CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Water
Water is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of life. In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or steam. About 1.460 petatonnes (Pt) (1021kilograms) of water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation. Saltwater oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. Some of the Earth's water is contained within water towers, biological bodies, manufactured products, and food stores. Other water is trapped in ice caps, glaciers, aquifers, or in lakes, sometimes providing fresh water for life on land. Water moves continually through a cycle of evaporation or transpiration (evapotranspiration), precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Winds carry water vapor over land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 36 Tt (1012kilograms) per year. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute another 71 Tt per year to the precipitation of 107 Tt per year over land. Clean, fresh drinking water is essential to human and other life. However, in many parts of the worldespecially developing countries there is a water crisis, and it is estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability. Water plays an important role in the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide
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variety of chemical substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of freshwater is consumed by agriculture. Types of water Water can appear in three states. Water takes many different forms on Earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky; seawater and rarely icebergs in the ocean; glaciers and rivers in the mountains; and aquifers in the ground. Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it different tastes and odors. In fact, humans and other animals have developed senses to be able to evaluate the potability of water, avoiding water that is too salty or putrid. Humans also tend to prefer cold water rather than lukewarm, as cold water is likely to contain fewer microbes. The taste advertised in spring water or mineral water derives from the minerals dissolved in it, as pure H2O is tasteless. As such, purity in spring and mineral water refers to purity from toxins, pollutants, and microbes. Different names are given to water's various forms:

according to state
o o o

solid - ice liquid - water gaseous - water vapour

according to meteorology:
o

hydrometeor

precipitation

precipitation according to moves precipitation according to state vertical (falling) liquid precipitation precipitation
o o o o o

rain freezing rain drizzle

2

rain freezing rain

o o o o o o o o o

drizzle freezing drizzle snow snow pellets snow grains ice pellets frozen rain hail ice crystals (seated)

o o

freezing drizzle dew snow snow pellets snow grains ice pellets frozen rain hail ice crystals hoarfrost atmospheric icing glaze ice

solid precipitation
o o o o o o o o o o

horizontal precipitation
o o o

dew hoarfrost atmospheric icing glaze ice

mixed precipitation
o

in

temperatures

around 0 C
o

levitating particles

clouds fog BR (according to METAR) spindrift stirred snow

ascending particles (drifted by wind)

according to occurrence
o o o o o o

groundwater meltwater meteoric water connate water fresh water surface water
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o o o

mineral water contains much minerals brackish water dead water strange phenomenon which can occur when a layer of fresh or brackish water rests on top of more dense salt water, without the two layers mixing. It is dangerous for ship traveling. seawater brine tap water bottled water drinking water or potable water useful for everyday drinking, without fouling, it contains balanced minerals that are not harmful to health (see below) Purified water, laboratory-grade, and analytical-grade or reagentgrade water water which has been highly purified for specific uses in science or engineering. Often broadly classified as Type I, Type II, or Type III, this category of water includes, but is not limited to the following:

o o

according to uses
o o o

distilled water double distilled water deionized water

according to other features

o o o

soft water contains less minerals hard water from underground, contains more minerals distilled water, double distilled water, deionized water - contains no minerals Water of crystallization water incorporated into crystalline structures Hydrates water bound into other chemical substances
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Heavy water made from heavy atoms of hydrogen - deuterium. It is in nature in normal water in very low concentration. It was used in construction of first nuclear reactors. tritiated water

according to microbiology
o o o

drinking water wastewater stormwater or surface water

according to religion
o

holy water

1.1.1Chemical and physical properties Water

Water

is

necessary

solvent

for

all

known

life,

and

an abundant compound on the earth's surface. Information and properties Common name IUPAC name Alternative names Molecular formula CAS number Inch I Molar mass Density and phase Melting point Boiling point Specific heat capacity Water Oxidant aqua, H2O 7732-18-5 Inch I=1/H2O/h1H2 18.0153 g/mol 0.998 g/cm (liquid at 20 C, 1 atm) 0.917 g/cm (solid at 0 C, 1 atm) 0 C (273.15 K) (32 F) 99.974 C (373.124 K) (211.95 F) 4.184 J/(gK) (liquid at 20
5 C)

dehydrogenate

monoxide,

hydrogen hydroxide,

74.539 J/ (molK) (liquid at 25 C)

1.1.2 Water (molecule)

Model of hydrogen bonds between molecules of water Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom. The major chemical and physical properties of water are:

Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient temperature and pressure. The color of water and ice is, intrinsically, a very light blue hue, although water appears colorless in small quantities. Ice also appears colorless, and water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas.

Water is transparent, and thus aquatic plants can live within the water because sunlight can reach them. Only strong UV light is slightly absorbed.

Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, water is a polar molecule. The oxygen has a slight negative charge while the hydrogens have a slight positive charge giving the article a strong
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effective dipole moment. The interactions between the different dipoles of each molecule cause a net attraction force associated with water's high amount of surface tension.

Another very important force that causes the water molecules to stick to one another is the hydrogen bond.

The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is directly related to the barometric pressure. For example, on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at about 68 C (154 F), compared to 100 C (212 F) at sea level. Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.

Water sticks to itself. Water has a high surface tension caused by the strong cohesion between water molecules because it is polar. The apparent elasticity caused by surface tension drives the capillary waves.

Water also has high adhesion properties because of its polar nature. Capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees.

Water is a very strong solvent, referred to as the universal solvent, dissolving many types of substances. Substances that will mix well and dissolve in water, e.g. salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases: especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation), are known as "hydrophilic" (water-loving) substances, while those that do not mix well with water (e.g. fats and oils), are known as "hydrophobic" (waterfearing) substances.

All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in water.
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Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly upon solvation of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride.

Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of any known chemical compound, after ammonia, as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ mol1), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature.

The maximum density of water is at 3.98 C (39.16 F). Water becomes even less dense upon freezing, expanding 9%. This causes an unusual phenomenon: ice floats upon water, and so water organisms can live inside a partly frozen pond because the water on the bottom has a temperature of around 4 C (39 F).

1.1.3 Distribution of water in nature A. Water in the Universe Much of the universe's water may be produced as a byproduct of star formation. When stars are born, their birth is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of material eventually impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water observed is quickly produced in this warm dense gas. Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way. It is believed that water exists in abundance in other galaxies too, because its components, hydrogen and oxygen, are among the most abundant elements in the universe. Interstellar clouds eventually condense into solar nebulae and solar systems, such as ours.
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Water vapour is present on:

Mercury - 3.4% in the atmosphere, and large amounts of water in Mercury's exosphere Venus - 0.002% in the atmosphere Earth - trace in the atmosphere (varies with climate) Mars - 0.03% in the atmosphere Jupiter - 0.0004% in the atmosphere Saturn - in ices only Enceladus (moon of Saturn) - 91% in the atmosphere

Liquid water is present on:

Earth - 71% of surface Moon - small amounts of water have been found (in 2008) in the inside of volcanic pearls brought from Moon to Earth by the Apollo 15 crew in 1971.

B .Water on Earth Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface; the oceans contain 97.2% of the Earth's water. The Antarctic ice sheet, which contains 90% of all fresh water on Earth, is visible at the bottom. Condensed atmospheric water can be seen as clouds, contributing to the Earth's albedo. Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth. The study of the distribution of water is hydrography. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, of glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters is limnology and distribution of oceans is oceanography. Ecological processes with hydrology are in focus of ecohydrology. The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet is called hydrosphere. Earth's approximate water volume (the total
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water supply of the world) is 1 360 000 000 km (326 000 000 mi). Of this volume:

1 320 000 000 km (316 900 000 mi or 97.2%) is in the oceans. 25 000 000 km (6 000 000 mi or 1.8%) is in glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets. 13 000 000 km (3,000,000 mi or 0.9%) is groundwater. 250 000 km (60,000 mi or 0.02%) is fresh water in lakes, inland seas, and rivers. 13 000 km (3,100 mi or 0.001%) is atmospheric water vapor at any given time.

Groundwater and fresh water are useful or potentially useful to humans as water resources. Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal, pond, or puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid, and vapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifers. The most important geological processes caused by water are: chemical weathering, water erosion, water sediment transport and sedimentation, mudflows, ice erosion and sedimentation by glacier. 1.1.4 Water cycle The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the continuous exchange of water within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants. Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting of following transfer processes:

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Evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into the air and transpiration from land plants and animals into air. Precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to earth or ocean. Runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.

Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the oceans, but winds carry water vapor over land at the same rate as runoff into the sea, about 36 Tt per year. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute another 71 Tt per year. Precipitation, at a rate of 107 Tt per year over land, has several forms: most commonly rain, snow, and hail, with some contribution from fog and dew. Condensed water in the air may also refract sunlight to produce rainbows. Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical model used to simulate river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters is hydrological transport model. Some of water is diverted to irrigation for agriculture. Rivers and seas offer opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoff shapes the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying, is covered with water. It is when a river overflows its banks or flood from the sea. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. 1.1.5 Fresh water storage Some runoff water is trapped for periods, for example in lakes. At high altitude, during winter, and in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers. Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted
11

artificially in wells. This water storage is important, since clean, fresh water is essential to human and other land-based life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. 1.1.6 Water politics and water crisis Water politics is politics affected by water and water resources. Because of overpopulation, mass consumption, misuse, and water pollution, the availability of drinking water per capita is inadequate and shrinking as of the year 2006. For this reason, water is a strategic resource in the globe and an important element in many political conflicts. It causes health impacts and damage to biodiversity. The serious worldwide water situation is called water crisis. UNESCO's World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from its World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from waterborne diseases (related to the consumption of contaminated water) or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; often this means lack of sewage disposal; see toilet.

Rain Water Harvesting

1.2 INTRODUCTION:
Water is nectar of life and life cannot sustain without it. Ever
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increasing demands of water for domestic, irrigation as well as industrial sectors have created water crisis worldwide. Ground water is the only dependable source of water. Inferior quality of groundwater with high salinity, fluoride and nitrate contents further limits the availability of fresh water assets. Depleting groundwater resources, water logging hazards, deep water levels, higher degree of salinity, high fluoride and nitrate concentration, industrial pollution etc. are the main ground water related areas of concern which needs appropriate attention of management for Rain Water Harvesting & Artificial Recharging. Till about thirty years back, the areas around our homes and offices used to be unpaved and the rain falling on these areas would percolate into soil and remain there for being drawn through shallow open wells. With the proliferation of flat complexes, these areas been covered, resulting in stopping of percolation of rain water into the soil. But on the other hand the use of ground water has risen immensely. With Increase in the number of deep bore wells, the shallow wells started drying up. The reason is that no sincere attempt was made to reestablish the ground water table to its original level during monsoons. As individuals, groups and communities, let us all wake up before it is too late and only understand what rainwater harvesting is all about but also implement measures to harvest rainwater in out homes, apartments and flat complexes and put it into soil for our subsequent use. In ancient days itself, people, especially Indians knew the methods of conserving the rain water. There are evidences that even during the era of
13

Harrappa civilization there was a very good system of collecting and storing the rain water through channels. This has been observed in recent excavations at Dholavira (Kacchh). During independence period people used to manage water resources considering it as a part of nature which they praised as Jaladevata, which was of course essential for their survival. This could be observed from the rain water harvesting structures in low rainfall areas of Rajasthan, harvesting springs in hilly areas and mountainous region and also from the percolation tanks and ponds in southern India. In Tamilnadu, The ancient people stored rainwater in public places separately, one for drinking purpose and other for bathing and domestic use which were called as Ooranies. They also formed percolation tanks or ponds for the purpose of recharging irrigation to domestic wells. They periodically used to clean the channels so as to get clean water throughout the year.

1.3 WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING?

Ground water plays a critical role in in the urban environment. It has a significant contribution municipal,
14

industrial and domestic water supply. Urbanization strongly affects ground water recharge flow and quality thereby creating serious impact on urban infrastructure that may lead to socio economic and environmental degradation of the area. As urban dwellings go on increasing shrinkage of open land leads to continuous decline in ground water levels in many areas. It has therefore become imperative to promote rain water harvesting and artificial recharge to augment ground water recharge.

Rain water harvesting is essential because :1. Surface water is adequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on

ground water. 2. Due to rapid urbanization infiltration of rain water into the sub soil has decreased drastically and recharging of ground water has diminished. 3. Over exploitation of ground water resources has resulted in declined in water levels in most part of the country. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. To enhance availability of ground water at specific place and time. To arrest sea water ingress. To improve the water quality in aquifers. To improve the vegetation cover. To raise the water levels in wells & bore wells those are drying up. To reduce power consumption.

1.4 COMPONENTS OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

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Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams. The techniques usually found in Asia and Africa arise from practices employed by ancient civilizations within these regions and still serve as a major source of drinking water supply in rural areas. Commonly used systems are constructed of three principal components; namely, the catchment area, the collection device, and the conveyance system.

A) Catchment Areas:

Rooftop catchments: In the most basic form of this technology, rainwater is collected in simple vessels at the edge of the roof. Variations on this basic approach include collection of rainwater in gutters which drain to the collection vessel through down-pipes constructed for this purpose, and/or the diversion of rainwater from the
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gutters to containers for settling particulates before being conveyed to the storage container for the domestic use. As the rooftop is the main catchment area, the amount and quality of rainwater collected depends on the area and type of roofing material. Reasonably pure rainwater can be collected from roofs constructed with galvanized corrugated iron, aluminum or asbestos cement sheets, tiles and slates, although thatched roofs tied with bamboo gutters and laid in proper slopes can produce almost the same amount of runoff less expensively (Gould, 1992). However, the bamboo roofs are least suitable because of possible health hazards. Similarly, roofs with metallic paint or other coatings are not recommended as they may impart tastes or color to the collected water. Roof catchments should also be cleaned regularly to remove dust, leaves and bird droppings so as to maintain the quality of the product water (see figure 1).

Land surface catchments: Rainwater harvesting using ground or land surface catchments areas is less complex way of collecting rainwater. It involves improving runoff capacity of the land surface through various techniques including collection of runoff with drain pipes and storage of collected water. Compared to rooftop catchments techniques, ground catchments techniques provide more opportunity for collecting water from a larger surface area. By retaining the flows (including flood flows) of small creeks and streams in small storage reservoirs (on
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surface or underground) created by low cost (e.g., earthen) dams, this technology can meet water demands during dry periods. There is a possibility of high rates of water loss due to infiltration into the ground, and, because of the often marginal quality of the water collected, this technique is mainly suitable for storing water for agricultural purposes. Various techniques available for increasing the runoff within ground catchment areas involve: i) clearing or altering vegetation cover, ii) increasing the land slope with artificial ground cover, and iii) reducing soil permeability by the soil compaction and application of chemicals .

Clearing or altering vegetation cover: Clearing vegetation from the ground can increase surface runoff but also can induce more soil erosion. Use of dense vegetation cover such as grass is usually suggested as it helps to both maintain an high rate of runoff and minimize soil erosion. Increasing slope: Steeper slopes can allow rapid runoff of rainfall to the collector. However, the rate of runoff has to be controlled to minimize soil erosion from the catchment's field. Use of plastic sheets, asphalt or tiles along with slope can further increase efficiency by reducing both evaporative losses and soil erosion. The use of flat sheets of galvanized iron with timber frames to prevent corrosion was recommended and constructed in the State of Victoria, Australia, about 65 years ago (Kenyon, 1929; cited in UNEP, 1982). Soil compaction by physical means: This involves smoothing and compacting of soil surface using equipment such as graders and rollers. To increase the surface runoff and minimize soil erosion rates, conservation bench terraces are constructed along a slope perpendicular to runoff flow. The bench terraces are separated by the sloping collectors and provision is made for distributing the runoff evenly across the field strips as sheet flow. Excess flows are routed to a lower collector and stored (UNEP, 1982).
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Soil compaction by chemical treatments: In addition to clearing, shaping and compacting a catchments area, chemical applications with such soil treatments as sodium can significantly reduce the soil permeability. Use of aqueous solutions of a silicone-water repellent is another technique for enhancing soil compaction technologies. Though soil permeability can be reduced through chemical treatments, soil compaction can induce greater rates of soil erosion and may be expensive. Use of sodium-based chemicals may increase the salt content in the collected water, which may not be suitable both for drinking and irrigation purposes.

B) Collection Devices:

Storage tanks: Storage tanks for collecting rainwater harvested using guttering may be either above or below the ground. Precautions required in the use of storage tanks include provision of an adequate enclosure to minimize contamination from human, animal or other environmental contaminants, and a tight cover to prevent algal growth and the breeding of mosquitos. Open containers are not recommended for collecting water for drinking purposes. Various types of rainwater storage facilities can be found in practice. Among them are cylindrical ferrocement tanks and mortar jars. The ferrocement tank consists of a lightly reinforced concrete base on which is erected a circular vertical cylinder with a 10 mm steel base. This cylinder is further wrapped in two layers of light wire mesh to form the frame of the tank. Mortar jars are large jar shaped vessels constructed from wire reinforced mortar. The storage capacity needed should be calculated to take into consideration the length of any dry spells, the amount of rainfall, and the per capita water consumption rate. In most of the Asian countries, the winter months are dry, sometimes for weeks on end, and the annual average rainfall can occur within just a few days. In such
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circumstances, the storage capacity should be large enough to cover the demands of two to three weeks. For example, a three person household should have a minimum capacity of 3 (Persons) x 90 (l) x 20 (days) = 5 400 l.

Rainfall water containers: As an alternative to storage tanks, battery tanks (i.e., interconnected tanks) made of pottery, ferrocement, or polyethylene may be suitable. The polyethylene tanks are compact but have a large storage capacity (ca. 1 000 to 2 000 l), are easy to clean and have many openings which can be fitted with fittings for connecting pipes. In Asia, jars made of earthen materials or ferrocement tanks are commonly used. During the 1980s, the use of rainwater catchment technologies, especially roof catchment systems, expanded rapidly in a number of regions, including Thailand where more than ten million 2 m3 ferrocement rainwater jars were built and many tens of thousands of larger ferrocement tanks were constructed between 1991 and 1993. Early problems with the jar design were quickly addressed by including a metal cover using readily available, standard brass fixtures. The immense success of the jar programmed springs from the fact that the technology met a real need, was affordable, and invited community participation. The programmed also captured the imagination and support of not only the citizens, but also of government at both local and national levels as well as community based organizations, smallscale enterprises and donor agencies. The introduction and rapid promotion of Bamboo reinforced tanks, however, was less successful because the bamboo was attacked by termites, bacteria and fungus. More than 50 000 tanks were built between 1986 and 1993 (mainly in Thailand and Indonesia) before a number started to fail, and, by the late 1980s, the bamboo reinforced tank design, which had promised to provide an excellent low-cost alternative to ferrocement tanks, had to be abandoned.
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C) Conveyance Systems:
Conveyance systems are required to transfer the rainwater collected on the rooftops to the storage tanks. This is usually accomplished by making connections to one or more down-pipes connected to the rooftop gutters. When selecting a conveyance system, consideration should be given to the fact that, when it first starts to rain, dirt and debris from the rooftop and gutters will be washed into the down-pipe. Thus, the relatively clean water will only be available some time later in the storm. There are several possible choices to selectively collect clean water for the storage tanks. The most common is the down-pipe flap. With this flap it is possible to direct the first flush of water flow through the down-pipe, while later rainfall is diverted into a storage tank. When it starts to rain, the flap is left in the closed position, directing water to the down-pipe, and, later, opened when relatively clean water can be collected. A great disadvantage of using this type of conveyance control system is the necessity to observe the runoff quality and manually operate the flap. An alternative approach would be to automate the opening of the flap as described below. A funnel-shaped insert is integrated into the down-pipe system. Because the upper edge of the funnel is not in direct contact with the sides of the down-pipe, and a small gap exists between the down-pipe walls and the funnel, water is free to flow both around the funnel and through the funnel. When it first starts to rain, the volume of water passing down the pipe is small, and the dirty water runs down the walls of the pipe, around the funnel and is discharged to the ground as is normally the case with rainwater guttering. However, as the rainfall continues, the volume of water increases and *clean* water fills the down-pipe. At this higher volume, the funnel collects the clean water and redirects it to a storage tank. The pipes used for the collection of rainwater, wherever possible, should be made of plastic, PVC

21

or other inert substance, as the pH of rainwater can be low (acidic) and could cause corrosion, and mobilization of metals, in metal pipes. In order to safely fill a rainwater storage tank, it is necessary to make sure that excess water can overflow, and that blockages in the pipes or dirt in the water do not cause damage or contamination of the water supply. The design of the funnel system, with the drain-pipe being larger than the rainwater tank feed-pipe, helps to ensure that the water supply is protected by allowing excess water to bypass the storage tank. A modification of this design is shown in Figure 5, which illustrates a simple overflow/bypass system. In this system, it also is possible to fill the tank from a municipal drinking water source, so that even during a prolonged drought the tank can be kept full. Care should be taken, however, to ensure that rainwater does not enter the drinking water distribution system.

1.5 Level of Involvement and Skills:

Various levels of governmental and community involvement in the development of rainwater harvesting technologies in different parts of Asia were noted. In Thailand and the Philippines, both governmental and household-based initiatives played key roles in expanding the use of this technology, especially in water scarce areas such as northeast Thailand. Rainwater harvesting is an accepted freshwater augmentation technology in Asia. While the bacteriological quality of rainwater collected from ground catchments is poor, that from properly maintained rooftop catchment systems, equipped with storage tanks having good covers and taps, is generally suitable for drinking, and frequently meets WHO drinking water
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standards. Notwithstanding, such water generally is of higher quality than most traditional, and many of improved, water sources found in the developing world. Contrary to popular beliefs, rather than becoming stale with extended storage, rainwater quality often improves as bacteria and pathogens gradually die off (Wirojanagud et al., 1989). Rooftop catchment, rainwater storage tanks can provide good quality water, clean enough for drinking, as long as the rooftop is clean, impervious, and made from non-toxic materials (lead paints and asbestos roofing materials should be avoided), and located away from over-hanging trees since birds and animals in the trees may defecate on the roof.

1.6 Specification:
Maintenance is generally limited to the annual cleaning of the tank and regular inspection of the gutters and down-pipes. Maintenance typically consists of the removal of dirt, leaves and other accumulated materials. Such cleaning should take place annually before the start of the major rainfall season. However, cracks in the storage tanks can create major problems and should be repaired immediately. In the case of ground and rock catchments, additional care is required to avoid damage and contamination by people and animals, and proper fencing is required.

1.7

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY:
The Walchand College of Engg. has introduced subject Environmental

Studies in our syllabus .For these, we have to prepare project on Environmental Studies. As we know the heavy rain fall in Sangli area, caused the disaster of floods for last two years. Simultaneously we can observe the scarcity of water in nearby villages like Jat, Aatpadi etc. This made us to think over the

23

fact of management of water & decreasing level of underground water. So we decided to take subject: RAIN WATER HARVESTING for our study. And we think, this is one of the solutions to increase the water table in our area. The main objectives of Rain Water Harvesting are:

Increasing the availability of ground water during periods of requirement. Preventing depletion of ground water reservoirs in areas of over exploitation. Improving quality of ground water through dilution e.g. in coastal areas. Decreasing menace of floods on local and regional scale. Reducing pressure on storm drains in urban areas. Enhancing the quality of environment Decreasing the loss of the soil in the upper layer

CHAPTER 2

RESULT & DISCUSSION

2.1 FIELD WORKS:
2.1.1 VISIT TO RAIN WATER HARVESTING SITE: 1)

Name of the project :

Rainwater Harvesting
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Name of the site Address

: ANANT MANGAL : Anant Mangal, Near Khare Mangal Road, Vishrambag, Sangli-416 415

2.2 THE METHODOLOGY OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING:

2.2.1. NEED OF WATER HARVESTING: We had a bore-well before this water harvesting plants. It was 150 ft. deep. There was very little water in this kind of well. Actually the water obtained from this bore well was not sufficient throughout the year. We had to think for some remedy and water harvesting was one of the best solutions.

25

In the above mentioned site the type of rain water harvesting used is ABSORPTION PIT METHOD.

2.2.2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS: o PVC pipes o Sintex tank or underground pit o Sand filter o Sloping slab 2.2.3. INSTALLATIONS: Basically in this process rain water is collected. Many holes are installed in the terrace. Through this holes water is collected by pipes in large tank. These tanks are situated at ground level. Before collection it passes through the SAND FILTER.

26

Figure showing the installations of pipes to collect the roof top rain water

Figure showing the Tank used for collection of water

2.2.4. PERCOLATION / ABSORPTION PIT METHOD: A percolation tank or absorption tank is a hand made bore with the help of augur and filled up with pebbles and river sand at the top. The depth of these pits may vary from 4 to 8 meters, depending upon the nature of soil. If the soil has more clay content, then the pit has to be extended downwards till sandy stratum is reached. The diameter of these pits will be around 25 centimeters. A slit arrester is provided at the top of such pits.

27

If this system has to be used in open space, then the diameter will be 1 meter and depth will be 1.5 meters. This pit will be filled with broken bricks and pebbles. This construction is suitable for sandy or sub sandy regions. A single unit consists of approximately 300 pits.

Figure showing the absorption pit. It is lined with bricks for absorption purpose. All the collecting pipes open in this pit.

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Another view of absorption pit

2)

Name of the project: Name of the site Address : :

Rainwater harvesting RAMA BUNGLOW Rama Bunglow,Govt. Colony,Vishrambag, Sangli-416415.

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Fig. Borewell Water Supply

Figure showing the Tank used for collection of water

3)

Name of the project : Rainwater harvesting Name of the site Address : HOTEL PAI-PRAKASH : Hotel Pai Prakash ,Vishrambag ,Sangli-416415
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2.3 METHODOLOGY OF STUDY:

The study for the present Project RAIN WATER HARVESTING is carried out by OBSERVATION and DESK REFERENCE METHOD.

Rain Water Harvesting Structure

2.3.1 Type I:

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Ground Water Recharge calculations:

I. RWH structure size (1.5 x 1.5 x 2.0) mtrs.
1) Rainfall 2 cm/day 2) Roof top area 14m x 14m (45` x 45`) 3) Volume of rain water 4 cu.m Total quantity of rainwater for 50,000 pits for 4) 200000 cu.m or 44 Mgd recharge. 5) If 50 cm rainfall is expected during the25 x 44 Mgd i.e. 1100Mg monsoon, then the quantity of recharge

II. RWH structure size (1.0 x 1.0 x 1.5) mtrs.

1) Rainfall 2 cm/day 2) Roof top area 10m x 10m (30` x 30`) 3) Volume of rain water 2 cu.m Total quantity of rainwater for 50,000 pits for 4) 100000 cu.m or 22Mgd recharge. 5) If 50 cm rainfall is expected during the25 x 22Mgd i.e. 550Mg monsoon, then the quantity of recharge The total quantity of recharge can be expected from 1.00 (L) Rain Water Harvesting pits is 1100 Mg = 550Mg or 7500 ML. The total area of Hyderabad is 165 Sq.Km. The raise in ground water level will be 4.5 cm only from 1.00 (L) rain water harvesting pits. Hyderabad city is having 7.00 (L) households. If RWH structures are constructed we can expect ground water recharge of 7 x 4.5 cm = 31.5 cm. The roof top area for 7.00 (L) households at 12m x 12m will be 100 Sq.Km.
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If 100 mm of water i.e. 0.1m of water during the entire monsoon gets absorbed into ground the quantity will be 1430 Mg and the raise in ground water is by 3.9 cm on 165 Sq.Km area.

1.10.2 Type II:

33

2.3.2 Type III:

34

35

2.4

UTILISATION OF RAIN WATER AND RECHARGING OF GROUND WATER THROUGH BOREWELL IN CASE OF MULTISTORIED COMPLEXES

The residents of Multistoried Complexes can safely utilise Rain Water for their Domestic requirements by way of filtering it and collecting into their sump and also can recharge their borewells. Quantity of rain water that can be collected from roof top from 2 cm rain fall per day for domestic usage.

Rain Water Harvesting For Multistoried Complexes

Time taken Quantity Size of theRate of Roof top Litres Filter unit for in cum. unit filteration area in sqm. discharge Type Small 0.5m dia, 1 cum 1,000 Design 20 lpm. 50 min. Households 1.2m ht. No.1 - 100 Sqm. 2 cum 2,000 Type 1.0m dia, 25 to 50 - 150 Sqm 3 cum 3,000 Design 80 lpm. 1.2m ht. min. - 200 Sqm 4 cum 4,000 No.2 - 500 Sqm 10 cum 10,000 Type 1.2m dia, 90 to 180 Design 113 lpm. - 1000 Sqm 20 cum 20,000 1.2m ht. min. No.3

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Cost of Construction & Filtration Unit

Description - Laying CC bed in 1:2:4 prop. For the size

Type 1 (inType 2 (inType 3 (in Rs.) Rs.) 600 600 Rs.) 700 750

300 shown in the diagram. - RCC rings 4 Nos. as per diagram 400 - Crushed 40mm metal (30cm thick) - Crushed 20mm metal (15cm thick) - Grit (Batana) 15cm thick 400 - Coarse sand (size 0.72mm to 1.0mm) 45cm thick. - PVC 3" dia perforated pipe of hole size 0.6mm, 10cm c/c to be placed inside the unit for collection of water and 1" dia and 100

800

1,000

200

250

1' pipe for backwash pumping. - 3" dia PVC rain water carrying pipe upto filteration unit and to sump and as well as connecting to borewell casing pipe as per site condition including labour One floor). Other charges and fixing charges etc., (Approximately for incidental charges and 1,000 1,000 1,000

transportation etc. Grand Total Rs.

300 2,500

300 3,500

300 4,000

2.5

OTHER

METHODS

USED

FOR

RAIN

WATER

HARVESTING:
2.5.1 TRADITIONAL METHODS:
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Traditional rain water harvesting was done on the surface bodies like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, temple tanks, etc. This method is still practiced in rural areas. In urban areas, due to loss of open space, rainwater has to necessarily be harvested as ground water. Hence harvesting in such places will necessarily will depend very much upon the nature of soil, either clay or sandy etc. The below listed are the various kinds of traditional rainwater harvesting methods. Kul Irrigation Method. Bamboo Method. Kunds of Thar Desert. Temple tanks of India. 2.5.2 MODERN METHODS: The modern methods of rain water harvesting are categorized under two classes; Artificial recharging and Rain water harvesting. The Artificial recharging has again four types, namely 1. Absorption Pit method. 2. Absorption well method. 3. Well cum bore method. 4. Recharge trench cum injection well. The rain water harvesting has types, namely 1. Individual houses 2. Group houses These types are further classified into 1. Percolation pit method (already discussed). 2. Bore well with settlement tank. 3. Open well method with filler bed sump.
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4. Percolation pit with bore method. 2.5.3 PERCOLATION PIT CUM BOREWELL (FOR CLAY SOIL): In areas where the soil is likely to be clayey up to 15 feet and more, it is advisable to go for percolation well up to 10 ft. or 15 ft and a hand bore pit within this well up to the depth of 10 ft. to 15 ft. from its bottom. A PVC pipe of 6 inch diameter is inserted into bore fro entire length. 2.5.3 ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE THROUGH INJECTION WELL: In this technique, 1 to 2 m wide & 2 to 3 m deep trench is excavated, the length of which depend on the sight availability and volume of water to be handled . An injection well of 100 to 150 mm diameter is constructed, piercing through the layers of impermeable horizons to the potential aquifer reaching about 3 to 5 meters below water level (1 to 10 m) from the bottom of the trenches. Depending upon the volume of water to be injected, the number of injection wells can be increased to enhance the recharging rate. schematic diagram is enclosed which is self explanatory. 2.5.4 RAINWATER HARVESTING IN GROUP HOUSES: From Utilize open the well if any, within the complex to divert the rainwater the terrace into it. If not, construct a well for this purpose. The rainwater falling on the open space around the complex can be collected near the gate providing a gutter with perforated lid. The collected water can be led through necessary piping arrangements into a recharge well of 1 m diameter and 5 m deep. 2.5.5 RAINWATER HARVESTING FROM ROOFTOP CATCHMENTS: The rainwater harvesting performed also from the top of the roofs of the buildings, bungalows, small houses. The application of an appropriate rainwater harvesting technology can make possible the utilization rainwater as
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a valuable and in many cases necessary water resource. Rainwater harvesting has been practiced for more than 4,000 years and in most developed countries, is becoming essential owing to the temporal and spatial variability of rainfall. Rainwater harvesting is necessary in areas having significant rainfall but lacking any kind of conventional, centralized government supply system. Annual rainfall ranging from less than 500 to more than 1500 mm can be found in most Latin American countries and the Caribbean. no precipitation during the remaining months. For more than three centuries, rooftop catchments and cistern storage have been the basis of domestic water supply on may small islands in the Caribbean. During World War II, several airfields were also turned into catchments. Although the use of rooftop catchments systems has declined in some countries, it is estimated that more than 5,00,000 people in the Caribbean islands depend at least in part on such supplies. Very frequently most of the rain falls during a few months of the year, with little or

2.5.6 Technical Description:

A rainwater harvesting system consists of three basic elements: a collection area, a conveyance system and storage facilities. The collection area in most cases is the roof of a house or a building. The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality. Following questions need to be considered in areas where a rainwater cistern system project is being considered, to establish whether or not rainwater catchment warrants further investigation: - Is there a real need for an improved water supply? - Are present water supplies either distant or contaminated, or both?
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- Do suitable roofs and /or other catchment surfaces exist in the community? - Does rainfall exceed 400 mm per year Does an aim proved water supply figure prominently in the communitys list of development priorities If the answers to these five questions are yes, it is clear indication that rainwater collection might be feasible water supply option. Further questions, however, need to be considered: What alternative water sources are available in the community and how do these compare with the rooftop catchments system?

2.6 EXTENT OF USE:

Rainwater harvesting is used extensively in Latin America and Caribbean, mainly for domestic water supply and in some cases, for agriculture. In Brazil and Argentina, rainwater harvesting is used in semiarid regions. In Central American countries like Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala and EI Salvador, rainwater harvesting using rooftop catchments is used extensively in rural areas. The Turks & Caicos Islands have a number of government-built, public rainfall catchment systems. Government regulations make it mandatory that all developers construct a water cistern large enough to store 400 l/m2 of roof area. Rooftop & artificially constructed catchments, such as the one at the former United States naval base on Eleuthera and the other at common place in the Bahamas. One settlements (whale Cay) has a piped distribution system based on water captured from rooftops. On New Providence, most of the older houses & stores in cisterns with average capacities of 70,000 l. Industries also use rooftop rainwater, & a preliminary assessment has been made of using
41

Nassau International Airport as catchments. In multistoried buildings & other areas serving large concentrations of people (such as hotels & restaurants), water supplies are supplemented by water from rooftop catchments cisterns. The Islas de la Bahia off the sea shores of Honduras meet a substantial portion of their portable water needs using rainwater from rooftop catchments & cistern storage provide a significant water supply source for a small group of islands of the northern coast of Venezuela. In the recent rural water-supply study, the continued use of rooftop & artificially constructed catchments was contemplated for those parts of rural Jamaica lacking access to river, spring, or well sources. It is thought that more than 1,000,000 Jamaicans depend to major extent on rainwater catchments.

2.7

DRAWBACKS

OF

RAIN

HARVESTING

TANK:-

For rain water collection generally a plastic tank is used. There are certain drawbacks of these tanks such as 1. These tanks can crack in due coarse of time 2. These tanks cannot be repaired. 3. They require frequent cleaning. 4. The water stored in them gets a pungent smell after some days. This major drawback is eliminated by concrete rain water tank. 2.7.1 CONCRETE RAIN WATER TANK:Advantages:1. Very easy to repair. 2. They can give much year service 3. Keep water cooled To be able to make decision as to which is the best rain water storage tank, following factors are to be considered. 1. The area
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2. Climate of area 3. Installation of tank either above/below the ground 4. Purpose of harvested water (household or irrigation?).

2.8 ADVANTAGES OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING: Rainwater harvesting provides a source of water at the point where it is needed. It is owner operated & managed. It provides an essential reserve in times of emergency and/or breakdown of public water supply systems, particularly in natural disasters. The construction of a roof top rain water catchments systems is simple, and local people can easily be trained to built one, minimizing its cost. The technology is flexible. The systems can be built to meet almost any requirements. Poor households can start with a single small tank and add more when they can afford.

It can improve the engineering of building foundation when cisterns are built as part of the substructure of the buildings, as in the case of mandatory citterns.

The physical and chemical properties of rainwater may be superior to those of groundwater or surface waters that may have been subjected to pollution, sometimes by unknown sources. Running costs are low. Construction, operation, and maintenance are not labor-intensive.

2.9 DISADVANTAGES:

The sources of rainfall harvesting depend upon the frequency and amount
43

of rainfall; therefore, it is not a dependable water source in times of dry weather or prolonged drought. Low storage capacities will limit rainwater harvesting so that the system may not able to provide water in a low rainfall period Leakage from casters can cause the deterioration of load bearing slopes. Cisterns and tanks can be unsafe for small children if proper access protection is not provided. Possible contamination of water may result from animal wasters and vegetable matter. Rainfall harvesting systems may reduce revenues to public utilities. Rainfall harvesting systems increases construction costs and may have an adverse effect; on home ownership. Systems may add 30% to 40% to the cost of a building.

2.10 RESULT:The rain water harvesting has helped a lot in increasing the ground
44

water table in this area. The bore wells are able to supply more amount of water than that of three years ago. As the entire rainwater falling on the roof is percolated in soil, it has also reduced the health problems due to mosquitoes in this area. The water collected in tanks can be used to water the gardens and for other domestic purposes so as to avoid the wastage of fresh water. Thus the rain water harvesting project installed over here is proven to be economical.

CHAPTER 3

45

SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

3.1 FURTHER DEVOLOPMENT OF THE TECHNOLOGY:There is a need for the water quality aspects of rainwater harvesting to be better addressed. this might come about through: Development of first-flush bypass devices that are more effective and easier to maintain and operate than those currently available. Greater involvement of the public health department in the monitoring of water quality. Monitoring the quality of construction at the time of building. Other development needs include. Provision of assistance from governmental sources to both government and private - sector- supplied water, with emphasis on the savings to be achieved on water bills. Development of new materials to lower the cost of storage. Preparation of guidance materials (including sizing requirements) for inclusion of rainwater harvesting in multi-sourced water resources management environment

3.2 CONCLUSION:46

We have to restore to long term measures in harvesting the rainwater due to growing demand, which is chain reaction of population explosion. It is our humble request to all the people to try to restore every drop falling from the sky. Each and every drop of water falling from the sky must be saved and reutilized so as to minimize the water shortage during the dry seasons. Rain water should be collected and either stored or allowed to percolate so as to meet the water needs of the upcoming generation.

CHAPTER 4

47

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBILOGRAPHY
1. A book on Environmental studies published by Shivaji University,

Kolhapur.
2. Comprehensive Environmental studies by J.P. Sharma

3. Water and Basic Environmental Technology by Sunit Gupta

4. www.wikimapia.in 5. www.rainwaterharvesting.org 6. www.aboutrainwaterharvesting.com 7. www.rainwaterclub.org 8. www.villageearth.org

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