1.

Introduction
Atom:
Proton: Nuclear constituent with positive charge.
Neutron: Nuclear constituent with neutral charge.
Electron: Elementary particle around the nucleus with negative charge.
Z = Number of protons = Atomic number.
N = Nuber of neutrons = Neutron number.
A = Z+N = Mass number = Nucleon number.
Atomic mass= A
Element: Atoms of same element <=> Same Z
Isotope: isotopes of an element are its possible nuclides. { same element, different N}
Atomic weight: average atomic mass of atoms as they occurr naturally.
m (u) mc
2
(MeV)
neutron 1.008665 939.5
proton 1.007277 938.3
electron 0.000549 511

c=197 MeV fm
o=
e
2
4c
0
c
=
1
137
1u=
1
N
Av
g
2. Radioactive decay.
Kinetic energy is released.
N t )=N 0) e
t
f
f=
t
1/ 2
ln 2
t

= Half-life: Time after which only half of the atoms are undecayed.

= Mean lifetime: f=

t pt ) dt
where p(t)dt is the probability for each to decay in interval [t, t+dt].
Decay rate:
dN
dt
=
1
f
N 0) e
t
f
=
N t )
f
Transition rate:
u=
1
f
=>
dN
dt
=u N
Where dt is the probability of a nucleus to decay in the interval [t , t+dt], given that it was
undecayed at time t.
Energy width:
I=

f
3. Simultaneous production and decay.
- Constant production:
dN
dt
=puN
N=
p
u
+ N 0)
p
u
)e
ut
Sequential decay:
ABC
dN
A
dt
=u
A
N
A
dN
B
dt
=
dN
A
dt
u
B
N
B
Nuclide of A decays Nuclide of B creates
N
B
N
A
0)
=
u
A
u
B
u
A
e
u
B
t
+K e
u
B
t
Radioactive decay series:
ABC...Z
A has the largest lifetime.
B atoms must be decaying at the same rate as they are produced..
Since B are decaying at constant rate, C must be decaying at the same rate also.
Secular equilibrium:
u
A
N
A
=u
B
N
B
=u
C
N
C
=...=u
Z
N
Z
4. Scattering data.
\=
h
p
Cross section:
u=
f
n x
where: f= fraction of particles deflected.
n= no. of atoms per unit volume.
X= thickness of foil.
Total cross section: N x)=N 0)e
nu
r
x
Mean free path =
1
nu
r
= minimum distance before colliding.
Diffraction:
First minimum at
sin0=
1.22
d
\
sin< , d
Resolution limited by wavelength.
Rutherford's experiments:
Assumptions:
Positive nucleus of charge Ze.
Pointlike of charge ze (z=2).
Colulomb force only. No screening by electrons.
V r)=
Zz e
2
4c
0
r
Newton's law of motion.
. Nuclear recoil neglected (nuclei fixed).
Findings:
Proportionality to thickness x meant that each particle was being
deflected by just a single collision.
The fact that could be turned back on itself by a single collision which
must be much heavier than an particle.
He guessed that all the mass and positive charge of the atom is at the center
and it is orbited by electrons.
Conservation laws:
1
2
mv
2
=
1
2
mv
2
+
zZe
2
4c
0
r
energy

mv b=mr
2 d
dt
d
=>
d
dt
d=
vb
r
2
Dependence of on b:
tan
0
2
=
zZe
2
4c
0
1
2
mv
2
=>
tan
0
2
=
p
2b
Cross section: u0)=
p
2
4
ctan
2 0
2
5. Conservation of energy.
Total energy E= total rest energy =

i
m
i
c
2
Q-value:
Q=

initial state
m
i
c
2

final state
m
i
c
2
= loss in rest energy

The Q-value is the amount of energy released by that reaction. The total
energy is always conserved.
total energy = rest energy + kinetic energy

initial
m
i
c
2
+
1
2

initial
m
i
v
i
2
=

final
m
i
c
2
+
1
2

final
m
i
v
i
2
Q=
1
2

final
m
i
v
i
2

1
2

initial
m
i
v
i
2
=gain in KE
Binding energy: Given an isolated system of particles, its binding energy is the work that
must be done to separate the constituents to infinity at rest.
If a system is constitued by a, b, c, d, e:
B=Q x a+b+c+d+e)
B>0 Q<0 decay can't occurr system is bound.
B<0 Q>0 decay can occurr system is unbound.
Total energy in centre-of-mass frame: (E
CM
)
M
system
c
2
=E
CM
=

i
m
i
c
2
+
1
2

i
m
i
v
i
2
+PE
Where PE is the work required to move particles from infinite separation to their
positions in the system. (For attractive forces, PE<0).
6. Nuclear binding energy:
Evidences from electron scattering:
Nuclei are spheres of radius
R=R
0
A
1
3
;
R
0
=1.1 fm
Nucleon density in nuclei is 0.18 fm
-3
Analogy with drop (density independent of radius).
Strong force which binds nucleons is also a short range attractive force which
becomes repulsive at very short distances.
The model is called ''Liquid drop model''.
Nuclear binding energy:
B A, Z)=Z m
p
c
2
+ AZ) m
n
c
2
M
nuc
A, Z) c
2
=Z m
H
c
2
+ AZ )m
n
c
2
M
atom
A , Z )c
2
Nucleon separation energy:
To remove 1 neutron; Sn = B(A,Z) B(A-1, Z)
To remove 1 proton; Sp = B(A,Z) B(A-1, Z-1)
Liquid drop model:
Large nuclei:
Small fracions of nucleons near the surface neglected.
Takes same energy to remove a nucleon from any large nucleus.
Sn, Sp independents of A.
B~A; B/A= constant ( B= f
surface
(work) A)
Small nuclei:
A singnificant fracion of the nucleons will be near the surface.
Nucleons near the surface have fewer near nighbours and so are less lightly bound.
Nuclear surface area ~ A
2/3
.
Surface energy ~ A
2/3
.
B=a
v
Aa
s
A
2
3
=>
B
A
=a
v

a
s
A
1
3
where a
v
is a work function of the surface and
a
c
is constant.
Drop model and nuclear fusion:
Just ast two drops of water coalesce into one, so do the small nuclei, then they make contact, but for
that, there's a need to overcome Coulomb's repulsion.
7. Nuclear size and structure.
Coulomb scattering of 's, two failures:
Failure at small :
As 0,
s0)=
6u
6D
so multiple scattering occurs.
Need to use thinner and thinner foils to verify Rutherford's Coulomb scattering
theory.
Eventually as 0, Rutherford's theory fails:
As 0, impact parameter b0.
Rutherford assumed that electrons did not modify the field around the nucleus,
true only for small impact parameters.
Electrons screen nucleus, reduce effective Z.
Failure at large :
As , distance d of closest approach becomes small. What might happen?
Penetrate nucleus?
Come within range of the strong force which binds the nucleons together?
Rutherford's Coulomb scattering theory is extremely good provided d > 10 fm or so.
Problem with -scattering.
-scattering tells us the distance at which an starts to interact with a nucleus via
the strong force.
Cross section for close collisions depends on both nuclear structure and the nature
of the strong force hard to unravel.
Electron scattering.
Electron is pointlike and does not feel the strong force. Its electromagnetic
interacion is extremely well understood. Ideal probe for determining charge
distribution within nucleus.
Require
\=
h
p
10 fm
to get useful information.
Extra calculational problems: relativity, spin, scattering form extended object (=>
Huygens principle).
Interpretation of electron scattering data:

s0)=
6 u
6D
shows dips and wiggles corresponding to diffraction minima and
maxima.
Can infer charge density (r) from
6u
6D
data.
Find that all nuclei obey:
p r)=
p
0
1+e
r R
a
Where
R=R
0
A
1
3 R
0
=1.1 fm
and a = 0.55 fm
and
0
depends on nucleus (such that

nucleus
pdV =Ze
).
R is the ''mean radius'' of the charge distribution.
Protons are the charge carriers, so measures the proton density.
Nucleon density distribution.
Other evidence suggests that neutron density has same dependence on r as proton density.
So we can view a large nucleus as a sphere of radius R containin A nucleons.
nucleon density=
A
4
3
R
3
=
1
4
3
R
0
3
=0.18 fm
3
=constant
Nuclear matter:
We can view nuclei as blobs of nuclear matter, in analogy with solids and liquids, whose density is
independent of size. That's because atoms/molecules are bound together by a short range force, so
each atom/molecule only interacts with near neighbours.
Suggests nucleons in nuclei only interact with near neighbours, i.e.
Range of strong force << radius of average nucleus
8. A Nucleus as a charged liquid drop.
Coulomb potential energy of a charged sphere.
Consider charge Q=Ze in sphere of radius R.
1
2
Ze)
2
4c
0
R
if Q spread over surface.
V=
3
5
Ze)
2
4c
0
R
if Q spread throughout bulk.

1
2
e
2
4 c
0
R
0
= 0.65 MeV if Q spread over surface.
Let
R=R
0
A
1
3
so:
V =a
c
Z
2
A
1
3
where a
c
=

3
5
e
2
4c
0
R
0
= 0.78MeV if Q throughout bulk.
Best fit to atomic mass data yields; a
c
=0.697 MeV
So the binding energy:
Ba
v
Aa
s
A
2
3
a
c
Z
2
A
1
3
If
Z
A
2
then
Z
2
A
1
3
A
5
3
i.e. Coulomb energy increases more rapidly with A than any other contribution to the binding
energy. As A becomes large, B will eventually become negative.
Consequences:
Fission:
Nucleus divides into two equal small nuclei:
(A,Z) (A/2, Z/2) + (A/2, Z/2)
Q
fission
= 2B(A/2, Z/2) -B(A, Z)
Q
fission
>0 for all nuclei heavier than
42
98
Mo
Decay rate due to spontaneous fission is negligible, even unmeasurable, for A<238.
The -decay: (A,Z) (A-4, Z-2) + (4, 2)
Coulomb barrier.
For Coulomb energy to be fully released the decay products must be well separated,
but before they can separate the surface area, and therefore surface energy, must
increase!
If surface energy increases faster (the initial stages) than Coulomb energy falls, then
the decay cannot happen. The decay is said to be prevented by a Coulomb barrier.
If Q
fission
is very large then Coulomb energy falls faster than surface energy rises and
fission (or -decay) can and does occur.
Explains stability of elements between
42
98
Mo and
83
209
Bi .
9. Quantum effects in the nucleus.
Properties of the strong force:
Felt by protons and neutrons, not electrons.
Attractive at distances > 1fm.
Repulsive at shorter distances.
Stronger than Coulomb force at short distances.
Weaker at short distances.
Doesn't know the differences between neutrons and protons.
We define the atom as a system of interacting fermions (a fermion is a particle with a half-integral
spin), like protons, neutrons or electrons. No two identical fermions can occupy the same quantum
state.
Fermi gas model of the nucleus:
Nucleus as a cube of volume
V =
4
3
R
0
3
A=L
3
0 inside
PE=
outside
Schrdinger's equation:

2
2m


2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2
)1 x , y , z)=E1 x , y , z)
1 x , y , z)=Asin
n
x
x
L
)sin
n
y
y
L
) sin
n
z
z
L
)
E=

2
n
x
2
+n
y
2
+n
z
2
)
2mL
2
Nuclei with N=Z:
States with energy less than
E=
4
3
2mE)
3
2
L
3
h
3
T 0 all states are full up to Fermi Energy.
Each sate can hold 4 nucleons (n,n, p, p).
A
4
=
4
3
2mE
F
)
3
2
L
3
h
3
L
3
=
4
3
R
3
=
4
3
R
0
3
A
=>
E
F
=9)
2
3

2
8mR
0
2
40 MeV
Nuclei with N Z, see N>Z
|N-Z| nucleons from below E
F
are raised up to occupy states above E
F
. This can be
achieved by raising each nucleon by |N-Z|E => Nucleus energy is raised by
1
/
8
|N-Z|
2
E.
Energy level spacing near E
F
,
E
1
A
=>
=> increase nucleus energy
NZ)
2
A
=
A2Z)
2
A
Nuclear pairing.
Separation energy data show that:
B greater for even {N, Z} than odd {N, Z}.
Nucleons seem to form bound n-n and p-p pairs => odd nucleons reduce binding energy.
A = Z + N Unpaired nucleons Pairing energy
Even Even Even 0
a
p
.A
Even Odd Odd 2
a
p
.A
Odd Even Odd 1 0
Odd Odd Even 1 0
Semi-empirical mass formula:
12.0
.A
BAa
v
a
s
A
2
3
a
c
z
2
a
1
3
a
A
A2Z)
2
A
+6
= 0
a
v
=15.56 MeV

12.0
.A
a
s
=17.23 MeV
a
c
=0.697 MeV
a
A
=23.285 Mev
Closed shell effects:
Best seen in two-nucleon separation energy data.
e.g. Two neutron separation energy is -Q for
Z
A
X
Z
A2
Y + 2n
See closed shell at the following magic numbers: (either protons or neutrons)
N, Z = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
In conclusion:
Special role of doubly magic particle (-decay).
Additional stable nuclei with N or Z magic.
Largest mass stable nuclei are doubly magic or nearly so (
82
208
Pb and
83
209
Bi )
10. The -decay.
Two-body kinematics: e.g. -decay.
View in fram of decaying particle.
Conservation of momentum:

p
o
+

p
nuc
=0
=>
p
o
=0

p
nuc
= p
Relationship between momentum p, and KE T.
T=
1
2
mv
2
=
m
2
v
2
2m
=
p
2
2m
Conservation of energy:
Q=T
o
+T
nuc
=
p
2
2M
o
+
p
2
2M
nuc
=T
o
1+
M
o
M
nuc
)
T
o
=
Q
1+
M
o
M
nuc

Q
1+
4
A4
QT
nuc
The facts about -decay.
-particles are fast electrons.
Transforms neutrons into protons
Z
A
X
Z+1
A
Y+e

Nuclei/neutrons do not contain electrons! The electron is created in the decay.

Decay rates very slow compared with unsuppressed
Strong force decays.
Electromagnetic decays.
-particles are not monoenergetic, but decay is apparently two-body.
A new force of nature: the weak force:
The four forces of nature:
Strong: binds nucleus.
Electromagnetic: Atoms, materials, chemistry, etc.
Weak: -decay
Gravity: Hold us to our planet.
Strong force means large coupling constant, meanwhile weak force means small coupling constant.
Transition rates and cross-sections increase with coupling constant.
The weak interaction is characterized by tiny cross sections and very slow decays.

-
decay
Z
A
X
Z+1
A
Y+e

+v
e
n p+e

+v
e
)
Positron emission or
+
decay
Z
A
X
Z1
A
Y+e
+
+v
e
K-capture or e-capture
Z
A
X +e

Z 1
A
Y +v
e
The neutrinos were undetected because they only interact via the weak force and so the
interaction cross section is tiny, i.e. interactions are very rare
Electron-neutrinos are massless.
Maxium electron KE occurs when neutrino is stationary.
Q=T
0
+T
v
+T
nuc
T
e
max
Q
11. Passage of energetic particles through matter.
Charged particles, , Ionization:
Charged particles ejectin electrons from the atoms.
Particle slows continously, and almost smoothly, to a halt.
Scattering greatest when particle slowest.
Particle has definite range.
Trail of ionized and excited atoms left.
Ionization energy loss:
Bethe-Bloch Formula:

dT
dx
=
4oz c)
2
Z N
A
Am
e
v
2
|
ln

2 m
e
v
2
I 1
2
)
)

2
|
where I is the required energy to ionize atoms 11Z eV and is the density of the
material.
Electrons Bremsstrahlung:
e

+nucleus e

+y+nucleus
Photons:
E

Absorbed?
Photoelectric effect
pe
<0.1 MeV Y
Compton effect
co
Intermediate E

N
Pair production
pp
>> 2m
e
c
2
=1MeV Y
u
T
=u
PE
+u
CO
+u
PP
I x)=I 0)e
n
u
T
x
=I 0) e

Neutrons Radioactivity:
No Coulomb barrier preventing absorption into a nucleus.
Nuclide formed may well be radioactive.
Neutrons in a nuclear reactor make the reactor radioactive.
12. Biological effects of radiation.
Energy transformation:
All particle energy is ultimately transformed to ionization.
Can measure particle enery by counting ion pairs.
Ionization damages biological cells.
's do a lot of damage to a few cells.
's do a little damage to a lot of cells.
Radiation quantities and units.
Definition of activity: quantity of radioactive material defined in terms of nuclear
disintegrations per second.
1 becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegration per second.
Definition of absorbed dose: 1 gray (Gy) = energy deposition of 1J kg
-1
.
Cell damage is proportional to absorbed dose, but some kinds of radiation are worse than
others.
Definition of dose equivalent: 1 sievert (Sv) = (absorbed dose in Gy) x (quality factor Q)
Q
X, , 1
Protons 5
20
Q factor correlates with mass, and therefore speed at fixed KE.
Cell damage:
Caused by ionization damage to molecules, particulary DNA. Every cell contains all the
genes of the whole organism. Only tiny fraction affects any one cell. Most DNA damage is
harmless, but gamete cells require whole blueprint, because they are extremely vulnerable.
Most cells have two copies of every gene, that implies damage can be repaired provided
only one copy is damaged. Slow, highly charged particles are more likely to destroy both copies,
preventing repair. Only one copy during cell division, implies rapidly growing tissue more
vulnerable than ordinary tissue.
Stochastic and non-stochastic effects:
Stochastic (probabilistic) absorbed dose <0.3Gy
Cancers, genetic disorders
Probability proportional to dose.
Non-stochastic (effect certain) absorbed dose >0.3Gy
Reddening of skin > 5Gy
Radiation sickness > 1Gy to whole body
Death >3 Gy to whole body
Annual statistics.
UK average background 2.2 mSv/year
Max legal dose for any worker 50 mSv/year
Controlled area >7.5 Sv/h
Source %
Radon +daughters 47
Thoron+daughters 4
's from ground and building material 15
Cosmic rays 10
Food and drink 12
Medical X-rays 12
Fallout 0.4
Nuclear industry discharges 0.1
About dosage: The particles don't really penetrate clothing or even dead layer of skin
cells. But is dangerous when ingested or inhaled.
About dosage: absorbed dose 10
-8
B/r
2
mGy/h
dose equivalent 10
-8
B/r
2
mSv/h
Where B is the activity in Bq.
Dose rate falls exponentially with depth.
13. Alpha decay and fission.
The -decay Rates:
Coulomb barrier should prevent decay for all -emitters. Transition rate increases
dramatically with KE. Never observe Q-value less than 4 MeV.
The tunelling: Modelled by a 1D square barrier.

2m

2
u
x
2
+V u=E u
Ouside barrier: KE = E > 0
u x)=Ae
ikx
+Be
ikx
where k=.2mE
Inside barrier: KE U <0
u x)=C e
x x
+Be
x x
where x=.2mUE)
Boundary conditions: u and
u
x
continous.
x1 => C=0
i.e. u Falls exponentially inside barrier, but u is non-zero outside barrier. That is,
particles leak through, tunelling.
Spontaneous Fission.
Q (MeV) (s
-1
)
-decay 4 510
-18
Spontaneous fission 170 310
-24
Forbidden by Coulomb barrier (except for tunelling).
Driven by Coulomb force, opposed by surface tension.
Expect that tunnelling rate depends on ratio.
Coulomb energy
Surface energy
=
Z
2
/ A
1
3
A
2
3
=
Z
2
A
Near A=238, activation energy 6 MeV => excitation > 6MeV causes unsuppressed
fission extremely rapid.
Neutron separation energy

8 MeV => neutron absorption should induce fission.

14. Nuclear Collisions
Processes.
Scattering: Projectile emerges amongs products.
Elastic Scattering: total KE conserved. Projectile and target unchanged.
Inelastic Scattering: Projectile is unchanged but target becomes excited or
disintegrates, or other particles are created.
Reaction: Any sort of interaction in which either or both target and projectile are
changed.
Reactions between charged nuclei are inhibited by Coulomb barrier.
Projectile may tunnel through Coulomb barrier but cross-section is then greatly
reduced.
Processes:
T
3
+T
4
T
1
+Q

p
3
+

p
4
=

p
1
Q>0 Reaction can conserve energy and momentum even when T
1
=0.
Q<0 Certainly need T
1
(-Q) so that T
3
+ T
4
0. But, for example, T
1
=(-Q) cannot
satisfy momentum conservation.
Location and velocity of the centre-of-mass.
x
CM
=
m
1
x
1
+m
2
x
2
m
1
+m
2
Velocity U = x
CM
=
m
1
v
1
+m
2
v
2
m
1
+m
2
=
Total momentum
Total mass
Momentum is conserved => CM motion unaffected by collision. CM only moves under
external forces. CM is stationary => total momentum = 0 in CM frame => Particles have equal and
opposite momenta.
Sit at the CM and view the collision.
Initial total KE T
c
=
1
2
m
1

v
1
U
)
2
+
1
2
m
2
U
2
=
m
2
m
1
+m
2

1
2
m
1
v
1
2
)
=
m
2
m
1
+m
2
T
1
Final total KE
T '
c
=T
c
+Q
Threshold when Q<0 : Lowest energy final state is both particles stationary i.e. Require
T
1

m
1
+m
2
m
2
Q)
Decay of excited states.
Coupling constant: strong fastest, then EM (-emission) then weak (-emission).
Q-value
Beware suppression of charged particle emission (, protons) if Coulomb barrier ys
large enough.
Branching fraction for EM ( ) decays are only significant if there is no competing
strong force decay.
Branching fraction for -decays are only significant if both strong and EM decays
are suppresed.
15. Nuclear Reactions.
Types.
Direct reactions: Dominate at high energies (>20MeV)
Compound reactions:
Dominate at low energy.
C* is and intermediate equilibrium
state called compound state or
compound nucleus.
f>10
21
sI=

f
660 KeV
Main features.
Formation and decay of compound state are independent.
Cross-sections shows huge peaks of resonance when CMKE, Tc is just for forming a
particular excited state of the compound nucleus.
Cross sections may greatly exceed physical cross section of nucleus
r
nuc
2
* Small p=
h
\
l >r
nuc
=> ul
2
waves
* Large p.
l r
nuc
=> ul
2
particles
As Tc increases, cross section peaks get broader and start to overlap. Due to lifetime
decreasing as Q-value increases.
Angular distribution of decay products in CM frame permits angular momentum of
compound state to be deduced.
Thermal neutron absorption: Excitation energy:
0
1
n+
Z
A
X
Z
A+1
X+...
A neutron is a thermal neutron when it is in thermal equilibrium with the enviroment.
No Coulomb barrier. Reactions occur even in Tn0
Basis of nuclear reactor operation.
M
Z
A+1
X ) c
2
=M

Z
A
X
)
c
2
+M
n
c
2
+
A
A+1
T
n
Fission activation energy 8 MeV
Excitation energy:
M
Z
A
X )c
2
+M
n
c
2
M
Z
A+1
X ) c
2
=S
n

Z
A+1
X )
Neutron absorption: decay of the compound state:
Neutron emission:
Z
A+1
X
Z
A
+n (Strong force).
Radioactive capture:
Z
A+1
X
Z
A+1
+y (Electromagnetic).
Charged particle emission:
If Q exceeds Coulomb barrier (Strong force).
Fission:
When Q exceeds Coulomb barrier (Strong force).
Induced Fission in Uranium.
92
A
+n
A
+1
92
U X +Y+v
0
1
n
=2.5
Q 200 MeV affects all decays.
Mean KE of neutrons 2 MeV
Compound state activation energy 6.2 MeV
16. Fission induced by fast neutrons: Bombs and reactors.
Fate of neutrons in natural uranium.
Small proportion cause fission, particulary in
92
238
U
But most likely process is scattering, both elastic and inelastic.
=> Neutrons soon fall below 1.4 MeV threshold in
92
238
U
Below 1.4 MeV the fate of almost every neutron is radiative capture in
92
238
U
Thermal neutrons (0.1 eV): Most likely process is scattering. Most likely absorbing process is
fission in => Neutrons soon fall below 1.4 MeV threshold in
92
238
U (due to tail of resonace just
below T
n
=0)
Neutrons in pure
92
238
U
.
At E
n
1-2 MeV;
tot
7barns(=700 fm
2
)
of which
u
f
u
tot
0.18 and
u
scattering
u
tot
0.82
i.e. Fate of neutron is to induce fission provided it does not escape from the uranium.
Mean travel distance between neutron emission and absorption:
0.2 m if undeflected.
0.07 m if random walk.
Pure
92
238
U
as an atom bomb (or fission bomb)
p>1 for sphere of diameter > 17cm

n
10
7
ms
-1
for 1-2 MeV neutrons => time between fissions 10
-8
s.
e.g. p=2 =>
f
v p1
=10
8
s.
Hard to assemble bomb quickly enough for efficient reaction.
Reactor control (Fast reactor).
As p1, response time
f
v p1

. But we need to design p accurato to 1 part in 10

9

to get
f
v p1
>10s
.
Delayed neutrons maje reactor feasible: When p-1<0.01 reactor response time is determined by
mean delay (13s). Control p by altering geometry or inserting neutron absorbing rods (control rods).
Require
dp
dT
0
for meltdown prevention.
Fast reactor requires at least 20%
92
238
U or
94
239
Pu .
17. Fission induced by slow neutrons: Thermal reactors.
Thermal reactor design plan.
Fuel is natural, or slightly enriched, uranium.
Thin fuel rods allow neutrons to escape into surrounding medium before being
captured.
Surrounding medium moderator has low neutron absorption cross-section.
Neutrons lose energy through elastic scattering with moderator nuclei until they are
in thermal equilibrium with environment.
Eventually the ''thermal'' neutrons difuse back into fuel rods. At thermal energies
(0.1eV)
92
238
U fission cross-section makes up for lack of
92
238
U abundance.
Moderation: elastic scattering of neutrons:
V
CM
=
total momentum
total mass
=
mv
m+M
and v*=
vV
CM
=
M v
m+M
T ' =
1
2
mv'
2
=
1
2
m

V
CM
2
+v
2
+2V
CM
v cos0
)
T ' =
1
2
mV
CM
2
+
1
2
mv
2
+mV
CM
v cos0
Isotropic CM frame; i.e. <cos *> = 0
=>
T ' =T
M
2
+m
2
M+m)
2
where
M
2
+m
2
M+m)
2
is minimum when M=m.
i.e. Hydrogen nuclei are most efficient.
Other considerations:
Coolant: circulated through moderator so must not be a neutron absorber.
H2O: can be used as both moderator and coolant if fuel is 2-3% enriched.
Criticality: cadmium rods used to control neutrons.

n
=20000 for
48
113
Cd (12% abundance)
18. Fusion reactors.
Two promising schemes:
D-D:
1
2
H+
1
2
H
-
2
3
He+n+3.27MeV
-
1
3
H+p+4.03 MeV
D-T:
1
2
H+
1
3
H
2
4
He+n+17.6MeV
Deuterium:
1
2
H 0.015% of all hydrogen. Extracted from sea water fairly easily.
Tritium:
1
3
H not naturally occurring:
1
3
H
2
3
He+

+1.8KeV =17.7 years

But can be manufactured with lithium.
Reaction rates:
For plasma of two species a, b: reaction rate per unit volume = Kn
a
n
b
<v
ab
>
where n
a
, n
b
are particle densities, v is relative velocity; K=1 if species are different and
K=1/2 if they are the same.
D-D Coulomb barrier 200KeV. Reactions at lower K
B
T only occur because of
tunnelling.
<v
dt
> exceeds <v
dd
> at low energy because of resonance in compound state.
Target temperature for commercial D-T reactor is 10<K
B
T<30KeV.
Requirements for a commercial D-T reactor.
Heat plasma to required temperature and density.
Confine it for as long as possible while reactions take place.
Main energy losses from hot D-T plasma:
Bremsstrahlung. The X-rays escape.
.
K
B
T . Exceeds entire fusion energy
output for K
B
T<4KeV.
Neutrons. Each carries 14MeV out of the plasma.
Require:
Lawson Criterion Energy produced by reactions during confinement time must be greater
than energy used to create plasma.
Ignition: during confinement, the plasma maintanis temperature (through self-heating from
's) without external heating.
Lawson Criterion for D-T.
n = plasma ion density = electron density
Q = D-T Q-value (17.6MeV)
= confinement time.
Enegy required to create the plasma: Each electron and each ion has average KE
3
2
K
B
T
.
i.e. Total energy density =
3n K
B
T
.
Energy produced during confinement:
reactionrate )Q
f
=
1
4
n
2
vu
dt
)Q
f
if n
d
=n
t
=n/2.
Lawson:
1
4
n
2
vu
dt
Q
f
>3nK
B
T
nf>
12 K
B
T
V uQ