SALT-AFFECTED SOILS OF MALAYSIA

Ghulam M. Hashim INTRODUCTION Basic statistics on land resources Malaysia is made up of the Malay Peninsula at the southernmost part of the Asian mainland and the territory on the northern one-third of the island of Borneo. Due to historical differences in agricultural and other development, for the purpose of a discussion on matters concerning soils and land, it is more convenient to think of Malaysia in terms of three distinct geographical regions: (1)Peninsular Malaysia, (2)Sarawak and (3) Sabah. Table 1 gives a general idea of the total land areas and the extents of land considered as unsuitable for agriculture. Table 1: Distribution of various categories of land in Malaysia (Aminuddin et al, 1990) Region Total land area (million ha) Land area suitable for agriculture (million ha) Land area unsuitable for agriculture (million ha) Percentage of unsuitable land (%) Upland areas unsuitable for agriculture (million ha) Unsuitable upland as a percentage of total unsuitable land (%) Steep land (% of total land) Peninsular Sarawak Sabah Malaysia 13.16 12.24 7.63 6.19 1.81 2.31 6.85 52 5.61 82 36 10.43 85 8.57 82 70 5.25 69 4.49 87 22

Uplands are those areas where the soils are sedentary or have developed from old alluvium. Steep lands are sloping lands defined on the basis of slope gradient. In Peninsular Malaysia, steep lands are lands with gradients > 20 degrees (=36.4 %), whilst in Sarawak and Sabah, the corresponding slope gradients are >33 degrees (=65 %) and >25 degrees (=46.6%). Generally, steep lands are considered as areas where the native forest cover should be maintained and not disturbed. This rule is imposed because of the vulnerability of such land to the processes of soil erosion. However, the rule is not always adhered to. Indeed soil erosion is one of the major forms of land degradation recognised in Malaysia.

Overview of land resources Since Malaysia in general has a humid tropical climate, the rate of weathering is high. Thus, there is a substantial area of land with highly-weathered soils. These are normally formed through the in-situ weathering of igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks as well as sedimentary and low-grade metamorphic rocks. These sedentary soils, with well-developed soil horizons, tend to be varied in depth, but slightly acid and quite infertile. They generally occupy the central part of Peninsular Malaysia and the interiors of Sarawak (Map 1) and Sabah. Fringing these are soils developed on old alluvium in reworked landscapes with undulating and rolling topography. Further away from the interior are alluvial soils of riverine, brackish and marine origins. Many of these alluvial soils, especially those nearer the coast are characterised by poor and impeded drainage and are relatively young in terms of profile development. In Peninsular Malaysia, coastal plains with relatively fertile alluvial soils are found on the west coast. Alluvial soils are also present in some parts of the east coast. In the uplands, the dominant soils are sedentary soils that are strongly weathered. There are also several groups of soils which are normally referred to as problem soils due to some special constraints to plant growth that they exhibit. If not for the constraints, they would be ideal for food production due to their favourable location and topography. Examples of these are: Sandy beach soils of low fertility and low water-holding capacity, occupying about 154,400 ha, mainly in the east coast Acid sulphate and potential acid sulphate soils, covering 467,800 ha Peat soils with an area of 768,200 ha Waste land created by tin-mining activities, known as tin-tailings, with an area of 200,000 ha. In Sarawak, three broad physiographic regions, namely (1) coastal lowlands, (2) central lowlands and (3) interior uplands, are recognised. A detailed description of the landforms, soils and agricultural suitability of the regions is given by Teng (1994). There are three basic landform units in the coastal lowlands, namely, coastal plain, marine terrace and basin swamp. Elevation in this region is very low, the relief amplitude being less than 15 m asl. These lowlands are sub-divided into (a) coastal sand plain, (b) coastal clay plain and (c) coastal and inland organic swamps. The coastal sand plains are composed of sandy deposits adjacent to the coast, the major soil groups being Arenaceous Soils, Podzols and Gley Soils. The coastal clay plains include the floodplains of large rivers, deltaic areas and tidal mudflats. Drainage is generally poor to very poor as the deposits that form these plains are fine in texture. The major soil groups are Thionic Soils, which are poorly drained, have sulphidic properties and are commonly saline, and Gley Soils, which developed from accreting alluvium, are found in deltaic areas and emerged coastal plains and are generally saline. The coastal and inland swamps comprise several basin swamps occupying large areas between river floodplains, the coast and the uplands. The major soil group, Organic Soils or Histosols, are formed by the autochthonous accumulation of peat material, and are differentiated by peat layer thickness. Shallow peat occurs on the periphery of deep peat areas.

The central lowlands are composed of the elevated wave-cut platforms near the coast and low inland hills. Soil parent materials are mainly old alluvium, colluvium or residuum derived from arenaceous sedimentary rocks. The soil groups are Podzols, Grey-White Podzolic Soils and Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils. The interior uplands or rocky headlands refer to cliff margins of the mountains. The soils are collectively known as Skeletal Soils. Most of the soils are less than 50 cm deep and overlie strongly-weathered parent materials. It is not possible to include Sabah in Map 1, although a soil map for the state has been produced. The scale of the Soils of Sabah map is 1:250,000. The map, which groups soils into 51 soil associations, comes in ten separate sheets. The information was compiled from a combination of field investigation and air-photo interpretation. For each association, landforms and parent materials are described. As in Sarawak, landforms in Sabah range from low-elevation and gently-sloping coastal plains to low hills, high hills and highly dissected mountainous land. For some associations that are in steep land, the slope gradient is also given. The soils are generally studied with close reference to parent material. Soil parent materials range from various forms of alluvium, sandstones and mudstones to basic and ultra-basic igneous rocks, giving rise to a wide spectrum of soil types. The major soil groups include Acrisols, Fluvisols, Gleysols, Cambisols, Luvisols, Ferralsols, Podzols, Histosols, Rankers, Regosols and Arenasols (Deratil & Donson, 1994). In the Soils of Sabah map, each association is composed of two or more main soil units. The soil units are given names at the same level of classification as in Peninsular Malaysia, for instance Thionic Fluvisol, Dystric Gleysol, Orthic Acrisol etc. With a coastline that is 1,800 km long, Sabah is almost surrounded by sea. Therefore it has vast areas of coastal land that is characterised by poor drainage and saline conditions. A major coastal ecosystem in Sabah is mangrove forest, the total area of which is 365,345 ha, distributed along the coasts and estuaries (Rahman & Alex, 1996, citing Chan et al, 1993). A significant proportion of mangrove land is associated with saline soils. These soils are mainly components of the Weston soil association, classified as Thionic Fluvisol (Deratil & Donson, 1994). Rainfall characteristics Malaysia has a wet climate typical of the equatorial region. Heavy rainstorms accompanied by large amounts of overland water flow can be expected every now and then. Land that has been disturbed or otherwise exposed, when subjected to the typical tropical rainstorms, is extremely vulnerable to the processes of soil erosion. Malaysia is a part of a geographical region known as South-east Asia. It is a relatively large region located between the Asian landmass and the large island of Australia. More significantly, it lies between the Indian and Pacific Oceans where the general air circulation is dominated by a system of monsoons. Thus, the climate, especially the rainfall regime, of the region is greatly affected by these monsoons (Nieuwolt, 1982). Peninsular Malaysia, which has a relatively long coastline, is considered as having a predominantly marine 3

environment. Consequently, its total rainfall is high and it has a wet climate. On the basis of mean annual rainfall, the peninsula can be divided into several rainfall regions (Dale,1969). The driest of these regions, in the north-west, receives more than 1600 mm of rain per year. Elsewhere, the mean annual rainfall is more than 2500 mm per year, with several regions in the east coast receiving more than 3500 mm per year. The mean annual rainfall in Sarawak and Sabah is even greater, exceeding 5000 mm per year in some places. With this rainfall regime, it can be concluded that there are no dry lands in Malaysia. All forms of land degradation encountered are unrelated to drought except in artificially-created situations involving structures that exclude natural rainfall, such as rain shelters. Soil erosion As suggested by the large proportion of land described as upland and steep land (Table 1), soil erosion and the associated process of nutrient depletion are important forms of land degradation. The problem is exacerbated by failure to implement erosion control measures that are appropriate to the prevailing circumstances in a timely manner. Very often, cleared land is left exposed for extended periods before erosion control work is carried out. In some cases in highland areas where high-value sub-tropical crops are produced, the effects of erosion are offset by high rates of manure and fertiliser application. Although the practice of applying high rates of fertiliser and manure helps in maintaining reasonable levels of crop production, the unchecked losses of soil, nutrients and chemicals through erosion processes contribute to downstream pollution and sedimentation. These are major environmental problems in some highland districts. However, in many oil palm and rubber holdings, soil erosion after land clearing is minimised by the practice of zero burning in which plant debris is not burnt but arranged in rows on the cleared land. These debris rows help to minimise erosion by intercepting overland flow. Other commendable erosion control measures include the timely sowing of leguminous cover crops and the use of pruned oil palm fronds as a mulch and surface cover. Further improvements in erosion control, especially in terms of increased awareness, selection of appropriate measures and timely implementation, are necessary in view of the limited extent of good arable land. These, as well as a total embrace of soil conservation, will contribute towards preserving the considerably large area of potentially productive upland. Land degradation processes Besides soil erosion, fertility depletion, salinisation, water-logging and the lowering of ground water table were recognised as important degradation processes in a comprehensive study of land degradation in Malaysia (Aminuddin et al, 1994). Fertility depletion occurs through soil erosion in agricultural land as well as in association with logging activities. Mining for tin and other minerals caused severe disruption to the land, including separation of the major soil particles, resulting in materials consisting solely of sand particles or solely clay-silt mixtures, all of which are severely depleted in nutrients.

Even in gently-sloping alluvial land being used for wetland rice cultivation, fertility decline occurs in association with the gradual loss of clay particles. Water-logging affects large areas of soil in the riverine flood plains. If the problem is not solved through drainage, soft soils may result. In rice-growing areas, the existence of soft soils hampers farm operations that are carried out with heavy machinery. Lowering of ground water table may occur due to excessive drainage. In coastal land where there are potential acid sulphate soils, a lowering of the water table may result in the development of strongly-acid soils. Salinisation is recognised as an important land degradation process, especially in coastal land. However, some of the saline coastal soils have been reclaimed through drainage and other means for the production of coconut, palm oil, cocoa, coffee and rice. Of the marine alluvial soils in the Muda or Kedah-Perlis coastal Plain, which is the main rice-producing region (known as granary area) in Malaysia , about 20 % are influenced by saline water (Joseph and Samy, 1980). Monitoring land degradation Land degradation needs to be monitored regularly as it may have negative effects on agricultural production if it occurs in agricultural land. In many cases, it has a deleterious effect on the environment. In Malaysia, several agencies are involved in the monitoring work, two of the most important being the Department of Environment (DOE) and the Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing (MACRES). DOE regularly monitors the state of the major rivers and issues reports on variables that may indicate the rate of sedimentation and pollution. Among the variables monitored are suspended solids, biological oxygen demand, chemical load, pH and EC. The reports provide indications of the rates of soil erosion and the transport of chemicals into rivers. The health of rivers is gleaned from some of the data provided by DOE. MACRES is well-equipped with facilities for GIS and remote sensing. It regularly analyses remote sensing data and produces maps showing information related to land matters for various parts of the country. An example is the Land Cover Map, a series of maps produced at a scale of 1:50,000. The maps, which show all types of land use, are developed from interpretations of satellite imagery. Such maps, when available in a time-series, can be used to study land use and vegetation changes, expansion in agricultural land, extent of idle land, reduction in forest cover, conversion of agricultural land to other uses, etc. At the local level, salinity problems are detected through measurements of EC, in changes in crop yield, plant appearance and plant vigour for land that is prone to salinity problems. Soil erosion problems are detected from field erosion features, decline in soil fertility and deterioration in soil structure, as well as the sediment load of rivers. Peat soil degradation is noted from the rate of subsidence. Acid sulphate problems are detected through depth of water table in relation to the soil layer that contains jarosite.

Food production scenario The population of Malaysia is increasing at the rate of 2.3 % per annum. Although the birth rate is declining, life expectancy is increasing. The current life expectancy for males is 72 years and for females is 75 years. In 2003, the population is more than 24 million, of which close to 17 million are in Peninsular Malaysia, more than 3 million are in Sarawak and more than 4 million are in Sabah. Table 2: Per capita consumption of food commodities (kg/year) (Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia,1999) Commodity Rice Vegetables Fruit Beef Mutton Poultry Pork Eggs Milk Fish 1985 102.2 42.4 39.7 2.4 0.4 14.6 10.1 11.4 37.2 33.4 1990 89.8 45.5 44.3 3.2 0.4 19.0 12.0 15.7 37.7 34.8 1995 86.9 48.5 49.9 4.3 0.6 30.0 13.2 16.4 51.5 39.1 2000 85.7 52.0 53.5 5.3 0.6 35.3 8.1 16.8 53.0 49.0 2005 82.8 57.5 58.9 6.7 0.7 35.9 9.3 17.2 56.0 53.0 2010 80.4 63.6 65.1 8.4 0.7 36.8 9.2 17.3 60.6 56.0

Although the staple food is rice, many other important food items are consumed. Studies indicated that the per capita consumption of rice will slowly decrease although the total consumption will increase (Table 2). On the other hand, the per capita consumption, and therefore the total consumption, of other food items such as fruits, vegetables, fish and beef will increase. However, with an increasing population, total consumption of all the food items will continue to rise. At this point in time, a relatively large proportion of these items are imported. With the increase in consumption, the food import bill rises and is a cause for concern. Even rice imports are rising despite the country being a rice producer (Table 3). Table 3: The rice trade in Malaysia (Government of Malaysia, 1996) Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Local production (000 tonne) 1144 1228 1268 1274 1287 Import (000 tonne) 329.5 404.3 452.2 395.9 343.5 Value of import (RM million) 273.5 361.9 360.4 296.0 302.1

Current government policy is to give greater emphasis to food production, with two main objectives, namely, to be a net exporter of food and to make farming a lucrative profession. While production increase through intensification of land use is emphasised, the need for

horizontal expansion is not excluded. Indeed, this may be inevitable, given the increasing population and the determination to be less dependent on imports. Recent trends in rice production, for example during the decade 1985-1995, showed a steady increase. This is true in almost all production regions (Table 4), largely due to better varieties and improved management. The steady rise in production can also be attributed to a small increase in planted area of about 3 per cent. However, the average yield remains relatively low, being only about 3 tonnes per ha in 1995, and around 4 tonnes at present. The Ministry of Agricultures aim is to increase the average yield to10 tonnes/ha/year. This would bring total production closer to national self-sufficiency in rice. It would also improve the trade balance in food commodities. In 1996, the food trade, excluding palm oil, registered a negative balance of RM 4.34 billion. A year later, the negative balance increased to RM 4.74 billion. In Peninsular Malaysia, 76 % of the total rice-growing land of roughly 400,000 ha is provided with extensive irrigation and drainage facilities, while in Sarawak and Sabah, about 15 % of the 250,000 ha has such facilities. This shows the governments recognition of the importance of the rice industry. Given the fact that there are large tracts of land with saline soils close to the present rice-growing regions, especially in Sarawak and Sabah, it is not too far-fetched to think that there is a possibility that future expansion of rice land may take place in these lands. Such a step would increase the potential of enlarging the present rice granary regions. Physical and social development in Malaysia is also accompanied by increasing awareness of the importance of environmental protection. For example, there is increasing concern about the protection of wildlife habitats, proper management of wetlands and the conservation of various types of natural forest, including mangroves. Mangrove forests are recognised as important natural resources that require conservation (Chew, 1996). Future expansion of aquaculture Aquaculture, an important component of the food production sector, is an economic activity that is often associated with coastal lands. In Malaysia, the industry is expected to expand further in terms of number of farms, land area, fish (including shrimp and prawn) production and physical infrastructure. In addition, the industry will be more closely regulated by the government through the Department of Fisheries. In many parts of the world, aquaculture tends to be equated with the destruction of mangrove forests and, along with the forests, the natural breeding grounds for a large variety of fish, prawns, shrimps and other marine life. Another environmental problem often associated with the creation of aquaculture ponds in inland areas for the production of salt-water shrimps is the salinisation of otherwise good soil. Shrimp farming that uses sea-water in ponds located inland have resulted in severe land degradation. There are some examples of this form of degradation in Central Thailand (Imerb, 2000). Table 4: Rice production in Malaysia, 1985-1995, according to Ministry of Agriculture statistics (Adzmy Abdullah, 1998).

Production region Muda Plain Kemubu Plain Krian-Sungai Manik Barat Laut Selangor Seberang Prai Seberang Perak Ketara, Besut Kemasin-Semerak Total (granary regions) % of national production Non-granary regions % of national production Grand total Total planted area Average yield (kg/ha)

Production (000 tonnes) 1985 1990 701.0 724.9 108.2 163.7 144.1 128.7 97.4 142.0 31.7 35.9 20.5 70.5 19.5 25.5 6.5 1222.4 1297.7 64.3 68.8 623.0 35.7 1745.5 587.3 31.2 1885.0

1995 862.2 181.2 163.0 146.7 62.7 56.9 35.3 19.7 1527.7 71.8 599.6 28.2 2127.3

654,974 ha 680,647 ha 672,787 ha 2665 2769 3162

In Malaysia, consumption of fish, including prawns and shrimps, is expected to increase steadily due to such factors as rising affluence and greater health-consciousness. Fish catch from the sea is expected to reach a plateau in the near future and most of the additional production is expected to come from aquaculture. Realising that the warm climate in Malaysia is conducive to fish growth, the government plans to expand aquaculture not only to meet increased domestic demand but also for export. In 2001, the local aquaculture industry produced 177,019 tonnes of fish, shrimp and giant freshwater prawns, worth RM 1.2 billion (USD 316 million). Under the Third National Agriculture Policy, production is targeted to increase to 600,000 tonnes in 2010. To date, land comprising 23,000 ha in Sarawak and Sabah has been identified for aquaculture development. These areas, as well as other areas yet to be identified, will be turned into aquaculture industrial zones. The creation of these special zones is to ensure that safe, environment-friendly and export-quality standards are practised. Not all of these zones will be in saline lands or in areas close to the coast.

SIGNIFICANCE OF SALT-AFFECTED SOILS Biophysical, social, economic and environmental impacts A large percentage of the saline soils occur along the coastal areas, especially in west Peninsular Malaysia, the coasts and deltas of Sarawak, especially the southern part, and the

east coast of Sabah. These are areas with almost flat terrain and, in terms of topography and inherent soil fertility, where food-crop cultivation can be most easily carried out. Many of the major rice-growing regions, termed granary areas, are situated adjacent to the coastal saline land. Examples of such granary regions are the Muda (or Kedah-Perlis) Plain in northwest Peninsular Malaysia, Seberang Prai and the Krian Plain further south, and Barat Laut Selangor, about 60 km from Kuala Lumpur. Moreover, in these plains and coastal lands, very good transportation systems such as trunk roads, highways and, in the case of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, railways are well established. Therefore these are also some of the most densely populated areas in Malaysia. An estimated more than 60 % of the people of Malaysia live in these regions. Major towns such as Alor Star, Sungai Petani, Butterworth, Taiping, Sitiawan, Telok Intan, Klang, Muar, Batu Pahat, Kuching, Sibu, Sandakan and Lahad Datu have been established in or adjacent to these regions. Therefore, the regions situated next to the coastal saline lands are major centres of economic activity. Being near the coast and of very low elevation, the saline land is very prone to flooding. During any major wet period, some of these areas are inundated and crops of rice can be completely destroyed. There are several localities, especially in the Krian Plain, where the elevation is very low and sea-water inundation occurs over long periods. Examples cited in this report include Sungai Baru in Krian, Kepala Tanjung, Padang Garam and Kuala Jerlun in Kedah-Perlis (Muda). In these places, despite many attempts to improve the situation, no satisfactory rice crop can be obtained when inundation occurs. A large proportion of these coastal saline soils have been reclaimed through the construction of coastal bunds, check gates, main drains and farm drains. However, the reclaimed land is still subjected to degradation through sea-water intrusion. This happens when the coastal bund is damaged or broken or through underground intrusion. Overflow of sea-water has occurred in the recent past and has devastated cocoa and coconut farms. Such problems also affect several regions where rice-growing is a major activity. Besides the coastal lands, another important location where the salinisation process is active is the district of Cameron Highlands, in central Peninsular Malaysia. Here, although the proportion of land under agriculture is still relatively low, intensive cropping of vegetables and flowers as well as high rates of fertiliser and manure application, have led to the formation of saline soils. In older vegetable farms, there are significant accumulations of phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium in the soil. The EC of the soil saturation extract increased to levels as high as 3.41 dS/m, leading to yield reductions for some saltsensitive vegetable species (Wong and Jaafar, 1993). The soil salinisation process is even more intensive in farms that were established under plastic protective structures known as rain-shelters. In these shelters, intensive farming of flowers and /or vegetables is carried out with the total exclusion of natural rainfall. Without rain falling on the cultivated land, leaching does not take place and salts accumulate in the soil, increasing the EC (saturation extract) from normal levels to as high as 6.4 dS/m (Wong et al, 2002). This process is discussed in more detail in later sections.

As coastal saline land is associated with mangrove vegetation, the main environmental problems arise from the removal of the mangroves. Mangrove forests are well known for their rich biodiversity. The estuaries associated these forests and the surrounding areas are extremely rich fishing grounds. In some areas, the loss of mangrove forests has drastically affected the breeding of fish, shrimp and other marine species, thus reducing the catch of local fishermen (Raman, 1997). Raman gives details of the socio-economic impacts in Kuala Muda (Kedah) and Sabak Bernam (Selangor), showing the extent to which the incomes of traditional fishermen have declined as a result of disturbance to the mangrove ecosystem. EXTENT OF SALT-AFFECTED SOILS Methods of soil survey and soil analyses With respect to soil investigations, soil survey and soil mapping, the rates of development between the three regions of Malaysia differ significantly. Peninsular Malaysia is ahead of Sarawak and Sabah in terms of both the intensity of investigations and the land area covered. Soil maps of Peninsular Malaysia are older and more detailed. The study of soils in all three regions started as far back as the 1930s. However, a reconnaissance soil survey of Peninsular Malaysia was only completed much later, although soils in areas with slope gradients >20 degrees were not studied in any detail and marked as steep land. The soil map covering the whole of Peninsular Malaysia at a scale of 1:500,000 was produced in 1968 by the Department of Agriculture (Peninsular Malaysia). The map is described as a reconnaissance soil map and shows soil distribution at the series and association level. With the completion of this map, the Department of Agriculture (Peninsular Malaysia) embarked on semi-detailed soil surveys for the agriculturallyimportant regions. Each of these regions is a reasonably large, almost uniform piece of land in terms of physiography. Soil maps at the scale of 1:63,360 were produced. However, for some regions, such as the Krian Plain, the scale of semi-detailed soil maps was 1:25,000. The work on surveying soils at this scale has not been completed for the whole peninsula and is on-going. Therefore a semi-detailed soil map for the whole of Peninsular Malaysia is not yet available. However, the importance of the coastal saline soils had been noted by soil scientists since soil investigations began. Saline soils are well catered for in past and present survey reports and soil classification systems. Thus changes in area, characteristics and degree of salinisation are detected in on-going semi-detailed mapping exercises. The properties and distribution of the soils can be satisfactorily studied from information contained in the reconnaissance map. This is complemented by reports of the semi-detailed soil surveys of the various regions. In Sarawak and Sabah, much more field work still needs to be done before more detailed soil maps at series and association level can be produced. At the moment, for Sarawak, the maps available are the Soil Map of Sarawak and Agriculture Capability maps, all a result of efforts by the Department of Agriculture, Sarawak. The Soil Map of Sarawak was produced in 1968 at a scale of 1:500,000 and shows soil distribution at the level of large soil groups such as Skeletal soils, Red-yellow Podzolic soils, Peat soils and Saline Gley soils. The Agriculture Capability maps of Sarawak were produced by the Department of Agriculture (Sarawak) in 1982 at a scale of 1:250,000. The soils are grouped into capability classes based on the 10

number and degree of soil limitations. Sub-classes are also recognised and the limitations are indicated by specific letters. Maps showing the soils of Sabah have been produced in 1974 by the Overseas Development Administration, UK for the Sabah Government. As discussed above, the maps show broad soil associations, which are based on landform characteristics and parent materials. Each association comprises several soil units identified according to soil family names of the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World Revised Version. Most surveys begin with the gathering of all available information, including results from previous surveys, for the region concerned. Topographic and geological maps are also examined. Normally a topographic map at the scale 1:63,360 is used as a base. Field soil examinations are done in a grid at densities such as 0.2 kmx0.8 km or along permanent straight line fixtures such as roads, canals, tracks and paths. In addition to examining soil at various points in the grid, soil profile pits (pedons) that represent the mapping units are studied in detail in the field and sampled for laboratory analyses. Description of the soil profiles help in correlating the soils surveyed with soils in other regions, while the analytical data provide detailed characteristics. In the case of coastal soils, the development of the soil profile, in terms of whether the A horizon is well-developed or not, and whether a B horizon is present, is of considerable importance. In most soil investigations conducted in the laboratory, the properties measured include particle-size distribution, organic matter/organic carbon content, pH, contents of exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, phosphorus, etc. Measurements are usually made for each soil horizon identified in the field. For some types of soil, measurements of the contents of iron oxide and aluminium oxide may be included. For coastal saline soils, special attention is given to electrical conductivity (EC), pH, exchangeable aluminium, water soluble sulphates and chlorides and base saturation. The methods used are those that are universally recommended for soil analysis. Particle size distribution is based on four textural classes, namely clay (< 0.002 mm), silt (0.002-0.02 mm), fine sand (0.02-0.20 mm) and coarse sand (0.20 2.00 mm). Both pH and EC are normally measured in water in the ratio 1:5, using pH and conductivity meters. This method applies to data in soil survey reports. In salinity studies conducted in rice fields, the EC of the soil saturation extract at various depths and of the standing water are measured. In cases where the EC of the saturation extract is measured, the term saturation extract is mentioned.

Distribution of salt-affected soils and their properties The soils in the coastal clay plains, whether in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak or Sabah, in their natural state, are not very suitable for agriculture because of their saline characteristics. However, due to their large extent, gentle topography and accessibility, systems for soil classification and crop suitability developed in the past, considered saline properties as 11

important components of the systems. For instance, in the Soil-Crop Suitability Classification system for Peninsular Malaysia (Wong, 1986), salinity, together with 13 other soil factors, is considered as a limitation to crop growth. Taking the tolerance limits of crops commonly grown in Malaysia into account, the following categories, based on electrical conductivity (EC) of soil in the root zone, were proposed: EC > 4 dS/m very serious limitation EC = 2 4 dS/m ----- serious limitation EC = 1 2 dS/m------- moderate limitation EC = 0.1 1.0 dS/m ---minor limitation The Keys to Soil Classification in Sarawak was developed to facilitate soil identification and classification (Teng, 1996). There are three classification categories, namely group, family and series, in the Keys. Soil groups are differentiated by diagnostic subsurface horizons. At the family and series levels, seven different properties are used as differentiae for organic soils and another set of seven properties are used for mineral soils. Salinity is one of the seven properties used as differentiae for mineral soils. In Sabah, in the development of a Soil Suitability Classification system, two different sets of limitations, alterable and unalterable, are recognised (Deratil and Donson, 1994). The alterable limitations include: (a) drainage, varying from imperfect to very poor (b) nutrient status, ranging from poor to toxic, and including saline conditions (c) slope, with gradients ranging from 5 to 25 degrees (=8.7 to 46.6 %) As mentioned earlier, salt-affected soils of Malaysia are found in the coastal lands on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and several tidal river estuaries, at scattered localities in the peninsulas east coast, at numerous small farms in Cameron Highlands, in the coastal clay plains as well as deltas and river floodplains of Sarawak and on the plains of the east and north coast of Sabah. In Peninsular Malaysia, semi-detailed soil maps of various regions, especially Kedah-Perlis plain (Soo, 1972), Krian plain (Rao, 1982) and North-west Selangor (Soo, 1984) show the distribution of soils in the form of toposequences.. In Peninsular Malaysia, the soils fringing the coast line, mapped as Kranji soil series, has been shown to have many characteristics of saline soils. Its EC in the root zone is >6 dS/m and ESP is high, but pH is rather low, qualifying to be a strongly saline soil. It is often described as a juvenile soil in the sense that the A-horizon is not very well developed, and there is no B horizon. Drainage hastens profile development and a phase of the Kranji series known as drained Kranji, with a slightly more developed soil profile, has been discussed by Gopinathan, (1981). If coastal bunds have not been constructed, many of the soils in the plains mentioned above would still be more saline than they are now. Several soil series with varying degrees of salinity have been mapped at the semi-detailed scale. Parent material and distance from the sea have strong influences on their chemical properties. Some of the more important soil series in Kedah-Perlis Plain, Krian Plain and North-west Selangor are listed in Tables 5,6 & 7. Table 5: Soil mapping units with saline properties in Kedah-Perlis Coastal Plain (Soo, 1972)

12

Soil series

Electrical Base Ph Extent (ha & conductivity saturation (water) %)* (dS/m) Kranji Analytical data were not reported 2552 (1.95) Kuala Kedah 1.3 66 5.1 2746 (2.1) Tebengau 0.19 74 5.0 3807 (2.91) Kangkong 0.18 42 4.7 6917 (5.28) Chengai 0.44 56 4.5 11583 (8.84) Sedaka 0.4 54 4.7 8351 (6.37) Tualang 0.18 32 4.0 21165 (16.15) Kuala Perlis 4.0 30 3.4 1499 (1.14) Telok 0.25 25 4.1 21951 (6.75) *Figures in parantheses are percentages of total area surveyed Table 6: Soil mapping units with saline properties in Krian Plain (Rao, 1982) Soil series Electrical Base pH Extent (ha conductivity saturation (water) & %)* (dS/m) (%) Kranji 8 240 6.6 1924 (6.1) Piandang 1.7 170 7.2 729 (2.3) Bakau 0.5 161 6.4 5577 (17.7) Serong 0.5 115 4.9 5935 (18.9) Sabrang 0.05 27 4.4 953 (3.0) *Figures in parantheses are percentages of total area surveyed Table 7: Soil mapping units with saline properties in North-west Selangor Plain (Soo, 1984) Soil series Electrical Base pH Extent (ha & conductivity saturation (water) %)* (dS/m) (%) Kranji 6.1 269 7.7 5097 (7.15) Banjar 0.6 6.4 6813 (9.55) Sedu 0.6 48 3.3 5732 (8.04) Jawa 0.07 23 4.4 11450 (16.05) Bakau 0.35 98 4.2 2077 (2.91) Serong 0.7 61 4.1 674 (0.94) *Figures in paranthesis are percentages of total area surveyed The soils and data shown in Tables 5,6 & 7 were identified and determined during semidetailed soil surveys conducted by Department of Agriculture (Peninsular Malaysia). They were not identified in the reconnaissance soil survey because that survey was conducted earlier at a more general level, with a low density of observation points. The soil series listed in the tables normally occur in a toposequence with decreasing salinity from the coast to inland regions. An example of such a toposequence is contained in the soil survey report of Krian (Rao, 1982). Krian Plain is very low-lying and is one of the broadest. The soils near 13

the coast are formed from marine clay deposits. Those located further inland are formed from brackish water deposits. In between are organic-rich soils. Electrical conductivity (EC) and pH decrease progressively from the soil nearest the coast to the most inland soil. Rao (1982) also conducted detailed surveys on pH and EC. The maps of EC at 0-15 cm and 3060 cm depths show gradual changes in soil salinity with distance from the coast (Figures 1 & 2). Figure 2 also shows high subsoil EC values in certain locations that are not immediately bordering the coast. Underground seepage of sea-water is quite active in this region.

Figure 1: Distribution of soil EC at 0-15 cm (Rao, 1982)

Figure 1: Soil electrical conductivity at 0-15 cm in Krian Plain

14

Figure 2: Distribution of soil EC at 30-60 cm (Rao, 1982) The extent of saline soils in Peninsular Malaysia has been reported to be 225,790 ha (Yeop et al, 1982). In Sarawak, the extent is 229,440 ha (Zahari et al, 1987, citing Tee and Lie, unpublished). However, recent calculations of areas represented by soil series with saline properties in soil maps yielded the figures shown in Table 8. The total area of 1.12 million ha is about 3.4 % of the total land area of Malaysia, slightly more than the 3 % of land covered by mangrove forests as reported by Ong & Gong (1997). Earlier, Chan (1978) reported that there are 274,000 ha of Kranji series soils (severely saline) and 62,600 ha of the Linau-Sedu association soils (slightly saline) in Peninsular Malaysia. The differences in the extents of Kranji series between those reported by Chan and the other figures mentioned above may be due to the use of different maps. The relatively high figure for Kranji series soil in Chans report may also reflect the fact that, during the time lapse between the two reports, a substantial proportion of the Kranji soil has been reclaimed and therefore later mapped as other soil series. An early report on soil classification in Sarawak (Lim, 1975) listed several soil families and series that are recognised as having saline properties. The EC of these soils is >0.5 dS/m. All the soils are derived from marine alluvium (Table 9) In a later report, it was stated that saline soils in Sarawak occur within the large soil groups known as Thionic soils and Gley soils. In both groups, salinity is used as a differentiating criterion. However, soil surveys had only been carried out in several selected areas and a semi-detailed map for the whole state is not yet available. In the Beliong area, 5 soil series with saline properties have been mapped (Table 10) (Teng, 2003, personal comm.). Table 8: Extent of saline soils in Malaysia 15

(Lim Jit Sai, 2000, pers. comm.) Region Peninsular Malaysia Sarawak Sabah Total Area (ha) 186,523.4 571,078.0 358,434.0 1,116,035.4

Table 9: Soil families and series with saline properties in Sarawak (Lim, 1975) Family Belat Nonok Paloh Sirik Rajang Pendam Series Not differentiated Not differentiated Paloh (fine silt) Sirik (fine silt) Rajang (clay) Pendam (clay) Jol (clay) EC (dS/m); Hue 25oC >5.0 Grey or dark grey 0.5-5.0 Grey or dark grey >5.0 Grey or dark grey 0.5-5.0 Grey or dark grey >5.0 Dark or greenish grey 0.5-5.0 Grey, dark grey or greenish grey 0.5-5.0 Grey or dark grey Distribution Throughout Sarawak Throughout Sarawak Central Sarawak Central Sarawak Throughout Sarawak Throughout Sarawak Throughout Sarawak

Table 10: Soil series mapped in the Beliong area (Sarawak) and their properties (C.S.Teng, 2003, pers comm.) Origin Accreting alluvium,sulphidic Soil Family Rajang Soil series EC (dS/m) Punda <0.5 Rampangi 0.5-4.0 Rajang >4.0 Pendam 0.5-4.0 Buntal >4.0 Buso <0.5 Texture Area mapped(ha) Clay loam to 10 clay 775 1,083 Clay loam to 463 clay 4,525 Loamy sand 43 to sandy loam 6,899 % 0.1 11.3 15.7 6.7 65.6 0.6 100

Accreting Bijat alluvium, nonsulphidic Non-accreting Miri sub-recent alluvium Total

In Sabah, one large association of soils known as Weston, has been identified to be composed mainly of saline soils. The soil parent materials are sulphidic alluvium and other alluvium and the characteristic landform is tidal swamp. In order to distinguish between degrees of salinity, the EC of the soil in a mixture with water in the ratio 1:5 at 25 oC is used. The values of EC obtained in this way are much smaller than those of the saturation extract of the soil. Therefore the limits suggested on the basis of 16

EC of saturation extract correspond to lower values based on EC of soil-water mixture. The limits proposed for the different degrees of salinity on the basis of EC of soil-water mixture in the ratio of 1:5 are as follows: Table 11: Different degrees of salinity EC of soil in water (1:5) (dS/m) 0.1 1.0 1.1 2.0 2.1 4.0 >4.0 Degree of salinity Non-saline Slightly saline Moderately saline Severely saline

These limits are almost the same as the limits used in the Crop-Soil Suitability Classification system (Wong, 1984). Since the system is based on crop tolerance under Malaysian conditions, the limits proposed here should be acceptable for wider use. Based on this system, the Kranji series soil in Peninsular Malaysia is a severely saline soil, whilst the Kuala Kedah and Kuala Perlis series soils are moderately saline. However, these soils as well as those categorised as slightly saline are not identified at the scale used for Map 2. Instead, they fall within the broad Linau-Sedu Soil Association, which is generally categorised as slightly saline. In some localities, slightly saline soils occur in small patches that are not easily shown on a map. There are several severely saline soils in Sarawak, although most are moderately saline or lower. However, on Map 2 the different categories cannot be differentiated due to lack of information. A similar situation applies in Sabah. In Cameron Highlands, soil salinity occurs in mostly small-sized farms scattered throughout the district. The degree of salinity varies from non-saline to severe depending on the age of the farm, the intensity of farming in terms of nutrient inputs and number of seasons per year, and the use of rain-shelters. CAUSES AND PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF SALT-AFFECTED SOILS Introduction A large majority of salt-affected soils in Malaysia occur in the coastal regions. Sea-water intrusion is the main cause of soil salinisation. However, although sea-water is the origin of salinity, four main factors influence the formation of coastal saline soils, their spatial distribution, the degree of salinity, and the potential for future soil salinisation: Low-elevation coastal landform Tidal inundation Underground seepage Over-drainage of adjacent peatland In addition to the above, another important factor, high intensity of land use, is the major reason for the development of saline soils in inland regions. In this instance, excessive amounts of fertiliser and manure are applied to vegetable and flower crops in numerous small farms, leading to the accumulation of nutrients in the root zone. Map 3 shows that, in 17

Cameron Highlands, the salinisation process is not associated with sea-water intrusion, but rather to high intensity land use. In other regions, sea-water intrusion is the main cause. Coastal landform Many of the regions where a significant level of soil salinisation has occurred are coastal zones that are extremely flat and low in elevation. Some examples are the Kedah-Perlis Plain, the Krian Plain, North-west Selangor , some coastal areas of Sarawak especially the deltas of the Rajang and the Samarahan, and the east coast of Sabah. At Kedah-Perlis, most parts of the coastal plain are at a very low elevation of about 2 m asl, with depressions occurring at several places (Gopinathan et al, 1980). One of the more saline soil series, the Kuala Kedah series, was developed in the depressional areas. At Krian, the elevation gradually increases to a height of 4 m asl over a stretch of 30 km (Rao, 1982), while at North-west Selangor, the height of 4 m asl is reached over a distance of 10 km (Soo, 1984). Similarly, most parts of west Johor, the coastal land of Sarawak, especially the southern areas, and the east coast of Sabah are low-lying. Such conditions are associated with poor drainage and prolonged saturation with salt water. Tidal inundation As a result of low elevation and very gentle slopes, the coastal lands are subjected to tidal inundation. As sea-water has high electrical conductivity values, soils which are regularly saturated with it develop saline properties. One notable example is the Kranji soil series found in almost all the coastal areas in the west of peninsular Malaysia and in the flood plain of the Pahang in the east coast. Unless drained, the EC of the surface layer of Kranji series soil is > 8 dS/m in most localities. At Krian, it has a poorly-developed topsoil of dark, greenish grey colour and massive structure, characteristics of a juvenile soil. Its cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation (BS) are high, at 33.8 cmol/kg and 240 %, respectively. In Sarawak, the coastal clay plains, the deltaic plains and mudflats as well as the floodplains of major rivers such as the Limbang, Samarahan and Sadong-Skrang are regularly subjected to inundation, resulting in the development of saline soils (Teng, 2003, personal comm..). Examples of such soils are those that are known as Thionic soils of the Rajang and Kluang soil families which are poorly-drained, grey in colour and saline with EC >4.0 dS/m. Soils of the Bijat family, developed from accreting alluvium and found mainly in deltaic regions and emerged coastal plains, are also saline (Teng, 2003, personal communication). Underground seepage In the coastal plains and deltas, another important process affects soils which are further inland. The C horizons become saline because the intrusion of sea water underground (Figure 3). There are numerous examples. At Krian, a Serong series soil located several kilometres inland recorded an EC of 3.2 dS/m for the C horizon at a depth of 112 cm (Rao, 1982). At Bedena, Sungai Besar in the plain of North West Selangor, about 5 km inland, a Jawa series soil recorded an EC of 5 dS/m for the C horizon at a depth of 90 cm (Soo, 1984).

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LAND SEA
Coastal bund

Soil prof ile with a saline subsoil

Saline water

Figure 3: Underground intrusion of sea-water

High intensity of land use Cameron Highlands is a district, situated at high elevations of 1000 to 2000 m asl and with a dissected topography in the central part of Peninsular Malaysia. The climate is distinctly cool and wet, making the land suitable for the production of a range of sub-tropical crops. Due to sustained demand for sub-tropical produce, intensive farming in small plots has been carried out for many years. The farms are normally located on terraced slopes or narrow valley flats. Lately, newer farms have been carved out of low-level hill tops that have been levelled by machines. In most of the farms, old and new, the crop is growing on infertile, saprolitic soil. Fertility is restored through large inputs of fertiliser and manure. In these highland vegetable and flower farms, the main process of salinisation is the accumulation of salts in the root zone as a result of long-term farming with high rates of fertiliser and manure application. Large amounts of phosphorus and potassium accumulate in the soil. Calcium and magnesium contents also increase over time. In farms that have been active for a period of about 22 years, the electrical conductivity (EC) (saturation extract) increased from the normal level of 0.6 dS/m to 3.14 dS/m (Wong & Jaafar, 1993). At this level of EC, the yields of crop such as carrot, onion, pepper and lettuce are expected to decrease by 25 % and crops such as cabbage, cucumber, muskmelon, potato and sweet potato by 10 %. However, many farms in the highlands are operating under plastic rain shelters. Under the sheltered conditions, the salinisation process is even greater. In many farms, especially those producing chrysanthemums or other flower species, the rain-shelters are used to exclude natural rain and provide the farmer with complete control over the growing environment. The rate of fertilisation is high, at 2.5 t/ha/season of chicken manure, 1.25 t/ha/season of NPK Green (a compound fertiliser) and 2.5 t/ha/season of NPK Blue (a compound fertiliser). While such a large amount of nutrients are applied, no leaching takes place because natural rain is prevented from falling on the cultivated land. Within 8 years, 19

salts accumulate in the soil and the soil (saturation extract) EC has been recorded to be as high as 6.4 dS/m (Wong et al, 2002). The high soil salinity leads to several environmental and socio-economic problems. The soils are degraded and farmers are tempted to remove the saline soils and replace them with fresh soil from elsewhere, creating environmental concerns. Disposal of the saline soil material is one problem and transporting fresh soil from one site to another is a second problem. If the soils that have become saline are retained, the farms will have to be abandoned since a large variety of crops that are intolerant of saline conditions cannot be grown. There is a danger that this type of soil degradation may spread to other regions if the farming methods are adopted but amelioration and rehabilitation measures are ignored. Over-drainage of adjacent peat land In Sarawak, the coastal clay plain where most of the saline soils occur, is bordered on the inland side by large peat swamps (Teng, 1994). Peat land occupies 1.7 million ha or 13 % of the total land surface of Sarawak. It has been widely recognised that peat swamps has many natural functions. One is to act as a buffer against salt-water intrusion from the coast to the interior. On average, the edge of the peat swamps is about 2-4 km from the coast (Melling et al, 2002). However, the peat lands are being converted into oil palm plantations at a high rate. To date, 30 % of the peat land is under cultivation (Melling et al, 2002). Drainage, a pre-requisite for agriculture, if overdone, can pose environmental problems such as peat shrinkage and subsidence, irreversible drying and fire hazards as well as nutrient imbalance. Therefore, drainage needs to be carried out judiciously, with a clear understanding of the need to avoid situations that may lead to the intrusion of sea-water into areas further inland. Among the factors that may influence the hydrological regime is the depth of the mineral substratum in the peat land. In some situations, the mineral substratum may lie below the mean sea level (Figure 4). Indeed, in many parts of the Sarawak peat lands, the mineral substratum is at a very low elevation. There is a danger that drainage systems that do not adequately take these geological factors into account may give rise to a situation that can lead to sea-water intrusion. If this happens, the rate of soil salinisation will increase.

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Maludam National Park Peat Soil Study Cross-Section - L2

14 12 Height above MSL (m) 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 0
Lulie Melling, 2002

Sg. Pelaku Btg. Lupar PEAT

MINERAL SUBSTRATUM 1 3 4 5 Distance (km) 6 8 9

Figure 4: The elevation of the mineral substratum in a peat swamp in Sarawak (L. Melling, 2003, pers. comm..) EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSES AND FAILURES IN THE MANAGEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF SALT-AFFECTED SOILS Introduction Since saline soils are located in regions that are flat and easily accessible, many attempts have been made to reclaim them for agriculture. Some of the projects have met with success in terms of maintaining low levels of salinity and in terms of satisfactory levels of agricultural production. In most cases, the structures installed in order to keep saline water out have to be continuously maintained to ensure long-term productivity. Success stories 1. Oil palm production in a saline coastal land An area of about 2000 ha on coastal saline soils in Carey Island , Selangor, was developed for palm oil production (Abd Razak et al, 1995). Two years prior to field planting of oil palm seedlings, a bund, with 38 tide gates, was constructed. A drainage system was installed to continuously drain water out to the sea and retain it when necessary. Flushing was carried out at the onset of wet weather. Prior to the dry period, water was retained within the drainage system. For efficient water retention at a depth of 45 cm below the surface, a system of soil blocks, weirs and screw gates was put in place. The soil electrical conductivity (EC), which was initially in the range of 5 to 24 dS/m, was reduced to about 1 or <1 dS/m (Abd Razak et al, 1995). The system was regularly inspected and maintained. In addition, 21

several special agronomic measures were adopted. These extra measures include: mounding at palm bases to allow more room for root development; planting on ridges, with two palm rows per ridge; application of empty oil palm fruit bunches (EFB) at 600 kg per point on every alternate point between two palms. As a result of the reclamation effort and with sufficient agronomic inputs, the yield of FFB (fresh oil palm fruit bunches) in the fifth year of harvest for different fields ranged from 20.8 t/ha/y to 34.5 t/ha/y. These are rather good yields when compared to the range of 20-30 t/ha/y quoted by Moll (1987) as the average yield for Malaysia and Indonesia. Moll gave average yields in different countries to show yield variations as affected by environment and level of management. However, some effect of salinity is still being observed in Carey Island through differences in yield between different locations. Areas that are adjacent to the coastal bund remain relatively more saline than more distant sites through seepage of saline water. The annual yields of FFB between sites A and B are shown in Table 12. Site A, situated closer to the bund, recorded consistently lower yields (Abd Razak et al, 1995). Table 12: Yearly FFB yields for two sites. The palms in both sites were planted in 1985 and received the same management inputs (Abd. Razak et al, 1995) Yield of FFB (t/ha) Site A B Year 1 14.1 14.7 Year 2 13.0 26.8 Year 3 19.2 23.5 Year 4 22.2 24.0 Year 5 26.0 23.0 Year 6 19.8 27.5

2. Management of saline soils for rice production Despite reclamation efforts such as bund construction and drainage, some localities in the Kedah-Perlis (Muda) Plain continue to experience salinity problems that affect rice yield. A technique to reduce soil salinity was carried out in a small field of 1.5 ha at Kuala Jerlun on the Kedah-Perlis Plain (Kimi, 1991). It was carried out over four growing seasons, namely off-season 1985 (A), main season 1985-86 (B), off-season 1986 (C) and main season 198687 (D). The experiment was carried out on an area of 1.5 ha in Kuala Jerlun, Kedah. Rice was grown over four cropping seasons, viz. 1985 off season (A), 1985-86 main season (B), 1986 off season (C) and 1986-87 main season (D). Field preparation, pest and disease management, fertiliser application etc were the same during all the four seasons. No salinity treatment was given during A, B, and D. However, during C, the following treatment was carried out: Water was drained from the field. A week later, the field was levelled and discploughed to a depth of 30 cm with a four-wheeled tractor. A second ploughing was carried out 3 days later perpendicular to the direction of the first ploughing. Irrigation and drainage channels were improved. The level of drains was 15 cm lower than the field to ensure efficient drainage. A bund, 30 cm high enclosed the field. To prepare for the entry of water,

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two irrigation channels were kept open while drains were closed. Water was released into the field to a depth of 15-30 cm and allowed to stand for 2-3 days. Then it was drained. When the soil water content was at field capacity, water was again released into the field to a depth of 3-5 cm. The water used for the treatment had a salinity of 0.07 dS/m. The water level was maintained at 5 cm depth during transplanting. Later, when plants were well established the water level was maintained at 20-30 cm depth. The positive effects of this treatment were reflected in reduced soil salinity of the cultivated soil layer and increased rice yields. The soil (saturation extract) salinity of the 0-30cm layer was 6.55 dS/m and 4.30 dS/m during A and B before the treatment. During C, when the treatment was implemented, the salinity decreased to 1.85 dS/m. It rose to 3.10 dS/m in the following season (D). Salinity in the soil saturation extract was 6.41, 4.08, 1.81 and 2.97 for A, B, C. and D, respectively, again showing the reduced salinity as a result of the treatment during C (Table 13). The rice yields were 3.45, 3.88, 6.10 and 3.20 t/ha for A, B, C and D respectively (Table 14), showing the positive effects of the desalinisation treatment during C. The EC (saturation extract) of the soil layers below 30 cm remained high throughout the four seasons, being >8.1 dS/m at 31-60 cm and >12.6 d/Sm at 61-90 cm. However, to maintain the low salinity level in the surface soil layer, the treatment has to be consistently applied. Table 13: Soil (saturation extract) electrical conductivity at different planting seasons (after Sani Kimi, 1991) Cropping season A. 1985 off season (no desalinisation) B. 1985-86 main season (no desalinisation) C. 1986 off season (desalinisation carried out) D. 1986-87 main season (no desalinisation) Electrical Conductivity (dS/m) 0 - 30 cm 31 - 60 cm 61 90 cm 6.55 4.30 1.85 3.10 8.23 8.25 8.10 8.20 12.65 12.80 12.60 12.80

3. Approaches towards overcoming soil salinity problems in rice fields Many rice fields in coastal plains still face the threat of soil salinisation, especially during high tide. Reclamation work was carried out at a 2-ha site in Kepala Tanjung and a 15-ha site in Padang Garam, both in the Kedah-Perlis Plain (Kimi & Daham, 1993).

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Table 14: Changes in electrical conductivity of soil (saturation extract) and water and in rice yield (after Sani Kimi, 1991) Conductivity (dS/m) Cropping Season 1985 off season 1985-86 main season Water depth (cm) 10.3 10.9 Water 2.34 1.15 0.76 Soil extract 6.41 4.08 1.81 Rice(MR84) Yield (t/ha) Harvest index Treatment plot 3.45 3.73 4.20 Comparison plot 3.45 3.88 6.10 0.35 0.21 0.43

1986 20.7 off season (desalinisation carried out) 1986-87 main season Average 11.4 13.32

0.86 1.28

2.97 3.82

4.00 3.85

3.20 4.16

0.49 0.39

A) Amelioration of soils subjected to sea-water intrusion The EC of sea-water that flowed into the field at Padang Garam was 32.6 to 43.96 dS/m. The reclamation method of van Alphen (1984, cited by Kimi and Daham, 1993) was utilised. The aim was to use fresh water to flush out the sea-water. Land tillage was avoided to ensure that the salts did not move down to the deeper soil layers. To facilitate the retention of fresh water in the field, the perimeter bunds were kept in good condition. Two days were taken to fill the field with fresh water which was then allowed to stand for three days. At the end of the third day of flooding, all of the standing water and the soluble salts were drained out. The procedure was repeated twice. Broadcasting was carried out in some plots and transplanting of seedlings in other plots. At this time, lime was added at 1 t/ha. During plant growth, field water was maintained at a depth of 5 cm. Field drying was prevented until the crop was about 20 % ripe. This reclamation effort succeeded, with very minimal seepage of saline water into the deeper soil layers. After three cycles of flushing, the EC of the water layer decreased from 2.13 dS/m to 0.25 dS/m, while the EC of the saturation extract of the soil in the surface layer decreased from 8.02 to 3.67 dS/m. Yields of transplanted rice increased from 0 to 3.87 t/ha, about 73 % of yields from plots with non-saline soils. However, the direct-seeded plots in

24

the same reclamation project suffered from a poor rate of germination. Drainage that was carried out to facilitate direct seeding aggravated the salinity problem in those plots. Crops that received lime were healthier. B) Amelioration of soils underlain with saline soil layers At Kepala Tanjung, the EC of the saturation extract of the soil at 30 cm depth is 6.55 dS/m and at 150 cm depth was 15.10 dS/m. Soil preparation for planting was carried out under dry conditions. The perimeter bunds were maintained at a height of 30 cm. When the fields were ready, they were flooded with fresh water. After two days, the water was drained and seedlings were transplanted into the fields. For comparison purposes, direct seeding was carried out in some plots. During field preparation, lime was added at 1 t/ha in some plots. Throughout the growing period, field water was maintained at 5 cm depth. When the crop achieved 20% ripening, the fields were drained. The simple flooding and flushing treatment reduced the EC of the water layer from 2.34 dS/m to 0.76 dS/m and that of the surface soil (saturation extract) from 6.42 to 2.81 dS/m. The rice yield increased from 3.45 t/ha in the first season to 6.10 t/ha in the third season. In the control plot, the yield in the third season was 4.2 t/ha. The problem of leaf-drying was reduced through water depth control. Liming not only resulted in healthier and greener plants but also helped to improve soil aggregation and water movement. Incidences of waterlogging were greatly reduced. 4. Management of saline soils for coconut production by small-scale farmers Coconut appears to be slightly more tolerant of soil salinity than oil palm. An observation by MARDI (Zahari et al, 1987) on saline potential acid sulphate soils at Rengit and Batu Pahat, west coast of Johor, showed that reasonable yields of small-sized coconut, but with poor quality copra, were obtained. The farmers constructed their own system of bunds, drainage channels and small water control gates which prevented flooding except at the highest tides. Seawater was allowed to enter the channels at high tide but restricted to a level 40 cm below the surface. 5. Desalinisation of soils under plastic rain shelter In the context of intensively-farmed plots that are undergoing salinisation processes, research involving laboratory and field experimentation has been conducted to lower the salinity level in affected soils. Several techniques which have been scientifically proven, pertaining to soils in vegetable and flower farms, are described below. The soils under the plastic shelter can be treated so that their salinity level is reduced. Two alternative methods, namely flood leaching and sprinkler irrigation leaching, have been shown to be successful (Wong et al, 1999). .

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A) Flood leaching The soil was levelled and enclosed with plastic sheets. Flooding was carried out using 300 ml of water in 3 equal applications. This method is very effective in removing excess salts, even at 50 % water-to-soil volume ratio. Increasing the leaching volume to 75% and 100% ratios further reduced salinity. The desalinisation characteristics assumed a quadratic profile with an initial steep decline and flattening towards the end. Salt removal was greatest in the first application of water, as most of the "free" salt constituents were easily leached. The second and third applications removed the salts from exchange sites. The quadratic functions can be used to determine the amount of floodwater required to reduce the EC of a moderately saline soil to a targeted salinity level. B) Leaching through sprinkler irrigation The entire method consisted of 24 discreet applications. Each application delivered either 13.1 or 6.5 mm of water, depending on the actual field moisture content. When the soil was saturated and runoff was high, the irrigation input was halved. This method applies small amounts of water over an extended period. It allows more time for salt constituents to come into contact with water. The salts are gradually removed in successive waves of leaching water. The rate of salt removal was described by quadratic equations, indicating an initial rapid removal followed by diminishing rates. Increasing the leaching ratio from 50% to 75%, further increased the rate of salinity reduction. However, excessive removal of salts may adversely affect soil fertility. As with flood leaching, the quadratic functions can be used as a planning tool. The rate and frequency of sprinkler irrigation required to achieve a desired salinity level can be determined from the function. 6. Agricultural production on reclaimed coastal land with saline soils at Asajaya A large project known as the Asajaya Drainage Scheme is being conducted to reclaim about 18,000 ha of coastal land with saline soils for the production of crops such as fruits, vegetables, sago, cocoa and coconut. The objectives of the project are: To prevent sea-water inundation To reduce flooding To prepare the land for agricultural production and improve yields To uplift socio-economic conditions Besides the construction of a coastal bund or dyke, the other major operations are clearing rivers and canals from obstructions and sediment, river diversion where necessary, installation of structures and tidal control. The seven main rivers involved are Batang Samarahan, Sungai Moyan, Sungai Asajaya, Sungai Sampun, Sungai Semera, Sungai Jemukan, and Batang Sadong. The main physical facilities constructed are 22 tidal control gates, 6 tidal control flap gates and river-bank protection structures.

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Failure cases 1. Reclamation of saline areas that are potentially acid sulphate for rice production Since the coastal saline soils can also be potentially acid sulphate, reclamation efforts must ensure that drainage systems do not expose the sulphidic (pyritic) soil horizon. One largescale project aiming to reclaim saline soils to improve rice production met with an initial failure (Ting et al, 1992). The area concerned is a 1000-ha mangrove swamp in the Merbok estuary on the Muda (Kedah-Perlis) Plain, where the soils are saline as well as potentially acid sulphate. Construction of a bund to prevent inundation by sea-water lowered the water table and exposed the sulphidic horizon to oxidation, leading to the formation of acid sulphate soils. As a result, rice yields were in the range of about 1.2 to 1.4 t/ha, compared to a possible 4.5 t/ha. Many affected farmers abandoned their fields. 2. Amelioration of soils that are water-logged with saline water (Kimi & Daham, 1993) In Sungai Baru on the Krian coastal plain, a severe saline environment arose due to low elevation and a poor network of drains. At the site, about 15 ha in area, drainage and irrigation infrastructure is rather poor compared to those in other regions such as the KedahPerlis Plain. Field drying at this site occurred mainly through evaporation. To increase soil strength and encourage flocculation of clay particles, the soil was treated with lime and gypsum at rates of 1 t/ha. Water was maintained in the field at a depth of 5 cm during the growing period of the rice crop. Both the transplanting and direct seeding methods of crop establishment were attempted. To facilitate direct seeding, the field was drained as much as is possible under the water-logged conditions. Even after three years of rice cultivation, soil salinity remained high, with EC of the saturation extract of surface soil ranging from 9.06 to 10.98 dS/m (Kimi & Daham, 1993). PACE OF SALINISATION Introduction Although salinisation is quite a straightforward issue in the context of land degradation in Malaysia, important changes in the degree of salinity are taking place. The changes, whether in terms of increasing or decreasing salinity, however, seem to be specific to the particular circumstances. Additionally, the areas of land involved in change are not very large at the present time, but the mechanisms are significant and should be explored further towards greater understanding. This section will look at the pace of salinisation under various circumstances and in terms of, both the rate of change in salinity and the rate of increase in area affected by salinity. The coastal lowlands in west Peninsular Malaysia as well as in Sarawak and Sabah are constantly being inundated with sea-water. In these coastal lands, although the level of salinity is high, the pace of salinisation is constant as inundation occurs regularly. The already high level of salinity does not change very much. The other areas similarly affected are several deltas, including those of the Rajang and Sarawak rivers in Sarawak as well as 27

estuarine land adjacent to the mouths of major rivers in Peninsular Malaysia. Some of the major rivers in Peninsular Malaysia affected by salinity at the estuarine zone are: Kedah and Muda in Kedah, Krian and Kurau in Perak, Bernam in Selangor, Muar in Johor and Pahang and Kuantan in Pahang. The salinity changes in these areas are irregular, being dependent on tides and other climatic factors. Adjacent to almost all these areas, there are slightly saline soils occupying the low-elevation and flat terrain. A large percentage of these lands are exploited for agricultural activities, mainly growing rice under irrigation, coconuts, oil palm and, somewhat less commonly, cocoa. Most received reasonably high levels of management in the form of irrigation, drainage and fertiliser application. As a result of good soil and land management practices, including the construction of coastal bunds to keep sea-water out and the creation of drainage systems, these affected lands are undergoing an improvement process, that is, the soils are becoming less saline over time. Therefore, the dominant process taking place is de-salinisation rather than salinisation. Some specific examples are discussed below to show the management measures taken and the effects of those measures on reducing soil salinity. From these examples, attempts are made to assess the pace of de-salinisation. Pace of desalinisation at Carey Island The soil becomes less saline as a result of reclamation activities for the production of palm oil. The reclamation began with the construction of bunds to keep sea-water out, followed by a well-designed drainage system to alternately retain fresh water from rainfall and drain out saline water. Soil salinity, measured in the form of EC, decreased from a range of 5-24 dS/m down to 1.2 5.5 dS/m. In addition to drainage and regular flushing, several agronomic measures such as adequate fertiliser application were taken. In areas where the water table remained relatively high, other measures such as mounding the base of palms, planting on ridges and application of empty fruit bunches (EFB) as mulch were carried out. All these contributed to satisfactory yields of fresh fruit bunches (FFB). The annual yields of FFB were reported on a yearly basis for a number of fields (Abd. Razak et al, 1995). These data were used to calculate an average yield, which is about 27 t/ha/y. If the original saline conditions remain, the yield will most likely be negligible. In the reclaimed land, the palms started producing FFB at about five years after the commencement of reclamation work. Therefore, the rate of desalinisation in terms of FFB yield is 5.4 t/ha/y. In terms of salinity, calculation of the pace of desalinisation is based on the lower values in the ranges given, i.e. EC = 5 for the condition before reclamation and EC = 1.2 for the condition after reclamation. Taking the period as 5 years, the rate of desalinisation is therefore, 0.76 dS/m per year. Pace of desalinisation of reclaimed saline lands in rice-growing regions In many of the coastal plains in west Peninsular Malaysia, reclamation in the form of construction of bunds and drainage networks has been carried out. The best examples of such projects are in Kedah-Perlis, Krian and North-west Selangor. Without the reclamation efforts, rice yields in the coastal land would be low due to soil salinity. The estimated average yield would only be about 2.0 t/ha/y. However, when the land is improved, rice yield could increase to about 5 t/ha/y. This yield level is slightly higher than the current average yield in the Kedah-Perlis plain. The drainage and irrigation infrastructure in the 28

Kedah-Perlis plain has been in existence for about 30 years. However, when an area of saline land is successfully reclaimed, increase in rice yield will occur within a short period of 1-2 years. These approximate figures can be used to estimate the rate of desalinisation with respect to yield increases in the coastal lands that has been improved through the construction of bunds and drainage systems. In Map 4, the coastal land with strongly saline soils in Peninsular Malaysia is labelled as constant, that is, salinisation is neither increasing nor decreasing. However, in areas slightly further inland, the rate would be 3 t/ha over a short period of 1-2 years, i.e. 1.5 to 3.0 t/ha/y. From this viewpoint, the rate of desalinisation is rather high. Pace of salinisation at Cameron Highlands In Cameron Highlands, in the central part of peninsular Malaysia, intensive cropping of vegetables and flowers is often subjected to high inputs of fertiliser and manure. As a result, over time, the EC of the root zone can rise to rather high levels. The salinity of two open vegetable farms, one of which is 2-year old Tanah Rata A, and the other is 22-year old Mensen Valley are considered. The EC of the soil at Tanah Rata A is regarded as the normal EC before salinisation occurred, whilst that of Mensen Valley is regarded as the EC of a degraded soil. Thus, over a period of 20 years, the EC of the soil saturation extract increased from 0.6 to 3.1 dS/m (Wong & Jaafar, 1993). The pace of salinisation is therefore 2.5 dS/m in 20 years, which is equal to 0.125 dS/m/year. In flower cultivation, rates of fertiliser and manure application are even higher than in vegetable farming because there is little danger of poisoning since flowers are not consumed by humans. Moreover, flowers are normally produced in the highlands under rain shelters, as discussed above. With the shelter, leaching by natural rain does not occur at all. Thus the soil becomes saline over time because of the accumulation of salts in the root zone. Wong et al (2002) sampled soils from two forested areas in Cameron Highlands and from three farms producing chrysanthemums under rain-shelter. The EC (saturation extract) of the surface soils were determined (Table 15). Table 15: Comparison of soil saturation extract EC values between forest land and flower farms (Wong et al, 2002) Location Sungai Palas forest reserve Robinson Falls forest reserve Notre Dame Farm Kian Aik Farm Golden Mountain Farm Age of farm (years) 4 8 8 EC (dS/m) 0.32 0.38 3.38 5.94 6.41

The EC of the forest soils, which averages 0.35 dS/m, is regarded as the initial EC. The rates of soil salinisation for the three farms are: Notre Dame: Kian Aik: 3.38-0.35/4 = 0.76 dS/m/year 5.94-0.35/8 = 0.70 dS/m/year

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Golden Mountain: 6.41-0.35/8 = 0.76 dS/m/year Therefore the average rate of soil salinisation under rain-shelter farming in the Cameron Highlands is about 0.74 dS/m per year, six times greater than the pace of salinisation in open vegetable farms. In terms of expansion in cultivated area, government statistics for Cameron Highlands show the following development (Table 16). Table 16: Official statistics on land area under annual crop cultivation in Cameron Highlands (Government of Pahang, 2001) Crop Flowers Vegetables Total Area under cultivation (ha) 1997 2001 368 390 2492 2979 2860 3369

The pace of soil salinisation in terms of land area is (3369 2860)/4 ha/year = 127 ha/year. Different paces of salinisation/desalinisation In terms of rice production, the different categories in the pace of salinisation/de-salinisation are as follows: >1 t/ha/y high 0.5 1 t/ha/y - moderate < 0.5 t/ha/y - low

Map 4 attempts to show that the pace of salinisation in severely saline soils is constant, whereas in the reclaimed soils, the pace of desalinisation is high because of the short period required for rice yields to improve after reclamation. However, in Sarawak and Sabah, it is not yet possible to distinguish between different paces of salinisation or de-salinisation. Therefore, the pace varies from low to high, depending on the locality. Similarly, in Cameron Highlands (no wetland rice crop), the rate of change in salinity also varies depending on locality, although different crops are involved. FUTURE THREATS OF SOIL SALINISATION Excess nutrient inputs in intensively-farmed land Farming of ornamentals and high-value vegetable crops under protective structures as currently practised in Cameron Highlands has the potential to spread to other areas. If this happens without adequate precautions, soil salinity problems similar to that in Cameron Highlands may also occur in other regions.

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Breakdown of coastal bunds and drainage facilities The rice lands bordering the coast are currently protected by bunds and ameliorated through drainage. Breakdown or deterioration of such facilities can occur. Therefore, the maintenance of the bunds and the drainage networks are crucial in ensuring that soil salinisation do not affect future rice production in vulnerable land. In some localities, such facilities are not 100 % efficient in keeping sea-water out. Over-drainage of peat land As discussed under causes and processes, uncontrolled drainage of peat land in Sarawak may lead to the spread of saline water further inland. Therefore land drainage associated with the development of peat land for agricultural production will have to be carried out in a way that ensures that conditions that may lead to sea-water encroachment do not occur. Prolonged dry periods in NW Peninsular Malaysia The Kedah-Perlis coastal plain in Peninsular Malaysia is the most productive rice granary region. It is presently irrigated with high-quality fresh water from the Muda and Pedu dams. However, it falls within the North-west rainfall region of Dale (1959), which is characterised by a dry period of about two to three months. Should, for any reason, water quality deteriorates, the possibility of soil salinisation increases. Underground seepage In some localities in the coastal plains, underground seepage of saline water has caused soil salinisation. This may continue to occur in the future. Note: Some of the towns, states and crop-growing regions mentioned in this report are shown in Map 5. REFERENCES Abd Razak, I, Mohd Hashim, T. & Jamluddin, N. 1995. Management of saline soils for oil palm cultivation. In Soil Resources and Sustainable Agriculture:307-314. Malaysian Society of Soil Science. Adzmy Abdullah. 1998. Agricultural policy in Malaysia. In Proceedings of the Seminar on Modernisation of Irrigation Water Management System in Granary Areas of Peninsular Malaysia: 1-12. DID & JICA. Aminuddin, B.Y., Chow, W.T. & Ng, T.T. 1990. Resources and problems associated with sustanaible development of upland areas in Malaysia. In Technologies for Sustainable Agriculture on Marginal Uplands in South-east Asia (Blair, G. & Lefroy, R.,eds) ;55-61. ACIAR Proceedings no. 33.

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Aminuddin, B.Y. 1998. State of land, water and plant nutrition resources for Peninsular Malaysia. In Report of the Joint Regional Workshop on Land Vulnerability Assessment for Food Security using Agro-ecological Zoning and Land Resource Information System, And Expert Consultation of the Asian Network on Problem Soils:16-19. RAP, FAO, Bangkok. Aminuddin, B.Y., Teng, C.S. & Deratil, B. 1994. The collection and analysis of land degradation data in Malaysia. In The Collection and Analysis of Land Degradation Data: 137-152. RAPA, FAO, Bangkok. Chan, Y.K. 1978. Soils under coconut in Peninsular Malaysia. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Cocoa and Coconuts : 583-594. Incorporated Society of Planters Chan, H.T., Ong, J.E., Wong, W.K. & Sasekumar, A. 1993. The socio-economic, ecological and environmental values of mangrove ecosystems in Malaysia and their present state of conservation. Quoted by Ridzwan Abdul Rahman & Wilson Alex. 1996. The marine ecosystem and resources of Sabah. In State of the Environment in Malaysia: 104-110. Consumers Association of Penang. Dale, W.L. 1959. The rainfall of Malaya, Part 1. Journal of Tropical Geography 13: 23-37 Deratil, B. & Donson, S. 1994. Soil resources, their suitability classification and land use planning in Sabah. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Soil Science in Malaysia towards 2020 (Aminuddin Yusoff, Zulkefli Malik & Zaki Ghazalli, eds) : 42-53. Malaysian Society of Soil Science. Gopinathan, B. 1981. Use of the soil key to identify alluvial soils in Peninsular Malaysia. In Proceedings of the Seminar on Soil Correlation in Malaysia: 135-146. Malaysian Society of Soil Science . Gopinathan, B., Wong, N.C. & Rahman Hassan. 1980. The morphology and physicochemical properties of the rice soils of Peninsular Malaysia. In Research for the Rice Farmer : 176-186. Malaysian Agricultural Research & Development Institute, Serdang. Government of Malaysia. 1996. Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996-2000) Government of Pahang. 2001. Maklumat Asas Sektor Pertanian 2001. JK Pengkalan Data Sektor Pertanian Negeri Pahang. Im-erb, R. 2000. Project TCP/THA/8922: Impact of shrimp farming on arable land and rehabilitation of resultant salt-affected soils in Thailand. In Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Impact of Shrimp Farming on Arable Land and Rehabilitation of Resultant Salt-affected Soils/Integrated Soil Management for Sustainable Use of Salt-affected Soils:321-332. FAO & LDD. Joseph, K.T. & Samy, S.J. 1980. Soil classes in relation to padi (rice) performance in the Kedah-Perlis coastal plain. Cawangan Padi, MARDI, Bumbung Lima. Mimeographed 32

Kimi, S. 1991. Pengurusan tanah masin untuk penanaman padi. Teknologi Kejuruteraan Pertanian, Jil. 2: 33-36. MARDI. Kimi, S & Daham, M.D. 1993. Managing salinity problems in rice fields. In Proceedings of the International Conference for Agricultural Machinery and Process Engineering :556564. Seoul, Korea. Lim, C.P. 1981. Notes on soil classification in Sarawak. In Proceedings of the Seminar on Soil Correlation in Malaysia (Paramananthan,S.,ed) :39-101. Malaysian Society of Soil Science Melling, L.,Teng, C.S & Husni, M.H.A. 2002. Sustainable agriculture development on peat land in Sarawak. In Sustainable Land Management (Shamshuddin, J., Hamdan, J., & Samsuri, A.W.,eds) ; 20-31. Malaysian Society of Soil Science. Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia. 1999. Third National Agriculture Policy, Government of Malaysia Moll, H.A.J. 1987. The Economics of Oil Palm. Pudoc, Wageningen. Nieuwolt, S. 1992. Climate and Agricultural Planning (Special Report). Serdang: MARDI Ong, J.E. & Gong,W.K. 1996. Mangroves, fish and chips. In State of the Environment in Malaysia:121-124. Consumers Association of Penang. Raman, M. 1996. The impact of aquaculture on communities: presentation of case studies. In State of the Environment in Malaysia: 125-132. Consumers Association of Penang. Rao, A.K. (1982). Semi-detailed Soil Survey of the Padi-Growing Areas in Krian District, Perak. Soils & Analytical Services Soil Survey Report no. 15, Ministry of Agric. & Rural Development, Kuala Lumpur. Soo, S.W. 1972. Semi-detailed Soil Survey of the Kedah-Perlis Coastal Plain. Soils & Analytical Services Branch, Div. of Agric, Ministry of Agric & Fisheries, Kuala Lumpur. Soo, S.W. 1984. Semi-detailed Soil Survey of North-West Selangor. Soils & Analytical Services Branch, Ministry of Agric., Kuala Lumpur. Teng, C.S. 1994. Soil resources, agricultural capability and land use in Sarawak. In Proceedings of the workshop on Soil Science in Malaysia towards 2020 (Aminuddin Yusoff, Zulkefli Malik & Zaki Ghazalli, eds) : 2-41. Malaysian Society of Soil Science. Teng, C.S. 1996. Keys to Soil Classification in Sarawak. Department of Agriculture, Kuching, Sarawak.

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Ting, C.C., Saari, R. Diemont, W.H. & Yusoff, A. 1992. The development of an acid sulphate soil in a former mangrove forest in Merbok, Kedah, Malaysia. In Selected papers in the Ho Chi Minh City Symposium on Acid Sulphate Soils(Dent, D.L. & van Mensvoort, M.E.F., eds.): 95-102. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Wong, I.F.T. 1986. Soil-crop Suitability Classification for Peninsular Malaysia (Revised). Soils and Analytical Services Bulletin no. 1. Department of Agriculture. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Wong, N.C. & Jaafar, A.M. 1993. Soil chemical characteristics of vegetable plots at Cameron Highlands. MARDI Report no. 170. Wong, N.C., Lee,B.S., Yuen, P.M., Wan Abdullah, W.Y.& Mohd Ridzuan Saad. 2002. Effects of continuous mono-cropping of chrysanthemum floers under rain-shelter on soil quality. In Sustainable Land Mangement (Shamshuddin, J., Hamdan,J. & Samsuri, A.W., eds): 236-252. Malaysian Society of Soil Science Yeop, M.T., Yusoff, A. & Tan, S.L. 1982. Agricultural land use in Peninsular Malaysia. MARDI Special Report. Zahari, A.B., Ghazalli, M.Z.,Ting, C.C. & Nurin, A.R. 1987. Saline soils of Malaysia. A country report presented to the Regional Expert Consultations on the Management of Saline/Sodic Soils. FAO Regional Office, Bangkok, Thailand, August 1987.

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