Least Square Approach on Indoor Positioning Measurement Techniques

Roya Olyazadeh
Roya2543@gmail.com

Abstract
Indoor Positioning Systems (IPS) locates and tracks objects in buildings. One of the key in IPS is Accurate Positioning. Accurate positioning is carried out by Radio Frequency (RF) communication in terms of distance, angle and strength signal. Time-of arrival (TOA), received signal strength (RSS), time-difference-of-arrival (TDOA), and angle-of-arrival (AOA) are generally used measurements for positioning of object. In this paper, Least Square Estimation(LSE) for Indoor positioning approach is presented that encompasses all the above described measurement cases jointly. The advantages of LSE will be discussed. Alternatively mean and variance analysis will be shown. Keywords: IPS, RF, LSE, Measurement Technique

1 Introduction
The problem of locating a target in an indoor environment like a mobile received significant attention in the field of wireless communications. GPS could be used to provide mobile location, however GPS cannot work indoor environment because of weak signals. The basic principle of this paper is to use two or more measurement techniques based on LSE for signal processing. General approaches are based on time-of-arrival (TOA), received signal strength (RSS), timedifference-of-arrival (TDOA), and/or angle-of-arrival (AOA) measurements determined from the signal received at the station. LSE is an important method for accurate positioning in Geomatic field. The basic idea of LSE is to reorganize the nonlinear equations obtained from the measurements into linear equations. This can be computed by minimizing the sum of squares of a nonlinear function. In this paper, measurment techniques for signal processing are discussed then algorithms and functions for a unique positioning by LSE are presented.

2 Measurement techniques
Measurement techniques for location purposes can be categorized as Triangulagtion(distance and angle), sense analysis (fingerprinting) and proximity[1]. Location systems employ them individually or in combination [2]. Triangulation is dividable into Lateration and Angulation. Lateration generally means the distance measurement technique, whereas the angle measurement technique is named Angulation [1]. Measurment techniques are shown in Figure1. Distance measurements uses time of flight (TOF) to calculate the distance between transmitter and receiver and angle measurements uses lines of bearing (LOB) to calculate the angle [3]. Calculating an object's position in two dimensions requires distance measurements from 3 non-collinear points also for 3D positioning 4 non-coplanar points are involved [2]. If a RF signal propagates in an ideal space with no obstacles or anything else to impede with the signal, the received part will have traveled in a straight line between the transmitter and the receiver [4]. But indoor enviroment include the obstacles that they may affect on the signal. These effects are Penetration, Diffraction, Reflection and Multipath [3].So measurments includes all these errors and they need to be detected and removed. In this paper, it is assumed that a free space with out any obstacle and other enviromental errors.

2.1 TOA-Time of Arrival The distance between a target and a base station is proportional to the propagation time of signal [1]. TOA needs at least three different references for 2D positioning to perform a lateration[4]. One problem is that all transmitters and receivers are required to precisely synchronize. If more than three reference points are available, the least-squares algorithm is useful.

(1)

Where,

is flight speed,

is calculated distance and t is the propagation delay.

TOA can achieve better performance than RSS (See 2.3), but the main problem with TOA is the need to use wideband (3.5-10 GHz) to achieve good results. Wideband techniques require high speed signal processing, high device costs and possibly high energy costs [3].

Figure.1 Measurement Techniques

2.2 TDOA- Time difference of arrival The principle of TDOA stands on the idea of defining the relative location of a targeted transmitter by using the difference in time at which the signal emitted by a target arrives at multiple measuring units. Three fixed receivers give two TDOAs and thus provide an intersection point that is the estimated location of the target. This method requires a precise time reference between the measuring units. Moreover, radio propagation often suffers from multipath effects thus affecting the time of flight of the signals [1].

(2)

2.3 RSS- Received Signal Strength RSS can be used to estimate the distance between stations based on the Transmitted Signal Strength (TSS). This is achieved by modeling a system that gives a RSS value based on TSS, path loss and shadowing effect according to a given distance[4]. The path loss and shadow effects have an impact on the transmitted signal because the wave of the transmitted signal propagates through the air and obstacles encountered along the path. Due to this, the energy of the transmitted signal will be as follows [5].

(3) (4)

(5)

Where

is the received signal strength and

is a component which depends on the transmitted signal energy, and which is the characteristics of the antenna, is the path loss

are consisted of several factors such as

slop over the reference distance ( In free space, is equal to 2 [6]. For a passive RFID (Radio Frequency ID tag) system, a round-trip path loss should be considered [13].

2.4 RTOF-round trip time of flight This method measures the time-of-flight of the signal traveling from the transmitter to receiver and back. The measurment method is same with TOA. But the complete roundtrip propagation time is used for measuring [1]. This type of measurment is usefull for Passive RFID tag, while the tag can backscattere signal to the reader.

(6) Where, TOP is the overall round-trip time delay.TOP is signal processing time consuming. RTOF does not require clock synchronization between the reader and the tag [13].

2.5 POA- Received Signal Phase Method The phase of arrival (POA) method uses the carrier phase (or phase difference) to estimate the range [2]. According to [13] POA approaches allow coherent signal processing. This method is an accurate measuring method for GPS Positioning assuming to solve the ambiguity resolotion [7].

SI(T DI

SIN(2FT

I)

(7) (8)

(CI /(2F

Where, C is the speed of light. As long as the transmitted signals wavelength is longer than the diagonal of the cubic building, i.e., 0 < i < 2, we can get the range estimation. Then, we can use the same positioning algorithms using TOA measurement. The problem with this technique is ambiguous carrier phase measurements. It needs a LOS signal path; otherwise it will cause more errors for the indoor environment [2]. This method can also be mentionded as PDOA (Phase Difference of Arrival). PDOA has the same concept as the dual-frequency GPS techniques for range estimation. A reader transmits two continuous signals; they are backscattered by a tag and received at the reader. Therefore reader can estimate the distance based on the phase difference observed at the two frequencies[13]

(9) 2.6 AOA- Angle of Arrival Angle of arrival (AOA) technique locates the mobile station by determining the angle of incident signals. Using simple geometric relationships, estimation of the location can be calculated by the intersection of two lines of bearing (LOBs) which are formed by a radial line from transmitter to receiver [6]. This is done by measuring the phase difference of the signal on the different Arrays [4]. In a two-dimensional plane, at least two reference points are required for location estimation. However, this technique requires the uses of directional antennas and antenna arrays to measure the angle of incidence. Thus, it is difficult to measure the AOA at the mobile station. Geometrically, is the angle between the LOB from the Reference Station to the target and the x-axis [6].

(10)

( (

(11)

2.7 DOA-direction of arrival Direction of arrival (DOA) estimation is typically achieved using directional antennas, phased arrays and smart antennas [13]. The accuracy of the DOA depends. on the antenna beam-width. An antenna with a narrower beam-width defers a higher DOA accuracy. [13].

( (

(12)

2.8 Sense analysis (Finger Printing) This method also called Radio Map Matching [13] or Fingerprinting [3]. It is produced with this theory that each location has a unique RF signature. Scenes analysis approach is accumulated of two individual steps. First, information concerning the environment (fingerprints) is collected. Then, the targets location is estimated by matching online measurements with the appropriate set of fingerprints. Generally, RSS-based fingerprinting is used.The major sense-based techniques are: 1. k-nearestneighbor (kNN) 2. Neural Network Methods 3. Probabilistic methods 4. Support Vector Machine Method(SVM) The kNN method which is also called case-based methods [3] uses the fingerprint (RSS measurement) of an unknown tag, recorded to find its k closest matches in the radio map [13]. The probabilistic methods, on the other hand, are to find the location of a tag from multiple possible locations to yield the highest posterior probability. More information about sense analysis method can be refered to [3],[13]. 2.9 Proximity The last type of localization techniques in indoor environments is based on proximity. This approach relies on dense deployment of antennae [3]. Therefore, observing whether a target is within the reach of a reader antenna yields the proximity, its location is assumed to be the same that this receiver. When more than one antenna detect the target, the target is assumed to be collocated with the one that receives the strongest signal. This approach is very basic and easy to implement. However, the accuracy is on the order of the size of the cells.

3 LSE (Least square Estimation)

According to [8], Least squares estimation is the standard method to obtain a unique set of values for a set of unknown parameters from a redundant set of observables through a known mathematical modelF . The most common function in which the observations and parameters are connected through a nonlinear mathematical model is [9]:

(13)
Where, and are estimated parameters and observations, respectively. The LSE technique determines the position by solving following equation:

(14)

Where,

= estimated residuals to the observations, = estimated corrections to the parameters,

C = the covariance matrix of the observations, and C = the covariance matrix of the parameters. Any measurement consists of error, so this model cannot be equal to zero.

(15)

(16)

For LSE computation, the above nonlinear observation equation has to be linearized, and an iterative solution approach is going to be used [10]. Assuming that the approximate coordinates are available, the nonlinear observation equations can be approximated by the linear term of Taylor series expansion and create an iterative algorithm [11]. To arrive at a unique solution, the observations must be adjusted under the linearized mathematical model:

F(

F(

(17)

Where, as follows:

is the first design matrix and

is the second design matrix. If

the model can be written

(18)

4 LSE for Lateration and angulation

As discussed in previous section, while there are redundancy in observations, there is a possibility to use LSE. LSE leads measurments to a unique answer. Combination of measurment techniques can be utilise for LSE such as TOA- AOA, TOA-AOA-RSS, TDOA-AOA-RSS, TOA-DOA-RSS and etc. 4.1 Linearized Observation Equations TOA

(19)

TDOA

(20)

(21)

(22)

RSS

(23)

(24)

AOA

( (

(25)

(26)

4.2 Method of LSE in this example For method of LSE, approximated coordinates needs to be used. The best way for this method is to use other measurement techniques. Accordingly localization can be combined of two methods for better accuracy.

Localization Algorithms

Exact

Approximated

Lateration Angulation

Geometric Sense Analysis Proximity

Figure 2: Localization Algorithms

Geometric solution is possible when distance and angle of station are observed. This could be approximated by following formula [13]:

(27)

(28)

The method of least squares network adjustment tries to solve for an optional estimate of both the coordinates and residuals by minimizing the sum of squares of the weighted residuals (v) [11]. This method is usefull for both weighted

and unweighted observation. According to the observation equation as mentioned in section 3(equation 16), there is no second matrix (B) and we have: (29) (30) (31) (32) And Where, N (33, 34) is vector of actual observations and is vector of computed observations.

is residual matrix and

, The updated parameters ( , cofactor matrix of a x

After first step of LSE, iteration must be done. At the end of step one, approximate coordinates must be updated and lo and A should be calculated again. Limits for iteration are [12]. 1. 2. 3. close to zero close to zero Stable and unchanged [12].

In each computation step, matrices A & L are changed, matrices

5 Test on variance and covariance

After LSE, the global test and local test are applied. They test the compatibility of the estimated a posteriori variance factor with a priori selected variance factor and also outlier detection and gross error localization and elimination. If global test failed, it means that something wrong with the null hypothesis. The two special cases can be concentrated on are: 1. Incorrect observation weighting 2. Gross errors exist in observation data More information can be found in [10] and [14].

6 MATLAB Programming
ADJMAT program is developed in Matlab5 which it computes the least square adjustment combining with their test on variance and covariance [10].This program reads the inputs from a text file which they can be included of distacne and angle observation and the results will be in text format again with adjusted coordinates and whether these coordinatess passed all the geostatisc tests and they can be trustable. The question is that how it is possible to use this program in IP? It needs interface program to collect information of measurment techniques such as TOA or AOA from IPs that can be Wierless or Blootuth or RFID. Then observation can be converted to a proper text file to be ready for MATLAB. Afterwards it can use another interface program to recive the result from Matlab and transfer them into Indoor Navigation system for further analysis like tracking,pathfinding or ect. Figure 3 diplays LSE results from a network with two fixed station. The maximum value for error elipse can be seen in station 2 with critical value of 0.01m. So by using this method it is posible to have accuracy of centimiters.

Figure3: Results of ADJMAT from one network

7 Summaries
In this paper, the principles, algorithms, and techniques of RF positioning measurement techniques are reviewed. Alternatively the unique solution for coordinates computation is describes which it is LSE. This LSE approach was tested by a Matlab program called ADJMAT which results to centimetre accuracy. Therefore, positioning accuracy of an IPS system can be improved from both location-sensing and positioning processing perspectives. The selection of appropriate sensing techniques, under the resource limitations and system constraints, is critical. Better positioning processing can be achieved by fusing the collected data and utilizing as much information as collected at the location sensing. The collection of more location sensing data as well as advanced positioning processing requires more investment in terms of hardware and/or signal processing capability. The decision is to best trade-off between the affordable system complexity and the required system performance.

References
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