rouiinc worl of iIc officcr connanding iIc froni and can dcvoic all Iis
aiicniion io iIc nosi inporiani issucs. Ai a criiical noncni, Ic nigIi find Iinsclf alongsidc iIc Suprcnc
Connandcr in CIicf, giving Iin csscniial advicc; or clsc Ic nigIi find Iinsclf scni ly iIc Suprcnc
Connandcr io iIc nosi criiical sccior wIcrc iIc faic of iIc war is lcing dccidcd.
TIcsc Fcprcscniaiivcs wcrc iIc lcsi niliiary ninds in iIc couniry. TIcir appcarancc always ncani iIai
grcai cvcnis wcrc aloui io Iappcn.
TIc day iIc TASS rcpori was pullisIcd, nany incplicallc cvcnis iool placc. My own infornaiion is
fragncniary, inadcquaic, and ai iincs coniradiciory. On iIc lasis of iIc liiilc infornaiion wIicI can lc
cIcclcd, Iowcvcr, iIc sccrci visii of iIc Fcprcscniaiivcs of iIc Sovici HigI Connand io iIc wcsicrn froniicrs
was clcarly iIc nain lusincss of iIc day.
Anong iIcsc Fcprcscniaiivcs was Licuicnani-Ccncral Pavcl FycIagov, dcpuiy Pcoplc's Connissar for
Dcfcncc. Hc was a favouriic of Sialin and a pcrsonal fricnd of ZIulov. AliIougI siill only 29, Ic Iad alrcady
disiinguisIcd Iinsclf in air warfarc in Spain, CIina, KIasan and ai KIallIin-Col. Hc Iad connandcd iIc isi
Arny's air forcc in iIc Far Easi, and iIcn iIc 9iI Arny's air forcc in iIc 'lilcraiion' of Finland. On Sialin's
pcrsonal ordcrs, FycIagov always appcarcd wIcrc iIc Fcd Arny was aloui io launcI a surprisc aiiacl. His
pronoiion was rapid. In 1940 Sialin appoinicd Iin a dcpuiy cIicf of iIc Fcd Arny Air Forcc; iIcn in iIc
sanc ycar firsi dcpuiy cIicf; and in Augusi of iIc sanc ycar iIc Icad of iIc CIicf Dirccioraic of iIc air forcc
of iIc Worlcrs' and Pcasanis' Fcd Arny.
In Dcccnlcr 1940, a ncciing was Icld of iIc Fcd Arny's scnior connand siaff io discuss iIc suljcci of
war againsi Ccrnany. Ii was aiicndcd ly Sialin and iIc principal poliiical lcadcrs. ZIulov's proposal was io
pui iIc Ccrnan Air Forcc oui of aciion ly dclivcring surprisc aiiacls on Ccrnan airficlds, and iIcn
inncdiaicly launcIing powcrful aiiacls ly iIc land iroops. (Isto)uu SouctsIo Vocnno Mus, Izdanic
Aladcny Naul SSF, Moscow 1980, p. 173i Pavcl FycIagov warnly supporicd ZIulov's proposal. Evcn lcforc
ZIulov, Ic Iad rccasi iIc iraining of Sovici airncn in sucI a way iIai ii alnosi ioially ccludcd iIc iraining
of pilois io figIi air laiilcs. Insicad, iIcy wcrc iraincd io nalc suddcn conccniraicd air sirilcs ai cncny
airficlds. In Iis ncnoirs, ZIulov rccallcd iIc inpassioncd spcccI wIicI FycIagov nadc ai iIc ncciing.
'Ccncral P. V. FycIagov, iIc cIicf of iIc air forcc of iIc Worlcrs' and Pcasanis' Fcd Arny, iallcd a loi of
scnsc.' (Vosponnunuu I HuznusIcnuu, 1969, p. 194i Ii is only a piiy iIai FycIagov's scnsillc spcccI siill
rcnains a Sovici siaic sccrci Ialf a ccniury aficr ii was nadc.
ZIulov and FycIagov's arguncnis apparcnily convinccd Sialin. In iIc coursc of iIc ncciing and in iIc
scrics of siraicgic nap gancs wIicI followcd ii, Sialin disnisscd iIc CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff and appoinicd
ZIulov io iIc posi. A fcw days laicr Pavcl FycIagov was also pronoicd. In spiic of Iis conparaiivcly nodcsi
ranl, Licuicnani-Ccncral FycIagov was givcn an circncly IigI appoinincni, iIai of dcpuiy io iIc Pcoplc's
Connissar for Dcfcncc. Sialin appoinicd Licuicnani-Ccncral P. F. ZIigarcv io ialc ovcr connand of iIc air
forcc fron FycIagov. Frccd fron daily rouiinc, FycIagov lccanc a HigI Connand Fcprcscniaiivc; ii was a
vcry IigI posi wiiI acccss io siaic sccrcis, and wiiI no rcsponsililiiy for day-io-day ninor naiicrs. FycIagov
lccanc in Iis way a sori of ninisicr wiiIoui porifolio anong iIc scnior Sovici niliiary lcadcrs. Hc coniinucd
io worl Iard on Iis idcas of surprisc, spccd, and conccniraiion, and on Iow io clcar iIc slics for Sovici
aircrafi wiiI scvcral Iours of conccniraicd lonling raids on cncny airficlds. ZIulov and FycIagov, in faci,
wcrc prcparing io do wIai Hiilcr did on 22 Junc 1941. As Ccncral Ivanov pui ii, 'TIc Nazi connand sinply
succccdcd in forcsialling our iroops in iIc iwo wccls prcccding iIc ouilrcal of war.' (Ccncral of iIc Arny S.
P. Ivanov, NucIu'nu Pc)od Vonu, Moscow 1974, p. 212i
In iIc spring of 1941, FycIagov was pcrnancnily on siandly, awaiiing Sialin's ordcrs io go anywIcrc iIai
faicful dccisions on iIc war Iad io lc nadc. Now iIc Iour Iad arrivcd. On 13 Junc 1941, undcr covcr of iIc
TASS rcpori, FycIagov wcni sccrcily io iIc Ccrnan froniicr. Falsificrs of Iisiory cplain FycIagov's
appcarancc iIcrc in quiic sinplc icrns. Sialin was worricd iIai iIc Ccrnans nigIi possilly aiiacl, and so
Ic scni FycIagov io iIc lordcr io inprovc iIc dcfcnccs iIcrc.
If Sialin Iad lccn anious aloui dcfcncc, Ic sIould Iavc pullcd lacl iIc Sovici Air Forcc fron iIc froniicrs
and rc-lascd ii in iIc dcpiIs of iIc couniry. TIc air forcc would Iavc lccn quiic capallc of covcring iIc
froniicr arcas fron iIc inicrior of iIc couniry, wIilc iIc fcw Iundrcd liloncircs wIicI lay lciwccn iIc
airficlds and iIc froniicrs would Iavc dcprivcd iIc cncny of an aliliiy io nalc a surprisc aiiacl on Sovici
airficlds. Dui Ccncral FycIagov's visii io iIc froniicr did noi coincidc wiiI iIc rc-lasing of Sovici aircrafi in
iIc dcpiIs of iIc couniry. On iIc conirary, ii coincidcd wiiI aircrafi fron iIc dcpiIs of iIc couniry lcing rc-
lascd rigIi on iIc froniicrs. In icrns of dcfcncc, conccniraiing an air forcc on iIc froniicrs is ianianouni io
suicidc. Dui wIcn an offcnsivc is lcing prcparcd, ii is alsoluicly csscniial io conccniraic aircrafi ncar iIc
froniicrs, so iIai iIcy can lc uscd ovcr cncny icrriiory io iIc full cicni of iIcir opcraiing radius.
TIc Ccrnan gcncrals, incidcnially, wcrc doing iIc sanc iIing, aliIougI iIcy wcrc sonc iwo wccls aIcad,
and wcrc sparing no cffori io rc-lasc iIcir air forcc closc io iIc Sovici lordcr. Had Sialin lccn iIc firsi io
sirilc, wc would now rcgard iIc Ccrnan gcncrals as nadncn. Dui rc-lasing an air forcc ncar a froniicr is
nadncss only fron a dcfcnsivc vicwpoini. In icrns of an offcnsivc, iIc Ccrnan gcncrals wcrc doing cvcryiIing
rigIi, as wcrc iIcir Sovici collcagucs.
Wc can only gucss wIy FycIagov wcni io iIc Sovici wcsicrn lordcr. Aficr Opcraiion Darlarossa lcgan,
FycIagov was arrcsicd and cccuicd on Sialin's ordcrs. WIy Ic was cccuicd also rcnains a nysicry. Ii
could noi Iavc lccn for losing a vasi nunlcr of Sovici aircrafi on airficlds ncar iIc froniicr; Pavcl FycIagov
Iad ccascd io lc rcsponsillc for iIc safciy of Sovici aircrafi in Fclruary 1941. Fcsponsililiiy for iIai now lay
wiiI Licuicnani-Ccncral P. F. ZIigarcv. Sialin did noi sIooi ZIigarcv for Iaving losi iIc aircrafi. Hc did noi
cvcn rcproacI Iin for ii. On iIc conirary, iIc licuicnani-gcncral rosc io iIc ranl of Air CIicf MarsIal and
survivcd Sialin ly icn ycars. If Sialin did noi sIooi ZIigarcv, wIo lorc iIc pcrsonal, dircci and inncdiaic
rcsponsililiiy for iIc lasing of iIc air forcc and iis sccuriiy, wIy iIcn sIooi FycIagov, wIo did noi Iavc iIis
rcsponsililiiy?
Ii is ny opinion iIai FycIagov wcni io iIc Sovici froniicr on sonc crucial nission cniircly unconnccicd
wiiI iIc sccuriiy of iIc Sovici Air Forcc. For failing io conplcic iIai crucial nission, of wIicI wc lnow
noiIing, Sialin sIoi iIc youngcsi dcpuiy io iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc iIai iIc Fcd Arny cvcr Iad.
Coloncl-Ccncral A. D. Loliionov, candidaic ncnlcr of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc, Icld iIc posi of dcpuiy io
iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai of Dcfcncc as carly as 1937. Loliionov connandcd iIc Sovici Air Forcc uniil 1940,
wIcn in iIc sunncr of iIai ycar Sialin for sonc rcason gavc Loliionov iIc opporiuniiy io nalc a vcry
dciailcd siudy of iIc froniicr wiiI Easi Prussia. Hc scni Loliionov off io connand iIc Daliic Miliiary Disirici,
wIicI cnlraccd iIc icrriiorics of iIc rcccnily 'lilcraicd' Daliic siaics. In Fclruary and MarcI 1941 Sialin
lcgan sccrcily io asscnllc iIc Suprcnc Connand Siaff in Moscow. Loliionov Iandcd ovcr connand of iIc
Daliic Miliiary Disirici (iIc NoriI -Wcsi Fronii io Coloncl-Ccncral F. I. Kuzncisov, and sci off for Moscow 'for
ncdical ircaincni'. Dy 13 Junc, all Loliio-nov's illncsscs wcrc curcd and Ic sccrcily rciurncd io iIc froniicr
wiiI Easi Prussia.
Wc lnow iIai Licuicnani-Ccncral of Enginccring Troops D. KarlysIcv Iad visiicd iIc Sovici wcsicrn lordcr
cvcn lcforc iIis. Onc of KarlysIcv's pupils, Licuicnani-Ccncral of Enginccring Troops E. LcosIcnya, Ias
siaicd iIai 'KarlysIcv was on a nission for iIc Ccncral Siaff in iIc arca of iIc wcsicrn siaic froniicr.' (VIZH
1980, No. 10, p.96i KarlysIcv was noi jusi anoiIcr of iIosc profcssors fron iIc niliiary acadcnics wIo wcrc
gaiIcring on iIc froniicr, lui onc of iIc Sovici HigI Connand Fcprcscniaiivcs. Hc was aciivcly and
cncrgciically prcparing an offcnsivc opcraiion. Ii was in KarlysIcv's prcscncc iIai Sovici froniicr guards wcrc
pulling down iIc froniicr larricrs, in ordcr io clcar iIc way for an cira-IigI-powcr and vcry swifi Sovici
opcraiion. Ii was KarlysIcv wIo was icacIing iIc crcws of iIc laicsi T-34 Sovici ianls Iow io ovcrconc
cncny dcfcnccs and io ford froniicr rivcrs. In addiiion, along wiiI connandcrs fron iIc fronis and iIc
arnics, KarlysIcv was naling rcconnaissancc irips.
Dcforc ialing cvcn onc sicp forward, a connandcr will inspcci iIc icrrain wIicI lics lcforc Iin. MucI
infornaiion will, of coursc, Iavc lccn gaiIcrcd in advancc ly rcconnaissancc. AliIougI iIc connandcr will
ccriainly irusi Iis rcconnaissancc, Ic will always wani io inspcci iIc wIolc icrrain pcrsonally. TIis is no
cnpiy riiual. Dcforc noving Iis iroops forward, a connandcr nusi gci iIc fccl of iIc land. TIcrc's a Iollow
Icrcwould iIc ianls gci loggcd down in iIc nud? TIcrc's a snall lridgc iIcrc. Havcn'i iIc supporis lccn
sawn iIrougI? And a counicr-aiiacl could conc fron iIai wood iIcrc . . .
If iIc connandcr cannoi pass ovcr iIc wIolc of iIc icrrain in Iis inaginaiion, if Ic is unallc io asscss all
iIc difficuliics wIicI Iis soldicrs will Iavc io facc, iIc pricc Ic will pay will lc dcfcai. TIai is wIy, lcforc an
offcnsivc laiilc, cvcry connandcr, irrcspcciivc of ranl, will pui on a soldicr's uniforn and crawl on Iis
sionacI in iIc nud alongsidc iIc siaic froniicr or forward arca; and wIy, if Ic is in a forward arca, Ic will
spcnd nany Iours inspcciing iIc icrrain in froni of Iin, as Ic irics io forcscc and cnvisagc lcforc iIc laiilc
all iIc difficuliics wIicI nigIi lc awaiiing Iin ionorrow.
TIis visual siudy of iIc cncny and iIc icrrain ly iIc connandcr is callcd rcconnaissancc. Ii is noi iIc
nosi agrccallc surprisc wIcn cncny rcconnaissancc groups iurn up on your froniicr. Ii is noi ioo lad if ii is
only a ianl division connandcr spcnding long Iours waicIing you iIrougI linoculars fron iIc oiIcr sidc of
iIc lordcr. Dui inaginc iIc officcr connanding a Sovici niliiary disirici appcaring on your froniicr, noi
alonc, lui acconpanicd ly a ncnlcr of iIc Poliiluro, and spcnding noi Iours, lui wccls ai iIc froniicr
posis! WIai would you iIinl iIcn?
Ii was lilc iIai lcforc cvcry 'lilcraiion'. In January 1939, K. A. Mcrcislov, iIc officcr connanding iIc
Lcningrad Miliiary Disirici, acconpanicd ly A. A. ZIdanov, sIorily io lcconc a Poliiluro ncnlcr, drovc up
and down iIc wIolc of iIc FinnisI froniicr in a noior car. TIcir irips wcni on iIrougIoui spring, sunncr
and auiunn. TIcy finisIcd iIcir cpcdiiions as auiunn was drawing io a closc and rciurncd io Lcningrad.
TIc nci iIing was iIai iIc 'FinnisI niliiarisi cliquc provolcd war'.
Fron carly 1941, Ccrnan officcrs and gcncrals lcgan, gradually ai firsi and iIcn wiiI incrcasing inicnsiiy,
io rcconnoiirc iIc Ccrnan sidc of iIc froniicr. TIcrc is a fanous pIoiograpI on ny iallc sIowing Ccncral
Cudcrian wiiI officcrs fron Iis Icadquaricrs carrying oui iIc final rcconnaissancc ncar Drcsi-Liiovsl on iIc
nigIi of 22 Junc 1941. TIc Ccrnan gcncrals arc looling ai Sovici icrriiory iIrougI linoculars. As Opcraiion
Darlarossa approacIcd, Sovici gcncrals and narsIals noiiccd an incrcasing nunlcr of Ccrnan rcconnais-
sancc groups on iIc lordcr. (GuunuMu)sIu Auutsu A. A. No-uIou u NcIc Lcnng)udu, Moscow Naula 1970,
p. 41i TIc Ccrnan rcconnaissancc groups canouflagcd wIai iIcy wcrc doing ly cvcry possillc ncans. TIcy
donncd iIc uniforns of froniicr guards and ordinary soldicrs, lui an cpcricnccd cyc could of coursc
disiinguisI lciwccn a rcconnaissancc group and a froniicr pairol. Fcporis lcgan io flow fron iIc Sovici
lordcr iIai Ccrnan officcrs wcrc carrying oui inicnsivc rcconnaissancc. TIis was a clcar sign iIai war was
approacIing. MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union M. V. ZalIarov, iIcn a najor-gcncral and 9iI Arny cIicf of siaff,
Ias said iIai fron April 1941 onwards, a 'ncw siiuaiion arosc'. Ii iool iIc forn of groups of officcrs drcsscd
in Ccrnan and Fonanian Arny uniforns appcaring on iIc rivcr Prui. All iIc signs wcrc iIai iIcy wcrc
carrying oui rcconnaissancc. (Vop)osu Isto)u 1970, No. 5, p. 43i
Fcconnaissancc is prcparaiion for an offcnsivc. WIai wcrc iIc Sovici connandcrs doing? WIy did iIcy noi
ialc inncdiaic ncasurcs io rcpcl iIc coning aggrcssion, iIc incviialiliiy of wIicI was lcing confirncd ly
iIc prcscncc of iIc cncny rcconnaissancc groups? TIc Sovici gcncrals did noi rcaci io wIai iIcy saw for onc
sinplc rcason. iIc Sovici gcncrals wcrc lusy carrying oui iIcir own rcconnaissancc.
Major-Ccncral Pcir VassilycvicI Scvasi'yanov was iIcn Icad of iIc poliiical lrancI of iIc 5iI CzccIosloval
Prolciariai Viiclsl Fcd Danncr Fiflc Division of iIc i6iI Fiflc Corps of iIc niI Arny of iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni.
Hc rccallcd Iow, 'olscrving iIc Ccrnan froniicr guards fron a disiancc of sonciIing lilc 2030 paccs, and
ccIanging glanccs wiiI iIcn, wc ncvcr gavc iIc appcarancc of rcalizing iIai iIcy wcrc iIcrc, or iIai wc wcrc
in iIc sligIicsi dcgrcc inicrcsicd in iIcn'. (Ncnun-Vogu-Dunu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1961, p. 7i
Ccncral Scvasi'yanov's accouni sIows iIai Ic olscrvcd iIc Ccrnan froniicr guards on norc iIan onc
occasion. In faci ii Iappcncd rcgularly. So Icrc is a qucsiion. Conradc Ccncral, wIai prcciscly wcrc you
doing so closc io iIc froniicr? If you wcrc disiurlcd ai iIc iIougIi iIai iIc Ccrnans nigIi invadc, iIcn you
sIould Iavc ordcrcd fivc or si fcnccs of larlcd wirc io lc sircicIcd oui along iIc froniicr, so iIai nolody
could slip iIrougI. You sIould Iavc laid iIc nincd iraps norc dcnscly. TIcn you sIould Iavc laid a rcal
nincficld aloui iIrcc liloncircs dccp lcIind iIc larlcd-wirc cnianglcncnis, iIcn dug anii-ianl diicIcs
lcIind iIc nincficlds and covcrcd iIcn wiiI siaiic flanc-iIrowcrs, and lcIind iIcsc, anoiIcr 20-30
sircicIcs of larlcd-wirc cnianglcncnis, iIis iinc on ncial sialcs, or lciicr siill, siccl rails sci in concrcic.
FuriIcr lacl siill, anoiIcr nincficld - a falsc onc, wiiI iIc rcal nincficld lcIind ii. TIcn dig anoiIcr anii-
ianl diicI. TIcn lcIind all iIis, consiruci forcsi iraps, and so on indcfiniicly.
If iIc gcncral Iad rcally lccn prcparing for dcfcncc, iIcrc would Iavc lccn no nccd for Iin io siarc ai iIc
Ccrnan froniicr guards. Hc would Iavc Iad io siudy noi forcign icrriiory lui Iis own, and iIc norc dccply
Ic did ii, iIc lciicr. Ncar iIc froniicr Ic could Iavc lcpi snall nolilc dciacIncnis wIicI, in iIc cvcni of an
aiiacl, could casily Iavc wiiIdrawn iIrougI sccrci gaps in iIc cnginccrcd dcfcnccs zonc, nining iIc paiI as
ii wcni.
TIis was Finland's ccnplary approacI wIcn ii was prcparing io dcfcnd iisclf. TIc FinnisI gcncrals Iad
ccriainly no nccd io siand on iIc lordcr and scruiinizc forcign icrriiory. TIc Sovici Arny, Iowcvcr, did noi
pui up any cnginccrcd dcfcnccs on iis froniicrs, and Sovici gcncrals, lilc iIcir Ccrnan collcagucs, cndcd up
spcnding wccls and noniIs jusi a fcw paccs fron iIc siaic froniicr.
Coloncl D. I. KocIcilov rccalls iIai iIc connandcr of iIc Sovici ianl division in Drcsi-Liiovsl, Major-
Ccncral Puganov, sclccicd loiI iIc siic for Iis divisional Icadquaricrs, and iIc posiiion of Iis officc in ii, so
iIai Ic could 'sii in iIc divisional connandcr's officc wiiI Coloncl Connissar A. A. Illarionov and lool oui of
iIc window iIrougI linoculars ai iIc Ccrnan soldicrs on iIc opposiic lanl of iIc Wcsicrn Dug.' (C
ZuI)utun LuuIun, Moscow Vocnizdai 1962, p. 8i
Idiocy, wc cry in indignaiion. Oncc iIc war Iad lcgun, ii would lc a sinplc naiicr io firc an auionaiic
wcapon fron iIc opposiic lanl ai iIc divisional connandcr's window, or lciicr siill, firc a cannon ai ii. TIc
divisional Icadquaricrs was a siiiing iargci. Dui lci us noi lc ioo indignani. Sccn fron iIc vicwpoini of
aiiacl, cvcryiIing falls inio placc. Cudcrian was doing cacily iIc sanc iIing on iIc opposiic lanl. His
Ccrnan ianl group on iIc oiIcr sidc Iad also lccn novcd rigIi up io iIc rivcr, and Ic was looling oui of Is
window iIrougI linoculars ai iIc Sovici sidc. Sonciincs Cudcrian, Iiding Iis idcniiiy, would appcar wiiI
Iis linoculars ai iIc rivcr's cdgc. Jusi lcforc Opcraiion Darlarossa lcgan, Ic cvcn sioppcd irying io disguisc
Iinsclf. TIcrc Ic siood in Iis gcncral's uniforn, along wiiI Iis officcrs, looling iIrougI linoculars, jusi lilc
Iis Sovici cncnics. Lci us noi call iIc Sovici gcncrals idiois, for wc do noi scc anyiIing idioiic in wIai iIc
Ccrnan gcncrals wcrc doing. Ii was sinply iIc nornal prcparaiion for an offcnsivc. Ii is always donc lilc iIai,
in all arnics including loiI iIc Sovici and iIc Ccrnan. TIc only diffcrcncc was iIai iIc Sovici Union was
prcparing iis opcraiion on an inconparally grcaicr scalc iIan iIc Ccrnan Opcraiion Darlarossa. TIai is wIy
iIc Sovici connandcrs lcgan iIcir rcconnaissancc aciiviiics considcrally carlicr iIan iIc Ccrnan
connandcrs, aliIougI iIcy did noi inicnd io conplcic iIcn uniil July 1941.
In July 1940, on iIc ordcrs of Ccncral K. A. Mcrcislov, iIc cniirc wcsicrn froniicr was rcconnoiircd.
TIousands of Sovici connandcrs of all ranls iool pari in ii, including gcncrals and narsIals Iolding iIc
nosi scnior posis. Mcrcislov Iinsclf, wIo Iad rcccnily survcycd iIc FinnisI froniicr, now did iIc sanc iIing
on iIc Fonanian and Ccrnan froniicrs. TIcn, acconpanicd ly Coloncl-Ccncral M. P. Kirponos, iIc officcr
connanding iIc SouiI-Wcsi Froni, Mcrcislov rcpcaicd iIc rcconnaissancc along iIc wIolc sccior of iIc Kicv
Spccial Miliiary Disirici. 'Fron Kicv', Ic rccallcd, 'I wcni io Odcssa, wIcrc I nci Major-Ccncral M. V.
ZalIarov, iIc Disirici CIicf of Siaff. I wcni wiiI Iin io iIc Fonanian cordon. Wc loolcd across io iIc oiIcr
lanl, and saw sonc niliiary figurcs looling ai us.' (Nu SuzIIc Nu)odu) TIis sanc Ccncral ZalIarov Iad
said in April 1941 iIai iIc rcconnaissancc lcing donc ly groups of Ccrnan gcncrals Iad lrougIi aloui a
'ncw siiuaiion'. Ii is inicrcsiing io spcculaic wIciIcr ii occurrcd io Iin or Iis fcllow officcrs iIai iIc Ccrnan
rcconnaissancc aciiviiics wIicI lcgan in April 1941 wcrc sinply a rcsponsc io iIc conccniraicd Sovici
rcconnaissancc wIicI Iad lccn going on sincc July 1940?
Mcrcislov iIcn Iasicncd fron iIc Odcssa Miliiary Disirici io Dyclorussia, wIcrc Icjoincd Ccncral D. C.
Pavlov in carcfully rcconnoiiring iIc Sovici-Ccrnan froniicr and iIc icrriiory lcIind ii. Aficr a lricf visii io
Moscow, Mcrcislov wcni again io iIc NoriIcrn Froni. Hc said in passing iIai Ic Iad noi found iIc officcr
connanding iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni in Iis Icadquaricrs, lccausc Ic was now spcnding a grcai dcal of iinc on
iIc froniicr. Licuicnani-Ccncral M. M. Popov, iIc officcr connanding iIc NoriIcrn Froni, was noi ai Iis
Icadquaricrs ciiIcr. Hc ioo was on iIc froniicr.
In 1945 Sialin and Iis gcncrals launcIcd a lrilliani surprisc sirilc ai Japancsc iroops, and scizcd
MancIuria, noriIcrn Korca and scvcral CIincsc provinccs. TIc prcparaiions io dclivcr iIis surprisc aiiacl
wcrc nadc in cacily iIc sanc way as iIc prcparaiions Iad lccn nadc io aiiacl Ccrnany in 1941. TIc sanc
Mcrcislov iurncd up on iIc froniicr. Hc was ly iIcn a MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union. Hc appcarcd sccrcily on
iIc MancIurian froniicr undcr iIc pscudonyn of'Coloncl-Ccncral Malsinov'. Fcconnaissancc was onc of iIc
nain clcncnis in Iis prcparaiions. 'Hc wcni all ovcr cvcry sccior in a cross-couniry vcIiclc and cvcn on
Iorsclacl in placcs.' (Hcd Stu), 7 Junc 1987i All Sovici gcncrals and narsIals did iIc sanc lcforc cvcry
offcnsivc. TIcir opposiic nunlcrs in iIc WcIrnacIi, Cudcrian, Mansicin, Fonncl and Klcisi, did iIc sanc.
Connandcrs of Sovici divisions and corps siaiioncd in iIc dcpiIs of Sovici icrriiory wcrc frcqucni visiiors
io iIc froniicr. MarsIal Folossovsly (iIcn a najor-gcncral connanding a nccIanizcd corps sonc way lacl
fron iIc froniicri rccalls iIai Ic oficn visiicd I. I. Fcdyuninsly, wIosc corps was dirccily on iIc froniicr.
Ccncral Fcdyuninsly rccalls in Iis ncnoirs iIai Iis collcagucs, including Folossovsly, did indccd pay frc-
qucni visiis. TIc ncnoirs of Sovici narsIals and gcncrals coniain Iundrcds, cvcn iIousands, of sucI
insianccs.
MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union K. S. Moslalcnlo (iIcn a najor-gcncral of ariillcry and connandcr of iIc isi
Anii-Tanl Drigadc of iIc HigI Connand Fcscrvc, iIc FCKi nalcs a dircci conncciion lciwccn iIc TASS
rcpori and iIc sIarply incrcascd involvcncni of Sovici connandcrs in rcconnaissancc. WIcn Major-Ccncral
of Tanl Troops M. I. Poianov, iIc officcr connanding iIc 5iI Arny, discusscd iIc TASS rcpori wiiI Ccncral
Moslalcnlo, Ic iold Iin io picl 'sonc good pcoplc wIo arc liicraic in iIc niliiary scnsc and go off io iIc
froniicr. Lci iIcn do sonc rcconnaissancc in iIc arca and olscrvc iIc Ccrnans and wIai iIcy arc doing. You
ioo will find ii uscful.' (Nu Yugo-Zupudnon Nup)uucnu, Moscow Naula 1961, p.21i
In a dcfcnsivc opcraiion iIcrc is noiIing for an anii-ianl lrigadc io do in a forward arca. TIc connanding
officcr of an arny will iIrow an anii-ianl lrigadc inio laiilc only in a rcally criiical siiuaiion, wIcn iIc cncny
Ias alrcady lrolcn iIrougI iIc dcfcnccs of iIc laiialions, iIc rcgincnis, iIc lrigadcs, iIc divisions and iIc
corps, wIcn a crisis of arny proporiions Ias ariscn, and wIcn iIc dircciion of iIc cncny's nain iIrusi is
quiic clcar. TIis, Iowcvcr, could only Iappcn far in iIc dcpiIs of iIc Sovici dcfcnccs.
Ccncral Moslalcnlo's lrigadc, Iowcvcr, was nciiIcr an arny nor a froni lrigadc. Ii was a lrigadc of iIc
FCK, iIc HigI Connand Fcscrvc. In dcfcnsivc aciion, ii would lc Icld in rcscrvc for an cvcn norc scrious
siiuaiion, wIcrc iIc arny and cvcn iIc wIolc froni Iad lccn lrolcn, and a crisis on a siraicgic scalc Iad
ariscn. In ordcr io solvc iIc siraicgic crisis, iIc lrigadc would Iavc io lc siiuaicd noi on iIc froniicr, lui
dozcns or cvcn Iundrcds of liloncircs fron ii, in iIc placc wIcrc iIc aciual siraicgic crisis Iad ariscn. WIcn
dcfcnsivc opcraiions arc in prcparaiion, iIc connandcr of an FCK anii-ianl lrigadc Ias alsoluicly no
rcason io lc anywIcrc ncar a froniicr.
Dui if a grand-scalc Sovici offcnsivc wcrc lcing sci up io novc fron iIc L'vov salicni inio iIc Icari of cncny
icrriiory, iIcn iIc lcfi flanl of iIc nosi powcrful grouping of iroops cvcr sccn would lc covcrcd ly iIc
CarpaiIians (and iIc nouniain arnics wIo wcrc iurning up iIcrci, wIilc iIc rigIi flanl would Iavc io lc
covcrcd ly an cira-IigI-powcr anii-ianl fornaiion rigIi on iIc froniicr. TIai was wIcrc iIc lrigadc was,
and wIcrc Ccncral Moslalcnlo in pcrson sci off on Ccncral Poianov's ordcrs io rcconnoiirc cncny icrriiory.
If sonconc sIould aiicnpi io cplain iIis Sovici grand-scalc rcconnaissancc ly saying iIai iIc Sovici
Union was prcparing for dcfcncc, I would rcnind Iin iIai iIcrc wcrc vcry nany sappcrs, including sonc of
iIc lcsi, in iIc Sovici rcconnaissancc groups. If dcfcnccs arc lcing sci up, iIcrc is no poini in Iaving a
sappcr lool ai cncny icrrain. Hc Ias cnougI worl io do on Iis own ground. TIc dccpcr Ic novcs inio Iis
own icrriiory, iIc norc worl iIc sappcr will Iavc io do. Dui Sovici sappcrs for sonc rcason wcrc spcnding
long Iours canining cncny icrriiory.
If iIcsc grandiosc rcconnaissancc opcraiions Iad a dcfcnsivc purposc, iIcn iIcy sIould noi Iavc lccn
pcrforncd on iIc froniicr. Posiiions suiiallc for dcfcnding sIould Iavc lccn sclccicd and rcconnoiircd sonc
Iundrcd liloncircs insidc iIc couniry. TIcn iIcy sIould Iavc lccn iIorougIly prcparcd for dcfcnsivc laiilcs.
TIai donc, iIc cniirc scnior connand siaff sIould Iavc fallcn lacl io iIc old froniicr lincs io rcconnoiirc
iIcsc old alandoncd posiiions, and iIcn dccpcr siill inio Sovici icrriiory, io iIc Dnicpcr linc for canplc, io
prcparc siill norc dcfcnccs.
Fcconnaissancc fron froniicr posis is rcconnaissancc for aggrcssion.
TIc Poliiluro Icld a sccrci scssion on 21 Junc 1941. According io iIc Sovici Iisiorian V. Anfilov, 'Connunisi
Pariy lcadcrs and ncnlcrs of iIc Sovici govcrnncni wcrc in iIc Krcnlin iIrougIoui iIc day of 21 Junc, and
rcsolvcd sonc siaic and niliiary prollcns of iIc uinosi inporiancc.' (Hcssnc)tnu Podug, Moscow Naula
1971, p. 185i
Only four of iIc prollcns undcr discussion ai iIis ncciing arc pullic lnowlcdgc. Ii is noi lnown Iow nany
oiIcr prollcns wcrc discusscd iIai day. TIc firsi of iIc dccisions wIicI wc lnow aloui was io arn iIc Fcd
Arny wiiI a DM-13 salvo-firc nolilc insiallaiion; io lcgin produciion in scrics of DM-13 insiallaiions and M-
13 roclci nissilcs; and also io lcgin forning roclci ariillcry uniis. TIc DM-13 was givcn iis unofficial nanc of
KaiyusIa in iIc wccls wIicI followcd.
TIc sccond Poliiluro dccision was io sci up froni fornaiions lascd on iIc wcsicrn froniicr niliiary
disiricis. (Licuicnani-Ccncral P. A. ZIilin, corrcsponding ncnlcr of iIc Acadcny of Scicnccs of iIc USSF,
VcIuuu OtccIcst]cnnuuu Vonu, Moscow I PL 1973, p. 64i TIc fronis of coursc cisicd lcforc iIcn; iIc
Poliiluro was ncrcly fornalizing dccisions wIicI Iad alrcady lccn ialcn. NcvcriIclcss, iIc dccision of 21
Junc is suprcncly inporiani lccausc ii providcs official confirnaiion of iIc faci iIai fivc fronis wcrc sci up
and fornalizcd in sccrci Ic]o)c iIc Ccrnan invasion, noi aficr ii.
TIc Poliiluro scssion lasicd all day and coniinucd far inio iIc nigIi. A fcw Iours laicr, ZIulov rang Sialin
and iricd io convincc Iin iIai sonciIing unusual was going on on iIc froniicr. Many cycwiincsscs and
Iisiorians Iavc dcscrilcd iIai noncni. TIcrc is no douli iIai noi only Sialin lui Moloiov, ZIdanov and
Dcria all rcfuscd io lclicvc iIai a Ccrnan invasion was possillc. TIcir unwillingncss io lclicvc iIis is
confirncd ly cvcryiIing iIc Fcd Arny did. anii-aircrafi guns did noi firc on Ccrnan aircrafi; Sovici figIicrs
wcrc forliddcn io sIooi down Ccrnan plancs; iroops in iIc Firsi EcIclon Iad iIcir annuniiion ialcn fron
iIcn; and draconian ordcrs noi io givc in io provocaiion flowcd fron iIc Ccncral Siaff. Ii is clcar fron iIis
iIai iIc fronis wcrc sci up noi io rcpcl a Ccrnan invasion wIicI iIc Sovici HigI Connand did noi lclicvc
was possillc -lui for sonc oiIcr purposc.
TIc iIird dccision ialcn ly iIc Poliiluro iIai day was io sci up a group of arnics of iIc HigI Connand
Fcscrvc (FCKi. MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union S. M. Dudcnnyi, firsi dcpuiy io iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for
Dcfcncc, was appoinicd iis connanding officcr. Major-Ccncral A. P. Polrovsly (laicr a coloncl-gcncrali
lccanc iIc group's cIicf of siaff. Scvcn arnics of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon, wIicI Iad lccn novcd
sccrcily inio iIc wcsicrn arcas of iIc couniry, joincd iIc ncw arny group.
In Iis ncnoirs, Coloncl-Ccncral Polrovsly callcd iIc ncw fornaiion 'iIc group of iroops of iIc Siavla
Fcscrvc'. (VIZH 1978, No. 4, p. 64i TIis nanc indicaics iIc naiurc of iIc fouriI dccision nadc ai iIis
ncciing. io sci up a Suprcnc Connand Siavla, iIc suprcnc lody wIicI conirols iIc arncd forccs in war.
Ii is quiic possillc iIai iIc dccisions io sci up iIc group of arnics and iIc Suprcnc Connand Siavla Iad
lccn ialcn prcviously and wcrc ncrcly raiificd ai iIc Poliiluro ncciing of Junc 21. Evidcncc of iIis is
providcd ly rcpcaicd indicaiions iIai iIc Ccrnan invasion found Major-Ccncral A. P. Polrovsly alrcady ai
Iis laiilc posi in iIc wcsicrn pari of iIc couniry. (F1ZHi978, No. n, p. 126i
TIc faci is iIai lcforc iIc Ccrnan invasion occurrcd, iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon was noijusi scvcn
diffcrcni arnics lui a figIiing nacIinc wiiI onc singlc lcadcrsIip. WIy was iIis donc? In a dcfcnsivc war, a
singlc lcadcrsIip for iIc arnics of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon would Iavc lccn cniircly unncccssary. (Ii
was in faci dissolvcd cvcn lcforc iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon canc up againsi iIc cncny.i In pcacciinc iIc
Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon was noi nccdcd ai all. Nor was iIcrc anywIcrc for ii io irain or quaricr in iIc
Europcan pari of iIc couniry.
TIc Poliiluro ncciing gavc iIc ovcrall lcadcrsIip of iIc SouiI-Wcsi and SouiIcrn Fronis io ZIulov, and of
iIc NoriIcrn Froni io Mcrcislov. (Ccncral S. P. Ivanov and Major-Ccncral N. SIclIoviscv, VIZH 1981, No. 9,
p. 11i Mcrcislov Iad connandcd an arny in iIc 'lilcraiion' of Finland noi long lcforc. Hc was now scni lacl
iIcrc as HigI Connand Fcprcscniaiivc. ZIulov Iad rcccnily lccn in connand of iIc SouiIcrn Froni wIcn
iIc casicrn arcas of Fonania wcrc 'lilcraicd'. Hc was now scni lacl iIcrc as HigI Connand Fcprcscniaiivc
io co-ordinaic iIc opcraiions of iIc iwo fronis.
Mcrcislov lcfi inncdiaicly. ZIulov dclaycd lcaving Moscow for a fcw Iours, and Opcraiion Darlarossa
caugIi Iin in iIc Ccncral Siaff luilding. Dui iIai was cIancc. Had Darlarossa lcgun a fcw Iours laicr, iIcn
ZIulov Iinsclf would Iavc lcconc pari of iIai raging iorrcni flowing iowards iIc wcsicrn lordcrs of iIc
couniry, carrying along wiiI ii gcncrals fron iIc Ccncral Siaff, IonI)gs fron iIc CULAC, lalour-canp
prisoncrs and iIcir guards, connandcrs fron iIc rcscrvc, and niliiary acadcny siudcnis and iIcir icacIcrs
fron far and widc.
Sovici Iisiorians say of iIc Ccrnan connandcrs iIai 'rigIi up io iIc iinc of iIc invasion of iIc USSF in
Junc, von DraucIiiscI and Halicr nadc onc journcy aficr anoiIcr io visii iIc iroops'. (Anfilov, Hcssnc)tnu
Podug, 1923, p. 65i Wcrc ZIulov and Mcrcislov lcIaving any diffcrcnily?
TIc opcraiions of iIc iwo arnics wcrc sirilingly sinilar. As iIc onc did noi lnow wIai iIc oiIcr was going
io do, iIc WcIrnacIi and iIc Fcd Arny copicd cacI oiIcr down io iIc lasi dciail. TIc Sovici connandcrs
novcd iIcir connand posis ncarcr iIc froniicr, lilc iIcir Ccrnan collcagucs; iIc Fcd Arny conccniraicd iwo
cira-IigI-powcr groupings on iIc flanls in froniicr salicnis jusi as iIc Ccrnan Arny Iad donc. Sovici
aircrafi wcrc conccniraicd rigIi on iIc froniicr, jusi lilc iIc Ccrnan aircrafi. Sovici pilois wcrc forliddcn io
sIooi down Ccrnan aircrafi uniil a spccific noncni, jusi as Ccrnan pilois wcrc forliddcn io sIooi down
Sovici plancs, so as noi io sci off iIc conflici lcforc iis iinc, and so iIai iIc aiiacl wIcn ii canc sIould lc a
conplcic surprisc. Hiilcr's connand posi was ncar Fasicnlurg in Easi Prussia, wIilc iIc Sovici CIicf
Forward Connand Posi (CPKPi was ncar Vilnius. TIcy arc cacily iIc sanc disiancc fron iIc froniicr; if iIc
Sovici and Ccrnan cIicf connand posis wcrc narlcd on a nap, and iIc nap was iIcn foldcd along iIc
froniicr, iIc iwo narls would conc iogciIcr.
Aficr iIc Poliiluro ncciing on 21 Junc Iad cndcd, nany of iis ncnlcrs dispcrscd inncdiaicly io iIcir war
posis. ZIdanov, wIo Iad conirollcd Finland's 'lilcraiion', goi rcady io go io Lcningrad on 23 Junc.
KIrusIcIcv, wIo Iad conirollcd iIc 'lilcraiion' of iIc casicrn provinccs of Poland and Fonania, sci off for
Kicv, and possilly for Tiraspol' as wcll. Andrccv, wIo was rcsponsillc in iIc Poliiluro for war iransporiaiion
(Ccncral A. A. EpisIcv, Pu)tuu A)tnuu, Moscow IPL 1980, p. 176i spcd along iIc Trans-Silcrian Failway in
ordcr io accclcraic iIc novcncni of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon arnics. Hc was sccn nci day in
Novosilirsl. (Licuicnani-Ccncral S. A. Kalinin, HuznusIcnuu o MnuusIcn, Moscow Vocnizdai 1963, p. 131i
TIc Poliiluro's sccrci dccision io dcploy iIc fivc fronis on iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicrs incscapally conniiicd
iIc Sovici Union io lcginning aciivc opcraiions. EacI of iIc Sovici fronis wcrc consuning, anong oiIcr
iIings, up io 60,000 Icad of caiilc pcr noniI. (MarsIal S. K. Kurloilin, Tu SVSuVO V, Moscow Vocnizdai
1977, p. 325i Dy iIc following ycar, norc iIan iIrcc nillion Icad of caiilc would lc nccdcd io fccd iIcsc fivc
fronis. In addiiion io iIcsc, iIc scvcn arnics of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon and iIrcc NKVD arnics wIicI
Iad lccn dcploycd lcIind iIcn all Iad io lc fcd, as wcll as four flccis, iIc Sovici iroops wIo wcrc prcparing
io 'lilcraic' Iran, iIc air forcc, iIc iroops of iIc anii-aircrafi dcfcnccs and, alovc all, iIc war indusiry.
TIc Sovici Ccncral Siaff wcrc clcarly conccrncd.
In spiic of iIc grcai succcsscs in iIc spIcrc of agriculiural dcvclopncni on iIc cvc of war, iIc grain
prollcn Ias noi lccn solvcd lccausc of a nunlcr of rcasons. Siaic dclivcrics and purcIascs of grain did
noi ncci all iIc couniry's nccds for lrcad. (VIZH 1961, No. 7, p. 102i
A. C. Zvcrcv, iIc Sialinisi Pcoplc's Connissar for Financcs and ncnlcr of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc, claincd
iIai 'ly iIc lcginning of 1941 iIc nunlcr of Icad of caiilc wc Iad was lclow iIc lcvcl in 1916'. (ZupsI
Mnst)u, Moscow IPL 1973, p. 188i Ii nusi lc lornc in nind iIai iIc lcvcl of 1916 was noi iIc nornal lcvcl
for Fussia, lui iIc lcvcl io wIicI iIc couniry's agriculiurc Iad sunl aficr iwo ruinous ycars of war. TIcrc
wcrc lcss Icad of caiilc in iIc Sovici Union in 'pcacciinc' iIan iIcrc Iad lccn in Fussia ai iIc IcigIi of
World War I. Ai iIcsc caiasiropIic lcvcls, disordcrs can lrcal oui, iIc nornal social siruciurc can lrcal
down and crowds can ialc io iIc sirccis.
Having iIcnsclvcs lccn carricd io powcr on a wavc of disordcrs, iIc connunisis did noi inprovc iIc
couniry's food siiuaiion. TIcy worscncd ii io iIc poini wIcrc iIc couniry was siill irying aficr a quaricr of a
ccniury io rcacI iIc vcry low lcvcl io wIicI iIc cconony Iad sunl as a rcsuli of iIc Crcai War. Sialin crcaicd
a colossal arny and a colossal war indusiry, lui for iIis Ic sacrificcd iIc naiion's pairinony wIicI Iad lccn
accunulaicd ovcr iIc ccniurics, and also iIc naiion's siandard of living wIicI Ic lowcrcd io lclow iIc lcvcl ai
wIicI pcoplc wcrc living during iIc Crcai War.
Fron iIc lcginning of 1939, Sialin lcgan io iransfcr iIc rcsourccs of a caiasiropIically wcalcncd
agriculiurc io iIc arny and war indusiry. TIc arny and indusiry swifily pui on wcigIi, wIilc agriculiurc
lccanc Iorrifying iIin. TIc proccss gaiIcrcd spccd. TIc 1,320 niliiary irains ladcn wiiI noior vcIiclcs on
iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicr canc noi fron iIc war indusiry lui fron iIc collcciivc farns. In May 1941,
800,000 rcscrvisis wcrc sccrcily nolilizcd inio iIc Fcd Arny. TIcy canc noi only fron iIc lalour canps, as
wc Iavc sccn, lui also fron iIc collcciivc farns. TIcrc wcrc rcscrvcd occupaiions in indusiry, lui noi in
agriculiurc. TIus iIc nolilizaiion addcd io iIc nunlcr of nouiIs io fccd, wIilc rcducing iIc nunlcr of
agriculiural lalourcrs io fccd iIcn.
TIc cisicncc of fivc voracious fronis, and iIc sccrci nolilizaiion of pcasanis and iccInicians lcforc iIc
Iarvcsi Iad lccn gaiIcrcd, would Iavc lcd incviially io a faninc in 1942, cvcn wiiIoui any inicrvcniion ly
iIc Ccrnans. Oncc iIc all-consuning fronis Iad lccn dcploycd, iIcrc was no opiion lui io scnd iIcn inio
aciion iIc sanc ycar. If iIcy siaycd wIcrc iIcy wcrc, iIcy would quiic sinply Iavc noiIing lcfi io cai. A
surprisc aiiacl ly iIc Fcd Arny in 1941, on iIc oiIcr Iand, Icld iIc pronisc of ncw ricI icrriiorics wiiI
alundani rcscrvcs of food. Evcn if iIcsc supplics provcd inadcquaic, ii would noi naiicr ioo nucI; a faninc
in iIc niddlc of a war is undcrsiandallc and can always lc cplaincd away.
TIc only Sovici narsIal wIon Sialin irusicd conplcicly was D. M. SIaposInilov. As carly as 1929,
SIaposInilov Iad cprcsscd iIc caicgoric opinion iIai ii was inpossillc io nolilizc Iundrcds of iIousands
and nillions of pcoplc and lccp iIcn in prolongcd inaciiviiy in iIc froniicr arca. (Mozg A)nu, Vol. 3, CIZ,
1929i Ii is nucI casicr io conirol an arny in iIc coursc of a war iIan nillions of arncd and Iungry ncn
loiling ovcr wiiI frusiraiion and rcscnincni againsi iIcir lcadcrs.
WIcn Ic sci up iIc fronis, Sialin dcsiroycd iIc alrcady unsiallc lalancc lciwccn Iis Iugc arnics and iIc
couniry's cIausicd, ruincd agriculiurc. Ii was all or noiIing, and Sialin could no longcr waii uniil 1942 io
launcI an offcnsivc.
"(&)*#% 25
WIy Sialin Did Noi Trusi CIurcIill
Dciwccn Junc 1940 and iIc Ccrnan invasion of iIc Sovici Union a ycar laicr, an inicrcsiing corrcspondcncc
iool placc lciwccn Winsion CIurcIill and Joscf Sialin. TIc lciicrs wIicI iIc cnlaiilcd DriiisI lcadcr
addrcsscd io iIc Sovici Icad of siaic Iavc assuncd an alnosi lcgcndary qualiiy, and arc lnown io Iisiory as
'CIurcIill's Warning'. Ii is widcly lclicvcd iIai in iIcsc lciicrs CIurcIill warncd Sialin of iIc inpcnding
Ccrnan aiiacl on iIc Sovici Union. MucI cncrgy Ias lccn cpcndcd in spcculaiing wIy Sialin failcd io Iccd
iIis fricndly and olviously wcll-inforncd advicc.
PcrIaps wc sIould lc asling, wIy sIoud Sialin Iavc irusicd CIurcIill? Aficr all, CIurcIill Iad lccn an
inplacallc opponcni of connunisn sincc 1918, wIcn Ic Iad proposcd an alliancc wiiI Ccrnany againsi iIc
ncwly-forncd Sovici siaic. Lcnin Iinsclf Iad dcscrilcd CIurcIill as 'iIc worsi Iaicr of Sovici Fussia'. (PSS,
Moscow, Vol. 14, p. 350i Undcr iIc circunsianccs, ii is Iardly surprising if Sialin ircaicd any ncssagc fron
CIurcIill wiiI a considcrallc dcgrcc of sccpiicisn.
Onc nusi also lcar in nind iIc poliiical laclground io World War II. Ccrnany was nosi
disadvaniagcously placcd in iIc diplonaiic war of iIc 19308. Siiuaicd in iIc Icari of Europc, ii was ai iIc
ccnirc of all conflicis. WIaicvcr war nigIi lcgin in Europc, Ccrnany would alnosi incviially lc involvcd in
ii. TIcrcforc iIc diplonaiic siraicgy of nany counirics in iIc 19305 loilcd down io iIis aiiiiudc - you go io
war wiiI Ccrnany, and I sIall iry io siay oui of ii. TIc MunicI agrccncni of 1938 was a siriling nodcl of
iIis pIilosopIy.
Sialin and Moloiov won iIc diplonaiic war of iIc 19305. WiiI iIc MoloiovFillcnirop Paci, Sialin gavc
iIc grccn ligIi for World War II, of wIicI Ic rcnaincd a 'ncuiral' olscrvcr, wIilc iraining a nillion
paracIuiisis as a coniingcncy againsi 'any surpriscs'.
Driiain and Francc losi iIc diplonaiic war and wcrc iIcn conpcllcd io figIi a rcal war, fron wIicI Francc
nadc a rapid cii. WIcrc did Driiain's poliiical inicrcsi lic? Looling ai iIc siiuaiion iIrougI iIc cycs of iIc
Krcnlin, CIurcIill could Iavc only onc poliiical aspiraiion io find a ligIining-conducior for iIc Ccrnan
HtzI)cg and dcflcci iIc Ccrnan aiiacl io anywIcrc clsc oiIcr iIan Driiain. In iIc sccond Ialf of 1940, only
iIc Sovici Union could lc sucI a ligIining-conducior.
Pui norc sinply, Driiain (in Sialin's opinion, wIicI Ic opcnly cprcsscd on 10 MarcI 1939i wanicd a clasI
lciwccn iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany, wIilc ii siood asidc fron iIc figIi. I do noi lnow wIciIcr iIai was
CIurcIill's inicniion or noi, lui iIai is cacily Iow Sialin would Iavc sccn cvcry novc nadc ly iIc DriiisI
govcrnncni and iis diplonais. As Adniral of iIc Flcci N. C. Kuzncisov pui ii, 'Sialin of coursc Iad norc iIan
cnougI grounds for iIinling iIai England and Ancrica wcrc sccling io Iavc us collidc Icad-on wiiI
Ccrnany.' (NuIununc, 1966, p. 321i
TIc siraicgic siiuaiion in Europc also influcnccd Sialin's rcsponsc. TIc conccniraiion of powcr againsi
wcalncss is iIc nain principlc of siraicgy. Ccrnany was unallc io apply iIis principlc in World War I
lccausc ii was figIiing on iwo fronis. Aiicnpis io conccniraic grcai cfforis on onc froni auionaiically lcd io
iIc wcalcning of iIc oiIcr froni and iIc cncny inncdiaicly cploiicd ii. As a rcsuli, Ccrnany Iad io
rcnouncc a siraicgy of dcsiruciion in favour of iIc only oiIcr alicrnaiivc, a siraicgy of aiiriiion. Dui
Ccrnany's rcsourccs wcrc liniicd, wIilc iIc rcsourccs of iis cncnics wcrc unliniicd. A war of aiiriiion for
Ccrnany iIcrcforc could only cnd in caiasiropIc.
DoiI iIc Ccrnan Ccncral Siaff and Hiilcr Iinsclf undcrsiood iIai a war on iwo fronis would lc
caiasiropIic for Ccrnany. In 1939-40, Ccrnany always Iad in cffcci only onc froni. TIc Ccrnan Ccncral
Siaff iIcrcforc was allc io apply iIc conccniraiion principlc, and ii did so lrillianily, conccniraiing iIc
cnornous Ccrnan niliiary powcr firsi againsi onc cncny, iIcn againsi iIc oiIcr.
TIc nain prollcn facing Ccrnan siraicgy was io prcvcni war lrcaling oui on a sccond froni. As long as
iIc Ccrnans wcrc figIiing on onc froni only, iIcy won lrilliani viciorics. Spcaling ai a ncciing wiiI HigI
Connand siaff of iIc Ccrnan arncd forccs on 23 Novcnlcr 1939, Hiilcr said iIai a war againsi iIc Sovici
Union could lcgin only aficr iIc war in iIc Wcsi Iad cndcd.
Now supposing iIai sonconc Iad iold you in 1940 iIai Hiilcr inicndcd io rcnouncc iIai grcai principlc of
siraicgy, and insicad of conccniraiion was prcparing io dispcrsc Iis forccs. Sonconc lccps on wIispcring in
your car iIai Hiilcr quiic inicniionally wanis io rcpcai iIc liggcsi nisialc Ccrnany nadc in World War I.
Evcry scIoolloy lnows iIai war on iwo fronis is suicidc for Ccrnany. World War II was io provc iIis rulc
oncc again, and also iIai, for Hiilcr pcrsonally, war on iwo fronis would lc suicidc in iIc purcsi scnsc of iIc
word.
If Sovici Miliiary Iniclligcncc Iad rcporicd anyiIing lilc iIis, I sIould Iavc adviscd Ccncral Colilov, iIc
Icad of iIc CFU, io givc up Iis posi, go lacl io Iis acadcny and nalc anoiIcr siudy of iIc rcasons for iIc
Ccrnan dcfcai in World War I. If sonc ncuiral pcrson fron ouisidc Iad iold nc aloui iIis suicidal war, I
sIould Iavc rcplicd iIai Hiilcr was noi an idioi, lui iIai you, dcar fricnd, ccriainly arc onc if you iIinl iIai
Hiilcr will lcgin a war on iwo fronis of Iis own frcc will.
CIurcIill was norc inicrcsicd iIan anyonc clsc in iIc world in Hiilcr Iaving noi onc, lui iwo fronis. In
sucI a siiuaiion, CIurcIill Iad ioo grcai a vcsicd inicrcsi for Sialin io lclicvc wIai Ic said.
Apari fron iIc purcly siraicgic and poliiical siiuaiions, accouni nusi also lc ialcn of iIc cnvironncni in
wIicI CIurcIill wroic Iis ncssagcs and Sialin rcad iIcn.
Francc fcll on 21 Junc 1940. TIc piracy of Ccrnan U-loais incrcascd sIarply on iIc sca-rouics. TIcrc
Iung ovcr Driiain, an island naiion wiiI closc iradc linls wiiI iIc rcsi of iIc world, iIc iIrcai of a naval
llocladc and iIc nosi acuic crisis in iradc, indusiry and financc. Worsc siill, iIc Ccrnan niliiary nacIinc,
wIicI ai iIai poini sccncd invincillc io nany, was naling inicnsivc prcparaiions io land on iIc DriiisI
Islcs.
Ii was in iIis cnvironncni iIai CIurcIill wroic io Sialin on 25 Junc. On 30 Junc, iIc Ccrnan arncd forccs
capiurcd Cucrnscy in iIc CIanncl Islands. In a iIousand ycars of DriiisI Iisiory, iIcrc Iavc lccn fcw
occasions wIcn an cncny Ias landcd on iIc DriiisI Islcs. WIai was io follow? A landing on nainland
Driiain? Cucrnscy was ialcn wiiIoui rcsisiancc. For Iow long would Driiain rcsisi?
Sialin rcccivcd CIurcIill's ncssagc iIc day aficr Ccrnany Iad scizcd Cucrnscy.
WIcrc did CIurcIill's inicrcsi lic, onc nay asl? Did Ic wani io savc iIc diciaiorsIip in iIc Sovici Union, or
savc iIc DriiisI Enpirc? I lclicvc iIai ii was iIc inicrcsis of Driiain wIicI nadc CIurcIill wriic Iis lciicr. If
wc can undcrsiand iIis, surcly Sialin nusi Iavc undcrsiood ii as wcll? For Sialin, CIurcIill was noi an
unliascd olscrvcr wIo oui of fricndly scniincnis was giving warning of dangcr, lui a nan in scrious
difficuliics, nccding Iclp and allics in a conflici againsi a fcarful cncny. Sialin iIcrcforc was vcry cauiious
iowards CIurcIill's lciicrs.
CIurcIill wroic scvcral lciicrs io Sialin. Dui unluclily iIcy all rcacIcd Sialin ai iincs wIcn CIurcIill was
in grcai difficuliics. TIc lcsi-lnown lciicr in iIis scrics rcacIcd Sialin on 19 April 1941. Ii Ias aiiracicd
considcrallc inicrcsi fron Iisiorians, all of wIon agrcc iIai ii was a scrious warning io Sialin. Dui lci us
considcr CIurcIill's posiiion raiIcr iIan iIc ici of iIc lciicr. TIc Ccrnan Arny iool Dclgradc on 12 April.
Fonncl rcacIcd iIc Egypiian froniicr on 13 April. Yugoslavia surrcndcrcd io Ccrnany on 14 April, and Si
Paul's CaiIcdral in London was danagcd in an air raid on 16 April. Crcccc was on iIc poini of surrcndcr and
DriiisI iroops iIcrc wcrc in a caiasiropIic siiuaiion; ii Iad lcconc a qucsiion of wIciIcr or noi iIcy could lc
cvacuaicd.
Sialin nigIi Iavc suspccicd noi only CIurcIill's noiivcs, lui also Iis sourccs of infornaiion. CIurcIill
wroic iIc lciicrs in Junc 1940. WIy did CIurcIill noi scnd sinilar lciicrs io iIc FrcncI govcrnncni and io
Iis own iroops on iIc Coniincni in May of iIai ycar?
CIurcIill Iad wriiicn io Sialin in April 1941, a noniI aficr iIc Ccrnan arncd forccs cccuicd a lrilliani
opcraiion io capiurc Crcic. WIy was DriiisI iniclligcncc, Sialin nigIi Iavc iIougIi, worling so wcll in iIc
inicrcsis of iIc Sovici Union, wIilc ii was doing noiIing in DriiisI inicrcsis?
Finally, iIcrc is a norc scrious rcason wIy Sialin did noi irusi CIurcIill's 'warnings'. conirary io popular
lclicf, CIurcIill was noi warning Sialin aloui a Ccrnan invasion.
Connunisi propaganda Ias donc nucI io luild up iIc nyiI aloui CIurcIill's 'warnings'. KIrusIcIcv
uscd io quoic CIurcIill's ncssagc of 18 April 1941 io Sialin in ordcr io do iIis. V. Anfilov, iIai pronincni
Sovici niliiary Iisiorian and IigIly rcfincd falsificr of Iisiory, quoics iIc ncssagc in all Iis lools. ZIulov
givcs iIc ncssagc in full, and Ccncral S. P. Ivanov docs iIc sanc. TIc official Hsto)u o] tIc G)cut MotIc)und
Vu) consianily Ianncrs CIurcIill's warnings inio our Icads and quoics Iis 18 April ncssagc in full. TIc
ici of CIurcIill's ncssagc can lc found in Iundrcds of Sovici lools and ariiclcs.
I Iavc rcccivcd rcliallc infornaiion fron a irusiworiIy sourcc iIai iIc Ccrnans, aficr dcciding iIai
Yugoslavia Iad fallcn inio iIcir cluicIcs, iIai is on 20 MarcI, lcgan io iransfcr iIrcc arnourcd divisions,
of iIc fivc siaiioncd in Fonania, inio iIc souiIcrn pari of Poland. As soon as iIcy lcarni of iIc Scrlian
rcvoluiion, iIis iransfcr was canccllcd. Your cccllcncy will casily apprcciaic iIc significancc of iIcsc facis.
All Sovici sourccs pullisI CIurcIill's ncssagc in iIis forn, insisiing and assuring iIai ii was a 'warning'. I
pcrsonally scc no warning Icrc. CIurcIill is ialling aloui iIrcc ianl divisions. TIis is nany ly CIurcIill's
siandards. Dy Sialin's, ii is noi a grcai dcal. Sialin Iinsclf ai iIc iinc was sccrcily sciiing up 63 ianl
divisions, cacI onc of wIicI was sirongcr iIan a Ccrnan division loiI in nunlcr and qualiiy of ianls. If wc
considcr iIai a rcpori aloui iIrcc ianl divisions anounicd io a 'warning' iIai aggrcssion was in prcparaiion,
wc nccd noi in iIai casc accusc Hiilcr of aggrcssivc inicniions. Ccrnan iniclligcncc Iad alrcady sulniiicd
rcporis io Hiilcr aloui dozcns of Sovici ianl divisions wIicI wcrc grouping on iIc lordcrs of Ccrnany and
Fonania.
CIurcIill suggcsicd iIai Sialin asscss 'iIc significancc of iIcsc facis'. How could iIcy lc asscsscd? Poland
Iisiorically Ias always lccn iIc gaic iIrougI wIicI all aggrcssors Iavc passcd fron Europc io Fussia. Hiilcr
wanicd io iransfcr ianls io Poland, lui Ic cIangcd Iis nind.
Conparcd io Poland, Fonania was a vcry lad springloard for aggrcssion. Ccrnan iroops would lc Iardcr
io supply iIcrc iIan in Poland. In an aiiacl fron Fonania iIc road io iIc viial Icariland of Fussia would lc
longcr and Iardcr for an aggrcssor, wIo would Iavc io ovcrconc a nuliiiudc of larricrs, including iIc lowcr
rcacIcs of iIc rivcr Dnicpcr.
Had Sialin lccn prcparing Iinsclf for dcfcncc, and Iad Ic lclicvcd CIurcIill's 'warning', Ic sIould Iavc
Icavcd a sigI of rclicf and rclacd Iis niliiary prcparaiions. In addiiion, CIurcIill gavc iIc rcason wIy iIc
Ccrnan iroops wcrc siaying in Fonania insicad of lcing iransfcrrcd io Poland. iIc Ccrnans Iad prollcns in
Yugoslavia, pariicularly in Scrlia.
Driiain ai iIai iinc was waging vcry inicnsivc diplonaiic and niliiary aciiviiy iIrougIoui iIc cniirc
Mcdiicrrancan lasin, pariicularly in Crcccc and Yugoslavia. CIurcIill's iclcgran was of cnornous
inporiancc, lui ii could in no way lc rcgardcd as a warning. Ii was io a nucI grcaicr dcgrcc an inviiaiion io
Sialin. TIc Ccrnans wanicd io iransfcr divisions io Poland, lui Iavc lccn forccd io divcri iIcn clscwIcrc.
You Iavc noiIing io fcar, norc so sincc iIcsc divisions in Fonania Iavc iIcir lacls iurncd io you. Asscss
iIcsc facis and aci!
WIcn Sialin goi inio a criiical siiuaiion in iIc war, Ic ioo scni sinilar ncssagcs io CIurcIill and Fooscvcli.
Ccrnany is conccniraiing iis nain forccs againsi nc, wiiI iis lacl iurncd io you. TIis is iIc lcsi iinc for
you opcn iIc sccond froni quiclly! TIcn again canc iIc iurn of iIc wcsicrn allics. WIcn iIcy goi inio
scrious difficuliics aficr opcning iIc sccond froni, iIc wcsicrn lcadcrs scni iIc sanc ncssagc io Sialin in
January 1945 . can'i you Iii Iardcr?
Wc arc noi jusiificd in rcgarding CIurcIill's lciicrs as a warning. CIurcIill wroic Iis firsi long lciicr io
Sialin on 25 Junc 1940 lcforc iIc Darlarossa plan cvcn cisicd. CIurcIill's lciicrs arc foundcd on solcr
calculaiion raiIcr iIan on lnowlcdgc of Ccrnan plans. Hc was sinply drawing Sialin's aiicniion io iIc
siiuaiion in Europc. Driiain Ias prollcns wiiI Hiilcr ioday, and iIc Sovici Union will surcly Iavc iIcn
ionorrow. CIurcIill was calling on Sialin io conc inio iIc war on iIc sidc of Driiain.
Sir Dasil Liddcll-Hari, iIc pronincni DriiisI niliiary Iisiorian, nadc a lrilliani analysis of iIc siraicgic
siiuaiion of iIai iinc as sccn fron Hiilcr's siandpoini. According io Ccncral Jodl, io wIon Liddcll-Hari rcfcrs,
Hiilcr rcpcaicdly iold Iis gcncrals iIai Driiain's only Iopc was a Sovici invasion of Europc. (D. H. Liddcll-
Hari, Hsto)u o] tIc Sccond Vo)d Vu), Pan, London 1978, p. 151i CIurcIill Iinsclf wroic on 22 April 1941
iIai 'iIc Sovici govcrnncni lnows full wcll . . . iIai wc siand in nccd of iis Iclp'. (L. Woodward, H)tsI
Fo)cgn Pocu n tIc Sccond Vo)d Vu), p. 611i WIai Iclp was CIurcIill cpcciing fron Sialin, and Iow could
Sialin givc ii, cccpi ly siriling ai Ccrnany?
Sialin Iad sufficicni grounds for noi irusiing CIurcIill. Dui cvcn Sialin nusi Iavc undcrsiood iIai Iad
Driiain fallcn, Ic would Iavc lccn lcfi io facc Ccrnany alonc. In Iis rcply io CIurcIill's 25 Junc ncssagc, Ic
says iIai 'iIc policy of iIc Sovici Union is io avoid war wiiI Ccrnany. Dui Ccrnany nigIi aiiacl iIc Sovici
Union in spring of 1941, if Driiain Ias losi iIc war ly iIcn.' (F. Coralsli, Vo)d Vu) II Anunuc. l93l-l945,
HanisI Hanilion, London, p. 24i
Ii iranspircs fron Sialin's answcr iIai Ic inicndcd io livc in pcacc wIilc paiicnily waiiing for Driiain io fall,
and if Ic Iad lccn lcfi alonc facc io facc wiiI Hiilcr, io waii for Ccrnany io invadc. AI, Iow siupid Sialin
was, sonc Iisiorians say indignanily. Dui lci us noi sIarc iIcir indignaiion. TIai ncssagc was addrcsscd noi
io CIurcIill, lui io Hiilcr! On 13 July 1940, Moloiov was ordcrcd ly Sialin io Iand ovcr io Couni von dcr
ScIulcnlurg, iIc Ccrnan anlassador, iIc wriiicn rccord of Sialin's convcrsaiion wiiI Sir Siafford Cripps,
iIc DriiisI Anlassador. Was ii noi a sirangc iIing io do, io Iavc ncgoiiaiions wiiI CIurcIill iIrougI Sir
Siafford Cripps, and iIcn sccrcily pass iIc ninuics of iIcsc ncgoiiaiions io Hiilcr iIrougI Iis anlassador
von dcr ScIulcnlurg?
Dui Sialin did noi pass iIc original ncnorandun io Hiilcr, only a carcfully cdiicd copy in wIicI a nass of
unncccssary dciail was rciaincd, lui lcy scnicnccs wcrc conplcicly alicrcd. WIcn iIc diplonaiic vcnccr is
sirippcd away, iIis is wIai iIc docuncni was iclling Hiilcr.
'Adolf, figIi, and don'i worry aloui your rcar. Advancc and don'i lool lacl, you Iavc lcIind you your good
fricnd Joscf Sialin wIo only wanis pcacc and wIo will ncvcr aiiacl you undcr any circunsianccs.
'TIcrc Iavc lccn ncgoiiaiions Icrc in Moscow wiiI iIc DriiisI Anlassador. Don'i worry, iIcsc ncgoiiaiions
arc noi dirccicd againsi you. You scc, I'n cvcn scnding you iIc sccrci ninuics of ny ialls wiiI Cripps. And
I'vc scni CIurcIill io Icll!' (In faci Ic Iad noii.
Could iIc swcci sircn songs fron iIc Krcnlin lc lclicvcd? Many Iisiorians do lclicvc iIcn. Dui Hiilcr did
noi, and aficr iIinling long and Iard aloui iIc 'copy' of Sialin's convcrsaiion wiiI Cripps, Ic issucd iIc
ordcr on 21 July 1940 iIai a siari sIould lc nadc on iIc plan for Opcraiion Darlarossa. In oiIcr words,
Hiilcr dccidcd io figIi on iwo fronis. TIis dccision sccns incplicallc io nany pcoplc. Many Ccrnan gcncrals
and ficld-narsIals did noi undcrsiand ii ciiIcr, and iIcy dcclincd io approvc sucI a iruly suicidal dccision.
Dui Hiilcr Iad no cIoicc.
Hc Iad gonc incrcasingly furiIcr wcsi, noriI and souiI, wIilc Sialin siood lacl wiiI Iis ac singing swcci
songs of pcacc.
Hiilcr's onc irrcncdiallc nisialc was nadc, noi on 21 July 1940, lui on 19 Augusi 1939. Oncc Ic Iad
agrccd io iIc signing of iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci, Hiilcr was faccd wiiI an incviiallc war againsi iIc
Wcsi, wIilc iIc 'ncuiral' Sialin siood lcIind Iin. Fron iIai noncni onwards, Hiilcr Iad iwo fronis. His
dccision io sci up Opcraiion Darlarossa in iIc casi wiiIoui waiiing for viciory in iIc wcsi was noi a faial
crror, lui only an aiicnpi io pui rigIi iIc faial crror Ic Iad alrcady nadc. Dui ly iIcn ii was ioo laic. TIc
war alrcady Iad iwo fronis, and ii was alrcady inpossillc io win ii. Evcn iIc capiurc of Moscow would noi
Iavc solvcd Hiilcr's prollcn; lcyond Moscow iIcrc siill lay anoiIcr 10,000 liloncircs of loundlcss icriiory,
vasi ccnircs of indusirial powcr, incIausiillc naiural and Iunan rcsourccs. Ii is always casy io lcgin a war
wiiI Fussia, lui noi so casy io finisI ii. Ii was ccriainly casy for Hiilcr io figIi in iIc Europcan pari of iIc
Sovici Union; iIc icrriiory is liniicd, iIcrc arc nany good roads, and iIc winicrs arc nild. Was Hiilcr rcady io
figIi in Silcria in iIc unrcsiricicd liniilcss cpansc, wIcrc iIcrc wcrc no roads and wIcrc iIc lruialiiy of iIc
frosi is closc io iIc lruialiiy of Sialin's rcginc?
Sialin lncw iIai war on iwo fronis would lc suicidc for Hiilcr. Sialin calculaicd iIai Hiilcr would noi
connii suicidc, and iIai Ic would noi lcgin a war in iIc casi wiiIoui Iaving firsi cndcd iIc war in iIc wcsi.
Sialin was paiicnily waiiing for iIc Ccrnan ianl corps io land in Driiain. Hc was noi alonc in looling upon
iIc lrilliani airlornc assauli on Crcic as a final rcIcarsal for landing in Driiain. Ai iIc sanc iinc Sialin did
cvcryiIing possillc io convincc Hiilcr of Iis pcaccallcncss. TIai was wIy Sovici anii-aircrafi guns wcrc noi
firing on Ccrnan aircrafi, wIilc Sovici ncwspapcrs and TASS proclaincd iIai iIcrc would lc no war lciwccn
iIc Sovici Union and Ccrnany.
Had Sialin succccdcd in convincing Hiilcr iIai iIc Sovici Union was a ncuiral couniry, iIcn iIc Ccrnan
ianl corps wiiIoui any douli would Iavc landcd on iIc DriiisI Islcs. And iIcn a iruly unprcccdcnicd
siiuaiion would Iavc ariscn. Poland, CzccIoslovalia, Dcnnarl, Norway, Dclgiun, Holland, Lucnlourg,
Yugoslavia, Francc, Crcccc and Allania no longcr Iad arnics, govcrnncnis, parliancnis or poliiical pariics.
Millions of pcoplc Iad lccn drivcn inio Nazi conccniraiion canps and iIc wIolc of Europc was awaiiing iis
lilcraiion. All iIai rcnaincd on iIc Europcan coniincni was iIc rcgincni of Hiilcr's pcrsonal guards, iIc
guards of iIc Nazi conccniraiion canps, Ccrnan rcar uniis, niliiary scIools and . . . fivc Sovici airlornc
assauli corps, icns of iIousands of fasi ianls luili spccially for noving along noiorways; icns of iIousands
of aircrafi; pilois wIo Iad noi lccn iraincd for figIiing in iIc air, lui wIo Iad lccn iaugIi Iow io nalc air
sirilcs on ground iargcis; divisions and wIolc arnics of iIc NKVD; arnics nadc up of prisoncrs fron iIc
Sovici lalour canps; cira-IigI-powcr fornaiions of iIc Clidcr Air Forcc io nalc rapid landings on cncny
icrriiory; nouniain divisions iraincd io nalc swifi iIrusis inio iIc nouniain passcs ovcr wIicI flowcd oil,
iIc lifc- llood of war.
Has anyonc in Iisiory cvcr lccn in sucI a favourallc posiiion io 'lilcraic' Europc? And iIis siiuaiion did
noi conc aloui ly iisclf. Sialin, worling long, pcrsisicnily and in susiaincd fasIion, Iad nadc a sulilc
nosaic fron iIc snallcsi of fragncnis. Ii was Sialin wIo Iclpcd io lring Hiilcr io powcr, and nadc Hiilcr, in
Sialin's pIrasc, a rcal icclrcalcr for iIc rcvoluiion. Ii was Sialin wIo cncouragcd iIc icclrcalcr io novc inio
Europc. Ii was Sialin wIo dcnandcd of iIc FrcncI and oiIcr connunisis iIai iIcy sIould noi prcvcni iIc
icclrcalcr fron lrcaling up Europc. Ii was Sialin wIo supplicd iIc icclrcalcr wiiI cvcryiIing ii nccdcd for
iis viciorious advancc. Ii was Sialin wIo closcd Iis cycs io all iIc crincs lcing conniiicd ly iIc Nazis and
rcjoiccd in iIc pagcs of P)uudu 'wIcn iIc world was sIalcn io iis foundaiions, wIcn powcrs pcrisIcd and
grcaincss fcll'.
Dui Hiilcr gucsscd Sialin's dcsign. TIai was wIy World War II cndcd caiasiropIically for Sialin. Hc only goi
Ialf of Europc, and sonc placcs Icrc and iIcrc in Asia.
Onc final qucsiion. If CIurcIill did noi warn Sialin iIai an invasion was lcing prcparcd, wIy do iIc
connunisis Iold on so icnaciously io iIc lcgcnd iIai Ic did? To sIow io iIc Sovici pcoplc iIai CIurcIill was
a good nan? Or io provc iIai iIc Wcsicrn lcadcrs wcrc io lc irusicd? Ii was noi, of coursc, for ciiIcr purposc.
TIc connunisis nccd iIc lcgcnd of CIurcIill's warnings io jusiify iIcir own prcparaiions for war. TIc
'warnings' lolsicr iIc oriIodo vicw iIai iIc 'lig plan' for wIicI sucI claloraic prcparaiions Iad lccn nadc
was sinply inicndcd io forcsiall Ccrnan aggrcssion. 'Wc lncw iIai Hiilcr was going io aiiacl,' iIcy say. 'Ii
was CIurcIill wIo warncd us . . .'
"(&)*#% 31
WIy Sialin Did Noi Trusi FicIard Sorgc
Sialin prcparcd Iinsclf vcry scriously for war. Hc sIowcd pariicular conccrn for Sovici niliiary iniclligcncc
wIicI is lnown ioday as iIc CFU. Ii is sufficicni io rcad iIrougI iIc lisi of all iIc CFU cIicfs sincc iIc
insiiiuiion was sci up prior io 1940 io apprcciaic Sialin's ioucIing conccrn for Iis valiani iniclligcncc officcrs.
Aralov arrcsicd, spcni scvcral ycars undcr invcsiigaiion, in wIicI 'ncasurcs of pIysical
cocrcion'
wcrc uscd
Siigga liquidaicd
Nilonov liquidaicd
Dcrzin liquidaicd
UnsIlilIi liquidaicd
Uriisly liquidaicd
YczIov liquidaicd
Proslurov liquidaicd
Ii gocs wiiIoui saying iIai wIcn iIc niliiary iniclligcncc cIicfs wcrc liquidaicd, iIcir firsi dcpuiics, iIcir
dcpuiics, adviscrs and dircciors of iIcir scrviccs loards and dcparincnis wcrc liquidaicd as wcll. And wIcn
iIc Icads of dcparincnis wcrc liquidaicd, a sIadow invarially fcll ovcr iIc cccuiivc officcrs and agcnis
wIon iIcy wcrc dircciing. TIc liquidaiion of iIc Icads of niliiary iniclligcncc, iIcrcforc, ncani iIc
liquidaiion of iIc cniirc niliiary iniclligcncc.
Ii is said iIai iIis rcgular llood-lciiing Iad disasirous conscqucnccs for iIc iniclligcncc scrvicc. TIis was
noi iIc casc. Dcforc, during and aficr World War II, iIc CFU was, and rcnains, iIc nosi powcrful and
cffcciivc iniclligcncc scrvicc in iIc world. TIc CFU produccs lcss sccrci infornaiion iIan iis grcai opponcni
and conpciiior, iIc CI.K. or KCD (iIc Sovici sccrci policci, lui iIc qualiiy of iis infornaiion is considcrally
IigIcr. TIc consiani purging in no way wcalcncd iIc powcr of Sovici niliiary iniclligcncc. On iIc conirary,
as cacI gcncraiion succccdcd iis prcdcccssor, ii lccanc norc aggrcssivc. TIis succcssion of gcncraiions is
lilc iIc way in wIicI a sIarl rcncws iis icciI. TIc ncw icciI appcar in conplcic rows, forcing oui iIc old
oncs, wIilc norc and norc rows of ncw icciI can alrcady lc sccn lcIind iIcn. TIc liggcr iIc crcaiurc
grows, iIc norc icciI ii Ias; iIc norc oficn iIcy arc rcplaccd, iIc longcr and sIarpcr iIcy lcconc.
Iniclligcncc officcrs wIo wcrc ly Sovici siandards innoccni, frcqucnily, indccd vcry frcqucnily, pcrisIcd in
iIc rapid succcssion of gcncraiions. Sirangcly, Iowcvcr, iIc Sovici sIarl ncvcr cndcd up iooiIlcss lccausc of
ii. Hiilcr cicrninaicd a largc nunlcr of ardcni Nazis wIo lclongcd io iIc SA, onc of iIc grcai nass Nazi
organizaiions, wiiIoui wcalcning Iis rcginc in any way.
TIc diffcrcncc lciwccn Hiilcr and Sialin was iIai Sialin iool Iis prcparaiions for war vcry scriously. Sialin
arrangcd nigIis of iIc long lnivcs noi jusi againsi Iis own connunisi siorn-iroopcrs, lui againsi gcncrals,
narsIals, dcsigncrs and iniclligcncc officcrs. Sialin lclicvcd iIai ii was vcry inporiani io acccpi lricfcascs
cranncd full of docuncnis fron Iis iniclligcncc scrvicc. Dui Ic considcrcd ii cvcn norc inporiani noi io
acccpi a lricfcasc fron Iis iniclligcncc scrvicc wiiI a lonl in ii. His iIinling on iIis procccdcd noi only fron
considcraiions of Iis own pcrsonal safciy, lui fron considcraiions of iIc siaic as wcll. TIc sialiliiy of iIc
lcadcrsIip in criiical siiuaiions is onc of iIc nosi viial faciors in iIc prcparaiions wIicI any siaic nalcs for
war.
Nolody cvcr pusIcd a lonl undcr Sialin's dcsl ai a criiical noncni, and ii was noi jusi cIancc iIai iIis
ncvcr Iappcncd. TIrougI Iis susiaincd, singlc-nindcd icrror againsi iIc CFU, Sialin noi only oliaincd
sccrci iniclligcncc of IigI qualiiy, lui also guaraniccd iIc suprcnc lcadcrsIip of iIc couniry againsi
'uncpccicd cvcnis of all linds' ai iincs of crisis.
FicIard Sorgc was a spy fron iIc row of icciI wIicI Sialin, as a prccauiion, ordcrcd io lc pullcd oui on 29
July 1938. Hc was siaiioncd in Tolyo, wIcrc Ic worlcd as a journalisi undcr iIc alias 'Fansay'. Sovici
niliiary iniclligcncc was noi so siupid as io pullisI Sorgc's nosi inicrcsiing rcporis. Dui cvcn iIc fcw wIicI
Iavc lccn pullisIcd lcad us inio an inpassc.
January 1940. I an graicful for your grcciings and wisIcs aloui ny lcavc. If I go on lcavc Iowcvcr ii will
inncdiaicly rcducc iIc infornaiion.
May 1940. Ii gocs wiiIoui saying iIai wc arc posiponing iIc daic of our rciurn Ionc lccausc of iIc
prcscni niliiary siiuaiion. May wc assurc you oncc again iIai iIis is noi iIc iinc io raisc iIis qucsiion.
Ociolcr 1940. May I couni on coning Ionc aficr iIc cnd of iIc war?
TIis is a vcry odd corrcspondcncc. Evcry iniclligcncc officcr lnows iIai Ic will lc allowcd io rciurn Ionc
aficr a war. Yci Sorgc puis iIc qucsiion again and again, lisiing iIc nuncrous scrviccs Ic Ias rcndcrcd io iIc
Sovici rcginc. Evcry iransnission in unlrolcn codc fron Iis clandcsiinc radio siaiion pui Sorgc's cniirc
cspionagc organizaiion ai risl. Had Iis radio siaiioninicndcd for agcni-running and iop-sccrci codcs
rcally lccn crcaicd io cnallc Sorgc io asl sucI qucsiions?
A nuliiiudc of lools and ariiclcs Iavc lccn wriiicn aloui Sorgc in iIc Sovici Union. Sonc of iIcn ring
wiiI sirangc praisc of Iin. Hc was sucI a grcai iniclligcncc officcr, sucI a iruc connunisi iIai Ic cvcn spcni
Iis own noncy, wIicI Ic Iad carncd in Iis difficuli worl as a journalisi, on Iis illcgal worl. WIai nonscnsc!
Wcrc iIc lalour-canp prisoncrs in Kolyna no longcr digging up gold? Had iIc CFU lcconc so inpovcrisIcd
iIai Sorgc Iad io dip inio Iis own poclci? TIc wcclly nagazinc OgoncI (No. 17, 1965i, pullisIcd an
inicrcsiing rcpori iIai Sorgc was Iolding vcry inporiani docuncnis, lui was unallc io scnd iIcn io iIc
ccnirc, lccausc iIc ccnirc Iad noi scni a couricr. OgoncI did noi say wIy iIc ccnirc Iad noi scni a couricr,
adding anoiIcr puzzling qucsiion io iIc casc.
Dui iIc cplanaiion was quiic sinplc. WIilc all iIis was going on, Yan Dcrzin, iIc lrilliani cIicf of Sovici
niliiary iniclligcncc wIo Iad rccruiicd FicIard Sorgc, was liquidaicd aficr suffcring appalling ioriurc.
Solonon Uriisly, anoiIcr CFU cIicf wIo Iad pcrsonally givcn Sorgc Iis insiruciions, was also liquidaicd.
Corcv, iIc Sovici illcgal rcsidcni wIo Iad ficd Sorgc's passagc fron Ccrnany, was in jail. (Konsono'sIuuu
P)uudu, 8 Ociolcr 1964i Aina Kuusincn, a sccrci collaloraior of Sorgc's wIo was narricd io a dcpuiy Icad of
iIc CFU wIo was loiI iIc Prcsidcni of iIc FinnisI Dcnocraiic Fcpullic and fuiurc ncnlcr of iIc Poliiluro
of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc of iIc CPSU, was also in jail. Elaicrina Malsinova, Sorgc's wifc, Iad lccn arrcsicd,
adniiicd Iaving linls wiiI cncnics, and was liquidaicd. Karl Fann, iIc illcgal CFU rcsidcni in SIangIai
and forncr dcpuiy of Sorgc's, was sunnoncd lacl io Moscow 'on lcavc' and liquidaicd.
TIcn Sorgc rcccivcd iIc ordcr io conc lacl on lcavc. Sovici sourccs do noi conccal iIc faci iIai 'Sorgc
rcfuscd io iravcl io iIc Sovici Union.' A good dcal of naicrial on iIis suljcci was pullisIcd during iIc
KIrusIcIcv cra, including iIc franl adnission iIai 'Undoulicdly Sorgc gucsscd wIai was awaiiing Iin in
Moscow.'
Noi wisIing io rciurn io a ccriain dcaiI, Sorgc coniinucd io worl for iIc connunisis, lui now no longcr in
iIc rolc of a sccrci collaloraior (scIsot for sIorii, lui raiIcr as an anaicur inforncr, for Iis own saiisfaciion.
Sorgc Iad calculaicd carcfully; I sIan'i go now, lui aficr iIc war iIcy will undcrsiand iIai I spolc only iIc
iruiI. TIcy can pardon, and apprcciaic. TIai was wIy Ic was paying agcnis oui of Iis own poclci, and wIy
iIcrc wcrc no couricrs spccding iowards Iin. TIc ccnirc did noi losc coniaci wiiI Iin uniil iIc cnd. Ii
acccpicd Iis iclcgrans, lui apparcnily only io rcply 'Conc Ionc, conc Ionc, conc Ionc.' To wIicI Fansay
rcplicd 'Too lusy, ioo lusy, ioo lusy . . .'
Sialin, iIcrcforc, did noi irusi FicIard Sorgc lccausc Ic was a dcfccior, wiiI ai lcasi iwo capiial scnicnccs
Ianging ovcr Iis Icad. Onc was duc io Iis co-worlcrs, wIo Iad dcnounccd Iin in 1938 and pui Iis nanc on
iIc 'gcncral lisi'. TIc oiIcr was addcd laicr for nalicious dcfcciion. Conradc Sorgc Iinsclf did noi grcaily
irusi Conradc Sialin, wIicI is wIy Ic would noi go lacl. How could Conradc Sialin irusi sonconc wIo did
noi irusi Iin?
Sonconc Ias nadc up iIc lcgcnd iIai FicIard Sorgc supposcdly sulniiicd IigIly inporiani infornaiion
aloui iIc Ccrnan invasion io iIc CFU, lui nolody lclicvcd Iin. Sorgc was a vcry allc iniclligcncc officcr,
lui Ic iold Moscow noiIing of significancc aloui iIc Ccrnan invasion. WIai is norc, Ic fcll viciin io
disinfornaiion and fcd iIc CFU wiiI falsc rcporis. On 11 April 1941, Ic iclcgrapIcd Moscow iIai. 'TIc
rcprcscniaiivc of iIc Ccrnan| Ccncral Siaff in Tolyo Ias siaicd iIai war againsi iIc Sovici Union will lcgin
inncdiaicly aficr iIc war in Europc cnds.'
Hiilcr lncw iIai ii Iad alrcady lcconc inpossillc io conccal Iis prcparaiions io invadc iIc Sovici Union.
Hc iIcrcforc said in sccrci, in a way iIai all sIould Icar, 'Ycs, I wani io aiiacl Sialin . . . aficr I Iavc finisIcd
iIc war in iIc wcsi.' Wc alrcady lnow iIai cacily onc noniI laicr, Sialin would do iIc sanc iIing in Iis
'sccrci' spcccI wIcn Ic said, 'Ycs, I wani io aiiacl Hiilcr ... in 1942.'
If Sorgc's iclcgran of 11 April (and oiIcr iclcgrans lilc iii wcrc io lc lclicvcd, iIcrc was no nccd io worry.
TIc war in iIc wcsi would coniinuc, alicrnaicly dying down and flaring up wiiI ncw forcc. Dui wIcn iIc cnd
of iIai war canc, ii would lc olvious. Ii would iIcn lc possillc io conccniraic all iIc cfforis of iIc Ccrnan
war nacIinc on iIc casi. In oiIcr words, said Sorgc, Hiilcr inicndcd io figIi on onc froni only.
TIc CFU did noi nccd Sorgc io icll iIcn iIis. Aficr naling a profound siudy of all iIc ccononic, poliiical
and niliiary aspccis of iIc siiuaiion, iIc CFU drcw iwo conclusions. firsily, iIai Ccrnany could noi win a
war on iwo fronis; and sccondly, iIai Hiilcr would noi lcgin a war in iIc casi wiiIoui firsi finisIing iIc war
in iIc wcsi. TIc firsi conclusion provcd corrcci. TIc sccond did noi. Sonciincs a war is siaricd wiiIoui any
prospccis of winning ii.
Evcn lcforc Sorgc's 'warnings', Licuicnani-Ccncral Filip IvanovicI Colilov, iIc ncw Icad of iIc CFU,
sulniiicd a dciailcd rcpori io Sialin on 20 MarcI 1941, wIicI concludcd iIai 'iIc carlicsi possillc daic on
wIicI opcraiions againsi iIc USSF nay lcgin is iIc noncni following viciory ovcr England or aficr an
Ionourallc pcacc for Ccrnany Ias lccn concludcd wiiI Icr'.
Dui Sialin lncw iIis sinplc iruiI wiiIoui Colilov Iaving io icll Iin. TIai is wIy Sialin rcplicd io
CIurcIill's lciicr of 25 Junc 1940 iIai Hiilcr nigIi lcgin a war againsi iIc Sovici Union in 1941, on condton
iIai Driiain Iad ccascd io rcsisi ly iIai iinc.
Dui Hiilcr, wIon Sialin Iad drivcn inio a siraicgic inpassc wiiI iIc Moloiov-Fillcnirop Paci, suddcnly
rcalizcd iIai Ic Iad noiIing io losc and iIai incviially Ccrnany Iad iwo fronis. Hc lcgan io figIi on iwo
fronis. NciiIcr Sialin nor Colilov cpccicd iIis. Ii was a suicidal dccision, lui Hiilcr Iad no cIoicc. Sialin
sinply could noi undcrsiand iIai Iaving found Iinsclf in a siraicgic inpassc, Hiilcr would ialc sucI a
suicidal sicp. Ccncral Colilov, iIc Icad of iIc CFU, Iad noi conicnplaicd iIis ciiIcr. Sorgc sinply confirncd
iIis vicw wiiI iIc falsc infornaiion in Iis iclcgrans.
Laicr, on 15 Junc, Sorgc corrccily nancd iIc daic of iIc Ccrnan invasion as 22 Junc. Dui wIicI FicIard
Sorgc was io lc lclicvcd? TIc onc wIo said iIai Hiilcr would noi figIi on iwo fronis, or iIc onc wIo said Ic
would? Sorgc's iwo rcporis canccl cacI oiIcr oui. TIai apari, Sorgc's rcporis wcrc only rcporis. TIc CFU,
quiic rigIily, docs noi lclicvc any rcporis; wIai ii rcquircs is rcporis wiiI proof.
Sorgc was a grcai iniclligcncc officcr, and fully dcscrvcd Iis posiIunously-awardcd iiilc of Hcro of iIc Sovici
Union. Sorgc's grcaincss, Iowcvcr, was lrougIi io lcar noi on Ccrnany, lui on Japan. S. Uriisly, wIcn siill
Icad of iIc CFU, pcrsonally gavc Sorgc Iis nission. 'iIc poini of your worl in Tolyo is io dcflcci iIc
possililiiy of a war lciwccn Japan and iIc USSF. Your nain iargci is iIc Ccrnany cnlassy.' (OgoncI, 1965,
No. 14, p. 23i TIc Ccrnan cnlassy was only a covcr, io lc uscd ly Sorgc io fulfil Iis nain nission. His lricf
was noi io warn aloui prcparaiions for Ccrnan invasion, lui io dcflcci Japancsc aggrcssion onio anoiIcr
coursc.
Sorgc is widcly lnown io Iavc iold Sialin in auiunn 1941 iIai Japan would noi conc inio iIc war againsi
iIc Sovici Union. Sialin uscd iIis circncly inporiani infornaiion io wiiIdraw dozcns of Sovici divisions
fron iIc Far Easicrn froniicrs and io iIrow iIcn inio iIc figIiing ncar Moscow, iIcrcly cIanging iIc
siraicgic siiuaiion in Iis favour.
WIai is lcss wcll lnown is iIc rcason wIy Sialin lclicvcd Sorgc on iIis occasion. Ic lclicvcd Iin lccausc
Sorgc gavc Iin proof. Sovici Iisiorians prcfcr io pass ovcr iIis proof in silcncc, and iIai is undcrsiandallc. If
Sorgc said iIai Japan would noi novc againsi iIc Sovici Union, Ic could only provc ii ly indicaiing anoiIcr
cncny, againsi wIon Japan was in faci prcparing a surprisc aiiacl.
As Ic followcd Iis CFU lricf, Sorgc did noi jusi forccasi cvcnis. Hc dirccicd iIcn on a nunlcr of occasions.
In Augusi 1951 iIc Uniicd Siaics Congrcss was canining iIc Sorgc affair. In iIc coursc of iIc Icarings ii
was provcd lcyond all sIadow of douli iIai, iIrougI iIc pcrson of'Fansay', iis illcgal rcsidcni in Tolyo,
Sovici Miliiary Iniclligcncc did a vasi anouni io cnsurc iIai Japan lcgan an aggrcssivc war in iIc Pacific,
and iIai iIis aggrcssion was dirccicd againsi iIc Uniicd Siaics. (Hcu)ngs on Anc)cun Aspccts o] tIc HcIu)d
So)gc Spu Cusc, Housc of Fcprcscniaiivcs 82nd Congrcss, Firsi Scssion, 19, 22 and 23 Augusi, WasIingion
1951i
Iniclligcncc is iIc nosi iIanllcss worl in iIc world. Ii is iIc oncs wIo fail wIo lcconc fanous, iIc oncs wIo
gci Iangcd - lilc Sorgc, for canplc. Sialin also Iad niliiary iniclligcncc officcrs wIosc acIicvcncnis wcrc
iruly ouisianding; lui, prcciscly lccausc iIcy wcrc so succcssful, iIcy rcnain cniircly unlnown io us. Onc
Sovici iniclligcncc officcr Iad acccss io sonc of Hiilcr's rcal sccrcis. According io MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union
A. A. CrcicIlo, 'clcvcn days aficr Hiilcr acccpicd iIc final plan for iIc war againsi iIc Sovici Union (18
Dcccnlcr 1940i, iIis faci and iIc lasic dciails of iIc dccision ialcn ly iIc Ccrnan HigI Connand lccanc
lnown io our iniclligcncc organs'. (VIZH 1966, No. 6, p. 8i
Wc sIall prolally ncvcr lcarn iIc nanc of iIc grcai iniclligcncc officcr wIo pcrforncd iIis fcai. Ii cannoi lc
ccludcd iIai ii was iIc sanc CFU rcsidcni wIo oliaincd iIc plan for Opcraiion Ciiadcl in 1943. Dui iIai is
only ny suggcsiion.
In Dcccnlcr 1940, Licuicnani-Ccncral F. I. Colilov, iIc CFU cIicf, rcporicd io Sialin iIai Ic Iad
confirncd rcporis wIicI indicaicd iIai Hiilcr Iad dccidcd io figIi on iwo fronis, iIai is, io aiiacl iIc Sovici
Union wiiIoui waiiing for iIc war in iIc wcsi io cnd.
TIis IigIly inporiani docuncni was discusscd in Sialin's prcscncc in carly January in a vcry rcsiricicd
circlc in iIc Sovici HigI Connand. Sialin did noi lclicvc ii, saying iIai any docuncni could lc forgcd. Sialin
dcnandcd of Colilov iIai Ic organizc Sovici niliiary iniclligcncc in sucI a way iIai ii would lnow ai any
noncni wIciIcr Hiilcr was rcally prcparing for war or jusi lluffing. Colilov rcporicd iIai Ic Iad alrcady
donc iIis. TIc CFU was aiicniivcly following a wIolc rangc of aspccis of Ccrnan niliiary prcparaiions, and
fron iIcsc iIc CFU would accuraicly idcniify iIc noncni wIcn prcparaiions for invasion would lcgin. Sialin
aslcd Colilov io cplain Iow Ic could lnow iIis. Colilov answcrcd iIai Ic could only icll Sialin pcrsonally
and noi anyonc clsc. Sulscqucnily, Colilov rcgularly rcporicd io Sialin pcrsonally, and cacI iinc Ic iold Iin
iIai iIc prcparaiions for invasion Iad noi yci lcgun.
Ai iIc Poliiluro ncciing Icld on 21 Junc 1941, Colilov rcporicd on a nassivc conccniraiion of Ccrnan
iroops on iIc Sovici lordcr, on cnornous rcscrvcs of annuniiion, on iIc rcgrouping of iIc Ccrnan Air Forcc,
on Ccrnan dcscricrs, and aloui oiIcr naiicrs. Colilov lncw iIc nunlcrs of ncarly all iIc Ccrnan divisions,
iIc nancs of iIcir connandcrs, and wIcrc iIcy wcrc siaiioncd. Hc lncw nany inporiani sccrcis, including
iIc nanc of Opcraiion Darlarossa and iIc iinc of iis inccpiion. Aficr giving Iis rcpori, Iowcvcr, Colilov said
iIai prcparaiions for invasion Iad noi yci lcgun, and wiiIoui iIcsc prcparaiions ii was noi possillc for
Ccrnany io lcgin iIc war. In iIc coursc of iIc ncciing Colilov was aslcd wIciIcr Ic could guaranicc wIai
Ic was saying. Colilov rcplicd iIai Ic would answcr for Iis infornaiion wiiI Iis Icad, and if Ic wcrc
nisialcn, iIcn iIc Poliiluro would Iavc iIc rigIi io do io Iin wIai Iad lccn donc io all Iis prcdcccssors.
Sonc icn io iwclvc Iours aficr Ic Iad said iIis, Opcraiion Darlarossa lcgan. WIai did Sialin do io
Colilov? Do noi fcar, ii was noiIing lad. On 8 July Sialin cnirusicd Colilov wiiI a irip io Driiain and iIc
Uniicd Siaics, and lricfcd Iin pcrsonally. TIc visiis wcrc a succcss, and Colilov was iIcn pui in connand
of arnics and fronis. In 1943 Sialin appoinicd Iin io iIc viially inporiani posi of dcpuiy io iIc Pcoplc's
Connissar for Dcfcncc, iIai is dcpuiy io Sialin Iinsclf, io dcal wiiI cadrc naiicrs. Sialin allowcd only Iis
nosi irusicd ncn io Iandlc iIc dclicaic iasl of sclcciing and placing cadrcs. Dcria, for insiancc, was ncvcr
allowcd io do iIis.
Colilov coniinucd io risc in ranl aficr Sialin dicd, and cvcniually lccanc a MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union. Ii
is undcrsiandallc iIai Ic sIould noi say onc word in Iis ncnoirs aloui Iow Ic covcrcd Ccrnan
prcparaiions for war, Iow Ic rcnaincd alivc, or wIy Ic Iad sucI swifi advanccncni aficr Opcraiion
Darlarossa.
If onc rccalls wIai Iappcncd io all Iis prcdcccssors, io wIon noiIing rcscnlling a Ccrnan invasion cvcr
Iappcncd, and conparcs iIcir faic wiiI wIai Iappcncd io Colilov, iIcn onc's lcwildcrncni lnows no
lounds. TIc nysicry of Colilov Iad lccn worrying nc pcrsonally for a long iinc wIcn I found iIc answcr I
was sccling in iIc Acadcny of iIc CFU. Laicr, wIcn I was worling in iIc ccniral organizaiion of iIc CFU, I
found confirnaiion of iIis answcr.
Colilov uscd io rcpori io Sialin iIai Hiilcr was noi prcparing for war againsi iIc Sovici Union. Ii iurncd oui
iIai Colilov was rcporiing iIc iruiI io Sialin, for in rcaliiy Hiilcr was noi naling sucI prcparaiions. Colilov
lncw iIai Sialin did noi irusi docuncnis. Colilov did noi irusi iIcn Iinsclf. Hc iIcrcforc loolcd for sonc
oiIcr indicaiors wIicI would uncrringly signal iIc noncni wIcn Hiilcr lcgan Iis prcparaiions for war wiiI
iIc Sovici Union. All iIc CFU rcsidcnis in Europc wcrc ordcrcd io infiliraic organizaiions dirccily or indirccily
connccicd wiiI sIccp farning. Ovcr a pcriod of noniIs, iniclligcncc was gaiIcrcd and carcfully proccsscd on
iIc nunlcrs of sIccp in Europc, on iIc nain sIccp-lrccding ccnircs and slaugIicrIouscs. Colilov was
inforncd iwicc a day aloui nuiion priccs in Europc.
In addiiion Sovici iniclligcncc lcgan io Iuni for diriy cloiIs and oil-siaincd picccs of papcr lcfi lcIind ly
soldicrs clcaning iIcir wcapons. TIcrc wcrc nany Ccrnan iroops in Europc. TIc iroops wcrc siaiioncd in
ficld condiiions. EacI soldicr clcancd Iis wcapon ai lcasi oncc a day. CloiIs and papcr wIicI Iavc lccn uscd
for wcapon clcaning arc usually ciiIcr lurncd or luricd, lui of coursc iIis rulc was noi always olcycd. TIc
CFU Iad anplc opporiuniiy io collcci an cnornous quaniiiy of diriy cloiIs.
Largc anounis of iIcsc cloiIs wcrc scni across iIc froniicr, wrappcd around various iron inplcncnis, so as
noi io arousc suspicion. SIould any conplicaiions Iavc ariscn, iIc policc would conccniraic iIcir aiicniion
on iIc inoffcnsivc iron oljcci, lui noi on iIc diriy cloiI in wIicI ii was wrappcd. In addiiion, considcrally
largcr anounis iIan usual of lcroscnc lanps, gas siovcs, prinus siovcs, lanps and ligIicrs wcrc scni across
iIc lordcr ly loiI lcgal and illcgal ncans. All iIis was analyscd ly Iundrcds of Sovici cpcris, and iIc
rcsulis rcporicd inncdiaicly io Colilov. Hc inncdiaicly inforncd Sialin iIai Hiilcr Iad noi yci lcgun Iis
prcparaiions io invadc iIc Sovici Union, so iIcrc was no nccd io pay Iccd io cvcry luild-up of Ccrnan iroops
or Ccrnan Ccncral Siaff docuncnis.
Colilov Iad good grounds for lclicving iIai vcry scrious prcparaiion was rcquircd for a war againsi iIc
Sovici Union. Onc of iIc viial iIings wIicI Ccrnany would nccd if ii wcrc io lc rcady io figIi sucI a war was
sIccpslin coais; no lcss iIan si nillion of iIcn. As soon as Hiilcr dccidcd io aiiacl iIc Sovici Union, iIc
Ccncral Siaff would Iavc io ordcr indusiry io lcgin producing nillions of sIccpslin coais. TIis would lc
rcflccicd inncdiaicly on iIc Europcan narlcis. In spiic of iIc war, nuiion priccs would fall lccausc of iIc
sinuliancous slaugIicr of nillions of aninals, wIilc sIccpslin priccs risc sIarply.
Colilov also calculaicd iIai, if iIc Ccrnan Arny was going io figIi in iIc Sovici Union, ii would Iavc io usc
a ncw iypc of lulricaiing oil for iis wcaponry. TIc Ccrnan oil usually uscd on wcapons would congcal in iIc
frosi, conponcni paris would frcczc iogciIcr and iIc wcapons would noi worl. Colilov waiicd for iIc Ccrnan
Arny io cIangc iIc iypc of oil ii uscd in wcapon-clcaning. Sovici cpcriisc in diriy cloiIs sIowcd iIai iIc
Ccrnan Arny was siill using iis usual oil, and iIcrc wcrc no signs of a cIangc ovcr io a ncw iypc. Sovici
cpcris also waicIcd noior fucl. In Icavy frosi iIc nornal Ccrnan fucl lrolc down inio inconlusiillc
pariislcs. Colilov lncw iIai if Hiilcr dccidcd io opcn a sccond froni, Ic would Iavc io ordcr iIc nass
produciion of a fucl wIicI would noi disinicgraic in Icavy frosi. Ii was sanplcs of Ccrnan liquid fucl wIicI
Sovici iniclligcncc was scnding ovcr iIc lordcr in ligIicrs and lanps.
TIc CFU Iad nany oiIcr ploys lilc iIcsc wIicI would Iavc scrvcd as warning signals. TIcy provcd usclcss
for iIc sinplc rcason iIai Hiilcr sci Opcraiion Darlarossa in noiion wiiIoui naling any prcparaiions ai all.
WIy Hiilcr acicd lilc iIis will surcly rcnain a nysicry. TIc Ccrnan Arny was luili for war in wcsicrn
Europc, lui Hiilcr did noiIing io prcparc Iis arny for war in Fussia.
Sialin iIcrcforc Iad no rcason io punisI Colilov, wIo Iad donc cvcryiIing Iunanly possillc io discovcr
Ccrnan prcparaiions for an invasion. Hc iold Sialin iIai no prcparaiions wcrc ialing placc, and iIis was iIc
sinplc iruiI. TIcrc Iad only lccn a grcai luild-up of Ccrnan iroops. Colilov gavc insiruciions iIai noi all
Ccrnan divisions sIould lc iargcis of aiicniion, lui only iIosc wIicI wcrc rcady io invadc; iIosc divisions,
iIai is, wIicI cacI Iad 15,000 sIccpslin coais in iis sioragc dcpois. TIcrc wcrc sinply no sucI divisions
rcady for war iIrougIoui iIc cniirc WcIrnacIi. Colilov could Iardly lc llancd for noi sccing any
prcparaiions for invasion wIcn no scrious prcparaiions cisicd.
CHAPTEF 31
How Hiilcr Frusiraicd Sialin's War
Vc Iuuc Iccn ]uu p)cpu)cd ]o) un ugg)cssuc uu).
It uus not ou) ]uut tIut uc uc)c not tIc oncs to
cunu out tIc ugg)csson.
Major-Ccncral P. CFICOFENKO
(Mcno)s. 'Dcntncz', Ncw Yorl 1981,
P. 138i
On 17 Junc 1945, a group of Sovici niliiary invcsiigaiors wcrc inicrrogaiing sonc scnior Nazi niliiary
lcadcrs. In iIc coursc of Iis inicrrogaiion, Ficld-MarsIal Kciicl nainiaincd iIai
all iIc prcparaiory ncasurcs wc iool lcforc spring 1941 wcrc dcfcnsivc ncasurcs againsi iIc coniingcncy
of a possillc aiiacl ly iIc Fcd Arny. TIus iIc cniirc war in iIc Easi, io a lnown dcgrcc, nay lc icrncd a
prcvcniivc war . . . Wc dccidcd ...io forcsiall an aiiacl ly Sovici Fussia and io dcsiroy iis arncd forccs wiiI
a surprisc aiiacl. Dy spring 1941, I Iad forncd iIc dcfiniic opinion iIai iIc Icavy luildup of Fussian
iroops, and iIcir aiiacl on Ccrnany wIicI would follow, would placc us, in loiI ccononic and siraicgic
icrns, in an cccpiionally criiical siiuaiion . . . Our aiiacl was iIc inncdiaic conscqucncc of iIis iIrcai . .
.
Coloncl-Ccncral Alfrcd Jodl, iIc nain auiIor of iIc Ccrnan niliiary plans, adopicd iIc sanc siancc. TIc
Sovici invcsiigaiors did iIcir lcsi io forcc Kciicl and Jodl oui of iIcir posiurcs, lui did noi succccd. Kciicl
and Jodl did noi cIangc iIcir icsiinony and, along wiiI iIc principal war crininals, wcrc scnicnccd io lc
Iangcd ly iIc inicrnaiional irilunal ai Nurcnlcrg. Onc of iIc nain accusaiions againsi iIcn was 'iIc
unlcasIing of an unprovolcd aggrcssivc war' againsi iIc Sovici Union.
Twcniy ycars wcni ly and ncw cvidcncc appcarcd. Adniral of iIc Flcci of iIc Sovici Union N. C. Kuzncisov
was, in 1941, an adniral, Pcoplc's Connissar for iIc Navy, ncnlcr of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc of iIc Pariy,
ncnlcr of Siavla fron iIc iinc ii was sci up. In iIc 19603, Ic sIcd sonc siariling ncw ligIi on iIc naiicr.
For nc iIcrc is onc iIing lcyond all arguncni - J. V. Sialin noi only did noi ccludc iIc possililiiy of war
wiiI Hiilcr's Ccrnany, on iIc conirary, Ic considcrcd sucI a war . . . incviiallc . . . J. V. Sialin nadc
prcparaiions for war . . . widc and varicd prcparaiions - lcginning on daics . . . wIicI Ic Iinsclf Iad
sclccicd. Hiilcr upsci Iis calculaiions. (NuIununc, Moscow Vocnizdai 1966, p. 321i
TIc adniral is iclling us quiic clcarly and opcnly iIai Sialin considcrcd war incviiallc and prcparcd Iinsclf
scriously io cnicr ii ai a iinc of Iis own cIoosing. In oiIcr words, Sialin was prcparing io sirilc iIc firsi
llow, iIai is io connii aggrcssion againsi Ccrnany; lui Hiilcr dcali a prcvcniivc llow firsi and iIcrcly
frusiraicd all Sialin's plans.
Adniral Kuzncisov is a wiincss of iIc IigIcsi ranl. In 1941, Ic was cvcn norc IigIly placcd in iIc Sovici
niliiary-poliiical IicrarcIy iIan ZIulov. Kuzncisov was a Pcoplc's Connissar; ZIulov was a dcpuiy Pcoplc's
Connissar. Kuzncisov was a ncnlcr of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc; ZIulov was only a candidaic ncnlcr. Noi
onc of iIosc wIo Iavc wriiicn iIcir ncnoirs was as IigIly placcd as Kuzncisov in 1941, and no onc was
closcr io Sialin iIan Ic.
WIai Kuzncisov says aficr iIc war, incidcnially, is in full accord wiiI wIai Ic said lcforc iIc war, for
insiancc ai iIc 18iI Pariy Congrcss in 1939. TIis was iIc Congrcss wIicI narlcd oui a ncw paiI. io rcducc
iIc icrror insidc iIc couniry and io iransfcr ii io iIc Sovici Union's ncigIlours. Ai iIis Congrcss, Kuzncisov's
spcccI was pcrIaps iIc nosi aggrcssivc. Ii was for iIis spcccI iIai Kuzncisov was nadc a ncnlcr of iIc
Ccniral Conniiicc ai iIc cnd of iIc Congrcss, passing ovcr iIc candidaic-ncnlcr lcvcl, and givcn iIc posi of
Pcoplc's Connissar.
EvcryiIing wIicI Kuzncisov said opcnly Iad lccn said nany ycars lcforc ly Sialin in Iis sccrci spcccIcs.
EvcryiIing wIicI Kuzncisov said Ias lccn lornc oui ly wIai iIc Fcd Arny and Flcci aciually did. Finally,
Adniral Kuzncisov Ias io lc lclicvcd in iIis casc, lccausc Iis lool Ias lccn rcad ly all fricnds and cncnics
alilc; ii Ias lccn rcad ly poliiical and niliiary lcadcrs in iIc Sovici Union; ii Ias lccn rcad ly narsIals,
diplonais, Iisiorians, gcncrals and adnirals; ii Ias lccn rcad ly paid fricnds of iIc Sovici Union alroad, and
nolody Ias cvcr iricd io dcny Kuzncisov's words.
Lci us conparc Kciicl's words wiiI iIosc of Kuzncisov. Ficld-MarsIal Kciicl said iIai Ccrnany was noi
prcparing an aggrcssion againsi iIc Sovici Union; ii was iIc Sovici Union wIicI was prcparing iIc
aggrcssion. Ccrnany was sinply using a prcvcniivc aiiacl io dcfcnd iisclf fron an unavoidallc aggrcssion.
Kuzncisov says iIc sanc iIing ycs, iIc Sovici Union was prcparing for war and would incviially Iavc
cnicrcd inio ii, lui Hiilcr disrupicd iIcsc plans wiiI Iis aiiacl. WIai I cannoi undcrsiand is wIy Kciicl was
Iangcd, and Kuzncisov was noi.
Sovici narsIals and gcncrals do noi Iidc iIcir inicniions. Ccncral S. P. Ivanov, CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff
Acadcny of iIc Arncd Forccs of iIc USSF, along wiiI a group of lcading Sovici Iisiorians, wroic a scicniific
papcr cniiilcd TIc Intu Pc)od o] Vu) (NucIu'nu Pc)od Vonu, Moscow Vocnizdai 1974i, in wIicI Ic noi only
adniis iIai Hiilcr launcIcd a prcvcniivc aiiacl, lui also puis a iinc io ii. 'iIc Nazi connand succccdcd in
forcsialling our iroops liicrally in iIc lasi iwo wccls lcforc iIc war lcgan', (p. 212i
AnoiIcr opcn dcclaraiion of Sovici inicniions in 1941 can lc found in iIc Mtu)u Hsto)cu Jou)nu (VIZH
1984, No. 4i TIc journal is iIc official pullicaiion of iIc Sovici Minisiry of Dcfcncc, and cannoi lc pullisIcd
wiiIoui iIc sianp of iIc Minisicr of Dcfcncc and iIc CIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff. (Ai iIc iinc iIcsc wcrc,
rcspcciivcly, MarsIals of iIc Sovici Union S. Sololov and S. AlIronccvi. TIc Mtu)u Hsto)cu Jou)nu
cplaincd wIy sucI grcai sioclpilcd rcscrvcs of annuniiion, liquid fucl and provisions wcrc luili up so closc
io iIc froniicr. TIc cplanaiion was sinplc. iIcy wcrc for offcnsivc opcraiions, (p. 34i Ii is siaicd quiic opcnly
on iIc sanc pagc iIai iIc Ccrnan aiiacl disrupicd iIc Sovici plans.
Had iIc Fcd Arny lccn prcparing for dcfcncc or cvcn a counicr-aiiacl, ii would Iavc lccn no sinplc
naiicr io disrupi iis plans. Ouiic iIc conirary, for a Ccrnan invasion would Iavc scrvcd as a signal io Sovici
iroops io aci according io plans wIicI Iad alrcady lccn drawn up. Only if iIc Fcd Arny Iad inicndcd io
aiiacl could iIc Ccrnan invasion Iavc disrupicd iis plans. Sovici iroops would iIcn lc conpcllcd io dcfcnd
iIcnsclvcs, iIai is io inprovisc, and aci in a siiuaiion wIicI Iad noi lccn cnvisagcd.
On 6 Junc 1941, Ccrnan iniclligcncc rcccivcd infornaiion iIai iIc Sovicis inicndcd io iransfcr iIcir scai of
govcrnncni io Svcrdlovsl. Only Hiilcr and iIosc closcsi io Iin wcrc inforncd aloui ii. Dr Cocllcls noicd in
Iis diary iIai Ic Iad rcccivcd sucI a rcpori, and spolc vcry unflaiicringly aloui iIc Sovici govcrnncni's
inicniion io run away furiIcr io iIc casi.
Only now, scvcral dccadcs laicr, can wc cvaluaic iIc rcpori on iis ncriis. Wc now lnow iIai a dccou
connund post Iad lccn luili in Svcrdlovsl. Ii was only during iIc war iIai ii iurncd oui iIai ii was noi
Svcrdlovsl wIicI was io lc iIc cncrgcncy capiial, lui KuilysIcv. Evcn KuilysIcv, Iowcvcr, was noi iIc
wIolc iruiI, lui only Ialf of ii. TIc insiiiuiions wIicI wcrc sci up in KuilysIcv wcrc iIosc wIosc loss did noi
affcci iIc sialiliiy of iIc couniry's iop niliiary and poliiical lcadcrsIip, sucI as iIc Suprcnc Sovici wiiI
'Prcsidcni' Kalinin, uninporiani pcoplc's connissariais, and cnlassics.
All iIc inporiani lodics wcrc locaicd ncarly, noi in KuilysIcv iisclf, lui in grcai undcrground iunncls
Icwn oui of iIc ZIiguli rocls. Dcforc iIc war iIc consiruciion of iIis giani Iad lccn disguiscd ly iIc
luilding of iIc KuilysIcv Iydro-clcciric powcr siaiion. TIousands of lalour-canp prisoncrs, iIousands of
ions of consiruciion naicrials and luilding nacIincry wcrc scni iIcrc and cvcrylody lncw wIy. Ii was io
luild iIc Iydroclcciric powcr siaiion. Aficr iIc war iIc cniirc giganiic cdificc was novcd IigIcr uprivcr on iIc
Volga, and iIc Iydro-clcciric siaiion arosc on a ncw siic. TIc original siic Iad lccn sclccicd in a placc wIcrc
a powcr siaiion sIould noi Iavc lccn luili lui wIicI was an cnincnily suiiallc placc for an undcrground
connand posi.
I found no ncniion in prc-war Ccrnan arcIivcs of KuilysIcv as iIc cncrgcncy capiial, or of iIc
undcrground connand posi in ZIiguli. Ccrnan iniclligcncc only Iad infornaiion aloui iIc iransfcr of iIc
Sovici govcrnncni io a connand posi in Svcrdlovsl. Dui a govcrnncni cannoi novc io a connand posi
wIicI docs noi cisi. WIo was sprcading iIcsc rcporis aloui iIc iransfcr io a ficiiiious connand posi? TIis
could only Iavc lccn donc ly iIc pcrson wIo invcnicd iIc logus connand posi in iIc firsi placc, iIai is iIc
Sovici govcrnncni, or norc cacily, iIc Icad of iIai govcrnncni, Sialin. TIai logus connand posi was
crcaicd so iIai iIc cncny sIould find oui aloui ii onc day. TIai day canc, and Ccrnan iniclligcncc acquircd
iIc sccrci wIicI Iad lccn spccially nanufaciurcd for ii.
If Ccrnan iniclligcncc oliaincd a falsc rcpori aloui Sovici govcrnncni inicniions, ii ncani iIai iIc Sovici
govcrnncni iisclf nusi Iavc lccn irying io conccal sonciIing ai iIc iinc. Ii is noi difficuli io gucss wIai. If
iIc Sovici lcadcrs wcrc sprcading falsc infornaiion aloui iIcir inicniion io novc casiwards, ii ncani wiiIoui
any douli iIai iIcy wcrc going io do iIc opposiic.
TIc sulilciy was iIai, in addiiion io iIc powcrful ZIiguli connand posi, wIosc locaiion was difficuli
iIougI noi inpossillc io csiallisI, iIcrc was anoiIcr govcrnncni connand posi. Ii was a railway irain. In
iIc cvcni of war, iIis connand posi, undcr covcr of scvcral arnourcd irains of iIc NKVD and acconpanicd
ly iIrcc irains lclonging io iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Connunicaiions, could go ai any iinc io any arca
wIcrc Iosiiliiics wcrc in progrcss. TIis capaliliiy io novc alongsidc an arca wIcrc iIc nain cvcnis of iIc war
wcrc ialing placc was rcflccicd in iIc nanc of iIc irain-iIc PCKP, or Main Forward Connand Posi. Scvcral
carcfully Iiddcn, canouflagcd siaiions wcrc luili cprcssly for iIis connand posi. Covcrnncni iclcgrapI
lincs wcrc lcd inio iIcsc siaiions lcforc iIc war, and all iIc irains Iad io do was io plug inio iIcn wiiI iIcir
own connunicaiions cquipncni.
TIcrc is no nccd io cplain iIai iIc nolilc connand posi was inicndcd for an offcnsivc war; in a siiuaiion
wIcrc iIc iroops arc rapidly prcssing forward, iIc connand, wiiI iis cunlcrsonc parapIcrnalia of conirol
and connunicaiions, nusi lccp up wiiI iIcn. In a dcfcnsivc war, on iIc oiIcr Iand, ii is sinplcr, norc
rcliallc and safcr io ccrcisc dircciion fron an officc in iIc Krcnlin, fron an undcrground siaiion in iIc
Moscow Mciro, or cvcn fron iIc iunncls of ZIiguli.
Wcrc wc io gaiIcr up all availallc snippcis of infornaiion and pui iIcn iogciIcr, wc sIould lc allc io
concludc wiiI a fair dcgrcc of ccriainiy iIai a vcry IigI-calilrc connand posi Iad lccn csiallisIcd, or nusi
Iavc lccn csiallisIcd ncarcr io Vilnius, on iIc Minsl-Vilnius nain railway linc. Scvcral days aficr iIc
Ccrnan lcadcrs rcccivcd iIcir 'sccrci' rcpori aloui iIc Sovici govcrnncni's iransfcr casiwards, iIc Sovici
govcrnncni lcgan iis sccrci novc iowards iIc Sovici wcsicrn froniicr ncar Minsl and Vilnius.
Evcry niliiary nan lnows Iow a largc Icadquaricrs is novcd in ccrciscs or in a conlai siiuaiion. TIc
opcraiions lrancI sclccis iIc siic for iIc fuiurc Icadquaricrs, iIc scnior connandcr approvcs iIc siic and
iIcn auiIorizcs iIc novc iIcrc. TIc forcsi wIcrc iIc Icadquaricrs will lc locaicd is cordoncd off, in ordcr io
lccp oui unauiIorizcd pcrsons. TIcn sappcrs and signallcrs appcar io luild sIclicrs and a connunicaiions
sysicn. TIcn iIc Icad of connunicaiions iurns up and pcrsonally cIccls iIai iIc connunicaiions arc
funciioning rclially. Finally, wIcn iIai Ias lccn donc, iIc Icadquaricrs iisclf arrivcs. All iis officcrs Iavc io
do is io plug in iIcir iclcpIoncs and cncipIcring nacIincs.
In 1941, iIc Fcd Arny was funciioning lilc a singlc wcll-oilcd nacIinc. Dozcns of officcrs in cIargc of
signals in riflc and nccIanizcd corps appcarcd in iIc forcsis ncar iIc lordcr. TIc sccrci dcployncni of iIc
connand posis of iIcsc corps followcd in iIcir walc. Inncdiaicly aficr iIis, iIc signals cIicfs of iIc arnics
iurncd up in oiIcr forcsis. TIcir appcarancc was a sign iIai arny Icadquaricrs would sIorily arrivc. Surc
cnougI, iIc Icadquaricrs did indccd iurn up. Ii was cacily on iIc day iIai iIc TASS rcpori was pullisIcd
iIai iIc signals cIicfs of iIc fronis appcarcd in sccludcd corncrs of iIcsc proIiliicd, wcll guardcd woods.
Aficr iIc connunicaiions Iad lccn cIcclcd, iIc froni Icadquaricrs sccrcily novcd iIcir colunns io iIcir
ncw posiiions.
TIc noncni iIcn arrivcd for iIc nosi inporiani signals cIicf of all io appcar, 150 liloncircs fron iIc Easi
Prussian froniicr. I. T. Pcrcsyplin, Pcoplc's Connissar for Connunicaiions, sccrcily novcd io Vilnius. Can
wc gucss for wIon Pcrcsyplin was going io cIccl connunicaiions iIcrc? Pcoplc's Connissar Pcrcsyplin
Ias only onc dircci supcrior, and iIai is iIc CIairnan of iIc Council of Pcoplc's Connissars, Conradc J. V.
Sialin Iinsclf.
TIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Connunicaiions wcni io iIc Easi Prussian froniicr in sucI a way iIai no onc
could lnow aloui ii. Hc iravcllcd in an ordinary irain running io iIc rcgular iinciallc lui wiiI an addiiional
spccial wagon, for Pcrcsyplin and Iis dcpuiy, couplcd on io ii. TIc journcy of iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for
Connunicaiions was a ioial sccrci. Hc cvcn rcccivcd cncodcd ncssagcs fron Moscow signcd in Iis own
nanc, so iIai iIc cipIcr clcrls sIould lclicvc iIai Pcrcsyplin was siill in Moscow.
Pcrcsyplin's own accouni of Iis journcy is rcvcaling.
Liicrally on iIc cvc of war, J. V. Sialin scni nc io iIc Daliic rcpullics. I soncIow ncnially linlcd iIis
crucial nission wiiI approacIing niliiary cvcnis. On iIc cvcning of 21 Junc 1941, I iravcllcd io Vilnius
along wiiI a group of cccuiivcs fron iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Connunicaiions. TIc war lrolc oui
wIilc wc wcrc on iIc way . . . (Suuuzstu u Godu VcIo OtccIcstucnno, Moscow Svyaz' 1972, p. 17i
On iIc norning of 22 Junc, wIilc Ic was ai iIc OrsIa railway siaiion, Pcrcsyplin rcccivcd a iclcgran fron
Moscow. IN CONNECTION WITH CHANCE IN SITUATION DO YOU NOT THINK IT NECESSAFY TO FETUFN
MOSCOW? PEFESYPKIN. (IId, pp. 32-33i
Pcrcsyplin was iravclling on a railway sysicn wIicI noi only Iad lccn conplcicly iurncd ovcr io iIc
niliiary, lui wIicI Iad lccn ordcrcd a fcw days lcforc io placc iisclf on a war fooiing and io lc rcady io worl
undcr condiiions of war. (V. Anfilov, Hcssnc)tnu Podug, 1971, p. 184i Having lccn ordcrcd io ialc wiiI Iin
'only wIai is ncccssary for lifc and laiilc', Pcrcsyplin wcni io an arca wIcrc iroops wcrc lcing sccrcily
conccniraicd in vasi nunlcrs on iIc froniicr, and wIcrc a govcrnncni connand posi was lcing sccrcily sci
up. Travclling on Sialin's pcrsonal ordcrs, Pcrcsyplin lncw iIai Iis journcy 'was connccicd wiiI approacIing
niliiary cvcnis'.
Dui as soon as Hiilcr aiiaclcd, Pcrcsyplin alandoncd Iis sccrci railway wagon and rusIcd lacl io Moscow
on a lorry wIicI Iappcncd io conc io Iand. Had Hiilcr noi aiiaclcd, iIcn Conradc Pcrcsyplin, Pcoplc's
Connissar for Connunicaiions, would Iavc gonc io iIc sccrci connand posi ncar Vilnius io co-ordinaic iIc
niliiary, govcrnncnial and siaic connunicaiions sysicns during iIc war. TIc Ccrnan aiiacl consiiiuicd
sucI a scrious cIangc in iIc siiuaiion iIai ii causcd iIc Sovici govcrnncni io alandon nany of iis nosi
inporiani ncasurcs and conpcllcd ii io inprovisc, cvcn io iIc cicni of a Pcoplc's Connissar Iaving io
rciurn io Moscow on iIc lacl of iIc firsi lorry Ic could lay Iis Iands on.
Ii Iad lccn planncd iIai lcading figurcs in iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Dcfcncc, iIc NKVD, iIc
Pcoplc's Connissariai for Siaic Conirol, and oiIcr inporiani Sovici govcrning lodics, sIould novc inio iIc
wcsicrn arcas iIai sanc nigIi, iravclling along iIc sanc MoscowMinsl railway linc. TIc purposc of iIai
journcy was war. Anong iIc lcadcrs of iIc Sialinisi cnpirc wIo wcrc gciiing rcady iIai nigIi io nalc iIc
sccrci journcy io iIc wcsicrn lordcrs wcrc iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for iIc Inicrior, candidaic ncnlcr of iIc
Poliiluro and Connissar Ccncral for Siaic Sccuriiy, L. P. Dcria; ncnlcr of iIc Ccniral Conniiicc, Pcoplc's
Connissar for Siaic Conirol, Cradc I Arny Connissar L. Z. MclIlis; and candidaic ncnlcr of iIc Ccniral
Conniiicc, Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc, MarsIal of iIc Sovici Union S. K. TinosIcnlo. Ii cannoi lc
ccludcd iIai cvcn Sialin was also prcparing Iinsclf io nalc iIai sccrci journcy wcsiwards.
Micd groups wcrc iIcn forncd consisiing of iIc nosi scnior cccuiivcs fron iIosc Pcoplc's Connissariais
wIicI would lc nosi inporiani in wariinc. EacI of iIcsc groups was iIcn alloiicd io a lcadcr. Dy iIc
norning of 21 Junc iIc fornaiion of iIcsc opcraiional groups was conplcicd, and all iIcir ncnlcrs lncw
iIai iIcy wcrc going io war.
Surprisingly, Iowcvcr, nolody, including iIc group lcadcrs iIcn siiiing in iIc Krcnlin, cvcn suspccicd iIai
a Ccrnan invasion was iIcn in prcparaiion. Evcn norc surprisingly, wIcn rcporis iIai an invasion was
undcr way canc flooding in iIai cvcning, iIc iop Sovici lcadcrs rcfuscd io lclicvc iIcn. TIcn dircciivcs and
sIouis down iIc iclcpIonc pourcd oui io iIc froniicr fron iIc Krcnlin, fron iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for
Dcfcncc, and fron iIc Ccncral Siaff. 'Don'i givc in io provocaiion!'
If iIc Sovici lcadcrs did noi lclicvc iIai a Ccrnan invasion was possillc, for wIai war wcrc iIcy prcparing
iIcnsclvcs? TIcrc can lc only onc answcr. TIcy wcrc prcparing iIcnsclvcs for a war wIicI would lcgin
utIout tIc Gc)nun nuuson.
TIc groups wIo wcrc io acconpany iIc lcadcrs spcni nany wcary Iours waiiing lcforc lcing iold ai 6
o'clocl in iIc norning of 22 Junc iIai iIcir irains io iIc wcsicrn froniicr Iad lccn canccllcd, sincc Hiilcr Iad
siaricd iIc war. If ii Iad lccn iIc inicniion of iIc Sovici lcadcrs io iravcl io iIc wcsicrn lordcrs io nan iIc
sccrci connand posis in ordcr io coniain a Ccrnan invasion, iIcy would Iavc Iurricd wcsiwards as soon as
iIcy Iad rcccivcd a signal iIai sucI an invasion Iad lcgun. Insicad, iIcy canccllcd iIcir irains wIicI wcrc io
Iavc ialcn iIcn io war. TIcy wcrc rcady io iurn up on iIc froniicr and dircci a war, lui onc wIicI lcgan as
pari of a Sovici sccnario, and noi a Ccrnan onc. Hiilcr dcprivcd iIcn of iIis saiisfaciion.
On 21 Junc 1941, Dniiri Oricnlcrg was Icad of iIc organizaiional insiruciors dcparincni of iIc Pcoplc's
Connissariai for Siaic Conirol. Hc Iinsclf dcscrilcd Iis jol as 'dcaling wiiI niliiary idcas - a sori of cIicf of
siaff. His accouni vividly cvolcs iIc cvcnis of iIai nigIi.
Sonciincs iIcy would asl nc, 'WIcn did you lcavc for iIc war?'
'Twcniy firsi of Junc.'
'WIai?!'
Ycs, ii was lilc iIis ... In iIc norning I was callcd inio iIc Pcoplc's Connissariai for Dcfcncc and iold
iIai a group of officials fron iIc Connissariai Icadcd ly MarsIal S. K. TinosIcnlo was lcaving for Minsl.
I was noiificd iIai I was io go wiiI ii. TIcy suggcsicd iIai I sIould go lacl Ionc, pui on niliiary uniforn
and rcpori lacl io iIc Connissariai . . . TIc waiiing-roon of iIc Pcoplc's Connissar for Dcfcncc was
cIoc-a-lloc full of niliiary pcoplc, carrying filcs and naps, and olviously cciicd. TIcy spolc in wIispcrs.
TinosIcnlo Iad gonc io iIc Krcnlin . . . TIc Connissar goi lacl fron iIc Krcnlin aloui fivc o'clocl in
iIc norning of 22 Junc. Hc callcd nc.
'TIc Ccrnans Iavc siaricd iIc war. Our irip io Minsl Ias lccn canccllcd.' (Oricnlcrg, uun' DcIuI)'
So)oI Pc)uogo, Sovcisly Pisaicl' 1984, pp. 5-6i
Nolody lnows wIcrc iIc lcgcnd Ias conc fron iIai on 22 Junc 1941 Hiilcr lcgan iIc war in iIc casi, alnosi
Iaving io drag iIc Sovici Union inio ii ly forcc. If wc lisicn io iIosc officcrs - fron Kuzncizov io Oricnlcrg
wIo wcrc rigIi alongsidc iIc nosi inporiani Sovici lcadcrs in iIosc ninuics, Iours and days, cvcryiIing
appcars quiic diffcrcnily. On 22 Junc 1941 Hiilcr spoili iIc war ly carrying ii on io iIc icrriiory wIcrc ii Iad
lccn planncd on 19 Augusi 1939. Hiilcr did noi allow iIc Sovici lcadcrs io wagc iIc war as iIcy Iad
inicndcd. Hc forccd iIcn io inprovisc and do sonciIing for wIicI iIcy wcrc unprcparcd. io dcfcnd iIcir own
icrriiory.
CHAPTEF 32
Did Sialin Havc a War Plan?
Sncc Stun ncuc) cxpuncd o) cxpoundcd Is
ponts o] ucu o) Is puns, nunu pcopc tIougIt
tIut Ic dd not Iuuc unu. TIs uus u tupcu c))o)
nudc Iu tuIutuc ntccctuus.
FODEFT CONOUEST
(TIc G)cut Tc))o))
'Siraicgic dcfcncc was an involuniary forn of conlai opcraiions, ii Iad noi lccn planncd lcforcIand.' TIai is
wIai iIc Sovici niliiary icilools say. Wc do noi nccd iIc icilools, iIougI, io icll us iIai in iIc sunncr of
1941, iIc Fcd Arny's dcfcnsivc opcraiions wcrc purc inprovisaiion. Dcforc iIc war, iIc Fcd Arny Iad noi
lccn prcparing iisclf for dcfcncc, nor Iad ii cvcr Icld any ccrciscs io praciisc dcfcnsivc suljccis. Sovici
rcgulaiions coniain noi onc word aloui dcfcncc on a siraicgic scalc. Evcn in iIc purcly iIcorciical ficld,
prollcns of Iow io conduci dcfcnsivc opcraiions Iad ncvcr lccn worlcd oui. WIai is norc, nciiIcr iIc Sovici
pcoplc nor iis arny Iad cvcn lccn prcparcd psycIologically for dcfcncc. Pcoplc and arny alilc Iad lccn
iraincd io do dcfcnsivc iIings ly using offcnsivc nciIods. 'Ii is prcciscly iIc inicrcsis of dcfcncc wIicI
dcnand iIai iIc USSF sIould conduci cicnsivc offcnsivc opcraiions on cncny icrriiory, and iIis in no way
coniradicis iIc naiurc of a dcfcnsivc war.' (P)uudu, 19 Augusi 1939i
In iIc firsi Iours following iIc lcginning of iIc Ccrnan invasion, iIc Fcd Arny lcpi on irying io go ovcr io
iIc offcnsivc. Modcrn icilools call wIai iIc Fcd Arny was doing counicr-sirilcs and counicr-offcnsivcs.
Dui ii was purc inprovisaiion. TIc prollcn of counicr-sirilcs Iad ncvcr lccn worlcd iIrougI in any prc-war
ccrciscs, nor indccd Iad ii cvcr lccn considcrcd in iIcorciical icrns. 'iIc suljcci of counicr-offcnsivc . . .
Iad ncvcr lccn raiscd lcforc iIc Crcai MoiIcrland War'. (IVOSS (iIc official Iisiory of iIc 'Crcai Pairioiic
War'i, Vol. i, p. 441i
Dcforc iIc war, iIcrcforc, Sovici niliiary siaffs did noi worl oui any plans for dcfcncc, nor did iIcy worl
oui any for a counicr-offcnsivc ciiIcr. Yci iIcy wcrc worling vcry Iard on war plans. According io MarsIal of
iIc Sovici Union A. M. Vasi-lcvsly, in iIc ycar prcccding iIc war, iIc officcrs and gcncrals of iIc Ccncral
Siaff, iIc Icadquaricrs of iIc Miliiary Disiricis and iIc naval flccis wcrc worling fificcn io scvcniccn Iours a
day, wiiI no Iolidays or days off. MarsIals Dagranyan and Solol-ovsly, Ccncrals SIicncnlo, Kurasov,
Malandin and nany oiIcrs say iIc sanc iIing. Ccncral Anisov rcporicdly worlcd a 2O-Iour day, and iIc
sanc was said of Ccncral Snorodinov.
Ccncral ZIulov lccanc cIicf of iIc Ccncral Siaff in Fclruary 1941. TIc Ccncral Siaff in cffcci wcni on io a
war fooiing fron iIai noncni. ZIulov Iinsclf worlcd assiduously and did noi allow anyonc clsc io slaclcn.
IniIcsunncrof 1939, ZIulov, siill Iolding Iis ranl of IonIo), Iad appcarcd in KIallIin-Col. Hc pcrsonally
goi io lnow iIc siiuaiion, quiclly drcw up plans, and lcgan io carry iIcn oui wiiI a vcngcancc. TIc sligIicsi
carclcssncss on iIc pari of any sulordinaic ncani inncdiaic dcaiI. In iIc coursc of a fcw days ZIulov pui
scvcniccn officcrs on irial, dcnanding iIai iIcy lc scnicnccd io dcaiI. TIc irilunal inncdiaicly passcd
dcaiI scnicnccs on all of iIcn. Of iIc scvcniccn, onc was savcd on iIc inicrvcniion of iIc scnior connand,
and iIc rcsi wcrcsIoi. DyFclruary 1941, ZIulov Iad riscn io grcai IcigIis. His auiIoriiy Iad incrcascd
scvcral fold, and iIcrc was nolody wIo could savc any poor unforiunaic fron Iis angcr. Ccncral Siaff
vcicrans rccall ZIulov's rulc as iIc nosi icrrillc pcriod in Iisiory, cvcn norc icrrillc iIan iIai of iIc Crcai
Purgc. Ai iIai iinc iIc Ccncral Siaff, and all oiIcr siaffs, wcrc worling undcr inIunan prcssurc.
So Iow could ii Iavc Iappcncd iIai iIc Fcd Arny wcni inio iIc war wiiIoui plans? TIcrc is sonciIing clsc
wIicI cannoi lc undcrsiood. If iIc Fcd Arny wcni io war wiiIoui any plans, iIcn wIy did Sialin noi sIooi
ZIulov, and all iIosc wIo sIould Iavc lccn Iclping io nalc iIc plans, as soon as Ic lcarni aloui ii? TIai
did noi Iappcn. On iIc conirary, iIosc involvcd in naling iIc Sovici plans, sucI as Vasilcvsly, Sololovsly,
Vaiuiin, Malandin, Dagranyan, SIicncnlo and Kurasov, wIo Iad all lcgun iIc war as najor-gcncrals or
cvcn coloncls, cndcd ii, if noi as narsIals, iIcn ai lcasi as four-siar gcncrals. TIcy all sIowcd iIcnsclvcs io
lc lrilliani siraicgisis in iIc coursc of iIc war. TIcy wcrc all conscicniious and cvcn pcdaniic siaff officcrs,
wIo could noi conccivc of lifc wiiIoui a plan. So Iow could ii conc aloui iIai iIc Fcd Arny was conpcllcd io
inprovisc in iIc firsi noniIs of iIc war? And wIy did Sialin noi cvcn rcproacI ZIulov and Iis planncrs, lci
alonc sIooi iIcn?
WIcn aslcd iIc siraigIi qucsiion as io wIciIcr iIc Sovici connand Iad any war plans, ZIulov rcplicd
caicgorically iIai ii did Iavc sucI plans. TIcn anoiIcr qucsiion ariscs. if iIcrc wcrc plans, wIy did iIc Fcd
Arny opcraic in an unconirollcd nass, wiiIoui any plans ai all? ZIulov Ias ncvcr answcrcd iIis qucsiion.
Dui Icrc iIc answcr suggcsis iisclf. If Sovici siaffs wcrc worling vcry Iard io nalc war plans, and iIcsc wcrc
nciiIcr dcfcnsivc plans or plans for counicr-offcnsivc, iIcn wIai lind of plans wcrc iIcy? Purcly offcnsivc
plans.
Sialin did noi sIooi ZIulov and iIc oiIcr war-planncrs for onc vcry sinplc rcason. TIcy Iad ncvcr lccn
givcn iIc jol of worling oui plans for a dc]cnsuc war. Of wIai iIcn could iIcy lc accuscd? Sialin gavc iIc
iasl of naling plans of sonc oiIcr lind io ZIulov, Vasilcvsly, Sololovsly and oiIcr ouisianding siraicgisis.
TIcsc wcrc vcry good plans, lui iIc noncni iIc dcfcnsivc war lcgan iIcy lccanc unncccssary, jusi lilc iIc
noiorway ianls and iIc airlornc assauli corps.
Murdcr will oui. TIc Sovici HigI Connand iool ncasurcs io dcsiroy cvcryiIing rclaicd io Sovici prc-war war
plans. Dui iIcsc plans wcrc Icld ly all iIc fronis, all flccis, dozcns of arnics, norc iIan onc Iundrcd corps,
all warsIips, Iundrcds of divisions, and iIousands of rcgincnis and laiialions. SonciIing nusi Iavc
survivcd.
FcscarcI carricd oui ly iIc Acadcny of Scicnccs of iIc USSF Ias sIown iIai lcforc iIc war iIc
opcraiional nission of iIc Sovici Dlacl Sca Flcci was io undcrialc 'aciivc Iosiiliiics againsi cncny sIips and
iranspori ncar iIc DospIorus and in iIc approacIcs io cncny lascs, and also io co-opcraic wiiI land iroops
as iIcy novc along iIc Dlacl Sca Coasi'. (Pot u VO V, Moscow Naula 1980, p. 117i
Adniral of iIc Flcci of iIc Sovici Union Scrgci CcorgiycvicI CorsIlov Ias said iIai, as wcll as iIc Dlacl
Sca Flcci, iIc Daliic and Arciic Flccis Iad lccn givcn purcly dcfcnsivc nissions, lui ii was planncd iIai iIcsc
nissions sIould lc carricd oui ly purcly offcnsivc nciIods. TIis was siandard Sovici iIinling lcforc iIc
war, and was cprcsscd loiI ai sccrci ncciings in iIc Sovici connand, and opcnly in P)uudu. 'To wagc a
dcfcnsivc war in no way ncans io siand on iIc lordcrs of onc's own couniry. TIc lcsi forn of dcfcncc is a
swifi advancc uniil iIc cncny Ias lccn conplcicly dcsiroycd on Iis own icrriiory.' (14 Augusi 1939i
Opcraiions of iIc Sovici flccis in iIc firsi ninuics, Iours and days of iIc war sIow sufficicnily clcarly iIai
iIcy did Iavc plans, lui iIai iIcsc wcrc noi plans for dcfcncc. On 22 Junc 1941, Sovici sulnarincs of iIc
Dlacl Sca Flcci inncdiaicly pui io sca and Icadcd for iIc coasis of Fonania, Dulgaria and Turlcy. TIc sanc
day sulnarincs of iIc Daliic Flcci sci sail for iIc coasis of Ccrnany, wiiI a nission io 'sinl all cncny sIips
and vcsscls, in accordancc wiiI iIc rigIis of unrcsiricicd sulnarinc warfarc'. (Ordcr of Officcr Connanding
Daliic Flcci, 22 Junc 1941, Pot u VcIo OtccIcstucnno Vonc, Moscow Naula 1980, p. 279i TIc ordcr did noi
cvcn nalc an cccpiion for Iospiial sIips flying iIc Fcd Cross flag.
Dcginning on 22 Junc, iIc air arn of iIc Dlacl Sca Flcci carricd oui aciivc conlai opcraiions in suppori of
iIc Danulc Naval Floiilla wiiI iIc oljcciivc of opcning a way upsircan for iIc floiilla. On 2526 Junc,
surfacc warsIips of iIc Dlacl Sca Flcci appcarcd off iIc Fonanian pori of Consianza and lcgan an inicnsivc
ariillcry lonlardncni wiiI iIc olvious inicniion of naling a naval assauli landing. Ai iIc sanc iinc iIc
Danulc Naval Floiilla lcgan io carry oui assauli landing opcraiions in iIc Danulc Dclia.
On 22 Junc, iIc garrison ai iIc naval lasc ai Hanlo, on FinnisI icrriiory, insicad of going ovcr io a
sioncwall dcfcncc, iniiiaicd sonc susiaincd assauli landing opcraiions, and Icld ninciccn FinnisI islands for
scvcral days. On 25 Junc, in spiic of iIc cnornous losscs wIicI iIc Sovici Air Forccs Iad susiaincd in iIc
firsi Iours of iIc war, 487 aircrafi lclonging io iIc Daliic and Arciic Flccis launcIcd a surprisc sirilc ai
FinnisI airficlds. Again in spiic of iIcsc cnornous losscs, iIc Sovici air forccs conducicd iIcnsclvcs wiiI
cccpiional valour and aggrcssion. On 22 Junc iIc isi Air Corps nadc a conccniraicd raid on niliiary
oljcciivcs in Konigslcrg.
Nonc of iIis was inprovisaiion. Ai 6.44 an on 22 Junc iIc Sovici Air Forcc was givcn iIc nission of
opcraiing in accordancc wiiI iis plans, and for a fcw days ii iricd io do iIis. On 26 Junc, iIc 4iI Air Corps
lcgan lonling raids on iIc Plocsii oilficlds in Fonania. During iIc fcw days' duraiion of iIcsc raids, oil
ouipui in Fonania fcll alnosi ly Ialf. Evcn in condiiions wIcrc praciically iIc wIolc of iIc Sovici Air Forcc
Iad lccn dcsiroycd on iIc ground, ii siill found sufficicni sircngiI io wrcal grcai danagc on iIc Fonanian
oilficlds. In any oiIcr siiuaiion iIc Sovici Air Forcc would Iavc lccn cvcn norc dangcrous, and could Iavc
paralyscd conplcicly Ccrnany's niliiary, indusirial and iranspori powcr wiiI iis opcraiions againsi iIcsc oil-
producing arcas. Hiilcr undcrsiood iIis iIrcai only ioo wcll, and considcrcd iIai Iis only dcfcncc was io
invadc iIc Sovici Union.
On 22 Junc 1941, iIc 4isi Fiflc Division of iIc 6iI Arny's 6iI Fiflc Corps, wiiIoui waiiing for ordcrs fron
alovc, crosscd iIc siaic froniicr ncar Faval-Fusslaya. TIai sanc norning, and wiiIoui waiiing for ordcrs
fron Moscow, Coloncl-Ccncral F. I. Kuzncisov, officcr connanding iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni, ordcrcd Iis iroops
io launcI an aiiacl iowards Tilsii in Easi Prussia. TIis dccision canc as no surprisc ciiIcr io iIc
Icadquaricrs siaff of iIc NoriI-Wcsi Froni or io iIc officcrs connanding iIc arnics and iIcir siaffs, for a
vcrsion of iIc aiiacl on Tilsii Iad lccn playcd oui in Icadquaricrs ccrciscs Icld a fcw days prcviously, 'and
ii was vcry faniliar io iIc connandcrs of iIc fornaiions and iIcir Icadquaricrs'. (Ho)'Iu zu SouctsIuuu
P)IutIu, Ecsii Faanai, Tallinn 1980, Vol. i, p. 67i Coloncl-Ccncral Kuzncisov sinply pui iIc prc-war plan
inio aciion. On iIc cvcning of iIc sanc day, iIc Sovici HigI Connand, siill unawarc of Ccncral Kuzncisov's
opcraiions, ordcrcd Iin io do prcciscly wIai Ic was doing alrcady, iIai is, io aiiacl Tilsii. TIc HigI
Connand gavc iIc adjaccni Wcsicrn Froni iIc iasl of launcIing an cira-IigI-powcr aiiacl in iIc dircciion
of iIc PolisI iown of Suwalli. And iIai canc as no surprisc ciiIcr io Ccncral D. C. Pavlov, iIc officcr
connanding iIc Wcsicrn Froni. Hc Iinsclf lncw wIai Iis froni Iad io do, and Iad alrcady givcn iIc ordcr io
advancc on Suwalli long lcforc iIc dircciivc io do so arrivcd fron Moscow. To advancc was Iardly iIc lcsi
iIing io do, Iowcvcr, wIcn iIc Ccrnan Air Forcc Iad noi lccn dcsiroycd on iIc ground as planncd, and iIc
Sovici Wcsicrn Froni Iad iisclf losi 73 8 aircrafi in iIc firsi Iours of iIc war.
TIis opcraiional nission Iad lccn spcli oui io all Sovici connandcrs. Of coursc, iIc connandcrs ai
iaciical lcvcl wcrc noi cniiilcd io lnow wIai iIcir iasls would lc, lui in iIc scnior Icadquaricrs, iIcsc iasls
Iad lccn cacily dcfincd and fornulaicd, placcd undcr scal in sccrci cnvclopcs, and lcpi in iIc safc in cvcry
Icadquaricrs, up io and including iIc lcvcl of laiialion. For insiancc, iIc Fcconnaissancc Daiialion of iIc
27iI Fiflc Division, conccniraicd closc io iIc froniicr ncar iIc iown of Augusiow, was prcparing io carry oui
conlai rcconnaissancc in iIc dircciion of Suwalli. (ArlIiv MO SSSF, ArcIivc 181, lisi 1631, iicn i, p. 128i
TIc iasl of iIc Fcconnaissancc Daiialion was io cnsurc iIc swifi advancc of iIc cniirc 27iI Division fron
ncar Augusiow io Suwalli. Wc lnow cvcn norc aloui iIis fron ovcri sourccs iIan wc do fron prc-war
arcIivcs. Enornous Sovici forccs wcrc conccniraicd ncar Augusiow. TIai was iIc placc wIcrc iIc Sovici
froniicr guards Iad lccn cuiiing iIc larlcd wirc on iIcir froniicr. TIai was iIc placc wIcrc Licuicnani-
Ccncral V. I. Kuzncisov, officcr connanding iIc 3rd Arny, and HigI Connand Fcprcscniaiivc Licuicnani-
Ccncral of Enginccring Troops, D. KarlysIcv, Iad spcni long Iours survcying Ccrnan icrriiory fron froniicr
posis. TIai was iIc vcry placc wIcrc Ccncral KarlysIcv Iad lccn iraining assauli groups io cui off and
ncuiralizc iIc cncny's rcinforccd-concrcic dcfcnsivc insiallaiions.
Enornous nunlcrs of Sovici iroops Iad lccn asscnllcd ncar Augusiow long lcforc iIc war. FigIi on iIc
froniicr and flowing parallcl wiiI ii on Sovici icrriiory is iIc Augusiow Canal. If dcfcncc Iad lccn in
prcparaiion, iIc iroops would Iavc dcploycd lcIind iIc canal, using ii as an inpassallc anii-ianl diicI. Dui
iIc Sovici iroops crosscd ovcr io iIc wcsicrn lanl of iIc canal and dcploycd on iIc narrow sircicI of icrrain
lciwccn iIc canal and iIc froniicr, fron wIicI all larlcd wirc Iad lccn rcnovcd. Ai dawn on 22 Junc,
iIousands of Sovici soldicrs wcrc wipcd oui ly suddcn dcsiruciivc firc. TIc iroops, wiiI iIc canal lcIind
iIcn, Iad nowIcrc io go io rcircai.
Is noi iIis pcrIaps jusi iIc usual Fussian siupidiiy? Noi ai all. Ccrnan iroops Iad also lccn asscnllcd in
grcai nunlcrs rigIi up againsi iIc froniicr, fron wIicI iIcy also Iad rcnovcd iIcir larlcd wirc. Had iIc Fcd
Arny aiiaclcd iIc day lcforc, iIc losscs on iIc oiIcr sidc would Iavc lccn no lcss. Dcployncni of iroops
rigIi on iIc froniicr is cccpiionally dangcrous in iIc cvcni of iIc cncny launcIing a surprisc aiiacl, lui a
dcployncni of iIai naiurc is cnincnily suiiallc for launcIing sucI an aiiacl. DoiI arnics wcrc doing iIc
sanc iIing.
Sovici gcncrals ncvcr conccalcd iIai ii was offcnsivc iasls wIicI iIcy Iad lccn givcn. Ccncral K. Caliisly,
wIcn spcaling of iIc conccniraiion of Sovici iroops ncar Augusiow, insisis iIai iIc Sovici HigI Connand
did noi lclicvc iIai a Ccrnan offcnsivc was possillc, wIilc iIc Sovici iroops wcrc prcparing io carry oui an
offcnsivc opcraiion. And sincc iIc Sovici fronis facing Easi Prussia and Poland wcrc prcparing only for an
offcnsivc, ii follows iIai iIc fronis conccniraicd againsi Fonania, Dulgaria, Hungary and CzccIoslovalia
nusi also Iavc long lccn prcparing iIcnsclvcs only for an offcnsivc as wcll. Major-Ccncral A. I. MilIalcv
franlly adniis iIai iIc Sovici HigI Connand did noi plan io usc ciiIcr iIc SouiIcrn or SouiI-Wcsi Fronis
for dcfcnsivc or counicr-offcnsivc opcraiions. 'ii was inicndcd iIai iIc siraicgic ains sIould lc io Iavc iIc
iroops of iIc fronis go ovcr io dccisivc offcnsivc'. (VIZH 1986, No. 5, P- 49i
WIciIcr wc lclicvc iIc Sovici pullicaiions or noi, iIc Fcd Arny opcraiions in iIc firsi days of iIc war arc
iIc lcsi cvidcncc of Sovici inicniions. ZIulov, wIo co-ordinaicd iIc opcraiions of iIc SouiIcrn and SouiI-
Wcsi Fronis aincd ai Fonania, Dulgaria, Hungary and CzccIoslovalia, wcni on insisiing on offcnsivcs uniil
30 Junc 1941, and dcnandcd noiIing lui offcnsivcs fron iIc officcrs connanding iIc fronis. Ii was only in
July iIai Ic and Iis collcagucs canc io iIc conclusion iIai iIc Fcd Arny would no longcr find ii all iIai casy
io advancc.
Ii would lc a nisialc io undcrcsiinaic iIc cnornous sircngiI and vasi rcsourccs of Sialin's war nacIinc.
Dcspiic iis gricvous losscs, ii Iad cnougI sircngiI io wiiIdraw and gaiIcr ncw sircngiI io rcacI Dcrlin. How
far would ii Iavc gonc Iad ii noi susiaincd iIai nassivc llow on 22 Junc, if Iundrcds of aircrafi and
iIousands of ianls Iad noi lccn losi, Iad ii lccn iIc Fcd Arny and noi iIc WcIrnacIi wIicI sirucl iIc
firsi llow? Did iIc Ccrnan Arny Iavc iIc icrriiorial cpansc lcIind ii for wiiIdrawal? Did ii Iavc iIc
incIausiillc Iunan rcsourccs, and iIc iinc, io rcsiorc iis arny aficr iIc firsi Sovici surprisc aiiacl? Did
iIc Ccrnan gcncrals Iavc any dcfcnsivc plans?
CHAPTEF 33
TIc War WIicI Ncvcr Was
TIc Hussun HgI Connund Inous ts ]oI Icttc)
tIun tIc HgI Connund o] unu otIc) u)nu.
Ccncral V. F. Von MELLENTIN
(Punzc)Huttcs, London 1977, p. 353i
Hiilcr considcrcd iIai a Sovici invasion was incviiallc, lui Ic did noi cpcci ii io Iappcn in iIc vcry ncar
fuiurc. Ccrnan iroops wcrc divcricd io aciiviiics of sccondary inporiancc, and iIc lcginning of Opcraiion
Darlarossa was posiponcd. TIc opcraiion finally lcgan on 22 Junc 1941. Hiilcr Iinsclf clcarly did noi rcalizc
wIai a ircncndous sirolc of lucl Ic Iad Iad. If Opcraiion Darlarossa Iad lccn pui off again, say fron 22
Junc io 22 July, Hiilcr would Iavc Iad io do away wiiI Iinsclf considcrally carlicr iIan in 1945.
TIcrc arc quiic a fcw indicaiions iIai iIc daic for iIc lcginning of iIc Sovici Opcraiion Croza
('TIundcrsiorn'i was ficd for 6 July 1941. Mcnoirs of Sovici narsIals, gcncrals and adnirals, arcIival
docuncnis, iIc naiIcnaiical analysis of infornaiion or iIc novcncnis of iIousands of Sovici niliiary
railway irains all poini io 10 July as iIc daic on wIicI iIc full conccniraiion of iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon
of iIc Fcd Arny would lc acIicvcd on iIc Sovici wcsicrn lordcrs. Sovici niliiary iIcory, Iowcvcr, lays down
iIai iIc novc ovcr io a dccisivc offcnsivc sIould noi follow Iut p)cccdc iIc full conccniraiion of iroops. In iIai
cvcni, a nunlcr of iIosc niliiary irains lclonging io iIc Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon could Iavc lccn off-loadcd
dirccily on cncny icrriiory, for iis iroops io go dirccily inio laiilc.
ZIulov and Sialin lilcd io dclivcr iIcir surprisc sirilcs on Sunday nornings, and 6 July 1941 was iIc lasi
Sunday lcforc iIc conccniraiion of Sovici iroops was conplcic. Ccncral Ivanov's siaicncni dirccily poinis io
iIis daic. 'TIc Ccrnan iroops succccdcd in forcsialling us liicrally ly iwo wccls.'
Lci us supposc iIai Hiilcr Iad oncc again pui lacl iIc daic on wIicI Darlarossa was io lc launcIcd ly
iIrcc io four wccls. Lci us iry io inaginc wIai would Iavc Iappcncd iIcn. Wc do noi nccd io ccri our
inaginaiion. Ii is sufficicni io lool ai iIc groupings of Sovici iroops, ai iIc unprcccdcnicd conccniraiion of
iroops, ai iIc airficlds rigIi up againsi iIc froniicr, ai iIc airlornc assauli corps and iIc noiorway ianls, ai
iIc accunulaiion of sulnarincs in froniicr poris or ai air assauli glidcrs ai forward airficlds. Ii is sufficicni
for us io opcn Sovici prc-war niliiary-rcgulaiion lools, icilools of Sovici niliiary acadcnics and scIools,
and iIc ncwspapcrs Hcd Stu) and P)uudu.
TIc Ccrnan iroops arc naling inicnsivc prcparaiions for iIc invasion, wIicI is ficd for . . . 22 Juu 1941.
TIc conccniraiion of iroops is procccding. niliiary irains arc off-loading ai siaiions and Ialis; iIc forcsis ncar
iIc lordcrs arc full of iroops; ai nigIi groups of aircrafi fron disiani airficlds fly ovcr iIc ficld acrodroncs
locaicd rigIi on iIc froniicr; and iIcrc is fcvcrisI luilding of ncw roads and lridgcs. In a word, cvcryiIing is
jusi as ii is in iIc Fcd Arny. On iIc oiIcr sidc, iIc Fcd Arny docs noi sccn io lc rcaciing ai all io iIc
Ccrnan prcparaiions.
Ai 3.30 an Moscow iinc on 6July 1941, icns of iIousands of Sovici guns sIaiicr iIc silcncc, announcing
io iIc world iIai iIc grcai 'lilcraiion' canpaign of iIc Fcd Arny Ias lcgun. TIc Fcd Arny's ariillcry is
supcrior loiI in qualiiy and quaniiiy io any in iIc world. TIcrc arc vasi rcscrvcs of annuniiion sioclpilcd on
iIc Sovici froniicrs. TIc raic of Sovici ariillcry firc swifily incrcascs uniil ii lcconcs an infcrnal iIundcr
roaring along iIc iIousands of liloncircs of froni sircicIing fron iIc Daliic io iIc Dlacl Sca. TIc firsi
ariillcry salvo coincidcs io iIc ninuic wiiI iIc arrival of a iIousand Sovici aircrafi flying across iIc siaic
froniicr. TIc Ccrnan airficlds Iavc lccn circncly ladly siicd rigIi on iIc lordcr, and iIc Ccrnan pilois do
noi Iavc iIc iinc io gci iIcir aircrafi airlornc. TIcrc is a grcai nunlcr of aircrafi asscnllcd on iIc Ccrnan
airficlds. TIcy arc sianding wing-iip io wing-iip, and wIcn onc lurns iIc firc sprcads io iIc oiIcrs lilc a firc
in a naicIlo.
Dlacl colunns of snolc risc alovc iIc airficlds. TIcsc llacl colunns aci as lcacons for Sovici aircrafi,
wIicI conc on in wavc upon wavc. Vcry fcw plancs Iavc lccn allc io ialc off fron iIc Ccrnan airficlds.
Ccrnan aircrcws Iavc lccn caicgorically forliddcn io opcn firc on Sovici aircrafi, lui in spiic of iIc lan
inposcd ly iIc connand, scvcral pilois go inio laiilc, sIooi down Sovici aircrafi, and wIcn iIcy Iavc uscd
up all iIcir annuniiion, iIcy crasI Icad-on inio an cncny aircrafi in a final suicidal aiiacl. Losscs in Sovici
aircrafi arc cnornous, lui iIc advaniagcs of surprisc rcnain. Any arny, wIciIcr iIc Sovici, iIc Ccrnan, or
iIc Japancsc, would Iavc fcli no Iappicr undcr a sinilar surprisc aiiacl.
TIc ariillcry prcparaiion grows in powcr. On iIc froniicr, iIc Sovici rcgincnis and laiialions wIo Iavc
lccn raiscd ly iIc alcri arc givcn vodla. TIc iIundcrous u)u, iIc laiilc-cry of iIc iroops, rolls iIrougI iIc
froniicr forcsis. TIc ordcr of Conradc Sialin, iIc suprcnc connandcr-in-cIicf, is lcing rcad io iIc iroops.
'TIc Iour of rccloning Ias conc! Sovici iniclligcncc Ias cposcd Hiilcr's pcrfidy and iIc iinc Ias conc io
sciilc accounis wiiI Iin for all Iis cvil dccds and crincs! Clorious warriors, iIc world is looling io you and
awaiis lilcraiion!'
Infringing all csiallisIcd siandards and proIiliiions, iIc soldicrs arc iold iIc nunlcrs of Sovici iroops,
ianls, ariillcry, aircrafi, and sulnarincs wIicI will ialc pari in iIc lilcraiion canpaign. TIc rolling u)u again
runllcs oui across iIc woodcd gladcs and forcsi cuiiings. Endlcss colunns of ianls darlcn iIc Iorizon wiiI
clouds of dusi as iIcy novc along roads iIrougI ficld and forcsi on iIcir way io iIc froniicr. 'Don'i sparc your
firc, you dcaf-carcd loi!' iIc ianl crcws sIoui iIrougI clcncIcd icciI ai iIc dcafcncd ariillcry iroops.
TIc runllc of ariillcry firc grows, rcacIcs a criiical lcvcl, iIcn suddcnly siops. TIcn ringing silcncc
opprcsscs iIc cars, and inncdiaicly iIc ficlds fill wiiI nasscs of ianls and infaniry, iIc
clanl of arnour and iIc ficrcc Ioarsc roar of iIc Sovici iroops. TIc powdcry snolc and iIc poisonous funcs
fron iIc ianl dicscl cngincs ni wiiI iIc dclicaic sncll of ficld flowcrs, wIilc ovcrIcad wavc upon wavc of
Sovici aircrafi fly wcsiwards. TIc ariillcry, Iaving fallcn silcni for a ninuic, rcsiaris, as iIougI unwillingly,
iis powcrful convcrsaiion. TIc ariillcry gocs ovcr fron prcparaiion io acconpanying suppori. TIc laiicrics
Iavc opcncd up again, conccniraiing iIcir firc on disiani iargcis. Slowly lui incorally, iIc firing is sicppcd
up again, and norc and norc ariillcry rcgincnis join iIc laiilc.
Avoiding lcconing involvcd in proiracicd laiilcs wiiI scaiicrcd cncny groups, iIc Sovici iroops drivc
forward. TIc froniicr lridgcs in Drcsi-Liiovsl Iavc lccn capiurcd ly Coloncl Siarinov's saloicurs. TIc Sovici
saloicurs arc asionisIcd iIai iIc Ccrnan lridgcs Iavc noi cvcn lccn nincd. How can onc possilly cplain
sucI a scandalous dcgrcc of unrcadincss for war?
TIc suddcnncss of iIc aiiacl Ias a siunning cffcci, lringing a wIolc cIain of caiasiropIcs in iis walc,
cacI onc of wIicI, in iis iurn, lrings on oiIcrs. TIc dcsiruciion of iIc air forcc on iIc ground rcndcrs iIc
iroops vulncrallc fron iIc air, and sincc iIcy Iavc nciiIcr ircncIcs nor diicIcs in iIc froniicr arca, iIcy arc
conpcllcd io wiiIdraw. WiiIdrawal ncans iIai iIousands of ions of annuniiion and fucl arc alandoncd ai
iIc lordcr. WiiIdrawal ncans iIai airficlds arc lcfi lcIind, and iIc cncny inncdiaicly dcsiroys iIc
rcnaining aircrafi iIcrc. WiiIdrawal wiiIoui annuniiion and fucl ncans incscapallc dcsiruciion.
WiiIdrawal ncans iIai iIc connand Ias losi conirol. TIc connand docs noi lnow wIai is Iappcning wiiI
iIc iroops and is iIcrcforc unallc io ialc any cpcdicni dccisions, wIilc iIc iroops arc givcn no ordcrs ai all,
or iIcy arc givcn ordcrs wIicI arc conplcicly oui of lccping wiiI iIc siiuaiion wIicI Ias conc aloui.
Ai iIc sanc iinc, Sovici saloicurs, wIo crosscd iIc froniicrs wiiI iinc in Iand, arc aciivc cvcrywIcrc on
iIc lincs of connunicaiion. TIcy ciiIcr cui iIc connunicaiion lincs, or plug inio iIcn and iransnii falsc
signals and ordcrs io iIc cncny iroops. TIc cncny's opcraiions lcconc scparaic, unco-ordinaicd laiilcs. TIc
Ccrnan connandcrs asl Dcrlin wIai iIcy sIould do. Ii is a scrious qucsiion, lccausc iIc WcIrnacIi Ias
noi prcparcd iisclf for dcfcncc. WIai do wc do? Advancc? Opcraic in accordancc wiiI iIc prc-war Darlarossa
plan? WiiIoui an air forcc? WiiIoui air suprcnacy?
TIc 3rd Sovici Arny dclivcrs a surprisc sirilc ai Suwalli. TIc 8iI Arny fron iIc Daliic Miliiary Disirici
gocs io ncci ii. Fron iIc vcry lcginning iIcrc arc llood-lciiing cngagcncnis wiiI grcai losscs in Sovici
iroops. Dui iIcy Iavc onc advaniagc. iIc Sovici iroops Iavc iIc laicsi KV ianl, iIc arnour of wIicI iIc
Ccrnan anii-ianl guns cannoi pcnciraic. TIc Sovici Air Forcc ragcs ovcrIcad. TIc 5iI Airlornc Assauli
Corps Ias landcd lcIind iIc Ccrnan forccs. TIc Sovici 8iI, niI, and 3rd Arnics Iavc lcconc loggcd down
in long drawn-oui lloody laiilcs wiiI iIc cira-IigI-powcr Ccrnan forccs in Easi Prussia, lui lcIind iIis
iiianic laiilc, iIc cira-IigI-powcr Sovici loiI Arny, Iaving lrolcn iIrougI iIc alnosi noncisicni dcfcnccs,
drivcs on io iIc Daliic Sca, iIcrcly cuiiing off iIrcc Ccrnan arnics, iwo ianl groups and Hiilcr's connand
posi fron iIc rcsi of iIc Ccrnan iroops.
Fron ncar L'vov, iIc nosi powcrful Sovici froni launcIcs an aiiacl on Cracow and a sccondary aiiacl on
Lullin. TIc rigIi flanl of iIc cira-IigI-powcr Sovici grouping is covcrcd ly Iills. On iIc lcfi flanl, a grcai
laiilc flarcs up in wIicI iIc Fcd Arny loscs iIousands of ianls, aircrafi and guns, and Iundrcds of
iIousands of soldicrs. Undcr covcr of iIis laiilc, iwo Sovici nouniain arnics, iIc I2iI and iIc 18iI, launcI
aiiacls along iIc nouniain ridgcs, iIcrcly cuiiing off Ccrnany fron iis sourccs of oil. Sovici airlornc assauli
corps Iavc landcd in iIc Iills. TIcy capiurc and Iold iIc passcs, and prcvcni rcscrvcs lcing iransfcrrcd io
Fonania.
TIc nain cvcnis of iIc war arc noi ialing placc in ciiIcr Poland or Ccrnany. In iIc firsi Iour of war,
opcraiing along wiiI iIc air arn of iIc 9iI Arny and iIc Dlacl Sca Flcci, iIc 4iI Sovici Air Corps dclivcrs a
Icavy sIocl sirilc ai iIc Plocsii oilficlds, iurning iIcn inio a sca of firc. Donling raids on Plocsii coniinuc
round iIc clocl. TIc glow fron iIc oil fircs is visillc ai nigIi for nany liloncircs, wIilc ly day colunns of
llacl snolc Iidc iIc Io)zon. TIc 3rd Airlornc Assauli Corps Ias landcd in iIc Iills io iIc noriI of Plocsii.
Opcraiing in snall clusivc groups, ii is dcsiroying cvcryiIing connccicd wiiI iIc produciion, iransporiaiion
and iIc rcfining of oil. Licuicnani-Ccncral Daiov's 9iI Spccial Fiflc Corps Ias landcd in iIc pori of Consianza
and io iIc souiI of ii. Iis oljcciivcs arc iIc sanc. pipclincs, oil sioragc ianls, and rcfincrics. TIc nosi
powcrful of all Sovici arnics, iIc 9iI, Ias lursi oui onio iIc Fonanian plains.
TIc Sovici loiI Arny Ias noi lccn allc io lrcal oui io iIc Daliic Sca. Ii Ias suffcrcd fcarful losscs. TIc
Sovici 3rd and 8iI Arnics Iavc lccn conplcicly wipcd oui and iIcir Icavy KV ianls dcsiroycd ly Ccrnan
anii-aircrafi guns. TIc Sovici 5iI, 6iI and 26iI Arnics Iavc losi Iundrcds of iIousands of soldicrs, Iaving
lccn sioppcd on iIc approacIcs io Cracow and Lullin. Ai iIis noncni, iIc Sovici HigI Connand iIrows iIc
Sccond Siraicgic EcIclon inio iIc laiilc. TIc diffcrcncc is iIai iIc WcIrnacIi Ias only onc ccIclon and
insignificani rcscrvcs, wIilc iIc Fcd Arny Iad iwo siraicgic ccIclons and iIrcc N K V D arnics lcIind iIcn.
In addiiion, nolilizaiion was dcclarcd in iIc Sovici Union as soon as iIc war lcgan. TIis Iad givcn iIc Sovici
HigI Connand fivc nillion rcscrvisis in iIc firsi wccl of iIc war. TIcsc will rcplacc Sovici losscs, and ovcr
iIc noniIs wIicI follow will lc forncd inio norc iIan iIrcc Iundrcd ncw divisions wIo will cnallc iIc war
io coniinuc.
Fivc Sovici airlornc assauli corps arc conplcicly dcsiroycd, lui iIcir Icadquaricrs and rcar sul-uniis
rcnain on Sovici icrriiory. TIcsc inncdiaicly ialc in icns of iIousands of rcscrvisis io nalc up iIcir losscs,
and in addiiion io iIis, fivc ncw airlornc assauli corps arc forncd. DoiI Sovici ianl iroops and air forcc
suffcr cnornous losscs in iIc iniiial laiilcs, lui Sovici war indusiry is noi dcsiroycd ly iIc cncny air forcc,
nor docs ii fall inio cncny Iands. TIc liggcsi ianl-producing planis in iIc world, in KIar'lov, Sialingrad,
and Lcningrad do noi siop iIcir produciion of ianls, lui considcrally incrcasc ii. Dui cvcn iIai is noi iIc
nosi inporiani iIing.
TIc Ccrnan Arny siill Ias ianls, lui no fucl for iIcn. TIc infaniry siill Ias arnourcd pcrsonncl carricrs,
and iIc ariillcry siill Ias iraciors, lui no pcirol for iIcn. TIcrc arc siill aircrafi, lui no fucl for iIcn.
Ccrnany Ias a powcrful naval flcci, lui ii is noi in iIc Daliic. Evcn if ii wcrc io appcar iIcrc, iIcrc would lc
no fucl for aciivc opcraiions. TIc Ccrnan Arny Ias iIousands of woundcd wIo Iavc io lc cvacuaicd io iIc
rcar. TIcrc arc anlulanccs, lui no fucl for iIcn. TIc Ccrnan Arny Ias a grcai nunlcr of noior vcIiclcs
and noiorcyclcs for noving iroops aloui, io lccp iIcn supplicd, and for rcconnaissancc, lui iIcrc is no fucl
for iIcn ciiIcr.
TIc fucl is in Fonania, wIicI Ias provcd inpossillc io dcfcnd ly iIc usual nciIods. Sialin lncw iIis, and
so did ZIulov. Hiilcr also lncw iIis all ioo wcll.
In Augusi 1941, iIc Sccond Siaicgic EcIclon conplcics iIc Visiula-Odcr opcraiion ly capiuring lridgcs
and springloards on iIc Odcr. A ncw opcraiion in grcai dcpiI is lcgun fron Icrc. TIc iroops cross iIc Odcr
in a coniinuous sircan of ariillcry, ianls and infaniry. TIcrc arc Icaps of caicrpillar iracls, covcrcd ly a
ligIi filn of rusi, lying ai iIc roadsidcs; as soon as iIcy join Ccrnan roads, iIc IigI-spccd ianls discard
iIcir iracls and forgc swifily aIcad.
TIc iroops ncci cndlcss colunns of prisoncrs. Dusi riscs on iIc Iorizon. TIcrc iIcy arc, iIc opprcssors of
iIc pcoplc -sIoplccpcrs, lourgcois dociors and arcIiiccis, farncrs and lanl cnployccs. TIc CIclisis' worl
will lc Iard. Prisoncrs arc cursorily inicrrogaicd ai cvcry siopping placc. TIcn iIc NK VD invcsiigaics cacI
onc in dciail, and csiallisIcs iIc dcgrcc of Iis guili lcforc iIc worling pcoplc. Dui ly now ii Ias lcconc
ncccssary io cposc iIc nosi dangcrous of iIc nillions of prisoncrs. iIc forncr Social Dcnocrais, pacifisis,
socialisis and Naiional Socialisis, forncr officcrs, policcncn and ninisicrs of rcligion.
Millions of prisoncrs Iavc io lc scni far away io iIc casi and iIc noriI, in ordcr io givc iIcn iIc
opporiuniiy, iIrougI Ioncsi lalour, io cpiaic iIcir guili lcforc iIc pcoplc. Dui iIc railways arc noi
convcying prisoncrs. TIc railways arc worling for viciory. TIc railways arc carrying iIousands of niliiary
irains ladcn wiiI annuniiion, fucl and rcinforccncnis.
WIcrc arc iIc prisoncrs io go? TIc 4iI MccIanizcd Corps Ias capiurcd a conccniraiion canp ncar
AuscIwiiz. Ii was rcporicd io IigIcr auiIoriiy, and pcrnission was awaiicd io usc ii for iis inicndcd purposc.
Pcrnission was rcfuscd; ii was ordcrcd iIai a nuscun lc nadc of AuscIwiiz. Ncw conccniraiion canps nusi
lc luili ncarly.
Morc and norc colunns novc wcsiwards. TIc connissars ialc a fcw ncn fron cacI of iIc passing
colunns, and ialc iIcn io AuscIwiiz and sIow iIcn around saying, 'Talc a good lool, and iIcn go lacl
and icll your conradcs.'
TIc soldicrs arc iIcn drivcn lacl io iIcir laiialions in poliiical dcparincni cars, and iIcy iall.
'Wcll, wIai was ii lilc in AuscIwiiz, pal?'
'NoiIing nucI, rcally.' TIc worldly-wisc soldicr in Iis llacl jaclci sIrugs Iis sIouldcrs. 'Jusi lilc ai Ionc.
Only iIcir clinaic is lciicr.'
TIc laiialion drinls raw vodla lcforc going inio laiilc. TIc ncws is good. TIcrc's pcrnission io ialc
iropIics, iIcrc's pcrnission io pillagc. TIc connissar is sIouiing. Hc Ias lcconc Ioarsc. Hc's quoiing Ilya
Ercnlurg - lci's lrcal iIc pridc of iIc arrogani Ccrnan pcoplc!
TIc llacl jaclcis laugI. How sIall wc lrcal iIcir pridc, wiiI nass rapc?
So nonc of iIis Iappcncd? Indccd ii did Iappcn - noi in 1941, ii is iruc, lui in 1945. TIcn iIc Sovici soldicr
was pcrniiicd io plundcr, iIougI iIc icrn uscd for ii was 'collcciing iropIics'. And iIcy wcrc also ordcrcd io
'lrcal Ccrnan pridc'. Millions of pcoplc fcll inio iIc cluicIcs of iIc Sovici sccrci policc. And iIcy wcrc drivcn
off in cndlcss colunns io disiani placcs. Noi cvcryonc rciurncd.
TIcrc arc fcw wIo rcncnlcr iIai iIc slogan aloui lilcraiing Europc and iIc wIolc world firsi rang oui, noi
in 1945, lui ai iIc cnd of 1938. As Ic was conplciing iIc Crcai Purgc in iIc Sovici Union, Sialin rcwroic iIc
cniirc Iisiory of connunisn and sci ii ncw goals in Iis lool Hsto)u o] tIc CPS U(I). A SIo)t Cou)sc. TIis
lccanc iIc principal Iandlool for all Sovici connunisis and all connunisis iIrougIoui iIc world. Ii
concludcs wiiI a cIapicr on Iow iIc Sovici Union is cncirclcd ly capiialisn. Sialin sci iIc grcai goal, wIicI
was io rcplacc capiialisi cncirclcncni wiiI socialisi cncirclcncni. TIc figIi againsi capiialisi cncirclcncni
Iad io go on uniil iIc lasi couniry in iIc world Iad lcconc a 'rcpullic' forning pari of iIc Sovici Union.
'TIc USSF in capiialisi cncirclcncni' lccanc iIc nain suljcci of poliiical siudics in iIc Fcd Arny.
Propagandisis, connissars, poliiical worlcrs, and connandcrs all uniicd io lcad cvcry soldicr in iIc Fcd
Arny io Sialin's sinplc and logical answcrs io prollcns. And ovcr iIc iron laiialions of iIc Fcd Arny iIcrc
iIundcrcd foriI iIc song aloui iIc war of lilcraiion wIicI would lcgin on iIc ordcr fron Sialin.
WiiI spiiiing firc and glcaning siccl now flasIing
MacIincs sci foriI, iIcir ficrcc crusadc aligIi,
WIcn Conradc Sialin scnds us inio laiilc,
And our Firsi MarsIal lcads us in iIc figIi.
TIis is Iow a Sovici air gcncral dcscrilcd iIc fuiurc war in P)uudu.
WIai joy and Iappincss will sIinc in iIc faccs of iIosc wIo will rcccivc Icrc in iIc Crcai Krcnlin Palacc
iIc ust rcpullic inio iIc lroiIcrIood of naiions of iIc wIolc world! I cnvisagc clcarly iIc lonlcr plancs
dcsiroying iIc cncny's faciorics, railway junciions, lridgcs, dcpois and posiiions; low-flying assauli aircrafi
aiiacling colunns of iroops and ariillcry posiiions wiiI a Iail of gunfirc; and assauli landing sIips puiiing
iIcir divisions asIorc in iIc Icari of iIc cncny's disposiiions. TIc powcrful and fornidallc air forcc of iIc
Land of iIc Sovicis, along wiiI iIc infaniry and ianl and ariillcry iroops will do iIcir sacrcd duiy and will
Iclp iIc cnslavcd pcoplcs io cscapc fron iIcir cccuiioncrs. (P)uudu, Ccorgi Daidulov, 18 Augusi 1940i
Ii is cIaracicrisiic iIai, in iIc coursc of Iis lcngiIy ariiclc on iIc foriIconing war, iIc air gcncral did noi
oncc call iIc war 'dcfcnsivc', jusi as Ic did noi oncc ncniion figIicr aircrafi wIicI figIi laiilcs in iIc air. As
far as iIc gcncral was conccrncd, only lonlcr plancs, low-flying assauli aircrafi and assauli landing aircrafi
would lc nccdcd in iIc war of 'lilcraiion'.
EnougI siaicncnis lilc iIis wcrc pullisIcd io fill nany voluncs. Wanda Vasilcvslaya, iIc PolisI
connunisi wIo was givcn iIc ranl of coloncl-connissar in iIc Fcd Arny, proclaincd in iIc pagcs o] P)uudu
(9 Novcnlcr 1940i iIai noi for long would iIc luicIcrs go on drinling llood, noi for long nccd iIc slavcs go
on raiiling iIcir cIains - wc'll lilcraic iIcn all!
TIc Sovici connunisis dcclarcd iIcir nain oljcciivc quiic opcnly - io lilcraic iIc wIolc world, and Europc
firsi of all. TIis plan was aciivcly pursucd; in iIc coursc of 1940 alonc, wIilc Ccrnany was figIiing in iIc
wcsi, fivc ncw 'rcpullics' wcrc annccd inio iIc Sovici Union. Aficr iIis, ii was opcnly dcclarcd iIai
'lilcraiion' canpaigns would coniinuc, and cnornous forccs wcrc crcaicd for iIis purposc. TIc nci viciin of
'lilcraiion' could only Iavc lccn Ccrnany, or Fonania; for Ccrnany iIis would Iavc ncani inncdiaic
dcfcai.

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