Ii

1l

ASTAN ARTS COURSE

AI{ INTRODUCTTON TO ISLA}!:

CULT A}TD PRACTICE

ISLAM: CULT AND PRACTICE fslamic rituals primarily marriage concentrate degree, also and death on activities other focus of life involve in the mosque passaqes ceremonies activity reLates tends like and to and pilgrimage. circumcision, prayer Iie before PRAYER Five may take are termed obligatory place f ajr in daily prayers in are prescribed some other by Islan. place They and a mosque or suitable in To a certain

the mosque, but the public

in procession.

What is described. here largely the modern period.

to life

(nid-afternoon) (dawn) , zuhr (rnid-day) , lasr , An optional (early (sunset), evening). and lisha naghrib prayer just after dawn may be performed. The mid-day additional on Friday by a is obli-gatory from being the for pulpit all adult (ninbar): males this and can of is be the sermon

prayer preceded delivered prayers Islamic

by any male mernber of the change dai1y, day, at calculated sunset.

community.

The times

from the beginning the prayer

of the call, the use call (dawn; better

Muslims of the rninaret is the prayer than which sleep".

are summoned to the mosque by the hiqh place, date. except words: became customary all the the five includes at an early prayers

which may be made frorn any suitable same for

although the tajr trPrayer is

The prayer

additional

the the among the Shica includes The prayer call of God [on earth]". words: 'rcAIL is the vice-gerent terminating prayers at the occasions entail Through the year certain

mosque, while death also mosque with festival the the

associated with circumcision, rituals .risiting the mosque. During the entail fast at sunset water and dates, of the with following fast

marriage fasting prayers

and in a

nonth

of R.amadan, many people break their Muhamnrad. Conclusion that marked by prayer outskj-rts Prophet's of

the custom of the Prophet the lid al--Kablr, Makka (Mecca), to in the are on

and also

coincides towns.

to the Hajj '-Id (festival) at open-at-r Prayers (nawTid also take for a7-nabl)

mosques, usually place and prayer.

commemorate some places,

birthday

droughts

and eclipses

are an occasion

MAKKA (I{ECCA) AND .g;.7J Makka (Mecca) is one of the,two muslims pilgrinage the may take sites, pray facing ilajj Dhu/!-iiij at Makka ja, (hajj). place Holiest and during focuses Cities is the lesser in Is1am. A11 the object pilgrinage' of first days of (Mecca)

must take place The hajj

rnonth of the

whereas umra, the

any time. cubical

on two principal

of the in the centre structure east of Makka (Mecca). Haram Mosque at Makka and on cArafat, in to Makka (Mecca) would travel times, pilgrims In earlier Kacba, the slow-moving, world. along fn The the charitable arduous caravans provision act for of Muslim from different for and the parts the of the Islamic pilgrins is a facilities rulers,

numerous water-tanks

Darb Zubayda road from Iraq religious the in hajj tirnes desert Ottomans built roads

one of greatest later the along Hijdz

ra: rl

to Makka (Mecca) represent monuments of the early tAbbdsid period. forts at the to watering the ancient places the haii of north Arabia, and they built

Railway

L9O2-1908 as a successor are the guests of A}ldh,

The pilgrims as the Bayt son Ismacll. The hajj Kacba was built

and the Kacba is known belief the of holds that the Abraham) and his Kacba was a centre the of Quraysh. pre-Islamic

A77ah (House of God). Islamic by the Prophet Ibrdhrm Before represents the advent the of Islam,

(Biblica1

of pagan pilgrimage

in the hands of the Makkan tribe Islamicisation

pilgrimage and it made of corner towards greai time the is

rites, entered gold.

a process

instigated to is

by the Prophet with in the a single fixed it is raised east

Muharnmad. roof, now door,

The Kacba is solid it silk if

an empty stone by a staircase A black attempt the kiswa, stone to

structure,

a level

external or point by a the at

and pilgrims drape,

kiss which

as prescribed, The Kacba is renewed annually

prevented

by the crowds.

covered

of the hajj. On arrival ihrd.m , are a at the boundaries seamless often the cotton of Makka, the pilgrim garrnent. During the guides around swirling familiar the assumes haj j with the the make the Since to years they running for

pilgrims rituals the centre the ritual

accompanj-ed by language (tawdf)

and with

of the pilgrin.

The pilgrj-rns Kacba at

circumambulation

of the Haram Mosque in a great of Is1an the ritual Safa, hil1s the Mosque has exceeded to the

mass of humanity, prayer-times. In recent Thereafter, expanded

a movement that rise incorporate these perform of the

only ceases at the obligatory increasingr have

been repeatedly

numbers of pilgrims. one rni11ion. mosque. Prophet

regularly

run known as the sayy, next is regarded of the

between the The repeated

1ow hi1ls search

Marwa and by Hajar, After

betrueen these water

as remembrance of the IbrEhln. 7th

the wife

a sermon at the Haram Mosque on the

of the

month

of Dh[/l-Hijja, towards Mount world. towards pilgrims of At the

the pilgrims head eastwards in an imrnense crowd cArafat, plain of to a rocky outcrop known as the fn earlier Islamic ti-mes , residences were

Mercy.

naintained

parts of the Islamie nearby for Muslims from different cArafat, on the 9th day of the month, the hajj moves its culmination with the obligatory plain presence around it of the on the Mount of Mercy and the between

noon and sunset. The pitgrims they his sacrifice of own son. fulfilnent whi.ch time then return to Mina and on the or stay camels, at following in day, of

sheep, goats The pilgrinrs have their

commemoratingr Ibrdhlm/s a beast the place L2th, during cast

God/s command by sacrificinqr

Mina until

thev

heads shaved and each dav they

pebbles an.

at

three On the

stones which are reqarded l-2th the garb water hajj rituals holy and many pilgrinrs from the

as manifestations end, and the of take home with Zamzam in

of thern the

Devil.

pilgrirns

resume their prized bottles courtyard

normal of

well

of the Haram mosque.

CIRCUMCISION Circumcision in the It of with Islam Prophet spread law. and traditionally (khitdn) which of male children in which is universal is existed. is to it to pre-Islamic Arabia,

marked by public lbrdhl.nr and it with the faith towards vary it as

ceremony. The custorn is associated in origin. taken to be pre-Islarnic all vary the parts with age at of the the which Islamic it world schoolS should be different

although perforned:

approaches Opinions generally,

should

occur between birth

and 10 years

Female although custom varies' the ages of 3 and 7 preferred and Africa, performed' in north-east is especially circumcision The display' unmarked by public matter, a private is entirely practice with local is not universally custom. Cairo, the fanily of a boy to be circurncised friends would gather regard.ed, as Islamic and is associated

In 19th century and their

at one of the major mosques' After prayers, a procession would. forrn and escort the boy to his house' of the barber who The procession would be }ed. by an assistant a wooden box known as a carrying would. perform the operation, hanl be containing riding the barber's instruments. playing and then the ladies pipes the of The procession and drums. tail the fanrily' men: the would The boy of the Rose and accompanied by rnusicians a horse,

followed, procession

was mad.e up of

orange water would be strewn as the procession passed. Sometimes for econonYr two boys would share a procession' At Makka guests would assemble at the Haram Mosque before noon prayers a procession on the day preceding the circumcision. After prayer' accompanied would form and pass through the streets by pipes, drums and the burning of incense before a formal lunch procession then took once more to the for guests. The festive operation was performed The circumcision sunset. streets until

on the day of the procession would in the days. While practice vary. Thus, dt at Cairo, be carried

or the next morning,

in private,

and

out by a barber.

Haram Mosque, and feasting is very similar boy's

At Makka Prayers would follow would continue for a nurnber of from place to place' would be lavish, to fend off details whereas eye.

Makka, the

dress

he would be dressed as a girl in Java, with

the evil

Among some MusIim communities of a bridegroon

boys would wear the dress

and elsewhere in Java, the gold and silver, jhrEm. Among North Arabian bedouin the boy would wear the pilgrin to ceremony would take place when the north wind was blowing, encouragie the coast in the circumcision by Islamic !'IARRIAGE Marriage negotiations, mothers reports confined and the recitation marriage marriage despatch religious procession musicians, of the burnt. In or to to ceremonj-es are i-nitiated with other the of mothers female privacy the In of relations in harim. settled, two or of the bride verses Cairo, is with of private enquiries visited grooms and by for narrigeable daughters prospective As negotiations aqreement day is three with days lights, or go is appointed child's wound to heal. On the character south-west underwent Arabian public 1930s, bedouin teenagers

of a far more extensive custom

than is stipulated

be made, dD essential

a society

where women are progress marked by for the the is public a before there in

dowry for ceremony. gifts: the

Quranic

and the

the groom,s street musicians wedding recitation. the

is decorated provide

and guests

entertainment bride would

Before

Cairene

under a silken sometimes with the evening hands day, dt the

canopy to the public the bath materials was scattered, bride bride and the the the

bath, carried bride's

preceded by at the head companions to the

column.

Perfumed water

and incense

hennaed their

The following status: in Cairo,

joined of the

a procession well-to-do,

groornrs house. The scale of display marriages

corresponded to the family's floats

would town. with would

accompany the Among the without songs praising uncover the

procession, upper

reflecting classes It the

the

trades to his that

of

the

Cairene musicians bride's

bridegroom this

would house be

progress

to the mosque, returning was after and the face

the prophet.

the groom would

marriage

consummated. DEATE Generally, as death ociurs. the dead. person should be buried on the same day The body is washed and dressed in a sinple white on a bier to in mourningr procession garment and then is carried the in carrying for men to assist the nosque. It is merit-worthy of individuals flow a continuous 1ead.s to and this bier the dead man. At the mosque, the corPse is laid before the funerary although are performed, the nihr6.b and prayers prayers may take place at home. From the mosque, the procession supporting makes its and buried. place way to In the the cemetery laid sinrplest on the outskirts of the town. At the the cemetery, of burial the bod.y is i-n a prepared and most grave, facing cases, Makka

conservative

is marked by no more than a stone at the head and nay be an cases there f oot of the girave. In other at the or revered irnportant case of the In headstone. inscribed either before may be constructed, a funerary building individ.uals or after carved death. Over a revered in stone or in for a focus the grave, a sarcophagus to (tabtlt) may of be constructed, visitation After visitors recitation tent wood. These tend circumabulation of the be lavishly

and represent develops. the

where a rite

funeral

family

dead

man receives There is also occasions Mourning time are by

over several of parts set 20th for

days to express condolences. of the Qur'an the street. and the and prayers These formal death. which during

at home, oF under

awnings

up in

repeated. on the a widow continues at home, wearing

4Oth day after

over 4 months,

she stays

no jewellery

and may not remarry.

The Prophet a cult of the precept initially

Muhammad vrarned the d.ead, and although the prevented

Muslj-ms against there are

developing this

exceptions

construction

of monumental tornb two Caliphs they did as regarded

architecture. not become

The graves of the Prophet and the first !./ere arranged worship qraves other although and greet Shica. objects to visit of the it the was

in the Mosque of al-i'ladina legitimate spread, grandson

to ensure that Prophet. the grave

However, of the

the custom of visiting especially of the

particularly

revered Thus,

giraves rapidly

among the

Shica pilgrinrage giraves was not sense developed conferred Bib1ical site with top The Muslims figures,

"A11., becarne a centre of Reverence for holy with monumenta] architecture. Prophet, a1-Husayn b. confined that also to the Shica, and by the to the in 10th century.a holy figures of over burial near giraves of the burial

blessings. showed interest places and before connotations ancient ca 985 AD a dome was built, is the tell place Mosque of at

Abrahamrs (Ibrdhlro) Biblical of the in the on the

tomb at Hebron in Palestine. Assyrian

Another Biblical Yunah (Jonah) opposite Nineveh,

Mosu1, while the Baptist

Great Mosque of Damascus the burial is of narked. Fatimids the the of built Caliph family The Egryptian descendents their descent religious also from

of the head of St John

monumental tombs at the graves of cAlL and over other sites to promote legitirnacy Prophet. derived A sinilar Safavids. cult from their of the process

own claims politics

religious of

can be seen in the refurbishment their great own religious-dynastic of fine Ardabil works of art carpet: this

of the great The Safavids at Ardabil, Chinese of fine

Shica shrines

at Mashhad. and Qummby the

developed

which became a repository ceramics things shrines. is royal close and. the A rather on a sacred, site

including lavishing

must have been matched at accumulation C. AD Shah-i grave of Zinda largely at

many earlier Sarnarqand' a female burials the Prophet.

different 14th/f5th

of tombs at a holy place

marked by the Timurid to the

development based on royal, much earlier

a companion of

Most reconstruction in Islam is

religious the

shrines

have extant

undergone

subsequent

and the earliest octagonal to be which

monumental tornb to survive

AD),

possibly Asia

at S5marrd' (862 Qubbat al-Sulaybiya A an cAbbasid caliph. to attributed. Iran of 10th are generally square, Bukhara, and of the a built the quite local over the Ii-ke graves the

concentration and Central princes, century Qabus typified northern generic Manhfk complex. At the of religious Iocal in the century, Other of the holy and at

of early vary

monumental tombs is found in northern domed tombs

between (1007), tomb

AD Samdnid tomb at Gunbad by the Iran, and tower

immense tower different dynast at

tomb of tradition in

Radkan

dated in

l-015-2L. the tirnes

These secular tombs of a mosque,

tombs have Saljtrq, religious of

their school

descendents Ottoman and

princely where

Ayylbid,

(mad.rasa)

f ounder/ s

tomb ,a11 f ormed part there

a religious

level figures

of popuJ-ar belief being transformed object enjoyed evolution Shadhili

are numerous examples loca1 saints cult of origin 19th man a Thus the

in death into

whose tornbs become the 13th century examples Mavlavi of involves of yet the

of visitation.

man, Ahmad a1-Badawi,

at Tanta in Egypt had its

enormous success and by the of cult in the of tomb cult Konya. of a holy

would attract by the whirling the

as many pilgrims

as the Makkan pilgrinagre. at Mocha in Yemen, and that A quite areas the different of area east to and as 10 n. the is Swahili

are represented tradition Africa reflects

dervishes

tornb architecture construction this of Islam although

of columns as high to to linited local practice.

mark graves,

practice

an adaptation

c.R. D. King, SOAS,

MOSQUE The term place in fslam. is mosgue derives from the and it in Arabic nasjid, meaning of prayer require an anln,rhere considered attendance rnidday of prostration [before God], The obligation of prayer expression with as prayer other on all and appropriate. is the place

Islarn does not may be performed it for is while

architectural which at an clean desirable prayers is

Nevertheless, Muslims to pray, a7-jdni) maIes. adult

to gather

a congregational

mosque (nasjid

Friday

an obligation

exhortation to visit and to repair rtThe mosques of A1lah sha11 be visited injunction: in of Allah and the in belief Last in the of act congregatj-onal society. towards prayer the

The Qur'En provides mosques with the and maintained IX, 18). lies by Thy in a mosque fits

by such as believe Furthermore, with at the the heart conception

Day,t (Qur.

of unity

one God that enjoined turn

Islamic

Performance of prayer facing Ehe Qur'd.n: rfSo from whencesoever face fact, towards in performed Hijaz, antiquity as the world on his date archetypal is to in in the the direction ye are, beginning but with the facing of of this the wheresoever Turn your

Makka is

Thou startest Mosque direction thither',

forth,

Sacred face the

lat Makka]: and (Qur. fI, l-50). fn of about and the ft prayer prayer was was AD 62412 AH

Islam

Jerusalem, henceforth its

was abandoned in injunction, towards at its the

accordance with

Qur6nic

the HoIy City centre, first others.

of Makka in the Kacba. terms of the is also unique However, at the Islanic a1-Madrna early sirnple in 622 AD/1 AH

sacred

shrine

The Haram Mosque at and takes focus of model for be found

Makka is

mosque in

precedence the design in the

over all and of

Is1amj-c prayer

pilgrimage.

of mosques throughout the Prophet Muhammad in for the

Mosque of

in the Hijaz, arrival provided

established the

by the Prophet not only

frorn Makka. The design source in the lands

established

at that rather

structures

established

newly

conquered

by fslam

the course

of the 7th century thereafter. that

AD, but in overall laid

disposition,

for

mosques founded rectangular earliest, on the direction shelter from After on the line, either the behind. foIlow with of broad the the

The enclosure days, of

the Muslims surrounded of the the area resting and the sunlight, side first

out consisted

of an open In the the This day rains. area was stand in was created mosque,

courtyard, a covered side to Jerusalem Arabian

by a clay-brick on palm trunks of prayer the of direction at

wa1l.

northern served harsh shift

enclosure Muslims

prayer. the

protect

during roofed would leader, those

ds well

as from winter

in ti;'e qibTa

to Makka, a similar of the courtyard.

created

on the southern qibla side

In the roofed. haII who was rows would

of the mosgue, the worshippers rank upon rank, behind the jmam, the prayer the Prophet of hinself the lead or one of his would of ' be the filled imEm, worshippers by the the

Companions. Any gaps in from cornrnunity

line his

Following

genuflections the first,

and prostrati-ons. with of the buildings

manner of prayer the design to the be both gibJa and in or all the in the of or more

the community drawn up in ranks directly mosgues from and deep. This careful the alignment of space---the enclosure developments of

affected tending

mosque towards prayer halI

the disposition side of subsequent ornate, Prophet that times--maqsEra earliest the fi-rst In pulpit comfort first times it

covered

on the Makkan retained complex for

and an open courtyard---are mosque design, of the should the however

and the

organization However, several

mosque established be seen as format,ive prayer niche in of the mosque of (nihrdb), absent the

by the later

Muhammad at a1-Madlna the or pulpit their (ninbar), area,

followed.

features

enclosed Islamic

and the

minaret--l/ere following

period, the

introduction of of as the the

course minbar

century. Prophet, the ft first the a means to of of the the allow Prophet

lifetime

was constructed as he addressed Caliphs for or the came to

congregation. Prophet, sermon Friday

was used and in

by the as

successors be used in delivery

subsequent aL-janc-i) which was a

Mosques (nasjid (khutba)

a pulpit

central In

part the

of

the

obligatory

Friday it feature

congregational seems to stress there niche in is there the is

prayer. was no qibla flat which not waIl. nihrEb may be but of its an entirely The term

earliest

mosques, niche

distinguishing was not in dated clear. early nihrab elevated curved of and the the Islamic prayer, devotions of it, to It

architectonic until

The rnihrab as a recessed introduced the 69L. has a cave below

indicating although Rock in nihrab from that times with

the direction Jerusalem

of Makka.

707-709, the the of

Dome of

The origin

been associated use differ pre-Islamic in the it set in the in

apses with

churches apse. meaning

form and ritual appears

of the the

and honoured chamber, high apparently niche the nihrdb world. finally

up in a house and the Qur'6n first wall the wall of his for use rapidly centre lead at the the in the qibla

uses the word,

sense of a room. Once the spread in the it to niche throughout of the qibla cornpletion position

had been adopted Prophet is in the stands until curved

Mosque of

The nihrdh sitting

inEm often and waiting

congregational prayer. in front

the congregation im6.mtakes extant Jordan mihrabs

has finished are of the

Where the rnihrEb is f1at, The earliest survives not nihrdbs is and mainly earliest It the of in the the

up his

8th century whereas the in plan. part Thus the in the Great atl

in mosques in and Iran to nor is regard it

and Syria,

in Iraq correct

tend to be rectangular E}:re nihrab respect those than is

as synonymous with any other to then. with the in paid certain

Christian

altar,

more revered of

prayer-hall. because Great

Nevertheless, identity i-s stiII not the Great

mihrabs

of the

who founded associated nihrdb in

Mosque of Damascus, the mjhrEb preserved rnain axial. Mosque of has local to it is first Cairo,

Companions of the Prophet building, the nihrab although of the Mosque. fn the subsequent was retained mosque in Prophet to case of the

as the oldest

mosque the

eayrawdn in been retained belief. fn the of

Tunisia, case of the

extensions

according

the Azhar mosque in

original

nihrdb on the the

972 AD/361 AH to extend site where the seems wall qibla

when the gibia

wa11 was broken stood in his

through

L75L-52 AD/1165 AH. A nihrab nature, although

Muhammad's minbar

mosque at al-Madlna present

be commemoratj-ve in

and the

main in

nihrab the of of

stand

some way south. increased of the in size early the and area degree include which of the is mosques of the on axis with fslamic nihrab world.

Gradually, decoration Other i-ntroducti-on means

mihrabs principal

accentuation a wide nave

nihrab

found in the Great Mosque of Damascus (7O5-7L5) | in the a1-Aqs6, Mosque at Jerusalem (early 8th C. AD), the Great Mosque of Cordoba (784-6) , the Great Mosque at Qayrawan (836), and the Ab[ Dulaf Mosque at SdmarrSt (847-6J,). The axial stress on the nihrEb is sometimes enhanced by a dome at the in several by the early the to the in of the early end of features fslamic nihrab. the the of the that period This is Caliph, fourth recent end of the LOth century accentuated include often the nave, AD. the qihla as of an a in the magsfira, after Sufy6n in front of the nihrab; domes are Other the enclosed security atternpted mosques already mentioned

inserted the near

architectural area device date

mosque in

explained

protect

introduced Caliphs feature political enclosures Great

assassination at prayer earliest in C. front AD)

Umayyad, Muc6wiya b. security of

66L. By that been murdered However, as areas wasit Iran is the the

second and the and this the extant of the light

had already may well have history. so much Mosque of constituted concentrated

recommended itself

maqsfr.ras are not qibla that off walls these of Great

of concentrated

ornament. rraq marked the

Thus, decoration the

on columns (1oth

(ca 7o2 AD/83 AH in a special area

and the

Mosque at Nayrn in striking cordoba of g6s, the nihrilb area of sumptuous, architectural the other area high or Most

suggest

colonades

maqsfrras, which

by ornament. Mosque of stresses construction cases, is to

ornate provides

maqsura of no protection arcades. that rn the the

Great

but, which all these prince,

of the mosgue by means of a remarkable intersecting evidence of the is the figure the suggests intention to this domes in first l-088. It

the

accentuate of the

mosque where would stand. and the rran. Isfahan introduction

inam,

governor rslamic

Related use of of great This in Iran

accentuation earry

maqsfira,

mihrEb,

architecture in the Great

self-contained

dome chambers in the an ancient

mosques of Mosque of

system in

shows itself

combines with

architectural iwEn future and the standard

form

in

Iran, of this

the

long

vaulted

hall

known as an areas during fundamental the Arab a1-Madina. rnake the This the the 20th roof i-nto

combination Indeed, to the plan its

domed maqsfi.ra and iwd.n becomes a and neighbouring perhaps in early than Arabia the first is

feature centuries.

of mosques in Iran of his what

transformation courtyard In prayer was not minaret prayer. century, of the parts were of often call the

had been hitherto rsramic from would

mosque with Prophet's from

origins roof, rslam

day,

own mu'adhdhin left

a high until

rather part

a minaret.

developed lands. tower

and spread from which prayer rn

neighbouring

By the latter in than

of the 7th century areas down to central coast,

AD, the the

had become the normal place conservative of from the ca11i-ng the a minaret. east a minaret to call

to call

Nevertheless, mosgue rather north not its hiqh Africa used. use place

a custom persj-sted

from the

Arabia, minarets for to a an

and on the Although developed from

African utilitarian the

was not

a liturgical need prayer

necessity, suitably architectural This begin to

frorn

which

forrn driven appear taII to in

shows itself

by concern with j-n franian initially pairs one, by the practical. balance for

architectural century, 16th of to than adhan. pairs

slnnmetry. and c. become ottoman meet the

mosgues where minarets By the

i-l-th

increasingly using them

and less visuar

mosques accumulated create call practical ritual facilities drainage. face need of ablution are

two and even three rather call the whence to before

minarets,

a place (wudut)

The prayer

is the signal near the are

the worshipper the in prayer. running the

to perform Ablut.ion water and of is the the for but the

comnencing often found

loeated

mosque with so that

These facilities

courtyard facirity

the mosque, carefully represented Although courtyard, ablution. the ablutions

positj-oned earliest area

the those washing do not the sma11 mosgue at dated pools rather or in than

Makka. one of the

examples of washing opposite al-Gharb:had in syria,

by a covered some early these

unayyad palace

at Qasr al-Hayr mosques seem to

ca 727.

fountains at cairo

have been decorative, rbn Tulun

The Mosque of facilities

had a fountain, outside

appear to have been situated

mosque enclosure Istanbul of enclosure, washing with the surviving intended intended founded obstacle examples modern from it to of times. washing

proper. like

The Ottoman other built fn against

mosqlue Sultan the period of the in sides

Sulaynan the

at

(1550 AD), facilities on the masonry metal for for

mosques of

had ranks mosque Arabia,, the been

cubicles

"AsIr and shower facilities coated in water-proof that other vessels while

exterior.

south-western plaster.

are provided survive vessels must were ro1e. into

in mosques, Some of have

pouring baths

ablutions, use in

presumably There is

(hannans). or

Once a mosque has been no a temple a mosque, and period Great into down to mosques of Mosques of cathedrar

ought not revert converti-ng this are Examples Hama in the 7th Istanbul disused the in in of

to a non-religious the earliest the

a church are

abound from Syria

widespread; were both AD; the

Damascus and of churches Sophia Haghia is use

converted Byzantine a royal

century

was made into churches

mosque by the there for converted

Ottomans in 1453; while no shortage as mosques by The sense that purpose is tied al-Khattdb He argued would insist the detrirnent so prominent In large at to the later back of

in London and elsewhere growing imrnigrant

in England,

and synagogues fslamic

communities.

mosgues may not the refusal

up with or inside if

an Islarnic of the second Caliph cUmar b. of Constantine at Bethlehem. of Muslims because as mosques, to shrines to to

cease to

serve

in 638 AD/17 AH to pray that he did right

in the Basilica

at Jerusalem,

the Church of the Nativity Sor subsequent to use these generations churches

on their

of the Christians' rights at their cumar had prayed there. a Muslirn as timesr of the with the ds mosques increased it became difficult or in the the mosque the in for prayer, platform inside size

accomodate far the the a7here of dikka

congregations,

the worshippers and echoes termed the

courtyard

utterances interfere congregation. nubaTTigh ha1l, close be relayed

imam as he led

tended

sirnultaneous a raised at a point so that

genuflections

As a resulL, be place to the courtyard, loudly

would

covered prayer the words of the jrnEm could entrusted with this task.

by an individual

Other the in large Egypt

items

of mosque furniture

include

the kursI,

to carry

ornately readings in had syria, built

by the L4th century Qur'Ens which became fashionable and rran, and these are found in either wood. or metar, decorated. Another type of platforrn found in rarge the kursr is is aL-sura, book. not necessary community finest rnitially, and felt in mosques but it necessary that of churches rnarble fron to the early on embellish Byzantines the finest in the In be north to around include all of a nonByzantine where eur,En readers sit to recite from the the holy

mosques is

Decoration their mosgues to

Muslin

match the rs1am. mosaic

before was east, in

decoration

mosgues rsramic later Africa, the of

following

antecedents, times,

but with carved under

the development

of mosque decoration ottomans Decoration wall and in tends

and moulded plaster Timurids, were of broader there the is is favoured. rerigious rsramic in

became widespread.

the Mongols,

glazed

ceramics other to

particularly nihrEb. which illuninated figurative art

concentrated

on the qibla

and especially decoration aesthetic to

areas the

mosques, candle-sticks, conform art. liberalism in in in rslam

mosgue lamps and carpets,

Whatever elsewhere art rigorously religious earliest buildings motifs. in rslam ornarnent c.R.D. SOAS

regard

representational to and other images strictly From the religious art forms is

rslamie

society, religious always in

hostility context, non-figurative. and architectural of religiousry

applied period,

decoration

mosques

concentrated calligraphy and is in mosques,

on floral,

and geometric meaningful

is one of the most highly a principal element madrasas and tombs.

deveroped

King,

2520 words.

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