What is the history of diphtheria?

Throughout history, diphtheria was a leading cause of death among children, Through the ages, several epidemics struck Europe, and even the American colonies were affected by an outbreak in the 18th century. Most recently, in the 1990s, large outbreaks of diphtheria occurred in Russia and in the former independent states of the Soviet Union. The diphtheria bacterium was first identified in the 1880s. In the 1890s, the antitoxin against diphtheria was developed, with the first vaccine being developed in the 1920s. Though it is still endemic in many parts of the world,

What causes diphtheria?

Diphtheria is caused by toxin-producing strains of the gram-positive bacillusCorynebacterium diphtheriae. The signs and symptoms of respiratory diphtheria are caused by the bacterium's ability to cause a localized inflammatory reaction of the cells lining the upper respiratory tract

What is the treatment for diphtheria?

Diphtheria antitoxin is the mainstay of therapy. It neutralizes circulating diphtheria toxin and reduces the progression of the disease. The effectiveness of diphtheria antitoxin is greatest if it is administered early in the course of the disease. Antibiotics should also be administered as soon as possible to patients with suspected diphtheriaPenicillin and erythromycin are the recommended antibiotics. Supportive measures, such as inserting a breathing tube (intubation), may be necessary if the patient cannot breathe on their own or if there is the potential for airway obstruction.

How is diphtheria prevented?

The prevention of diphtheria is best achieved through universalimmunization with diphtheria toxoid-containing vaccines. Immunization for infants and children consists of five DTaP vaccinations generally given at ages 2, 4, and 6 months, with the fourth dose being administered between 15-18 months, and the fifth dose at ages 4-6 years. At age 11-12 years, children should receive a single Tdap vaccination if they have completed the recommended childhood vaccination schedule.

T.B history
The earliest unambiguous detection of M. tuberculosis involves evidence of the disease in the remains of bison dated to approximately 17,000 years ago.. around 460 BC, Hippocrates identified phthisis as the most widespread disease of the times Genetic studies suggest TB was present in the Americas from about the year 100 AD.[95]Although the pulmonary form associated

with tubercles was established as a pathology by Dr Richard Morton in 1689,[97][98] TB was not named tuberculosis until 1839 by J. L. Schnlein. The bacillus causing tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, was identified and described on 24 March 1882 by Robert Koch In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective treatment and cure of TB a reality. Current surgical interventions involve removal of pathological chest cavities ("bullae") in the lungs to reduce the number of bacteria and to increase the exposure of the remaining bacteria to drugs in the bloodstream, thereby simultaneously reducing the total bacterial load and increasing the effectiveness of systemic antibiotic therapy

Prevention
Tuberculosis prevention and control efforts primarily rely on the vaccination of infants and the detection and appropriate treatment of active cases.

Vaccines
The only currently available vaccine as of 2011 is bacillus CalmetteGurin (BCG) which, while it is effective against disseminated disease in childhood, confers inconsistent protection against contracting pulmonary TB.

Causes
Mycobacteria
The main cause of TB is Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a small, aerobic, nonmotile bacillus.[9]. In nature, The most common acid-fast staining techniques are the ZiehlNeelsen stain, which dyes AFBs a bright red that stands out clearly against a blue background,[20] .[26][27] M. microti is also rare and is mostly seen in immunodeficient people, JThe latter two species are classified as "nontuberculous mycobacteria" (NTM). NTM cause neither TB norleprosy, but they do cause pulmonary diseases that resemble TB.[29]

Treatment
Treatment of TB uses antibiotics to kill the bacteria. Effective TB treatment is difficult, due to the unusual structure and chemical composition of the mycobacterial cell wall, which hinders the entry of drugs and makes many antibiotics ineffective.[70] while active TB disease is best treated with combinations of several antibiotics to reduce the risk of the bacteria developing antibiotic resistance.[6] Directly observed therapy, i.e. having a health care provider watch the person take their medications, is recommended by the WHO in an effort to reduce the number of people not appropriately taking antibiotics

Common cold
History
While the cause of the common cold has only been identified since the 1950s the disease has been with humanity since antiquity. The name "common cold" came into use in the 16th century, due to the similarity between its symptoms and those of exposure to cold weather.[71] In the United Kingdom, the Common Cold Unit was set up by the Medical Research Council in 1946 and it was here that the rhinovirus was discovered in 1956.[72] The unit was closed in 1989,

two years after it completed research of zinc gluconate lozenges in the prophylaxis and treatment of rhinovirus colds, the only successful treatment in the history of the unit.[74]

Cause
Viruses
The common cold is a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract. The most commonly implicated virus is a rhinovirus (3080%), a type of picornaviruswith 99 known serotypes.[12][13] Others include: coronavirus (1015%), human parainfluenza viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, adenoviruses,enteroviruses, and metapneumovirus.[14] Frequently more than one virus is present.[15] In total over 200 different viral types are associated with colds

Prevention
The measures include primarily hand washing and face masks; in the health care environment, gowns and disposable gloves are also used. Regular hand washing appears to be effective at reducing the transmission of cold viruses especially among children.

Treatment
There are currently no medications or herbal remedies which have been conclusively demonstrated to shorten the duration of infection.[38] Treatment thus comprises symptomatic relief.[39] Getting plenty of rest, drinking fluids to maintain hydration, and gargling with warm salt water, are reasonable conservative measures.

Pneumonia
History
Pneumonia has been a common disease throughout human history.[68] The symptoms were described by Hippocrates (c. 460 BC 370 BC):[68] ".Bacteria were first seen in the airways of individuals who died from pneumonia by Edwin Klebs in 1875. Several developments in the 1900s improved the outcome for those with pneumonia. With the advent of penicillin and other antibiotics, modern surgical techniques, and intensive care in the twentieth century, mortality from pneumonia, which had approached 30%, dropped precipitously in the developed world. Vaccination of infants against Haemophilus influenzae type B began in 1988 and led to a dramatic decline in cases shortly thereafter.

Prevention
Prevention includes vaccination, environmental measures, and appropriately treating other diseases.[8]

Vaccination
Vaccination is effective for preventing certain bacterial and viral pneumonias in both children and adults.Vaccinations against Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae have good evidence to support their use.

Treatment

Typically, oral antibiotics, rest, simple analgesics, and fluids suffice for complete resolution The CURB-65 score is useful for determining the need for admission in adults.In children those with respiratory distress or oxygen saturations of less than 90% should be hospitalized.

Cause
The most common types of infectious agents are viruses and bacteria, with it being less commonly due to fungi or parasites.. The term pneumonia is sometimes more broadly applied to inflammation of the lung (for example caused by autoimmune disease, chemical burns or drug reactions), however this is more accurately referred to as pneumonitis.

Pertussis
Pertussis commonly called whooping cough

History
B. pertussis was isolated in pure culture in 1906 by Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou, who also developed the first serology and vaccine. Efforts to develop an inactivated whole-cell pertussis vaccine began soon after B. pertussis was grown in pure culture in 1906. In the 1920s, Dr. Louis W. Sauer developed a vaccine for whooping cough at Evanston Hospital (Evanston, IL). In 1925, the Danish physician Thorvald Madsen was the first to test a whole-cell pertussis vaccine on a wide scale.[27] . To minimize the frequent side effects caused by the pertussis component of the vaccine, the Japanese scientist Yuji Sato developed an acellular pertussis vaccine consisting of purified haemagglutinins which are secreted by B. pertussis into the culture medium. Sato's acellular pertussis vaccine was used in Japan since 1981.[28]

Prevention
The primary method of prevention for pertussis is vaccination

Treatment
Persons with pertussis are infectious from the beginning of the catarrhal stage through the third week after the onset of paroxysms or until 5 days after the start of effective antimicrobial treatment.If the patient is diagnosed late, antibiotics will not alter the course of the illness and, even without antibiotics, the patient should no longer be spreading pertussis.[3] The

What causes whooping cough?

Whooping cough is caused by an infection with a bacterium known as Bordetella pertussis. The bacteria attach to the lining of the airways in the upper respiratory system and release toxins that lead to inflammation and swelling.

Earthworms
Earthworms do not have lungs. They breathe through their skin. Oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through the earthworms skin by diffusion. For diffusion to occur, the earthworms skin must be kept moist. Body fluid and mucous is released to keep its skin moist. Earthworms therefore, need to be in damp or moist soil. This is one reason why they usually surface at night when it is

possibly cooler and the evaporating potential of the air is low. Earthworms have developed the ability to detect light even though they cannot see. They have tissue located at the earthworms head that is sensitive to light. These tissues enable an earthworm to detect light and not surface during the daytime where they could be affected by the sun. Hagfish
Hagfish generally respire through taking in water through their pharynx, past the velar chamber and bringing the water through 6 internal gill pouches. The gill pouches lead to a common aperture on the ventral side of the hagfish. The esophagus is also connected to the common aperture on the ventral side through a pharyngocutaneous duct (esophageocutaneous duct), which has no respiratory tissue. It is likely that this pharyngocutaneous duct is used to cough up indigestible materials. Hagfish also have some cutaneous respiration via the blood sinuses under their skin. This can be essential for hagfish to respire while feeding, since they do not have operculi to beat to produce current across the gills (as in the case of teleost fish).

Fish
Most fish exchange gases using gills on either side of the pharynx. Gills consist of threadlike structures called filaments. Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. In some fish, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing countercurrent exchange. The gills push the oxygen-poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx. Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called an operculum.

Frog
The skin of a frog is permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as to water. There are a number of blood vessels near the surface of the skin and when a frog is underwater, oxygen diffuses directly into the blood. When not submerged, a frog breathes by a process known as buccal pumping. Its lungs are similar to those of humans but the chest muscles are not involved in respiration, and there are no ribs or diaphragm to help move air in and out. Instead, it puffs out its throat and draws air in through the nostrils, which in many species can then be closed by valves. When the floor of the mouth is compressed, air is forced into the lungs.[52] The Borneo flat-headed frog (Barbourula kalimantanensis) was first discovered in a remote part of Indonesia in 2007. It is entirely aquatic and is the first species of frog known to science that has no lungs.[53] Frogs have three-chambered hearts, a feature they share with lizards.[54] Oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter the heart through separateatria. When these chambers contract, the two blood streams pass into a common ventricle before being pumped via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel, the aorta for oxygenated blood andpulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood. The ventricle is partially divided into narrow cavities which minimizes the mixing of the two types of blood. These features enable frogs to have a higher metabolic rate and be more active than would otherwise be possible.[54]

Human - Respiratory system

The respiratory system (or ventilatory system) is the biological system of an organism that introduces respiratory gases to the interior and performs gas exchange. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs.[1] Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata.[2]

Horses
Horses are obligate nasal breathers which means that they are different from many other mammals because they do not have the option of breathing through their mouths and must take in oxygen through their noses.

Elephants
The elephant is the only animal known to have no pleural space. Rather, the parietal and visceral pleura are both composed of dense connective tissue and joined to each other via loose connective tissue.[3] This lack of a pleural space, along with an unusually thick diaphragm, are thought to be evolutionary adaptations allowing the elephant to remain underwater for long periods of time while breathing through its trunk which emerges as a snorkel.[4]