Phanikumar TransportPhenomenaNotes 01feb2010

MM2040: Introduction to Transport Phenomena
G. Phanikumar Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Madras Chennai 600036 India e-mail: gphani@iitm.ac.in url: http://mme.iitm.ac.in/gphani
course website: http://mme.iitm.ac.in/moodle February 1, 2010
Contents
1 Introduction to Tensors 1.1 Subscript notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Kronecker Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 1.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Levi-Civita Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 7 8 8 9 9
1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.5 Co-ordinate transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.6 Tensors 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5 1.6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Bisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Trisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Tetror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Operations on tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.8 Types of tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 Symmetric Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Anti-symmetric Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Isotropic tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Tensors that represent physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2 Navier-Stokes Equations 20
2.1 Types of specication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.2 Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4 Equation of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2
CONTENTS 2.5 Stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.6 Strain rate tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.7 Relation between stress and strain-rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.8 Navier-Stokes equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.9 Signicance of the linear relation and Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.10 N-S equations in cylindrical co-ordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 3 Specic cases of uid ow 31
3.1 Boundary Conditions and Problem Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.2 Trivial case reproducing Newtons Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.3 Film ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.4 Flow between two plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.6 Flow through a pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.8 Creeping ow over a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.10 Creeping ow through a porous medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4 Correlations for turbulent regime 49
4.1 Friction factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.2 Flow through tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.3 Flow across a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4.4 Flow through a porous medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.5 Flow through a packed bed of spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 5 Energy Transport 55
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.2 Fouriers rst law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.3 Fouriers second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.4 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 6 Heat transfer in solids 60
6.1 Steady state 1D heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 6.1.1 Across a rectangular slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3 G. Phanikumar
Transport Phenomena Notes
CONTENTS 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6 Across a cylindrical wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Across a spherical shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Point eect of diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Across a planar composite wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Across a cylindrical composite wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.3 Transient 1D heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Interface dominated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Conduction dominated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.5 Moving boundary condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6.5.1 Solidication: mould and solid conductivity controlled . . . . . . . . . . 69 6.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 7 Heat tranfer with advection term 7.1.1 7.1.2 72
7.1 Steady state heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Heat transfer normal to plug ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Heat transfer along plug ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.3 Heat transfer in a smooth pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 7.3.1 Bulk temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.4 Denitions of some non-dimensional numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 7.5 Forced convection correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 8 Mass Transfer 81
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 8.2 Governing equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 8.2.1 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.4.1 8.4.2 G. Phanikumar Diusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Fixed boundary compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Fixed total solute content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Flux and concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Stagnant layer approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Mass transfer coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4 Transport Phenomena Notes 8.3 Solid state diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8.4 Mass transfer with advection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
CONTENTS 8.4.3 8.4.4 Sherwood number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Chilton-Colburn Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.5 Reaction mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 A Derivations 94
A.1 The quotient rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 A.2 Symmetric tensors are diagonalisable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 A.3 Levi-Civita tensor is isotropic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 A.4 General form of isotropic tensor of order four . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 A.5 Simplication of tensor properties for crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 A.6 Change of variable with multiple integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 A.7 Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 A.8 Reynolds transport theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 A.9 RTT and Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 A.10 Cauchys stress principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 A.11 Stress is a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 A.12 Stress tensor is symmetric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 A.13 Meaning of terms in strain rate tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 A.14 Velocity gradient is a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
G. Phanikumar
List of Figures
1.1 Co-ordinate Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.1 Newtons Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.2 Velocity and Stress distribution in the Newtons Law problem . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3 Schematic of a lm ow problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.4 Velocity and Stress distribution in a lm ow problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.5 Flow in a channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.6 Flow in a channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.7 Mixing lm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.8 Squeegee device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.9 Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.10 Solution to Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.11 Axial lm ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.12 Leaking Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.13 Cubic network of pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.14 Channel ow between porous walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.15 Creeping ow around a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.16 Porous medium and its approximation as a bundle of tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 6.1 Heat ow across a slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 6.2 Heat ow across a cylindrical wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6.3 Point eect of diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 6.4 Temperature prole during solidication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 6.5 Temperature prole during solidication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 8.1 Fixed Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 8.2 Stagnant layer approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 8.3 Surface Renewal Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 A.1 Analysis of deformation of a uid element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Chapter 1 Introduction to Tensors

Most of the discussion in the notes will assume a cartesian co-ordinate system unless otherwise mentioned.
1.1
Subscript notation
Introduced by G. Ricci and popularised by Einstein. Each subscript (or index) runs from 1 to the dimension of the space in consideration. Since most of the time a 3D space is referred to, the subscripts run from 1 to 3. Following rules apply to the notation: 1. Cartesian Summation Convention: Subscripts that are repeated are called dummy subscripts and should be summed over the range that the subscript can take. 2. Subscripts that are not repeated are called free subscripts. 3. Subscripts can come anywhere in an expression. 4. Subscripts after a comma indicate dierentiation. 5. Free subscripts on either sides of the = sign should match. Subscript notation is useful to represent three and higher dimensional entities. It simplies expressions. Examples Vector Matrices and Tensors
u ui = (u1 u2 u3 ) = = u1 x1 + u2 x2 + u3 x3 a11 a12 a13 aij = a21 a22 a23 a31 a32 a33 x2 + x3 = i = x1 + x1 x2 x3 7
Nabla or Del or Grad:
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS Gradient: Divergence:
x2 + x3 = = i = ,i = x1 + x1 x2 x3 xi u u1 + u2 + u3 = x1 x2 x3 ui Div(u) = = ui,i xi
Inner product is an operation where there is a contraction of the number of subscripts. For two vectors, it is also called as dot product. ai bi = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
2 2 2 ai ai = a1 + a2 + a3
cj = aij bi c1 = a11 b1 + a21 b2 + a31 b3 . . . Outer product is an operation where there is a an expansion of the number of subscripts. a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3 ai bj = a2 b1 a2 b2 a2 b3 a3 b1 a3 b2 a3 b3
1.2
Kronecker Delta
ij = 1 if i = j 0 if i = j
Denition:
1 0 0 ij = 0 1 0 0 0 1
1.2.1
Examples
Tr(a) = aij ij = aii = a11 + a22 + a33 Tr(a) = aii
Trace of a matrix a
Trace of ij is ii = 3. ij is used to simplify expressions involving dummy indices. Consider bik = aij jk Expand the expression for a given i, k and convince yourself that aik ij = ajk pi ij = pj G. Phanikumar 8 Transport Phenomena Notes
1.3. LEVI-CIVITA SYMBOL
1.3
Levi-Civita Symbol
Also called as permutation matrix. Denition: ijk 123 132 111 222 333 1 if i, j, k appear cyclic = 1 if i, j, k donot appear cyclic 0 if i = j or j = k or k = i = 312 = 321 = 211 = 122 = 133 =1 = 1 = 121 = 113 = 311 = 131 = 0 = 212 = 223 = 322 = 232 = 0 = 313 = 332 = 233 = 323 = 0
= 231 = 213 = 112 = 221 = 331
Permutation matrix will help in writing expressions in a simplied manner. One can write ijk also in terms of a triple product as follows: ijk = [xi , xj , xk ]
1.3.1
Examples
u p = pi = ijk j uk = ijk uk,j = ijk Curl(u) = ijk uk xj
Curl :
uk xj
Cross Product :
pi = ijk uj vk Condition for coplanarity of three vectors ai , bj and ck is: ijk ai bj ck = 0 Determinant of a matrix a :
u v p =
Det(a) = Iaij I Det(a) = ijk a1i a2j a3k
Relation between ij and ijk : ijk klm = il jm im jl The values of RHS are +1 if i = l and j = m and i = j 1 if i = m and j = l and i = j 0 for any other combination 9
(1.1)
G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS For the rst case, it turns out that ijk = lmk = klm and the indices are non-repeating. Thus, whether they are cyclic or not, LHS is 2 and is +1. For the second case, klm ijk = mlk = klm and the indices are non-repeating. Thus, LHS is 2 and is 1. klm ijk ijm = 2km ijk ijk = 6 Based on the relations given above, the following vector identities can be derived using subscript notation. () = 2 2 () = = = 2 x2 xi xi i () = 0 2 = ijk pi = () = ijk xj xk xj xk For each term with the index i, there are two non zero terms on the RHS to be summed up. While the order of dierentiation is immaterial, ijk is asymmetric about the indices j, k. Hence the RHS will vanish. Take for example, p1 = 1jk 2 2 2 2 = 123 + 132 = (123 + 132 ) =0 x2 x3 x3 x2 x2 x3 xj xk (1.3) (1.2)
Similarly the other terms will also vanish.
1.4
Exercises
1. Prove the following vector identities using subscript notation. ( f) = 0 ( f) = ( f ) + 2 f () = + (f ) = ( f) + f G. Phanikumar 10 (1.4) (1.5) (1.6) (1.7) Transport Phenomena Notes
1.5. CO-ORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS
(f) = f + ( f ) g) g (f = ( f ) f ( g) g) (f = f ( f ) + (g )f (f )g g) g( g) (f = f ( + ( f) + f (g) + (f) g) g g 1 (f f ) = f f + (f )f 2 g) h h)g h)f (f = (f (g h)g g)h h) f (g = (f (f g) g) g) (f (f = |f |2 |g|2 (f 2
(1.8) (1.9) (1.10) (1.11)
(1.12) (1.13) (1.14) (1.15)
2. (Exercise 2.23.1 of [Ari62]) Show how to nd the vector which lies in the intersection of the plane of and with the plane of and d. a b c
1.5
Co-ordinate transformations
Cartesian co-ordinate system xi is used. Consider the following co-ordinate transformation where the xy plane is rotated about z-axis clockwise by an angle .
The new axes (starred) are given in terms of the old axes (unstarred) by the following relations: x = x1 cos + x2 sin 1 x = x1 sin + x2 cos 2 x3 = x3 or x = T11 x1 + T12 x2 + T13 x3 1 x2 = T21 x1 + T22 x2 + T23 x3 x = T31 x1 + T32 x2 + T33 x3 3 or cos sin 0 x1 x 1 x = sin cos 0 x2 2 x3 0 0 1 x3 x = Tpi xi p Transport Phenomena Notes 11
(1.16)
(1.17)
(1.18)
(1.19) G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS
Figure 1.1: Co-ordinate Transformation
The transformation matrix Tpi used in the above expression is by the convention that rst index represents the row and the second index, the column. In one of the reference texts, viz., Aris book [Ari62], equation (2.11.1) shows that this convention is reversed. As a result the indices appear swapped in the denitions. This use of dierent convention is clear also from equation (A.6.4) in the same book. When we express x in terms of xi , the transformation matrix can be written as: i
x p Tpi = = xi
x 1 x1 x 2 x1 x 3 x1
x 1 x2 x 2 x2 x 3 x2
x 1 x3 x 2 x3 x 3 x3
(1.20)
We have chosen cartesian co-ordinate systems which have the following properties of orthogonality:
x x = 1 x x = 0 x x = 0 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 3 x2 x2 = 1 x3 x1 = 0 x x = 0 x x = 1 x x = 0 x x = 0 3 3 1 2 3 1 Expressing x in terms of x and using equations 1.17 and 1.21, we get: G. Phanikumar 12
(1.21)
1.6. TENSORS
T11 T12 + T21 T22 + T31 T32 T12 T13 + T22 T23 + T32 T33 T13 T11 + T23 T21 + T33 T31 T11 T11 + T12 T12 + T13 T13 T21 T21 + T22 T22 + T23 T23 T31 T31 + T32 T32 + T33 T33 or Tij Tik = jk Rotating the co-ordinate system back...
=0 =0 =0 =1 =1 =1
(1.22)
(1.23)
Similarly, we can express x in terms of x . Inverse transformation relation is given using the transpose of the transformation matrix as follows. Transpose of a matrix is nothing but the same matrix with the indices swapped around. xi = Dip x p The co-ordinate transformation matrix D for new to old system is related to the matrix for old to new the following manner.
1 T Dip = Tip = Tip = Tpi
xi = Dip x = Tpi x p p
xi = Tpi x p
(1.24)
Note: Compare equations 1.19 and 1.24 and notice which of the indices is being repeated in the RHS. Exploiting the orthogonality of the old co-ordinate system: x1 x1 = 1 x2 x3 = 0 x3 x2 = 0 x2 x2 = 1 x3 x1 = 0 x1 x3 = 0 x3 x3 = 1 x1 x2 = 0 x2 x3 = 0 Tji Tki = jk
(1.25)
(1.26)
1.6
Tensors
Many entities, such as those that have a physical meaning, are independent of the co-ordinate system we choose to represent them. If n is the dimension of the space we are concerned, the entities can be classifed - according to the number of components (ni ) they would have - as tensors of order i. Transport Phenomena Notes 13 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS
1.6.1
Scalar
Scalar is a tensor of order zero. Only one value would suce to describe it at any location. Scalars are invariant under co-ordinate transformations. Denition: Scalar is an entity that remains invariant under all co-ordinate transformations. Eg: Temperature T , Composition of - say - A species CA , Pressure in a uid p, Density , etc.,
1.6.2
Vector
Vector is a tensor of order one. It requires as many values / components as the dimension of the space (which is three for most of us) ie., a set of three components in a 3D space. Denition: Vector is an entity that transforms the following way under a co-ordinate transformation: (1.27) a = Tpi ai p
T Eg: Velocity of uid = ui, Temperature gradient xi , Composition gradient u ui , Electric Potential dierence P , Electric Current Ji etc., CA , xi
Displacement
1.6.3
Bisor
Bisor is a tensor of order two. All tensors of order 2 or more are called as just tensors. Specic names for tensors of order 2 and above are often considered old fashioned. A tensor of order 2 requires 9 components to describe it in general in 3D. Denition: Tensor of order two is an entity that transforms the following way under a coordinate transformation: a = Tpi Tqj aij (1.28) pq Eg: Stress ij , Strain eij , Electrical Conductivity ij , Electrical Resistivity ij , Diusivity Dij , Thermal Conductivity kij , Magnetic Permeability ij , Dielectric Permittivity ij , Thermal Expansion Coecient ij , Gyration Tensor gij
1.6.4
Trisor
Trisor is a tensor of order three. 27 components! Denition: Tensor of order three is an entity that transforms the following way under a co-ordinate transformation: a = Tpi Tqj Trk aijk (1.29) pqr Eg: Piezoelectric coecient eijk ,
1.6.5
Tetror
Tetror is a tensor of order four. 81 components! a = TpiTqj Trk Tsl aijkl pqrs Eg: Elastic Modulus cijkl G. Phanikumar 14 Transport Phenomena Notes (1.30)
1.7. OPERATIONS ON TENSORS
1.6.6
Tensor
In general, a tensor is an entity that follows the following generalised rule for any co-ordinate transformation. The number of indices of a indicate the order of the tensor which is the same as the number of times T occurs in the expression. a pqrst... = Tpi Tqj Trk Tsl Ttm ...aijklm... (1.31)
1.7
Operations on tensors
Sum and dierence of two tensors (of same order) is also a tensor. In the following example, if bij and cij are tensors, then aij and dij are also tensors. aij = bij + cij dij = bij cij An outer product of a tensor of order m with a tensor of order n will give a tensor of order m + n. aijk = bij ck An inner product of a tensor of order m with a tensor of order n will give a tensor of order |m n|. ai = bijk cjk Contraction theorem : If aijkl.. is a tensor of order m, then the entity obtained by repeating any two subscripts is a tensor of order m 2. Eg., if dijkl is a tensor of order 4, then by repeating two of its indices (say, third and fourth), the entity obtained aij is a tensor of order 4 2 = 2. aij = dijkk A corollary to the above theorem is obtained when we take a tensor of order two and repeat the indices. i.e., Trace of a second order tensor aii is tensor of order zero or scalar or invariant across co-ordinate transformations. Quotient law of tensors: If there is an entity representable by (subscript notation as) aij relative to any cartesian co-ordinate system and if aij bi is a vector where bi is any arbitrary vector then aij is a tensor of order two. Proof is given in section A.1. Combining with the theorem on outer product, quotient law can be extended to tensors of higher order.
1.8
1.8.1
Types of tensors
Symmetric Tensor
a is a symmetric tensor if aij = aji Transport Phenomena Notes 15 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS Theorem: For every second order symmetric tensor, there exists a co-ordinate system relative to which, the matrix of the components of the tensor is diagonal 1 . Proof is given in section A.2.
1.8.2
Anti-symmetric Tensor
a is a skew-symmetric or anti-symmetric tensor if aij = aji
The vector formed by the components of an anti-symmetric tensor: 1 k = 2 3 0 3 2 ij = 3 0 1 2 1 0 1 k = kij ij 2
Also, ij = ijk k The two tensors k and ij are called dual tensors. Theorem: Every second order tensor is expressible as a sum of a symmetric tensor and an anti-symmetric tensor. aij = 1 1 (aij + aji ) + (aij aji ) 2 2 (1.32)
1.8.3
Isotropic tensors
Denition: A tensor is isotropic if its elements donot change under any co-ordinate transformation2 . Kronecker delta is an isotropic tensor of order two. The general form of an isotropic tensor of order two is aij = aij Levi-Civita density is an isotropic tensor of order three. Proof is given in section A.3 It is also referred to as alternating tensor or permutation tensor. Relation between ijk and ij and the proof are given in equation 1.1. ij kl is an isotropic tensor of order four.
Most general form of an isotropic tensor of order four, where 1 , 2 and 3 are constants:
1 This theorem has important implications when applied to the stress tensor in the mechanical behaviour of materials. The diagonal terms are called principal stresses. 2 involving only rotations and reections but not expansions or contractions ie., Det(Tij ) is unity
G. Phanikumar
16
1.9. TENSORS THAT REPRESENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
ijkl = 1 ij kl + 2 ik jl + 3 il jk Proof is given in section A.4.
(1.33)
1.9
Tensors that represent physical properties
Constitutive relations are those that describe a physical phenomenon by connecting the cause with the eect through a material property. In a constitutive relation, the entity that connects a tensor of order m with a tensor of order n is of the order m + n by the quotient law of tensors. Neumanns principle : The symmetry group of any physical property of a crystal comprises the point symmetry group of the crystal. A tensor that represents a physical property of a material should have at least the symmetry of the material. Pierre Curie symmetry principle (1894): Eect is at least as symmetric as the cause. The symmetry of a crystal of known symmetry in the presence of external elds is given by the intersection of the symmetries of the crystal and the elds. Examples of common physical phenomena, adapted from [PT83]. Property Pyroelectric eect Thermal conduction Electrical conduction Thermal expansion Direct piezoelectric eect Inverse piezoelectric eect Linear electrooptical eect Elasticity Equation Pi = i T
dT qi = kij dxj
Quantities electric polarisation, pyroelectric coecient and change in temperature heat ux, thermal conductivity and temperature gradient electric current, electrical conductivity and electrical eld thermal strain, thermal expansion coecient and change in temperature electric polarization, piezoelectric coecient and stress tensor strain, inverse piezoelectric coecient and electric eld polarization constants, tensor of linear electrooptical eect and electric eld strain, elastic compliance and stress
Ji = ij Ej eij = ij T Pi = dijk jk ejk = lijk Ei ij = rijk Ek eij = cijkl kl
Using the Neumanns principle, the tensor representing a property of a material should have the same symmetry as that of the material itself. Transport Phenomena Notes 17 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS Liquids and glasses are isotropic ie., they have innite symmetry 3 . The stu remains the same in all the directions. So the physical property should also remain the same in all directions. So, the tensor representing the physical property of this stu should be isotropic. That is, any arbitrary transformation of the co-ordinate system should leave the matrix containing the values of physical property unchanged. It is possible only if the property is representable by an isotropic tensor of corresponding order. Thus, for second order tensors such as thermal conductivity, diusivity etc., of liquids only one value is necessary. aij = aij Polycrystalline materials have crystals in all possible directions and as a bulk they behave as if the material is isotropic. Most of the engineering materials of interest are polycrystalline. Exceptions are highly textured materials (eg. after rolling) and single crystals (for turbine blades or semiconductor industry). Take, for example, the second order tensor representing the thermal conductivity of a crystal. It should in general have 6 components (9 components become 6 thanks to the tensor being symmetric). Using the Curie principle, it can be shown as in section A.5 that for cubic crystals one needs to specify only one value for thermal conductivity.
1.10
Exercises
xi
1. Prove that gradient of a continuous scalar function is a vector. ai = i = (1.34)
2. Prove that the magnitude of a vector is invariant under co-ordinate transformations. 3. Prove that ij is (an isotropic) tensor of order two. 4. Prove that if ui and vj are vectors, then the dyad aij = uivj is a tensor of order two. 5. (Exercise 2.42.1 of [Ari62]) Prove that for any vector ijk ak are the components of a a, second order tensor. 6. (Exercise 2.42.3 and 2.44.2 of [Ari62]) If r 2 = xk xk and f (r) is any twice dierentiable function, show that the following nine derivatives are components of a tensor. f (r) xi xj f (r) f (r) + ij r r2 r . Show also that the trace of that tensor is the following. 1 d 2 df r r 2 dr dr 7. Prove that strain rate or velocity gradient is a tensor of order two. eij = ui xj
3 Only on a long range. They do have a short range order allegedly close to icosahedral in case of liquid metals
G. Phanikumar
18
1.10. EXERCISES 8. If ij is a tensor, prove that ii , the trace of the matrix of ij is invariant under co-ordinate transformations. 4 9. Prove that ijk is a tensor of order three. Clue: Use the subscript notation for determinant of the transformation matrix. When two rows of a matrix are same, the determinant vanishes. 10. Prove that the dyad ij kl is (an isotropic) tensor of order four. Considering that ij is an isotropic and hence a symmetric tensors, how many combinations of the four indices can you get so that you can arrive at possible isotropic tensors of order four. 11. If aij and bkl are tensors of order two, prove that the dyad aij bkl is a tensor of order four. Prove that aij bjk is a tensor of order two. Also, that a : b = aij bji is a scalar. 12. Use the Neumanns principle to prove that the number of components necessary to describe the thermal conductivity of a tetragonal crystal is two. You can assume that the thermal conductivity is a symmetric tensor to start with, thanks to Onsagers theory [Ons31a, Ons31b].
This quantity has a special meaning in mechanical behaviour of materials.
19
G. Phanikumar
Chapter 2 Navier-Stokes Equations

2.1 Types of specication
Consider a ow eld and trace a particle that moves with the ow. The ow eld can be specied in two ways. In the Eulerian type of specication, the velocities are specied in terms of position (xi ) and time (t). It gives the spacial distribution of velocity ui (xi , t) similar to density, temperature and pressure at any given instant. In Lagrangian type of specication, the dynamical history of a specic piece of material (uid element) is given. The ow eld of the element is given in terms of the position (of the center of mass) of the element and time as vi (ai , t). Eulerian specication gives spacial gradients of velocities directly. Lagrangian specication helps trace the path of an element directly. Unless otherwise specied, one usually uses to the Eulerian frame of reference. In the Lagrangian specication, since the velocity vi (ai , t) is specied at the centre of gravity of the uid element, acceleration of a uid element is given by vi dvi = dt t
(2.1)
In the Eulerian specication, since the velocity (ui (xi , t)) is specied in terms of the absolute position where as the location of the uid element changes as dictated by the ow (see section A.6), acceleration of the uid element is given as below: ui uj ui dui = + ui = + u j j u i t dt t xj or du u = + (u )u dt t Proof of the same is given in section A.7. We now dene the material derivative which is a time derivative following the motion of the uid as 20
(2.2)
(2.3)
2.2. CONTINUITY EQUATION
D = + (u ) Dt t
(2.4)
2.2
Continuity equation
Consider a uid element of surface area S and volume V though which a ow is taking place. u Conservation of mass requires that the increase in amount of uid in the element is equal to the amount brought in by the uid ow (in the absence of sources and sinks that are singular). By convention, the surface normal points outwards and hence the conservation can be written n as: dV = t u ndS (2.5)
Using the Gauss theorem1 to convert the surface integral to volume integral, dV = t (u)dV (2.6)
For this relation to be valid at all locations in the uid, + (u) = 0 t Use the identity 1.7 to expand the above equation as u + (u ) + = 0 t Identifying the denition of material derivative
D Dt
(2.7)
(2.8)
and dividing by , (2.9)
1 D + = 0 u Dt u is called as rate of dilation or rate of expansion and is indicated by a symbol . u = = i ui = ui,i Equations 2.7 and 2.9 are two alternate forms of the continuity equation.
(2.10)
A uid is called as incompressible if the density does not change due to changes in pressure (or) if the rate of change of density following the ow is zero. For incompressible uids, the continuity equation reduces to: u = 0 Sections A.6 and A.7 state the same thing more rigorously.
1
(2.11)
Actually Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem
21
G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 2. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
2.3
Forces
Long range forces decrease slowly with increase in distance between the interacting elements. These are called body forces or volume forces. Examples such as gravity (due to density gradients), electromagnetic (in metals carrying electric currents) and ctitious (centrifugal or coriolis) act on the whole of the uid element and are usually proportional to the size of the volume element (V ). They can be represented as: Fi (xi , t)V Eg. gravity pointing vertically downwards : Fi = gx2 Short range forces decrease rapidly with increase in distance between the interacting elements and are of molecular origin. Examples such as forces applied on surfaces (normal and shear), Marangoni forces (due to surface tension gradients) act on a thin layer of the uid and are called surface forces. Local short range forces exerted by the uid on dierent surface elements (A) can be represented as: (xi , nj , t)A where, nj is the unit normal to the surface element A. is called the local stress.
2.4
Equation of motion
Consider a small uid element of volume dV and area dS on a surface with normal ni . Using D the material derivative Dt introduced earlier, the rate of change of momentum of a small uid element of volume dv is given by: D Dt ui dV
Using the Reynolds transport theorem [A.8] and the continuity equation, one can bring the material derivative inside the integral as illustrated in section [A.9]. D Dt ui dV =
V
Dui dV Dt
The total force that acts on dV is the sum of body forces and surface forces: Using Gauss theorem, G. Phanikumar ij nj dS =
V
Fi dV +
V
ij nj dS
S
ij dv xj
(2.12) Transport Phenomena Notes
22
2.5. STRESS TENSOR From Newtons second law, the rate of change of momentum is equal to the total force acting on the element. Hence, Dui dV = Dt Fi dV +
V
ij dV xj
(2.13)
Since the three integrands are being summed over the same volume element, it will be applicable at any location in the uid if the equation applies to the integrands themselves: ij Dui = Fi + Dt xj
(2.14)
We now need to express ij in a way that can minimise the number of unknown parameters in the above equation of motion.
2.5
Stress tensor
Section A.10 stating the Cauchys stress principle and section A.11 prove that stress is a tensor. We can also use conservation of angular momentum to show that the stress tensor is symmetric as described in section A.12. Hence it can be expressed as 11 12 13 ij = 12 22 23 13 23 33
(2.15)
Since it is always possible to nd a co-ordinate system such that the matrix containing the elements of a symmetric tensor is diagonal, we can write ij as the follows. 11 0 0 22 0 ij = 0 0 0 33
1 3 kk
(2.16)
or 0 0
1 3 kk
ij = 0 0 where
0 0
1 3 kk
11 1 kk 0 0 3 + 0 22 1 kk 0 3 1 0 0 33 3 kk
(2.17)
kk = 11 + 22 + 33 1 ij = kk ij + dij 3
(2.18)
(2.19)
We dene static pressure of the uid with the convention that positive pressure is that which acts to compress a uid element, Transport Phenomena Notes 23 G. Phanikumar
1 p = kk 3 so that ij = pij + dij
(2.20)
(2.21)
dij is called the deviatoric part of the tensor and leads only to volume conserving deformation of the uid elements ie., ow of the uid. Static pressure, on the other hand, leads to a shape-conserving change in the volume element. It is easy to note that dkk = 0 We have separated the stress into two terms: pressure term (pij ) that tends to change the volume of a uid element deviatoric stress term (dij ) that tends to change the shape of a uid element while keeping the volume constant By analysing all modes of change of shape of a uid element, we can relate the deviatoric stress with the terms that quantify the shape changes of a uid element. For non-zero velocity eld, because the uid element translates as time progresses, we will notice that rate of change of shape is more appropriate to analyse a uid element. (2.22)
2.6
Strain rate tensor
ui The meaning of velocity gradient or a strain rate term xj is given in section A.13. Proof that velocity gradient is a tensor of order two is given in section A.14. Strain rate or velocity gradient is represented as below and can be shown to be a second order tensor and thus expressible as a sum of symmetric and anti-symmetric tensors.
ui = eij + ij xj 1 eij = 2 1 ij = 2 Dene as u = or i = ijk uj,k = ijk G. Phanikumar 24 uj xk ui uj + xj xi ui uj xj xi
(2.23)
(2.24)
(2.25)
(2.26)
(2.27) Transport Phenomena Notes
2.7. RELATION BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN-RATE so that, 1 ij = ijk k 2 (2.28)
2.7
Relation between stress and strain-rate
A relation between the deviatoric stress and strain-rate (velocity gradient) is necessary to proceed further to be able to use the equation of motion to solve for the velocity ui . We have to adopt a phenomenological approach. By denition, dij is the deviatoric stress which implies that it is zero for a stationary uid. The velocities and thus the velocity gradients
ui xj
are zero for a stationary uid.
The deviatoric stress represents the frictional interaction between dierent layers of the uid and is assumed to be dependent only on the instantaneous and local distribution of the velocities. From the above observations, we may assume that the deviatoric stress and the strain-rate are directly and linearly related to each other. Since both the quantities are tensors of order two, the entity that connects them both must be a tensor of order four. dij = Aijkl uk xl (2.29)
Since the above equation connects an eect with a cause, it is a constitutive relation and the entity Aijkl is a physical parameter. The material in concern is a uid in which a directionality can safely be assumed to be absent ie., uids are isotropic Hence, Aijkl must possess the same properties as that of an isotropic tensor of order four. From the properties of tensors, we know that the general form of an isotropic tensor of order four [A.4] is Aijkl = 1 ij kl + 2 il kj + 3 ik jl (2.30)
Since deviatoric stress dij is symmetric, interchanging the subscripts i and j should keep the quantity identical. In the above equation, this applies also to the R.H.S. ie., Aijkl = Ajikl 2 = 3 Aijkl = 1 ij kl + 2 (il kj + ik jl ) Aijkl is now symmetrical in k and l also. Transport Phenomena Notes 25 G. Phanikumar (2.31)
(2.32)
CHAPTER 2. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS Expanding the above equation, dij = Aijkl (ekl + kl ) (2.33)
Since Aijkl is now symmetrical in k and l, when it is multiplied by an entity that is antisymmetric about k and l and the terms are summed over k and l they vanish. Thus, the kl term drops out. dij = (1 ij kl + 2 (il kj + ik jl )) ekl dij = 1 ij kl ekl + 2 (il kj ekl + ik jl ekl ) We have already (2.10) dened compressibility or rate of dilation or rate of expansion as ekk = u1 u2 u3 + + = x1 x2 x3 (2.36) (2.34) (2.35)
For the rst term, we use the contraction theorem [section 1.7] to get dij = 1 ij + 22 eij Recalling that dii = 0, dii = 1 3 + 22 = (31 + 22 ) = 0 (2.38) (2.37)
We would like the above equation to be true also for incompressible uids ie., also when = 0. It can be true only when the term in parantheses vanishes. Stokes Assumption: For monoatomic uids since there is no conversion of translational energy into vibrationary / rotationary energies, bulk viscosity can be assumed to be zero: (31 + 22 ) = 0 or 2 1 = 2 3 Watch out for uids for which Stokes assumption is not valid. Calling the one constant parameter as , the equation becomes 2 dij = ij + 2eij 3 1 dij = 2 eij ij 3 (2.40) (2.39)
(2.41)
Now that we have an expression for dij in terms of velocity gradients, we can substitute the same in the equation of motion. G. Phanikumar 26 Transport Phenomena Notes
2.8. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
2.8
Navier-Stokes equations
Combining equation of motion (2.14) and the expressions for stress tensor (2.21 and 2.41), we get, Dui 1 = Fi + pij + 2 eij ij 3 Dt xj Expanding the term eij and using the kronecker delta to contract subscripts, we get: Dui p + = Fi Dt xi xj ui xj + xj uj 2 + xi xi 3 (2.43) (2.42)
Since the order of dierentiation should not matter and if is not a function of location, Dui p ui uj 2 + + + (2.44) = Fi xj xi xj xi 3 Dt xi xj Dui p + = Fi Dt xi xj 2 ui + () + xj xi xi 3 ui xj + 1 () 3 xi (2.45)
Dui p + = Fi Dt xi xj
(2.46)
The above set of three equations (for i = 1, 2, 3) corresponding to the three components of the velocity of the uid (u1 , u2 and u3 ) is called Navier-Stokes equations. If the uid being considered is incompressible, we can set the last term to zero and obtain the N-S equation with variable property. A further simplication can be done starting from equation 2.46 as follows. Most of the uids under normal ow conditions are incompressible ie., = 0. The Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible uid ow with constant viscosity are obtained by taking out of the derivative and setting = 0 in the equation 2.46. 2 Dui p 2 ui uj = Fi + 2 + xj xj xi Dt xi p 2 ui Dui + 2 + = Fi Dt xi xj xi uj xj
Dui p 2 ui + 2 + () = Fi Dt xi xj xi Dui p 2 ui = Fi + 2 xj Dt xi
D Dt
(2.47)
Expanding the material derivative Transport Phenomena Notes
and writing in vector notation: 27 G. Phanikumar
u1 1 p + (u )u1 = F1 + 2 u 1 t x1 1 p u2 + (u )u2 = F2 + 2 u 2 t x2 1 p 2 u3 + (u )u3 = F3 + u3 t x3
(2.48)
These can be expanded to give the N-S equations for incompressible uids of constant property using the denition of kinematic viscosity as follows: = 2 u1 2 u1 2 u1 + + x2 x2 x2 1 2 3 2 u2 2 u2 2 u2 + + x2 x2 x2 1 2 3 2 u3 2 u3 2 u3 + + x2 x2 x2 1 2 3
u1 u1 u1 1 p u1 + u1 + u2 + u3 = F1 + x2 x3 x1 t x1 u2 u2 u2 u2 1 p + u1 + u2 + u3 = F2 + x2 x3 x2 t x1 u3 u3 u3 u3 1 p + u1 + u2 + u3 = F3 + x2 x3 x3 t x1
(2.49)
(2.50)
(2.51)
The continuity equation 2.9 and the three N-S equations 2.46 are solved together to obtain uid ow. In these four equations, we have four variables (p, u1, u2 , u3) - thus the problem is well dened.
2.9
Signicance of the linear relation and Viscosity
The linear relation between the deviatoric stress tensor and the strain rate tensor (velocity gradient) is physically meaningful for a large number of uids. Consider the two dimensional case of pure shear stress applied on a layer of liquid. Newton has observed that the shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient. d12 = d21 = u1 x2 (2.52)
The proportionality constant is dened as the viscosity of the liquid. Fluids that obey this linear relation are called Newtonian uids. Examples are water, air and most gases (in most of the situations except under shock wave) and liquid metals. Based on their viscosity and the way they ow, materials can be classied as follows: Newtonian uid : Strain rate or velocity gradient is linearly dependent on the shear stress as 12 = u1,2 . Eg: air and most of the gases, water, oils of low molecular weight and liquid metals. Often 12 is referred to as xy . G. Phanikumar 28 Transport Phenomena Notes
2.10. N-S EQUATIONS IN CYLINDRICAL CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM Bingham Plastic : Flow starts above a critical shear stress which is then linear with the strain rate. 12 = 0 + u1,2 . Eg: drilling muds, peat slurries, margarine, chocolate mixtures, greases, soap, grain-water suspensions, toothpaste, paper pulp, and sewage sludge. Pseudoplastic : Shear thinning material - viscosity decreases at higher strain rate. Dilatant : Shear thickening material - viscosity increases at higher strain rate. Thixotropic : Viscosity decrease with time. Rheopectic : Viscosity increases with time. Viscoelastic : The material returns back to its original shape after the stress is removed. Viscosity is a strong function of temperature. In liquid metals viscosity follows an Arrhenius relation. In situations where the temperature is roughly constant through out the ow, viscosity can be taken as constant. For uids such as air and water, viscosity is negligible for most of the situations. Such uids are called inviscid.
2.10
N-S equations in cylindrical co-ordinate system
We should choose a co-ordinate system with an orientation that best captures the symmetry of the problem and simplies the nal form of the solution. Equations 2.48 are written for constant properties ( and ) and using the operators and 2 . These operators convey a meaning independent of co-ordinate system and enable us to assign a meaning to each term in the equation. One can (with some endurance) derive the equations by expressing x1 , x2 , x3 in terms of r, , z for cylindrical co-ordinate system or r, , for spherical co-ordinate system and derive the necessary relations. The expansion of these operators and the N-S equations for cylindrical coordinate system can be borrowed from Appendix A of [BSL02]. Following are the expressions that will be of use to us later. u = ur r + u + u z z 1 + z = r+ r r z u = ur + + uz u r r z 1 = r r
2
(2.53)
(2.54)
(2.55)
2 1 2 r + 2 2+ 2 z r r
(2.56)
Most of the time we are concerned about incompressible uids of approximately constant properties. Hence we can borrow the N-S equations in cylindrical co-ordinate system for momentum transfer with these assumptions as reproduced below: Transport Phenomena Notes 29 G. Phanikumar
ur ur u ur ur u2 1 p + ur + + uz = Fr t r r z r r 2 2 1 ur 2 u ur 1 {rur } + + 2 2 + r z 2 r r r r 2 u u u u ur u u 1 p + + + uz = F + ur t r r r z r 2 1 u 2 ur 2 u 1 {ru } + + 2 + 2 + r z 2 r r r r 2 uz uz u uz uz 1 p + ur + + uz = Fz t r r z z 2 2 1 uz uz 1 uz r + 2 + + z 2 r r r r 2
(2.57)
(2.58)
(2.59)
G. Phanikumar
30
Chapter 3 Specic cases of uid ow

3.1 Boundary Conditions and Problem Denitions
Fluid-Solid: Due to van der Waals attractions, wetting and any other atomistic phenomena, liquid tends to stick to solid and a relative motion is not possible1 . In most of the situation this phenomena of a solid preventing a liquid in contact with it from having a motion relative to it is called no slip condition. Often the solid wall is stationary making the velocity of liquid at the wall zero. u|liquid, interface = u|solid Fluid-Liquid: Using the arguments similar to above, there is no relative motion between two layers of liquids in contact with each other2 . Additionally, since most liquids wet each other, the shear stress at the interface of two liquids has a unique value. |liquid1, interface = |liquid2, interface For Newtonian uids, if we take the interface to be at zero, ui ui 1 = 2 xj xj 0 xj xj +0
Fluid-Gas: Because the density of gas is usually much smaller than that of liquid, it cannot sustain any shear stress at the top of the liquid layer and will lead to surface deformation. Thus, the shear stress at a free surface is zero. |liquid, free surface = 0 For Newtonian uids, if we take the interface to be at zero, ui =0 xj xj 0 ui =0 t
except under situations where surface tension plays a major role except in situations where the two liquids in contact with each other are immiscible and interfacial tension plays a major role
2 1
Steady state: Time derivative of the velocity is to be taken zero.
31
CHAPTER 3. SPECIFIC CASES OF FLUID FLOW Unidirectional ow: Velocity has only one component and the other components are to be taken zero. u2 = u3 = 0 = u1 Fully developed ow: The velocity has no variation along the direction of the ow. ui =0 xi Validity of solution: The analytical solutions given in this chapter are applicable for laminar regime of uid ow where the ow can be visualised as layers of liquid moving with respect to each other and the eects of wall penetrate far into the liquid. When the intertial forces acting on the uid are far greater than the viscous forces, such an assumption is not valid and the ow is said to be turbulent. A transition from laminar to turbulent regimes is governed by the non-dimensional number indicating the ratio of intertial to viscous forces and is named after Reynolds. Du0 Du0 Re = = D is the characteristic length scale (diameter for a tube ow, width of channel for ow between two parallel plates etc.,), u0 is the characteristic velocity (typically the average velocity or far eld velocity) and is the kinematic viscosity. Range of Re for validity of a laminar solution for a problem of certain geometry is obtained from careful experiments. Equivalent diameter: For tubes of non-circular cross sections or for other geometries, the equivalent diameter can be dened as 4 cross sectional area De = wetted perimeter Thus, for the case of ow between two parallel plates separated by a distance of 2 that is much smaller than the width of the plates W , De = 4.
3.2
Trivial case reproducing Newtons Law

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x2 u1,max
111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000

Figure 3.1: Newtons Law Figure 3.1 shows the problem denition. Assumptions: G. Phanikumar 32
x1
3.2. TRIVIAL CASE REPRODUCING NEWTONS LAW Flow is unidirectional. Only u1 is to be known, u2 and u3 are zero. Flow is steady state.
u1 t
= 0.
u1 x1
Flow is fully developed.
= 0.
Flow is entirely due to the top surface being moved at u1,max and no body force or pressure gradients exist. Boundary Conditions: No slip condition at bottom layer: at y = 0, u1 = 0. No slip condition at top layer: at y = , u1 = u1,max . Solution: Use N-S equation for u1 and eliminate terms as per the assumptions above. 1 p u1 u1 u1 u1 + u1 + u2 + u3 = F1 + x1 t x1 x2 x3 or u1 = Ax2 + B Using the boundary conditions, A= u1,max B=0 y u1 x2 (3.3) 2 u1 =0 x2 2 2 u1 2 u1 2 u1 + + x2 x2 x2 1 2 3 (3.1)
(3.2)
or u1 = u1,max Using Newtons law 21 = yx = yx =
u1,max
The solution is plotted schematically in gure 3.2.

x2 x2 x2
u1,max
u x1 yx
Figure 3.2: Velocity and Stress distribution in the Newtons Law problem Transport Phenomena Notes 33 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 3. SPECIFIC CASES OF FLUID FLOW Convention: 12 or 12 is on plane 1 and in the direction 2. As for the sign, there are two dierent convections adapted in the literature. Convention +: In the above case, we have used the convention that the shear stress is positive and it is exerted 1 by the top layer on the uid beneath it so that Newtons law is written as 21 = u2 . x Shear stress yx is stress exerted on plane y in the positive direction x by the layer at greater y on the layer at lesser y. This is the convention adapted in this handout. Convention -: This is favoured by [BSL02] for the reasons quoted below. Shear stress xy is stress exerted on plane x in direction y by the layer at lesser y on the layer at greater y. Quoting from [BSL02] section 1.2, page 19: Note on the Sign Convention for the Stress Tensor We have emphasised in connection with Eq. 1.1-2 (and in the generalization in this section) that yx is the force in the positive x direction on a unit area perpendicular to the y direction, this being the force per unit area exerted by the uid in the region of the lesser y on the uid of greater y. In most uid dynamics and elasticity books, the words lesser and greater are interchanged and Eq 1.1-2 is written as yx = +(dvx /dy). The advantages of the sign convention used in this book are: (a) the sign convention used in Newtons law of viscosity is consistent with that used in Fouriers law of heat conduction and Ficks law of diusion; (b) the sign convention used for ij is the same as that for convective momentum ux vv (see section 1.7 and Table 19.2-2); (c) in Eq 1.2-2, the terms pij and ij have the same sign axed, and the terms p and ii are both positive in compression (in accordance with common usage in thermodynamics); (d) all terms in the entropy production in Eq. 24.1-5 have the same sign. Clearly the sign convention in Eqs. 1.1-2 and 1.2-6 is arbitrary, and either sign convention can be used, provided the physical meaning of the sign convention is clearly understood. Note: Figure 2.8 of [Gas92] shows a symmetric plot of velocity prole as well as shear stress prole for a channel ow. There is an error in the shear stress prole. Watch out!
3.3
Film ow
Consider the case of a lm of liquid falling on an inclined plane as shown in gure 3.3. Assumptions: Flow is unidirectional. Only u1 needs to be known, u2 = u3 = 0. Flow is steady state:
u1 t
= 0.
u1 x1
Flow is fully developed i.e., it varies only along x2 but not along x1 or x3 . x1 .
= 0 for all
The only driving force for the lm to fall is gravity: F = g cos x1 + g sin x2 . G. Phanikumar 34 Transport Phenomena Notes
3.3. FILM FLOW
Figure 3.3: Schematic of a lm ow problem Boundary conditions: Thickness of the lm is . No slip condition at the bottom of the plane: at x2 = , u1 = 0.
u1 At x2 = 0, there is a free surface on which the shear stresses are zero. x2 = 0 at x2 = 0.
Solution: Use N-S equation for u and eliminate terms as per the assumptions above. u1 u1 u1 1 p u1 + u1 + u2 + u3 = F1 + x2 x3 x1 t x1 0 = g cos + 2 u1 x2 2 2 u1 2 u1 2 u1 + + x2 x2 x2 2 3 1 (3.4)
(3.5)
2 u1 g cos = 2 x2 u1 = g cos x2 2 + C1 x2 + C2 2
Using the boundary conditions, C1 = 0. C2 = Hence, g cos 2 2
( x )2 2 g cos 2 u1 = 1 2 u1 |max = 2 g cos 2 u1 x2 G. Phanikumar
Using Newtons law 21 = yx = Transport Phenomena Notes 35
CHAPTER 3. SPECIFIC CASES OF FLUID FLOW
yx = g cos x2 u1 =
0
u1 dx2 2 g cos 2 = = u1 |max 3 3
If W is the width of the plane, mass ow rate M is: 2 3 W g cos M = W u1 = 3 The solutions are plotted schematically in gure 3.4.
x2 x2 x2
u1,max x1
u yx
Figure 3.4: Velocity and Stress distribution in a lm ow problem Validity: Re = 4u1 25
3.4
Flow between two plates

pH x2 x1 2
11111111111111111 00000000000000000 11111111111111111 00000000000000000 11111111111111111 00000000000000000 11111111111111111 00000000000000000
p 11111111111111111 00000000000000000 L 11111111111111111 00000000000000000 11111111111111111 00000000000000000 11111111111111111 00000000000000000

L
Figure 3.5: Flow in a channel Figure 3.5 shows the problem denition. We choose the axes to make the maximum out of the symmetry of the problem. Assumptions: Flow is unidirectional. Only u1 is to be known, u2 and u3 are zero. Flow is steady state. G. Phanikumar
u1 t
= 0. 36 Transport Phenomena Notes
3.4. FLOW BETWEEN TWO PLATES Flow is fully developed.

u1 x1
= 0.
pH pL L
p Pressure gradient is constant x1 =
Boundary Conditions: No slip condition at bottom layer: at y = , u1 = 0. No slip condition at top layer: at y = , u1 = 0. Use N-S equation for u1 and eliminate terms as per the assumptions above. u1 u1 u1 1 p u1 + u1 + u2 + u3 = F1 + x2 x3 x1 t x1 or 2 u1 1 p p L pH = = 2 x1 L x2 2 u1 = 2A x2 2 A= p H pL 2L 2 u1 2 u1 2 u1 + + x2 x2 x2 1 2 3 (3.6)
(3.7) (3.8)
u1 = Ax2 + Bx1 + C 1 Using the boundary conditions, pH pL 2 x2 2 L 2 u1 x2
u1 = Using Newtons law
21 = 21 = 21 = Maximum velocity: u1 |max = Average velocity:
p H pL (2x2 ) 2L p H pL 2 L 2
2 p H pL 2 u1 = u1 |max = 3 L 3 The solutions are plotted schematically in gure 3.6. Interpretation of 21 . At x2 = 0, 21 = +A. Recollecting convention + we are using for Newtons law, the shear stress is exerted by the layer at greater x2 on the layer at lesser x2 ie., by the liquid on the wall. At x2 = , 21 = A. The shear stress is exerted by the layer at greater x2 on the layer at lesser x2 ie., by the wall on the liquid (thus the negative sign). Transport Phenomena Notes 37 G. Phanikumar

x2 x2
x2
u1,max
u x1 yx
Figure 3.6: Flow in a channel
3.5
Exercises
1. Mixing lm: Problem 2B.3 and 2B.4 of [BSL02]. An incompressible Newtonian uid is contained between two long plates of width W = 1 m (along z) and a distance B = 1 mm apart as shown in gure 3.7 below. The plate on the right is moved upwards at a velocity v0 . Gravity g = 9.81 m s2 acts along y axis downwards, density of uid = 1000 kg m3 and viscosity of uid 0.01 Pa s. Assume the ow is uniaxial, steady state and fully developed. (a) Calculate v0 such that the net volume ow rate across a y plane is zero. (b) What is the ratio of the width of the uid layer that ows downwards to the width of the uid layer that ows upwards. (c) Sketch a schematic of the ow eld.
v0
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 y
111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000 111 000
x
Figure 3.7: Mixing lm 2. Slag lm: Problem 2.5 of [Gas92]. A layer of molten slag of density 2700 kg m3 and viscosity 0.3 Pa s is being transferred from one reverberatory furnace to another by ow down a plane between the two furnaces inclined at 10o to the horizontal. The plane is 5 m in width and 5 m in length and the mass ow rate of the slag is 7.5 kg s1 . Neglecting the end eects, calculate (a) thickness of the slag layer (b) average linear ow velocity of the slag and (c) mean residence time of slag on the plane. (d) Fraction of slag that remains on the plane for times equal to or greater than the mean residence time. Answer: (a) 4.77 103 kg m1 s1 (b) 0.116 m s1 (c) 43 s (d) 0.423 3. Squeegee device: A continuous sheet (1.5 m wide) of metal is cold-rolled by passing vertically between rolls at a constant speed of 0.3 m s1 . Before entering the rolls, the sheet passes through a tank of lubricating oil equipped with a squeegee device that coats both sides of the sheet uniformly as it exits. The amount of oil that is carried through can be controlled by the squeegee device. Determine the mass rate of oil as a function G. Phanikumar 38 Transport Phenomena Notes
3.6. FLOW THROUGH A PIPE of thickness of oil lm that usually range between 0 mm and 0.6 mm. Properties of the lubricating oil: = 962 kg m3 , = 4.1 103 Pa s.
Squeegee d
Figure 3.8: Squeegee device
3.6
Flow through a pipe

111111111111111111 p000000000000000000 H
r Fz z p 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 L 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000
L
111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000

R
Figure 3.9: Pipe Flow Figure 3.9 shows the problem denition. Assumptions: Flow is unidirectional: Only uz is to be known, ur and u are zero Flow is steady state:
uz t
=0
uz z
Flow is fully developed:
=0
p z
Pressure gradient is constant: Boundary Conditions: Transport Phenomena Notes
p L
39
G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 3. SPECIFIC CASES OF FLUID FLOW No slip condition at pipe wall: at r = R, uz = 0. Finite velocity at center: at r = 0, uz = . Use N-S equation in cylindrical co-ordinate system for uz and eliminate terms as per the assumptions above. uz uz u uz uz 1 p + + uz = Fz + ur t r r z z 1 2 uz 2 uz 1 uz + r + 2 + z 2 r r r r 2 1 p 1 0 = Fz + L r r uz r r
(3.9)
1 p 2 Fz r + C1 ln(r) + C2 uz = 4 4 L Using boundary conditions, C1 = 0 Fz 1 p R2 C2 = 4 4 L 1 p Fz uz = (R2 r 2 ) 4 4 L Using Newtons law 21 = zr = uz r
zr
1 p Fz = (2r) 4 4 L
The solution is plotted schematically in gure 3.16. uz |max Average ow velocity uz : 1 p Fz = R2 4 4 L
Volume ow rate V :
Fz 1 p R4 V = r uz = 8 8 L
2
uz 2rdr 1 uz = 0 R = uz |max 2 2rdr 0
Mass ow rate M (Hagen-Poiseuille Equation): 2 p Fz R4 M = V = 8 8 L G. Phanikumar 40 Transport Phenomena Notes
3.7. EXERCISES
r
uz,max
zr
Figure 3.10: Solution to Pipe Flow
3.7
Exercises
1. Axial lm ow: Problem 2B.7 of [BSL02]. A cylindrical rod of radius kR moves axially with velocity v = v0 along the axis of a cylindrical cavity of radius R as shown in gure below. Assuming that the pressure at both ends of the cavity is same and uid ows through the annular region only because of the rod motion. (a) Find the velocity distribution in the narrow annular region. (b) Find the mass ow rate through the annular region. (c) Obtain the viscous force acting on the rod over a length L. Answer: (a) uz ln (r/R) = u0 ln k (b) R2 u0 1 k 2 2 2k M= 2 ln (1/k) (c) 2Lu0 Fz = ln (1/k)
2R
2kR
v0
Figure 3.11: Axial lm ow 2. Leaking tank: Water of viscosity = 0.01 Pa s and density = 1000 kg m3 from a large tank is to be transported using a rigid smooth tube of 1 cm dia connected at the bottom across a distance of L = 100 m as shown in gure 3.12. Assuming that at steady state the tank is large enough that the height of water in it (h) does not change much in time, what should be h such that the ow rate in the tube is one litre per minute. Transport Phenomena Notes 41 G. Phanikumar
2R
Figure 3.12: Leaking Tank 3. Cubic network of pipes: Problem 2B.12 of [BSL02]. A uid is owing in laminar ow from A to B through a network of tubes, as depicted in gure 3.13. Obtain an expression for the mass ow rate w of the uid entering at A (or leaving at B) as a function of the modied pressure drop pA pB . Neglect the disturbances at the various tube junctions. Neglect any body forces that may act on some of the segments due to their orientation. Answer: 3 (pA pB ) R4 M= 20L
Figure 3.13: Cubic network of pipes
4. Blasius equation: Section 4.1 of [Gas92]. For steady viscous ow through a circular tube, the axial velocity prole is given approximately by the Blasius equation below. ( r )m u = u0 1 R
For turbulent ow, m = 1/7. Assuming the density is constant, what is the average velocity? Is it closer to the maximum than in the case of Poiseuille ow? Comment. Answer: 0.817u0
5. Channel ow between porous walls: Problem 3B.16 of [BSL02]. Newtonian uid ows through a rectangular channel with porous walls with a height h and innite extensions along x1 and x3 directions as shown in gure 3.14. The uid leaks through the walls at a constant velocity of vw . The plane ow is steady, density and viscosity are constant and there are no body forces. The ow takes place due to a constant pressure G. Phanikumar 42 Transport Phenomena Notes
3.7. EXERCISES gradient p . Velocity is fully developed along x1 . (a) Use the continuity equation to L obtain u2 (x2 ). (b) Write the Navier-Stokes equation for u1 after simplication. (c) Assuming no slip boundary conditions applicable for u1 , show that the velocity distribution can be given by the expression below. (d) Show that in the limit vw 0, we retrieve the velocity prole of a plane channel ow. Note the location of axes dierent from the ones used in the class. vw x2 p h x2 1 e u1 (x2 ) = vw h L vw h 1e vw
x2
x1
vw Figure 3.14: Channel ow between porous walls 6. Euler equation: Euler equation governs the ow of inviscid uids i.e., uids with nearly zero viscosity. (a) Use the information given at the end of the question paper and write down Euler equation in one dimension case for ow in a vertical tube due to both gravity as well as pressure gradient. (b) Show that in steady state, it reduces to the following expression popularly known as Bernouli equation. p v2 + gz + z = constant 2 7. Couette ow: The Navier-Stokes equation for the component of velocity in cylindrical coordinate system is given to you. Annular region between two coaxial cylindrical surfaces of radii ri and ro (for inner and outer radii, respectively) is lled with a uid. The outer cylinder is rotating with an angular velocity of o and the inner cylinder is rotating with an angular velocity of i , both clockwise. Assume that the uid ow is uniform, steady state and fully developed and is only due to the rotation of outer cylinder. (a) Determine the velocity distribution in the liquid in the annular region. (b) Show that the result will approximate to Newtons Law when the dierence of radii is very small compared to either radii. 8. Channel ow of two stratied immiscible uids: Section 2.5 of [BSL02]. Two immiscible incompressible uids of viscosities 1 (bottom) and 2 (top) are owing between two stationary parallel plates under a pressure gradient P . Assume 1 > 2 . The thickL ness of the two layers is same. (a) Derive an expression for the shear stress as a function Transport Phenomena Notes 43 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 3. SPECIFIC CASES OF FLUID FLOW of distance between the two plates. (b) Determine the location of zero shear stress from the bottom. (c) Draw schematically the shear stress prole.
3.8
Creeping ow over a sphere
When Re < 0.1, the ow around a smooth sphere is such that the viscous eects are present all around the sphere and no ow separation takes place. For such a ow regime called creeping ow. around a sphere, we are interested not in the ow distribution around it but the viscous drag. The velocity of a sphere falling in a liquid column (terminal velocity) or the far eld velocity of a uid owing around a sphere is u as shown in the gure 3.15.
Creeping flow Normal pressure Tangential shear stress
Figure 3.15: Creeping ow around a sphere We borrow the expressions for pressure and stress for creeping ow around a sphere from section 2.6 of [BSL02]. Pressure: 3 u p = p0 gz 2 R Stress: 2 R cos r
2 4 R 3v R cos + rr = r r R 4 3 u R r = sin 2 R r
The normal force along z due to the z component of pressure and normal stress rr is given as: 2 Fn = (p|r=R + rr |r=R ) cos R2 sin dd
0 0
4 Fn = R3 g + 2Ru 3 The rst term 4 R3 g is called buoyancy force and the second term 2Ru is called form 3 drag. G. Phanikumar 44 Transport Phenomena Notes
3.9. EXERCISES The tangential force along z due to z component of shear stress r is given as: Ft =
r |r=R sin R2 sin dd
Ft = 4Ru This term 4Ru is called friction drag. The weight of the falling sphere should equal the sum of form drag and friction drag: 4 4 3 R s g = R3 g + 6Ru 3 3 Stokes Law: 4 3 R (s ) g = 6Ru 3
3.9
Exercises
1. Example 3.2 of [Gas92]. When a hollow sphere of diameter 0.005 m and composite density 1500 kg m3 is dropped into a column of oil of density 888 kg m3 , it attains a terminal velocity of 0.01 m s1 . (a) Calculate the viscosity of the oil. (b) Comment if the estimate is valid. Answer: = 0.834 Pa s. 2. Example 3.3 of [Gas92]. The product of the deoxidation of liquid steel by the addition of aluminum is solid alumina. It forms throughout the liquid and oats to the top. This process is performed for a xed duration of time after which the oating mass is skikked o. Those particles that take longer to oat will remain in the solidied steel as inclusions and are detrimental to the mechanical properties. Assuming that the solid alumina forms as small spheres, (a) calculate the size of the smallest sphere that can oat to the surface of a 1.5 m deep quiescent liquid steel in 20 min. (b) Comment if the estimate is valid. Answer: R = 33.2 m. 3. Problem 3.1 of [Gas92]. Viscosities of experimental glasses are being determined by measuring the terminal velocity of a platinum sphere falling through a column of molten glass. When dropped into a column of standard glass of viscosity 10 Pa s and density 2500 kg m3 , the measured terminal velocity is 0.0258 m s1 . When dropped into an experimental glass of density 3000 kg m3 , the measured velocity is 0.0168 m s1 . Calculate the viscosity of the experimental molten glass. Density of platinum is 21 450 kg m3 . Answer: = 14.96 Pa s. 4. Problem 3.4 of [Gas92]. Small glass spheres of density 2620 kg m3 are allowed to fall through CCl4 of density 1590 kg m3 and viscosity 9.58 104 Pa s. Calculate (a) the maximum diameter of sphere for which the ow obeys Stokes law (b) the terminal velocity that a sphere of this diameter attains. Answer: (a) 46.8 m (b) 1.28 mm s1 Transport Phenomena Notes 45 G. Phanikumar
dp
Figure 3.16: Porous medium and its approximation as a bundle of tubes
3.10
Creeping ow through a porous medium
A porous medium is characterised by the fraction of voids or porosity . = volume of voids volume of porous body
For a given porosity, the distribution of porosity could be such that the surface area is a second variable. Thus a porous medium is also characterised by surface area per unit volume of solid S0 . S0 = wettable surface area volume of solid
If a porous medium can be imagined to act like a bundle of thin tubes, then the equivalent diameter could be dened as hydraulic radius: Rh = volume of voids wettable surface area
Using the denition of , volume of voids is V . Using the denition of S0 , the wettable surface area is S0 V (1 ). Rh = S0 (1 ) (3.10)
If A is the cross sectional area of the porous body, then A is the cross sectional area of the voids through which the liquid can ow. If u is the actual velocity of the uid through the void, we can dene the average (supercial) velocity us through the entire porous body such is same: that the volume ow rate V us A = uA = V or us = u (3.11) We take clue from the Poiseuille ow the connects the pressure gradient with the ow through a tube: p R2 1 p R2 u= = (3.12) L 8 K1 L G. Phanikumar 46 Transport Phenomena Notes
3.10. CREEPING FLOW THROUGH A POROUS MEDIUM Darcys Law: Considering a porous medium as a bundle of tubes, the volume ow rate is proportional to the cross sectional area and the pressure gradient. The proportionality constant is called as permeability coecient. p V = kD A L (3.13)
Considering that the nature of ow through a porous medium is a lot tortuous than through a tube, the constant K1 in equation 3.12 is taken not as 8 but 4.2 as has also been validated through experiments. Now substituting equations 3.11, 3.10 into 3.12 with 4.2 as the constant, we get the BlakeKozeny equation: 1 p 3 2 4.2 L S0 (1 )2
us = Validity:
(3.14)
Evaluating Re for porous medium taking the equivalent diameter as 2Rh , Re = uD us =2 S0 (1 )
We dene the Reynolds number for porous medium as: Rec = s u S0 (1 ) (3.15)
The Blake-Kozeny equation is valid for Rec < 2 Packed bed of spheres: If the porous medium is made of spherical particles of diameter dp , then S0 , the surface area per unit volume of solid can be estimated directly since total wettable area is the sum of surface area of all spheres and total volume of solid is the sum of volume of all spheres. S0 = 3 6 4R2 = = 4 R dp R3 3
Substituting this in Blake-Kozeny equation, we get the following equation: p 150us (1 )2 = L d2 3 p
(3.16)
Evaluating Re for porous medium made of spherical particles (packed bed of spheres) and taking the equivalent diameter as dp , Re = uD us dp = 3(1 )
We dene the Reynolds number for packed bed of spheres as: Transport Phenomena Notes 47 G. Phanikumar
ReE =
us dp (1 )
(3.17)
3.11
Exercises
1. Problem 3.12 of [GP94]. Preliminary experimental studies have shown that the porosity in a newly developed packed bed reactor is < 0.6. The pellets have a diameter of 30 mm and the reducing gas ows through the bed at a rate of 0.025 kg s1 . The reactor has 3 m 3 m square cross section and is 15 m in height. A constant pressure dierence of 690 Pa is maintained between the inlet and outlet nozzles, and it may be assumed that the temperature is uniform throughout the reactor. You are required to evaluate the bed porosity. The properties of the gas are = 2.07 105 Pa s and = 1.2 kg m3 . Comment if the solution is valid. Answer: = 0.054.
G. Phanikumar
48
Chapter 4 Correlations for turbulent regime

At large Reynolds numbers, the ow distribution cannot be obtained through a simple analytical expression as it could be time dependent. In such cases, we are interested in the force associated with the ow and its eectiveness in imparting kinetic energy to the uid. For this, we dene a quantity called friction factor and express it as a function of non-dimensional quantities such as Re and relative roughness . For laminar ow, the expression for friction factor must result back to the analytical expressions derived for the situation.
4.1
Friction factor
Friction factor f is dened in the following expression: 1 Fk = f A u2 2

1 u2 2
(4.1)
is the kinetic energy per unit volume of the uid with average velocity u.
For internal ow, A is the wetted area. For external ow or ow over submerged objects, A is the area projected on a plane perpendicular to the velocity u. Fk is the force associated with the uid ow. For ow through a tube, it would be the pressure times the cross-sectional area over which it acts. For a sphere falling through a liquid, it would be the buoyancy force.
4.2
Flow through tube

p , L
For internal ow through a tube of diameter D, length L due to pressure gradient p or f= 1 p D 4 L 1 u2 2 49 D2 1 = f DL u2 4 2
(4.2)
CHAPTER 4. CORRELATIONS FOR TURBULENT REGIME For laminar regime, we know that u= Substitute the following in equation 4.1: A = 2RL Fk = pR2 to get p u2 =f L R Eliminating
p L
p R2 L 8
(4.3)
using the expression for Poiseuille ow, we get f= 8 16 = 16 = Ru Du Re
Friction factors for pipe ow: Laminar ow through smooth pipe (Re < 2100): f= 16 Re
Turbulent ow through smooth pipe (3000 < Re < 105 ): f = 0.0791Re0.25 Turbulent ow through rough pipe (4 104 < Re < 108 ): f Here, is relative roughness
0.5
= 3.6 log10
3.7
1.11
6.9 Re
4.3
Flow across a sphere
For laminar regime, we know that the force associated with the ow is given by Stokes law. Substitute the following in equation 4.1: A is projected area for ow over submerged objects: A = R2 u = u Fk = 6Ru G. Phanikumar 50 Transport Phenomena Notes
4.4. FLOW THROUGH A POROUS MEDIUM to get 1 6Ru = f R2 u2 2 Simplifying, we get f= Friction factors for ow over sphere: 1 F = f R2 u2 2 Friction Factor f = 24/Re f = 18.5Re0.6 ( )2 f= 24/Re + 0.5407 f = 0.44 Re range Re < 0.1 2 < Re < 500 Re < 6000 500 < Re < 2 105 Remarks Laminar Turbulent Turbulent Newtons Law (4.4) 24 Re
4.4
Flow through a porous medium
For creeping ow through a porous medium, we can use the Darcys law to approximate the porous medium to be a bundle of tubes and obtain the following relation from equation 3.14. Use the denition of friction factor applied for tube ow and expressions as used in the derivation of 3.14: p
2 1 Dh = f Dh L u2 4 2
p u2 =f 2 s L Rh Thus, p S0 (1 ) 2 us =f L 3 Substituting equation 3.14 in the above to eliminate pressure drop, f = 4.2 4.2 (1 ) S0 = Rec us
(4.5)
Friction factors for ow through porous medium: For Rec < 2: f= Transport Phenomena Notes 4.2 Rec G. Phanikumar
51
CHAPTER 4. CORRELATIONS FOR TURBULENT REGIME For 2 < Rec < 1000: f= For 1000 < Rec < 105 : f = 0.292
4.2 + 0.292 Rec
4.5
Flow through a packed bed of spheres
For creeping ow through a packed bed of sphere, we can use the porous medium equation 3.14 and substitute expression for S0 . S0 = Substitute the same in equation 4.5 to get p 6 (1 ) 2 =f us L dp 3 We dene 6f as fE so that: (1 ) 2 p = fE us dp 3 L Eliminating
p , L
6 dp
(4.6)
(4.7)
we get fE = 150 (1 ) 150 = ReE us dp
Friction factors for ow through packed bed of spheres: For ReE < 10: fE = For 10 < ReE < 1000: fE = For 1000 < ReE < 105 : fE = 1.75 150 ReE
150 + 1.75 ReE
4.6
Exercises
1. Flow past innite cylinder: Problem 6B.9 of [BSL02]. The ow past a long cylinder is very dierent from the ow past a sphere. It is found that, when the uid approaches a velocity u , the kinetic force acting on a length L of the cylinder is given by: Fk = G. Phanikumar 4u L ln (7.4/Re) Transport Phenomena Notes
52
4.6. EXERCISES The Reynolds number is dened here as Re = Du / and the above equation is valid up to Re = 1. For this range, what is the formula for the friction factor as a function of the Reynolds number? 2. Examples 4.1, 4.3 of [Gas92]. (a) Calculate the pressure drop required to pass water at 300 K through a smooth pipe of inside diameter 0.05 m at the rate of 1.5 103 m3 s1 . = 997 kg m3 , = 8.57 104 Pa s. (b) What would be the answer if the pipe is not smooth but has a relative roughness of 0.002? Answer: (a) 3.8 104 Pa (b) 4.64 104 Pa. 3. Examples 4.2, 4.4 of [Gas92]. (a) Calculate the ow rate of water at 300 K in a smooth pipe of 0.07 m inner diameter when the pressure drop per unit length is 125 Pa/m. (b) What would be the answer if the pipe has a relative roughness of 0.002. Answer: (a) 3.7 kg s1 (b) 3.17 kg s1 . 4. Problem 4.2 of [Gas92]. Water at 300 K is pumped at an average linear ow velocity of 2 m s1 through a 30 m length of horizontal pipe of inside diameter 0.025 m and relative roughness of 0.004. (a) Calculate the pressure drop over the length of pipe. (b) The rough pipe is replaced by a smooth walled pipe of that diameter, which with the same pressure drop, gives the same average linear ow velocity. Calculate the required diameter of the smooth walled pipe. Answer: (a) 72.07 kPa (b) 0.0183 m. 5. Problem 4.4 of [Gas92]. The average ow velocity of water at 300 K in a smooth pipe of internal diameter 0.07 m is 1 m s1 when the rate of pressure drop is 125 Pa m1 . Calculate the average ow velocity if the relative roughness were 0.002. Answer: 0.83 m s1 . 6. Example 4.7 of [Gas92]. Calculate the terminal velocity attained by a steel sphere of diameter 0.01 m when it is dropped in still air. The density of steel is 7500 kg m3 , density of air is 1.177 kg m3 and viscosity of air is 1.85 105 Pa s. Answer: 43.5 m s1 . 7. Problem 4.5 of [Gas92]. Density of lead is 11 340 kg m3 . A lead shot of diameter 3 mm is red upward into still air at 300 K over open water. Calculate (a) the drag force that the shot experiences as it leaves the gun barrel at a velocity of 150 m s1 (b) the terminal velocity that it attains when it falls through the still air and (c) the terminal velocity that it attains when it falls through the still water. Answer: (a) 0.0412 N (b) 29.3 m s1 (c) 0.9618 m s1 . 8. Settling ratio is dened as the ratio of sizes of two particles that settle at the same time. It is useful to know the settling ratio of two minerals in a given medium so that they could later be mechanically separated using a sieve. Assuming smooth spherical shapes of particles, estimate the settling ratio of mineral A to mineral B in water for (a) laminar ow regime and (b) turbulent ow regime. The properties of water are = 997 kg m3 , = 8.57 105 Pa s. Density of minerals are A = 2700 kg m3 and B = 3400 kg m3 . Answer: (a) 1.19 (b) 1.41. 9. Problem 4.8 of [Gas92]. Air at 300 K and an average pressure of 101.2 kPa is owing through a packed bed of spheres of 1 cm diameter. The bed is cylindrical in geometry with 0.1 m in dia and 0.2 m in height and a porosity of 0.35. Calculate the pressure drop across the bed required to give a mass ow rate of air of 0.05 kg s1 . Answer: 21 kPa. Transport Phenomena Notes 53 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 4. CORRELATIONS FOR TURBULENT REGIME 10. Problem 3.13 of [GP94]. Molten aluminum is passed through a horizontal lter bed of Al2 O3 spheres in order to remove drossy oxides from the aluminum. The lter bed comprises of two dierent packings arranged in series. The rst packing encountered by the ow captures large drossy particles and the second packing captures the smaller drossy particles. Given the lengths as L1 = 0.7L2 , 1 = 2 , dp,1 = 2dp,2, compute the ratio of the pressure drop across the rst and second beds for the cases of (a) creeping ow through the bed (b) fully turbulent ow through the bed. Answer: (a) 0.175 (b) 0.35
G. Phanikumar
54
Chapter 5 Energy Transport

5.1 Introduction
Energy transport or heat transfer is basically through two means: conduction and radiation. The third mode of heat transfer by convection could be imagined as a combination of conduction and advection. Conduction is a mode of energy transport by vibrational, rotational and translational degrees of freedom of atoms. The rst two are predominant modes of energy exchange between atoms in solid and liquid states while the third is predominant in gaseous state. Energy transport by radiation involves emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation as photons typically in the infrared wavelength range. Taking cue from Lamberts law that the attenuation of electromagnetic radiation in a medium is exponential (qz = q0 exp (mz)), the absorption coecient m being higher for medium of higher density, one can consider that radiative heat transfer is mostly a surface phenomena for solids and liquids. Thus, it is often taken in to account in the boundary conditions. The governing equation for heat transfer by conduction can be derived similar to the way the governing equations for momentum transfer (Navier-Stokes equations) were derived. In that process we had followed the following sequence of steps: Balance equation or conservation principle Gauss theorem to convert surface integral to volume integral Linear constitutive relation Curie principle to simplify property tensor We will follow the same steps to derive the governing equation for energy transport. The balance equation for heat transfer is the rst law of thermodynamics or the conservation of energy. If dU is the change in the internal energy, dq is the heat ow into the system, pdV is the work done by the system and dWother is the work done by the system other than reduction in volume, dU = dq pdV + dWother dWother is usually zero for the kind of situations we are interested in. Using denition of enthalpy H as H = U + P V , 55
CHAPTER 5. ENERGY TRANSPORT
dH = dU + pdV + V dp = dq pdV + pdV + V dp = dq + V dp Writing H as a function of T and p, H= H T dT +

p
H p
dp
Since pressure is usually left constant at atmospheric pressure, H is usally Hp . Thus, Hp = dq = Cp dT = Cp (T Tref ) (5.1)
If the volumetric heat generation term is g and Ji is the surface heat ux through a surface of area dS and surface normal ni , then we can write the energy balance for a control volume of volume dV as d dt HdV = gdV Ji ni dS
Using equation 5.1 and making use of Reynolds transport theorem (section A.8) to take the material derivative inside the integral: d Cp (T Tref )dV = dt gdV Ji ni dS (5.2)
Using the Gauss theorem to convert the surface integral to volume integral, d Cp (T Tref )dV = dt gdV Ji dV xi (5.3)
Since the integration is over the same control volume dV , we can equate the integrands. d Ji Cp T = g dt xi (5.4)
To obtain a relation between the surface heat ux Ji and its eects, we seek a linear constitutive equation as given in the following section.
5.2
Fouriers rst law
Since surface heat ux Ji tends to increase temperatures locally leading to temperature dierences in the body, it can be related to temperature gradients. The most general way of such a relation could be as given below: Jj = kij T xi
The thermal conductivity (kij ) is a tensor of order 2. Usually, the materials of interest are polycrystalline metallic materials and liquids, both of which can be considered as isotropic in G. Phanikumar 56 Transport Phenomena Notes
5.2. FOURIERS FIRST LAW most of the situations1 . Using Curie principle, thermal conductivity being a material property, it must exhibit at least as much symmetry as the material itself. Thermal conductivity for an isotropic material will be an isotropic tensor and can be written as kij = kij . For single crystalline materials that are anisotropic, one can use symmetry arguments to reduce the number of independent values necessary to write the thermal conductivity tensor. Lars Onsagers reciprocal relations come of great use here in stating that for crystals of rotational symmetry such as 3, 4 and 6 fold, the property tensor can be represented by a symmetric matrix. Using the theorem that all symmetric tensors can be diagonalised (section A.2), and applying the four fold symmetry on the tensor to reduce the number of independent values to one as shown in section A.5, we can write the thermal conductivity tensor as following for polycrystalline materials, liquids and single crystalline materials with four fold symmetry: kij = kij However, for single crystalline materials that donot possess cubic symmetry such as graphite, thermal conductivity should be written as a tensor (with two or more components). Thus, for the kind of materials that we interested in (i.e., isotropic), the ux can be expressed in terms of temperature gradient as : Jj = kij or First law of Fourier heat conduction: Ji = k T xi (5.5) T xi
The Fouriers equation can be written in a co-ordinate system independent general form as: q = kT such that it can be written for dierent co-ordinate systems as follows: Cartesian (x1 , x2 , x3 ): = k q Cylindrical (r, , z): = k q Spherical (r, , ): q = k
1
T T T x2 + x3 x1 + x1 x2 x3
T 1 T T r+ + z r r z
T 1 T 1 T r+ + r r r sin
Highly textured polycrystalline materials and liquid crystals are exceptions
57
G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 5. ENERGY TRANSPORT
5.3
Fouriers second law
Substituting equation 5.5 in to 5.4: d T k Cp T = g xi dt xi dCp T T = k +g xi dt xi For constant properties, using thermal diusivity =
k Cp
(5.6)
T g + T = 2 T + u t Cp Expanding the operator for dierent co-ordinate systems: T T T T + u2 + u3 = + u1 x2 x3 t x1 Cylindrical: T T u T T + + uz = + ur t r r z Spherical: u T T T u T + ur + + = t r r r sin g 1 1 T 1 2T 2 T r + 2 sin + 2 2 + 2 2 Cp r r r r sin r sin
d u Recognising that for solids, = 0, leading to dt = t + = u system independent notation to write the Fouriers second law as: , t
(5.7)
Cartesian:
2T 2T 2T + + 2 2 x2 x2 x3 1
g Cp
(5.8)
1 T 1 2T 2T g r + 2 2 + 2 + z Cp r r r r
(5.9)
(5.10)
we can use co-ordinate
T g = 2 T + t Cp The expanded forms for the three co-ordinate systems of interest are: Cartesian (x1 , x2 , x3 ): T = t Cylindrical (r, , z): T = t 1 T 1 2T 2T g r + 2 2 + 2 + z Cp r r r r 2T 2T 2T + + 2 2 x2 x3 x2 1 g Cp
(5.11)
(5.12)
(5.13)
Spherical (r, , ): T 1 1 T 1 2T g 2 T = 2 r + 2 sin + 2 2 + 2 r r sin Cp t r r r sin G. Phanikumar 58
(5.14)
5.4. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
5.4
Boundary conditions
Neumann boundary condition: Heat ux is specied at the boundary. Dirichlet boundary condition: Temperature is specied at the boundaries. Newtons Law of cooling: Heat ux as a function of boundary temperature is specied at the boundary. The rate of heat transfer from a surface of a solid to the uid it is in contact with is proportional to the dierence in temperatures of the uid and the solid. q = h (Ts T ) The heat transfer coecient (h) is a property dependent on several factors including velocity of the uid, geometry of the surface and thermophysical properties of the two materials. A heat ux balance at the surface will connect the Fouriers equation with the Newtons law of cooling as follows: T |x=0 x Since h is always dened as a positive quantity irrespective of the direction of heat ow, q|x=0 = h (Ts T ) = k k T | x x=0 h= Ts T
Interface resistance: When smooth surfaces of two solids are in perfect contact, the interface can be said to be at one temperature. However, if the surfaces are not smooth and the contact is not perfect, there could be a jump in the interface temperatures2 and the resistance to heat ow across the interface is characterized by a parameter h, interfacial heat transfer coecient. The heat ux across the two interfaces can then be written similar to Newtons law as q|interface = h (Ts1 Ts2 ) Radiative heat ux: For gases at high temperatures or surfaces of solids or liquids at high temperatures, radiation can be a signicant mode of energy transport. When expressed as a boundary heat ux, it can written as: q = eSB T 4 SB is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and e is the emissivity. Radiative heat ux from surface 1 to surface 2 (of areas A1 and A2 ) that have view factors F12 and F21 is
4 4 4 4 q12 = A1 F12 (T1 T2 ) = A2 F21 (T1 T2 )
2 at a macro-scale. The temperature will be continuous without a jump when measured at micro-scale. Kapitza resistance is an exception
59
G. Phanikumar
Chapter 6 Heat transfer in solids

6.1
6.1.1
Steady state 1D heat transfer

Across a rectangular slab
T
T1
T2 x x1 x2
x
Figure 6.1: Heat ow across a slab At steady state, if q is the rate of heat transfer (Js1 ) across a slab area A: q T = k A x If the surface temperatures of the slab are T1 and T2 at x1 and x2 , respectively, then:
T2
T1
q dT = Ak
x2
dx
x1
T2 T1 =
q q (x1 x2 ) = x Ak Ak x T1 T2 = q Ak
(6.1)
Taking the analogy of electricity, T1 T2 is the driving force similar to voltage, q is the ux similar to current and x is the resistance. Now the resistance to heat ow is known, they can Ak combined in serial and parallel similar to the circuits in electricity. 60
6.1. STEADY STATE 1D HEAT TRANSFER As can be seen from the equation for ux: q T1 T2 =k A x doubling the slab thickness x will halve the heat ux.
6.1.2
Across a cylindrical wall
T1
T2 R R1 R2
x
Figure 6.2: Heat ow across a cylindrical wall At steady state, if q is the rate of heat transfer (Js1 ) across a cylindrical wall of (variable) area A = 2rL: q q T = = k A 2rL r Heat ow across a hollow cylindrical wall of inner radius R1 and outer R2 at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively, is then given by:
T2
T1
q dT = 2Lk
R2 R1
dr r
T2 T1 =
q R2 ln 2Lk R1 (6.2)
R2 ln R1 T1 T2 = q 2Lk
Drawing the analogy to electricity as above, the resistance to heat ow across a cylindrical wall is
ln
R2 R1
2Lk
. q q T1 T2 T1 T2 |r=R1 = =k =k R2 A 2LR1 R1 ln (1 + R ) R1 ln R1 R1
As can be seen from the equation for ux:
61
G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 6. HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS Doubling the slab thickness R will not necessarily halve the heat ux. It can be noted that in the limit of large curvature, R1 , R is a small quantity and ln (1 + R ) can be R1 R1 approximated to R leading to the above expression as: R1 q T1 T2 T1 T2 |r=R1 = k =k R R A R1 R1 which is the limit where a cylindrical wall of thickness R can be approximated to a rectangular slab of same thickness.
6.1.3
Across a spherical shell
At steady state, if q is the rate of heat transfer (Js1 ) across a spherical shell of (variable) area A = 4r 2 : q q T = = k 2 r A 4r Heat ow across a hollow sphere of inner radius R1 and outer R2 at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively, is then given by:
T2
T1
q dT = 4k
R2
R1
dr r2 (6.3)
q T2 T1 = 4k T1 T2 1 = q 4k
1 1 R1 R2 1 1 R1 R2
Drawing the analogy to electricity as above, the resistance to heat ow across a cylindrical wall ( ) 1 1 1 is 4k R2 R1 . T1 T2 q (T1 T2 )R2 =k =k A r=R1 RR1 R R T1 T2 1+ =k R1 R1 R
which is the limit where a spherical shell of thickness R can be approximated to a rectangular slab of same thickness.
6.1.4
Point eect of diusion
When the temperature dierences and the properties are kept constant, heat ux (heat per unit time per unit area) depends on the geometry - with the following geometries in the decreasing order of eectiveness: point, line, plane, edge, corner. Such a sequence of eectiveness of thermal diusion arises from the amount of space available for exchange of energy. Point eect of diusion comes of use when interpreting defects in casting. As can be seen from the equation for ux: G. Phanikumar 62 Transport Phenomena Notes
6.1. STEADY STATE 1D HEAT TRANSFER Doubling the slab thickness R will not necessarily halve the heat ux. It can be noted that in the limit of large curvature, R1 , R is a small quantity and goes to zero leading to the R1 above expression as: q T1 T2 =k A r=R1 R
which is the limit where a spherical wall of thickness R can be approximated to a slab of same thickness. The rationale behind this is the what we call as point eect of diusion. Taking the wall thickness to be same, we plot the three geometries below: Point eect of diusion 6 Denominator in ux term 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 20 x = 5 R = 5, cylindrical R = 5, spherical 40 60 radius of curvature R 80 100
Figure 6.3: Point eect of diusion
6.1.5
Across a planar composite wall

q A
Using the electrical analogy of the previous section, ux boundary condition 1 can be written such that the resistance to heat ow is Ah .
= h (Ts T )
At steady state, if q is the rate of heat transfer (Js1 ) across a planar composite wall of constant area A: q T2 T1 T3 T2 T4 T3 = hb (Tb T1 ) = k12 = k23 = k34 = ha (T4 Ta ) x23 x34 A x12 or 1 q 1 x12 x23 x34 + + + + Ta Tb = k12 k23 k34 hb A ha
1 Analogy with electricity: h and x act as resistances. Temperature is analogous to voltage k q dierence (driving force for the current). A is analogous to current.
63
G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 6. HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS
6.1.6
Across a cylindrical composite wall
Using the electrical analogue of the previous section, the heat ow across a composite hollow cylindrical wall is given by: r1 r2 ln r2 ln r3 ln r3 q 1 1 r4 Ta Tb = + + + + k12 k23 k34 r4 h4 2L r1 h1
6.2
Exercises
1. Heat is owing at steady state through an annular wall of a cylinder of inner radius R1 and outer radius R2 . Thermal conductivity of the wall material is approximated to be linear function of temperature with a value of k1 at the inner wall temperature T1 and k2 at the outer wall temperature T2 . (a) Derive an expression for the heat ow across the cylindrical shell. (b) Simplify the expression for the case when the wall thickness is very small compared to the radius of the cylinder. 2. Example 6.3 of [Gas92]. Hot water ows through a glass tube of inner radius 3 cm and outer radius 5 cm. The temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the tube are, respectively, 90 C and 85 C and the mean thermal conductivity of the glass is 0.84 W m1 K1 . (a) Calculate the rate of heat loss from the tube per unit length. (b)By how much is the rate of heat loss decreased if the wall thickness of the tube is doubled keeping the inner radius same. Answer: (a) 51.7 W m1 (b) 31.1 W m1 3. An iron slab of thickness 2 cm carries an electric current that generates heat at a rate of 10 106 W m3 . If the right side face of the slab is at 20 C, what should be the temperature of the left side face such that all the heat ux in the slab is from the left face to the right face at steady state? Properties of steel are k = 45 W m1 K1 , = 7210 kg m3 and Cp = 750 J kg1 K1 . 4. Example 6.4 of [Gas92]. A furnace wall consists of 15 cm thick silica brick (k = 1.1 W m1 K1 ), a 5 cm glass bre (k = 0.035 W m1 K1 and a 1 cm steel (k = 45 W m1 K1 ). Inner temperature of the furnace is 500 C and heat transfer coecient on the inner wall is 15 W m2 K1 . Ambient temperature is 20 C and heat transfer coecient on the outer wall is 20 W m2 K1 . (a) Calculate the power loss per unit area of furnace wall at steady state. (b) Temperatures at each junction. Answer: (a) 285.4 W m2 (b) Ti = 481 C, T1 = 442 C, T2 T3 34 C. 5. A 50 cm long tubular furnace is made of a 1 cm thick silica tube of 10 cm inner radius kept in a 5 mm thick steel tube of 15 cm outer dia with glass wool in between. Knowing that the glass wool would melt at 800 C and that furnace converts all its electrical power to heat energy, (a) what is the highest temperature that can be set in the furnace and (b) what is the power consumption at that temperature setting? Ignore end eects and assume steady state. The heat transfer coecients for inside and outside of the furnace can be taken to be 20 W m2 K1 . Assume room temperature to be 300 K . 6. Example 6.7 of [Gas92]. A copper wire of diameter 1 mm has an insulating plastic sheath of 0.5 mm around it. The heat transfer coecient on the surface exposed to ambient air at 30 C is 8 W m2 K1 . If the insulating plastic softens above 100 C, calculate the maximum current that can be passed through the wire. Properties of copper are G. Phanikumar 64 Transport Phenomena Notes
6.3. TRANSIENT 1D HEAT TRANSFER k = 380 W m1 K1 , = 1.96 108 m. Properties of the insulating plastic are k = 0.35 W m1 K1 and 0 m. Answer: 14.3 A
6.3
6.3.1
Transient 1D heat transfer

Introduction
Within the domain of unidirectional heat transfer where the transient evolution of temperatures is of interest, one can think of two extreme cases. The rst where the heat transfer from the solid is limited by thermal diusion through its bulk. This is when the removal of heat from the interface is not constrained. An example could be a hot ceramic piece kept in front of a fan. The second case is when bulk diusion of heat within the solid is not constrained at all but the heat transfer at the interface is limited by the surrounding medium. An example could be a hot copper block kept in still air. In the second case, one can assume that no thermal gradients would be present within the solid and use what is known as lumped heat capacitance method to obtain the variation of average temperature of the solid with time. This forms the interface dominated heat transfer. In the rst case, one needs to solve the equation of thermal diusion in solid to determine the thermal gradients that drive the heat ux across the interface of the solid with the ambient medium. This forms the conduction dominated heat transfer.
6.3.2
Interface dominated
The change in the temperature of an object immersed in a uid at dierent temperature can be estimated easily if the thermal conductivity of the object is high enough that no thermal gradients develop within the object. If the characteristic length scale of the object is L, we require that the inner temperature of the object Ti is as close to the surface temperature Ts as possible. A balance of ux at the surface gives: k or Ti Ts = h (Ts T ) L Ti Ts hL = Ts T k Bi = hL k
We dene Biot Number as
If Bi 0.1, Ti is close enough to Ts that thermal gradients within the object can be neglected so that Newtonian cooling is applicable. In such as case, we can write, hA (T T ) = Cp V Transport Phenomena Notes 65 dT dt G. Phanikumar
or or
T0
dT hA = T T Cp V ln
dt
0
hAt T T = Cp V T0 T T T hAt = exp T0 T Cp V
Dening V /A as L, the characteristic length scale, ht hL t = = Bi.F o k L2 Cp L where, we dene Fourier number as: Fo = Thus, when Bi 0.1, T T = exp (Bi.F o) T0 T t kt = Cp L2 L2
6.3.3
Conduction dominated
In problems where heat transfer is dominated by conduction, temperature as a function of time and spatial coordinates can be obtained by solving the Fourier heat conduction equation. For the problem of semi-innite domain where temperature at one end is xed and we are interested in its evolution as a function of distance and time, the governing equation can be written for a one dimensional case as follows. T 2T = 2 t x While variable separation is one way of solving this equation, it leads to summation of a series. We use a co-ordinate transformation to make the equation simpler. Put leading to x = 2 t 1 = x 2 t = t 2t T T 1 = x x 2 t 2T 1 2 T = x2 4t x2 G. Phanikumar 66 Transport Phenomena Notes
6.4. EXERCISES Equation 6.3.3 becomes 2T T = 2 2 or T = 2 T
Integrating once, log T = 2 + constant or

2 T = C1 e
Integrating once more, T =
C1 e d + C2
=0
The integral cannot be simplied and is often given as a tabulated function with the following denition and properties 2 erf() =
e d
2 2 erf() = e erf(0) = 0
erf() = 1
erf() = erf() Thus, the solution of 6.3.3 in a semi-innite domain can be written as : x T = Aerf( ) + B 2 t The constants A and B can be determined using the boundary conditions.
6.4
Exercises
1. A long copper wire of 2 mm diameter is exposed to air stream at a temperature of 400 K. After a minute, the average temperature of the wire increased from 280 K to 350 K. (a) Estimate the average heat transfer coecient on the surface (b) Using the Biot number, comment on the validity of your solution. Transport Phenomena Notes 67 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 6. HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS 2. Small droplets of a molten glass maintain their amorphicity if they cool at a rate of atleast 10 K s1 measured at 1070 K. For a spherical droplet with 0.1 mm diameter, what is the required heat transfer coecient to achieve the minimum cooling rate? The quench environment is maintained at 293 K. Properties of glass are = 3000 kg m3 , Cp = 840 J kg1 K1 , k= 17 W m1 K1 . Verify if your answer is valid for lumped capacitance method to work. 3. A typical human body generates about 100 W due to metabolism. In order to keep the body temperature at 37 C, the heat must be dissipated through various mechanisms such as convective heat transfer, radiation, evaporation and conduction that are dynamically balanced depending on the outside temperature. If the heat loss is signicant and the core temperature drops below 21 C, death occurs. Assuming the surface area of a human body to be about 2 m2 , estimate how long a human can stay alive in (a) quiescent water at 10 C where h = 230 W m2 K1 and (b) in owing water at 10 C moving at 0.25 m s1 where h = 580 W m2 K1 . Assume Cp of human body to be about 3470 J kg1 K1 .
6.5
Moving boundary condition
Problem: Liquid is poured at TM in a thick mould kept at T0 . Assuming that all the latent heat is extracted through mould, arrive at the rate of solidication.
T
111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000

TM
(, T0 )
(0, T0 )
Figure 6.4: Temperature prole during solidication Solution: Solidication is usually antiparallel to the direction of heat ux 1 Heat ux at x = 0 is = km T J x x x=0
Latent heat release per unit volume of solid formed is s Hf Let the heat transfer be across a constant mould-solid surface area of A Balancing the two, AJ = s Hf
1
V t
Solidication in undercooled melts is an exception
G. Phanikumar
68
6.5. MOVING BOUNDARY CONDITION since a positive J implies heat ux in + direction leading to a negative rate of solidication. x Akm T V = s Hf x x=0 t
Writing the error function solution to the temperature in the mould (properties of mould indicated by subscript m ), TM T x = erf( ) TM T0 2 m t Substituting, 2 1 V = s Hf Akm (TM T0 ) t 2 m t or 1 V (TM T0 ) 1 = km m Cpm A t s Hf t HD = km m Cpm
Dene heat diusivity HD as
Integrating from V = 0 at t = 0 to V = V at t = t, V 2 (TM T0 )HD m = t A s Hf Chvorinovs Rule: V t A
6.5.1
Solidication: mould and solid conductivity controlled
Problem: Liquid at TM is poured in to a mould at T0 . Heat transfer is controlled by conduction through solid as well as mould. If the mould-solid interface temperature is TS after a thickness of M of solid has formed, derive expressions to estimate the two quantities. Boundary conditions: BC2: T = TS at x = 0 and t = BC3: Flux balance km BC4: T = TM at x = M and t = BC5: Flux balance T T = ks x x0 x x+0 BC1: T = T0 at x =
T V Aks = s Hf x x=M t 69
G. Phanikumar
111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000 111111111111111111 000000000000000000

T
(M, TM )
(0, TS )
(, T0 )
Figure 6.5: Temperature prole during solidication Solution: Using BC1 and BC2, write the error function solution for heat conduction in the mould as: x TS T = erf( ) TS T0 2 m t Similarly the error function solution for heat conduction in the solid is: T = Aerf Using BC2 and BC4 and naming
M 2 s
x 2 s t
+B
as , write the solution for temperature in the solid as x 2 s t
TM TS erf T = TS + erf() BC3 provides an estimate of TS for a given :
TM TS 1 TS T0 km = ks m s erf() Using the denition of heat diusivity, HDm (TS T0 ) = Call p= HDs HDm erf() pTM + T0 p+1 HDs (TM TS ) erf()
TS =
BC5 provides an estimate for as a function of physical parameters. G. Phanikumar 70 Transport Phenomena Notes
6.6. EXERCISES
2 V TM TS 2 = s Hf Aks e t erf()2 s t Recognising that

V A
= M, 2 M 2 (TM TS ) = s Hf ks e t 2 s terf()
Integrating the equation from M = 0 at t = 0 to M = M at t = , 2 2 (TM TS ) = s Hf M ks e s erf() Simplifying, erf()e =

2 2
Cps (TM TS ) Hf
Using a table / plot of erf()e as a function of , one can look up for the RHS of above equation for the corresponding which gives the relation M = 2 s .
6.6
Exercises
1. A two inch slab of aluminium is cast in a mold made of silica sand on one side and an unknown material on the other side. The cast slab is sectioned to look at the plane of last solidication that can be identied by porosity. If it is known that the plane is located 30 mm away from the silica side of the mould, (a) estimate the heat diusivity of the unknown mould material. From the properties of mould materials given below, (b) guess which one comes closest. Neglect superheat. Typical values of physical properties: Material k/W m1 K1 /kg m3 Silica 0.6 1500 Mullite 0.37 1600 Zircon 1.0 2720 Cp /J kg1 K1 1160 770 840
2. A liquid metal (L) at temperatute Tp is poured into a mould (m) kept at temperature T0 . (a) If the mould-metal surface reaches thermal equilibrium instantly, nd its temperature Ts when the freezing is yet to start. (b) A component is formed from an alpha brass alloy poured into a mould kept at 25 C. If the freezing takes place over a temperature range from 1055 C to 1045 C, ne the minimum pouring temperature to prevent instantaneous freezing. Properties are as follows. km = 1.6 W m1 K1 , kL = 109 W m1 K1 , m = 3.2 103 kg m3 , L = 8.52 103 kg m3 , Cp,m = 1 103 J kg1 K1 , Cp,L = 385 J kg1 K1 .
71
G. Phanikumar
Chapter 7 Heat tranfer with advection term

7.1
7.1.1
Steady state heat transfer

Heat transfer normal to plug ow
Plug ow is dened as spatially constant uid ow. One usually approximates ow regimes in a chemical reactor to be plug ow. Also, ow across a porous medium under constant pressure drop leads to constant ow. The equation for heat transfer is given as: T T T T + u1 + u2 + u3 = x1 x1 t x1 2T 2T 2T + + 2 2 x2 x2 x3 1 + g Cp
Let us assume that the constant ow is along x1 and the steady state unidirectional heat transfer is along x2 . Setting these values, we can see that the governing equation reduces to: 2T k 2 +g =0 x2 Thus, plug ow normal to steady state unidirectional heat transfer has no eect on the temperature prole. Since there are no velocity gradients in a plug ow, viscous dissipiation is also not considered. Thus, often, g = 0. In the case of a velocity prole such as channel ow normal to steady state unidirectional heat transfer, the equation remains the same except that the source term g can be given by the viscous dissipation. Assuming that the uid is Newtonian and the ow to be channel ow, we can write: k 2T u2 0 + 2 =0 x2 2
We can solve the above equation subjec to the following boundary conditions: BC1: BC2: T |x2 =0 = T0 T =0 y x2 = 72
7.2. EXERCISES
k x2 1 ( x2 )2 (T T0 ) = 2 u2 0
7.1.2
Heat transfer along plug ow
Let us assume that the constant ow and the steady state unidirectional heat transfer are both along x1 . We can write the governing equation as: u1 g T 2T = 2 + x1 Cp x1
If we ignore heat generation term due to viscous dissipation, then the solution can be written subject to the following boundary conditions. BC1: T |x1 =0 = T1 BC2: T |x1 = = T2 ( x ) exp u1 1 1 T T1 ( ) = 1 T2 T1 exp u 1
One can see that as u1 0, the solution approaches the linear prole as in steady state conduction for unidirectional heat transfer.
7.2
Exercises
1. A journal bearing of outer diameter 20 cm has a separation between the rotating shaft and the stationary journal of 1 mm lled with a lubricant liquid. The angular velocity of the shaft is 1000 rpm. Assuming that the shaft is kept at 20 C and the journal at 30 C, determine the temperature distribution along the radial direction in the lubricant layer taking viscous dissipation into account. The properties of the lubricant are: = 900 kg m3 , k = 0.15 W m1 K1 , = 0.8 Pa s. Calculate the maximum temperature in the liquid lubricant layer. Assume the liquid to be owing with usual limitations as that of Couette ow.
7.3
Heat transfer in a smooth pipe
Energy transport in uids involves the complete form of equation 5.7. T g + T = 2 T + u t Cp We will limit this chapter to the cases with the following assumptions: is known analytically u Transport Phenomena Notes 73 G. Phanikumar (7.1)
CHAPTER 7. HEAT TRANFER WITH ADVECTION TERM Flow is unidirectional, steady state and fully developed Heat transfer is steady state Problem: For a uid owing unidirectionally through a pipe at steady state and with fully developed velocity prole and a given entry temperature, what is T (r, z) for a given surface heat ux. In addition to the assumptions above, we make the following ones too. Assumptions: ( r )2 = umax 1 R u z
Surface heat ux is constant. q0 = k T = constant r Cylindrical symmetry. Nothing happens along direction. We can write the governing equation as follows: umax 1 ( r )2 T R 1 T = r z r r r
subject to the following boundary conditions: BC1: Finite temperature at the center of pipe T (r = 0, z) = nite BC2: Constant wall heat ux q0 = k BC3: Entry temperature T (r, z = 0) = T0 Before attempting to solve the above dierential equation, it is a good idea to non-dimensionalize the variables that could possibly simplify the derivation as well as the nal expressions. In this process, we recognise that q0 R has units of temperature, R is the characteristic length scale, k 2 0 = R is the characteristic time scale and that along z the uid moves a characteristic distance of umax 0 that can be used to scale z. Scaling: T = T T0
q0 R k
T r
r R z z = umax R2 r = leading to T T kRumax = z z q0 G. Phanikumar 74 Transport Phenomena Notes
7.3. HEAT TRANSFER IN A SMOOTH PIPE T T k = r r q0 R2 Thus the governing equation can be non-dimensionalised to: 1 T (1 r ) = z r r
2
The above equation needs to be solved subject to the following boundary conditions: BC1: T (r = 0, z ) = nite BC2: T =1 r r =1
BC3:
T (r , z = 0) = 0 As we would notice later, BC3 should actually be stated in integral form to state that the starting temperature is not given as a function of r but as a ow averaged (bulk) value. We propose the following solution: T = C0 z + (r ) Substituting the solution into the governing equation, 1 (1 r )C0 = r r
2
r r
Integrating once w.r.t r , = C0 r r
r2 r4 2 4
+ C1
Integrating once more, = C0 Thus, the solution is: T = C0 z + C0 BC1 implies C1 = 0 BC2 implies C0 = 4 T = 4z + Transport Phenomena Notes

r2 r4 4 16
+ C1 ln r + C2
r 2 r 4 4 16
+ C1 ln r + C2
(7.2)
r2 r4 1 4 75
+ C2
(7.3) G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 7. HEAT TRANFER WITH ADVECTION TERM BC3 is not useful in arriving at C2 . We need one more boundary condition. We use the overall balance of energy for the same. BC4: The overall energy entering the pipe at a length z is given by Qz =
2 0
Cp T (r, z)u(r)dr rd
The overall energy entering the pipe at a length z = 0 is given by Q0 =

2
Cp T0 u(r)dr rd
The overall balance Qz Q0 = 2Rzq0 can now be written as: or

R 2
Cp (T T0 ) umax 1
( r )2 R
dr
rd = 2Rzq0
(T T0 ) 1
( r )2 R
rdr =
Rq0 z Rzq0 = umax Cp k umax
This can be expressed in the non-dimensional form as: Substituting 7.3 in to 7.4, 1
0 1
T (1 r 2 )r dr = z
(7.4)
4z + r
or 1
0
1 4 r + C2 1 r 2 r dr = z 4
or C2 + 4
1 4 r + C2 1 r 2 r dr = 0 4
1
1 4 2 1 r 2 r dr = 0 r r 4
7 24
We use the above integral BC4 to arrive at C2 =
Thus, the nal solution for temperature distribution in a uid owing through a tube with constant heat ux is 1 7 T = 4z + r 2 r 4 4 24 G. Phanikumar 76 Transport Phenomena Notes
7.4. DEFINITIONS OF SOME NON-DIMENSIONAL NUMBERS
7.3.1
Bulk temperature
We now dene bulk temperature or ow averaged temperature Tb as < T uz > Tb = = < uz > 2 R
0
For our case of unidirectional, fully developed ow, R

0
T (r, z)u(r)dr rd 0 2 R u(r)dr rd 0 0
Tb = Numerator is 2Rzq0 + T0 Cp Denominator is

2
T (r, z)u(r)rdr R u(r)rdr 0 2Rzq0 R2 + 2Cp umax T0 Cp 4
u(r)dr rd =
2umax
R2 4
Tb = T0 + Surface temperature is given by setting r = R. Ts = T0 + Rearranging,
4q0 z Cp Rumax
4q0 z q0 R 11 q0 D 11 + = Tb + k 24 k 48 Cp Rumax
11 (Ts Tb ) k = 48 q0 D or Nu = 48 q0 D = 11 (Ts Tb ) k
We dene the heat transfer coecient for tube ow as: h= q0 (Ts Tb )
7.4
Denitions of some non-dimensional numbers

Bi = hL ks G. Phanikumar
Biot Number:
77
CHAPTER 7. HEAT TRANFER WITH ADVECTION TERM Fourier Number: Fo = Grashof Number: GrL = Rayleigh Number: Rax = Nusselt Number: NuL = Peclet Number: P eL = Prandtl Number: Pr = Stanton Number: St =
t L2
g(Ts T )L3 2 g(Ts T )x3 hL kf VL
h V Cp
7.5
Forced convection correlations
External ow over at plate at uniform surface temperature: Laminar external ow for P r 0.6 : Nux = hx x = 0.332Re1/2 P r 1/3 x k
Laminar external ow for 0.6 < P r < 50 :
hx x = 0.664Re1/2 P r 1/3 Nux = x k
Laminar Flow of liquid metal for P r 0.05, P ex 102 where P ex = Rex P r : Nux = 0.565P e1/2 x Laminar ow of uids of all Prandtl numbers, P ex 102 : 0.3387Rex P r 1/3 Nux = ( 0.0468 )2/3 1/4 1 + Pr
1/2
Turbulent ow for 0.6 < P r < 60, Re < 108 :
Nux = StRex P r = 0.0296Re4/5 P r 1/3 x G. Phanikumar 78 Transport Phenomena Notes
7.5. FORCED CONVECTION CORRELATIONS Laminar + Turbulent ow where the representative Rex,c for transition is taken as 5105, 0.6 < P r < 60, 5 105 < ReL < 108 : ( ) 4/5 NuL = 0.037ReL 871 P r 1/3 Flat plate with uniform surface ux:
Laminar ow, P r 0.6 : Turbulent ow, 0.6 < P r < 60 :
Nux = 0.453Re1/2 P r 1/3 x
Nux = 0.0308Re4/5 P r 1/3 x External ow over circular cylinder: Correlation for wide range of parameters: hD m = CReD P r 1/3 NuD = k ReD 0.4 4 4 40 40 4000 4 103 4 104 4 104 4 105 C 0.989 0.911 0.683 0.193 0.027 m 0.33 0.385 0.466 0.618 0.805
When properties are not constant over the temperature range involved, for 0.7 < P r < 500 and 1 < ReD < 106 , 1 Pr 4 m n NuD = CReD P r P rs If P r 10, n = 0.37 and if P r 10, n = 0.36 ReD 1- 40 40 - 103 2 105 - 106 C 0.75 0.51 0.076 m 0.4 0.5 0.7
Comprehensive equation for all ReD and P r > 0.2

1/2 0.62ReD P r 1/3
NuD = 0.3 + ( 0.4 )2/3 1 4 1 + Pr Transport Phenomena Notes 79
1+
ReD 282000
5 8
4 5
G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 7. HEAT TRANFER WITH ADVECTION TERM External ow over a sphere : For 0.71 < P r < 380, 3.5 < ReD < 7.6 104 , 1 < /s < 3.2 : 1 4 D = 2 + 0.4Re1/2 + 0.06Re2/3 P r 0.4 Nu D D s For freely falling droplets of liquids:
1/2 NuD = 2 + 0.6ReD P r 1/3
Internal ow through circular tube:
Laminar, fully developed ow, uniform heat ux, P r 0.6: NuD = 4.36 Laminar, fully developed ow, uniform surface temperature, P r 0.6: NuD = 3.66 Turbulent, fully developed ow, 0.7 P r 16700, ReD 104 , L/D 10 : NuD =
1 4/5 0.027ReD P r 3
0.14
Liquid metals, Turbulent, fully developed, uniform heat ux, 3.6103 < ReD < 9.05105 , 102 < P eD < 104 : NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185 (ReD P r)0.827 Liquid metals, Turbulent, fully developed, uniform surface temperature, P eD > 102 : NuD = 5.0 + 0.025 (ReD P r)0.8
7.6
Exercises
1. A solar water heater is made of a parabolic mirror that concentrates a total heat ux of 2 kW s2 on to a thin copper tube that carries the water. If the inlet water is at 20 C and at a ow rate of 0.02 kg s1 and the outlet shall have 60 C, what should be the length 48 of the tube? Assuming fully developed ow of water through the tube with Nu = 11 applicable, estimate the surface temperature at the outlet. Properties of water are: Cp = 4200 J kg1 K1 , k = 0.67 W m1 K1 , = 0.35 103 Pa s, P r = 2.2.
G. Phanikumar
80
Chapter 8 Mass Transfer

8.1 Introduction
Mass transfer topics fall into the following four major categories. Solid state diusion: discussed mainly in the context of physical metallurgy. We can look at the governing equation and couple of sample solutions. Convective mass transfer: when ux is more important than the acutal composition distributions. Reaction with a generation term: when solute is generated or consumed at a location because of a reaction. The rate of formation of a certain product is of interest here. We can use balance of uxes taking into account the fact that more than one species are involved in the transport. Solute redistribution: as it occurs during solidication. We will look at a sample solution. Unlike the parameters used for Momentum transfer (Velocity) and heat transfer (Temperature), the parameters used for mass transfer are varied in their physical meaning as well as in their units. Composition (mass per unit volume): default variable for us Atom/Mole fraction or percentage or ppm: popular in physical metallurgy Weight fraction or percentage or ppm: a practicable quantity used in process metallurgy Partial pressure: useful unit when dealing with gases In our discussion, unless otherwise specied, we deal with the composition as our variable and convert the rest of the quantities to composition when necessary. In addition, we must also specify for which of the species are we writing down the balance equation. Meaning, instead of C as our variable, really we have Ci as our set of variables where i goes over the range of number of species participating in the mass transfer. Unless specied, we will be dealing with a situation where the balance is written down only for one species. 81
CHAPTER 8. MASS TRANSFER
8.2
Governing equation
First we write down the balance of mass for a control volume and then write the same in a geometry free form using integrals. Rate of increase in mass = inux of mass + rate of generation d dt CdV = ndS + j gdV
V
Take the material derivative into the integral using the Reynolds Transport Theorem. Convert the suface integral into volume integral using Divergence theorem. Recognize the balance of integrands as every integral is over the same arbitrary control volume. dC j = + g dt Expanding the material / complete derivative C ( ) j + C = + g u t
(8.1)
We now seek a linear constitutive relation to determine Refer to the section 43.14 of Feynman j. Lecture Series for more discussion at this point. Flux of a species is usually expressed as a product of composition of that species and the velocity of that species. j = vC If velocity of a species is the eect, then the cause is a gradient in chemical potential - meaning that atoms move to reduce the free energy of the system. The quantity that connects a cause and eect is a material property and one can use relevant theories to deduce the minimum number of entities necessary to represent that property. v = M x
M is called the mobility tensor. Using Onsagers reciprocal relations [Ons31a, Ons31b], one can say that M is a symemtric tensor. It is isotropic for isotropic media. For our discussion, we are usually limited to liquids, gases, polycrystalline materials that can be approximated to istotropic media. = MC j x Using an ideal solution approximation, = 0 + RT ln X = 0 + RT (ln X + ln ) Where, X is mole fraction and is proportional to C and is the activity of the species in the solution. G. Phanikumar 82 Transport Phenomena Notes
8.2. GOVERNING EQUATION
MC
C C = MC = M x C x ln C x
Since composition can be related as C = XMw = ln C ln X M = MRT ln X ln 1+ ln X = D
Where, D is the diusivity of the solute in the solution. Thus, the Ficks rst law of solute diusion goes as C j = D (8.2) x Substituting the same in the balance equation, C ( ) D C + g + C = u t x (8.3)
Assuming the D is constant over the range of variation of C, absence of any generation term and that the domain is solid, we get the Ficks second law of solute diusion C = D2 C t
(8.4)
8.2.1
Diusivity
Unlike the relevant properties for momentum and heat transfer, the kind of diusivity to be used depends on the situation of mass transfer problem. Following are some examples. Diusivity in gas: Using kinetic theory of gases, 1 DAA = u 3 Where, is mean free path and u is the average velocity of the atoms in the gas. = u= Thus, the diusivity in gas goes as T 3/2 . Transport Phenomena Notes 83 G. Phanikumar kB T 2 2A
8kB NT MA
CHAPTER 8. MASS TRANSFER Diusivity in gas entrapped in a pore: In case the gas is entrapped in a pore, instead of the mean free path from the kinetic theory of gases, we are supposed to use the pore diameter. This means the temperature dependence of Diusivity goes as T 1/2 . Liquid Diusivity: Using the Einstein equation, kB T = 6rA B DAB Solid Diusivity: Arrhenius variation D = D0 e RT
Q
The activation energy for Diusion in solid Q depends on the way diusion takes place and following are some situations where they are dierent: Diusion aided by non-equilibrium defect concentration eg., due to quenched-in vacancies Pipe diusion aided by dislocations Grain boundary aided diusion Surface diusion Stress induced diusion Bulk diusion
8.3
Solid state diusion
We consider two simple cases of solid state diusion.
8.3.1
Fixed boundary compositions
In the domain, composition is xed with the following boundary conditions: C = Cs at x = 0 and t > 0 C = C at x = C = Cs at t = and x > 0 The governing equation is C 2C =D 2 t x By using a variable substition = boundary conditions as:
x , 2 Dt
one can integrate the equation subject to the above
C C x x = 1 erf = erfc C s C 2 Dt 2 Dt G. Phanikumar 84 Transport Phenomena Notes
8.3. SOLID STATE DIFFUSION

C
Cs
C
x 0
Figure 8.1: Fixed Compositions
8.3.2
Fixed total solute content
In the domain, the total solute is xed with the following boundary condition: Cdx = M
The governing equation to be solved is same as Ficks second law of solute diusion. In order to gure out the form of C that will satisfy the governing equation as well as the boundary condition, we use the property of erf(x). 2 erf() = 1 = Using algebraic manipulations,

exp(
x2 1 ) dx 4Dt 2 Dt
M x2 exp( )dx = M = 4Dt 2 Dt
Cdx
One can verify that the following form of solution for C will not only satisfy the boundary condition as given above but also the governing equation. M x2 C= exp( ) 4Dt 2 Dt
8.3.3
Flux and concentration
Most of the time, one is interested in determining ux of a species as a function of the concentration of that species. Transport Phenomena Notes 85 G. Phanikumar
CHAPTER 8. MASS TRANSFER Sieverts Law For absorption of gases in metals, one can use the following expression to obtain the concentration. 1 H2 [H] 2 Equilibrium constant is given by [H] K= p H2 If the concentration of hydrogen is given in ppm and the partial pressure in atm, then K would be in ppm/ atm. One must watch the units of K to know the convention followed. This is because pressure could be in units such as bar (atm), torr (mmHg), mbar or Pa. Conversion of partial pressure of a gas into concentration is done by approximating the gas to be an ideal gas. pA V = nA RT CA = pA nA = V RT
Here, CA is given in mol/vol and may need to be converted to mass/vol using molar weight and density.
8.4
Mass transfer with advection
In a situation where the domain consists of species A and B and we are interested in the ux of species A, there are following possible situations. Species B is not present / species A is very dilute in B and thus B can be said to not take part in the diusion process. In this situation, the ux is given by Ficks rst law. Species B is present and takes part in the diusion process. Additionally, an assumption can be made that net ux of B is zero and species B moves only to replace species A. This approach is called stagnant layer approach. Species B is present and the domain is not stagnant. In such a situation, the inuence of bulk velocity on the ux of both species be determined separately. The rst case is simple as discussed in the previous section. For the second case, we can proceed by assuming that the ux is one dimensional and the velocity of the species A is v which is same (but opposite in direction) for species B. We can rst derive the expression of ux to accommodate eect of advection into Ficks rst law. Consider the mass balance equation in cartesian co-ordinate system: CA CA CA CA CA CA CA +u +v +w = DAB + DAB + DAB +g t x y z x x y y z z G. Phanikumar 86 Transport Phenomena Notes
8.4. MASS TRANSFER WITH ADVECTION Assuming the uid to be incompressible, the continuity equation can be written as: u v w + + =0 x y z Multiplying the above equation with CA and additing to the balance equation, CA CA u CA v CA w CA CA CA +u +CA +v +CA +w +CA = DAB + DAB + DAB t x x y y z z x x y y z z CA CA CA CA uCA vCA wCA + + + = DAB + DAB + DAB t x y z x x y y z z CA = t x CA CA CA DAB uCA + DAB vCA + DAB wCA x y y z z ( ) ( ) CA = DAB CA A = jA uC t
Thus, the modied Ficks rst law that takes advection into account can be given as: uC jA = DAB CA + A Where, jA is the net ux of species A taking the advection into account.
8.4.1
Stagnant layer approach
Consider a situation such as in the gure 8.2. At the bottom layer, species A is being generated and we are interested in the net ux of A and its distribution in the layer above. It can be taken that in the stagnant layer, there is no net ux of B. The net ux equations are: CA + uCA x CB jB = DAB + uCB = 0 x jA = DAB or u= If only species A and B are present, C A + CB = 1 such that CB CA = x x DAB CB CB x
Substituting in the equation of net ux of A, Transport Phenomena Notes 87 G. Phanikumar

B 11111111111111111 00000000000000000
1 0A 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
B B
11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 A 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000 11111111111 00000000000
B
Figure 8.2: Stagnant layer approach
jA = DAB
CA DAB CA CA x (1 CA ) x 1 CA (1 CA ) x
jA = DAB At steady state,
jA = 0 or 1 CA =0 x (1 CA ) x Integrating twice with the boundary conditions: Considering that species B is being ushed at the top, concentration of species A at x = L, the height of the layer can be taken as CAL , usually zero. At x = 0, CA = CA0 we obtain the solution for distribution of CA in the stagnant layer as: ln G. Phanikumar 1 CA x 1 CAL = ln L 1 CA0 1 CA0 88 Transport Phenomena Notes
8.4. MASS TRANSFER WITH ADVECTION Using the above expression, CA (1 CA ) 1 CAL = ln x L 1 CA0 Substiting the same to obtain jA , jA = DAB 1 CAL ln L 1 CA0
In the limit of CA0 = 0 and the value of CAL being small, the above equation reduces to AL jA = DAB CL , which is the same as Ficks rst law valid for the case of no advection. Thus, the stagnant layer approach with very dilute species can be approximated to the regime where Ficks law is applicable even though the other species is also taking part in the diusion process. It is easy to see that instead of concentrations, if one were to use partial pressures of the respective species, one would have the following equations valid: pA + pB = p pA = RT CA ln x p pAL p pA = ln L p pA0 p pA0 pDAB p pAL ln RT L p pA0
jA =
jA when expressed in rate of loss of mass can be accuarately measured and thus provides an excellent means to obtain DAB by weight loss method using a setup similar to that of gure 8.2.
8.4.2
Mass transfer coecient
In many situations, it may be favourable to dene a mass transfer coecient akin to heat transfer coecient such that one can experimentally or otherwise determine it. The denition is as given below: jA = kA (CA CA0 ) If the units of CA , as used commonly, are mass/vol then the units of kA are same as those of velocity. Once the mass transfer coecient is known, ux can be determined using the above equation. In situations such as solid state diusion, kA can be determined by evaluating the slope of the species distribution (say, error function) itself. Eg., for transient diusion in solid / quiescent liquid whose bulk composition is CA0 and is in contact with atmosphere with zero concentration of species A as illustrated in the gure, we can write the following ux balance. Writing the composition distribution for species A in the domain, Transport Phenomena Notes 89 G. Phanikumar
CA0
CA = 0 jA = kA (CA0 0)
CA
Figure 8.3: Surface Renewal Approach
CA = erf CA0 Evaluating the ux at the interface at time t,
x 2 DAB t
2 x 1 2 CA e 2 DAB t | = DAB CA0 kA,t (CA0 0) = jA = | DAB x x0 DAB t kA,t = 2 DAB t
x0
This is the instantaneous mass transfer coecient. The time averaged coecient will be obtained by averaging the coecient over the time interval t = 0 to t = t. DAB t
z uz,max
kA =
In case of a steadily falling (along z axis) lm of liquid, the quantity time. The z averaged mass transfer coecient will then be given as DAB uz,max z
plays the role of
kA =
8.4.3
Sherwood number
Like the heat transfer coecient is obtained in non-dimensionalized form by encapsulating it with the thermal conductivity and characteristic length scale as Nusselt number, mass transfer G. Phanikumar 90 Transport Phenomena Notes
8.4. MASS TRANSFER WITH ADVECTION coecient is also obtained in non-dimensionalized form by encapsulating it with the solute diusivity and characteristic length scale as Sherwood number. Sh = kA Lc DAB
Sherwood number is determined experimentally as a function of Reynolds number and Schmidt number to obtain correlations for advection aided mass transfer. Sc = Examples: Mass transfer from a sphere: ShD = 2 + CRem Sc 3 D The constants C and m depend on the range of Re and Sc. Mass transfer from a plate of length L (for Re < 2 105 ): ShL = 0.664Re0.5 Sc 3 L
1 1
DAB
8.4.4
Chilton-Colburn Analogy
In case the transport properties are known for one quantity (say, heat) and we are interested in the transport of another quantity (say, solute), we can make use of the similarity expressions thanks to the fact that under laminar conditions and when fully developed proles are present, similarity relations are valid. The problem is to connect friction factor, heat transfer coecient and mass transfer coecient at an interface. If the velocity, temperature and solute proles are fully developed, then the following three expressions will all be the same functions (eg., parabolas for a tube): v T Ts CA CA0 = = v T Ts CA, CA0 Equating the slopes at the interface since the proles are the same: v T Ts CA CA0 = = x T Ts x0 x CA, CA0 x0 x v x0 Cp = =1 k DAB or Transport Phenomena Notes 91 G. Phanikumar
Take the case of a hypothetical uid that has P r = Sc = 1 ie.,
k = DAB Cp
Multiply these quantities with the respective slopes of the proles as: CA CA0 v k T Ts = = DAB x v x0 Cp x T Ts x0 x CA, CA0 x0 q jA = = Cp (T Ts ) (CA CA0 ) v
Dividing each quantity with v , 1 q jA = = 1 2 2 2 v Cp (T Ts )v (CA CA0 )v Recognize the following quantities: Skin friction coecient:
1 2 v 2
=f
Heat transfer coecient:
q =h (T Ts ) jA = kA (CA CA0 ) f h kA = = v 2 Cp v
Mass transfer coecient:
We dene Stanton number as: St = h Cp v
The following analogy is called as Reynolds analogy: f kA = St = 2 v Chilton-Colburn realized that the above expression can be made to be applicable even when P r and Sc are not unity but for a range of 0.6 < P r < 100 and 0.6 < Sc < 2500 provided a 2 2 correction factor of P r 3 for heat transfer and Sc 3 for mass tranfer are used:
2 f kA 2 = StP r 3 = Sc 3 2 v
Each of the above three quantities are called as j-factors. G. Phanikumar 92 Transport Phenomena Notes
8.5. REACTION MASS TRANSFER
jH = StP r 3 =
2 h Pr3 Cp v
jD =
kA 2 Sc 3 v
In situations where the analogy is applicable, one can obtain the mass transfer coecient from the heat transfer coecient or the skin friction factor by using the above analogy and the appropriate property values.
8.5
Reaction mass transfer
In a reaction, we are interested in the rate of formation of a particular product, usually a condensed one. It can usually be obtained by knowing the ux of that species by balacing with the ux of a diusing species and applying appropriate boundary conditions. The compositions of the participating species are related by the equilibrium constant of the reaction. Consider the following example. A(g) nB(g) + C(s) K= [B]n pn = B [A] pA p A + pB = p
One can solve for pB by solving the above two equations. One has to know the value of K at a given temperature and should watch out the units of K to know the convention for the units of [A] and [B]. Once the value of K is known, it is possible to obtain the ux of one of the species, say A, using either the Ficks law or the stagnant layer approach depending on how dilute the system is. The uxes of the diusing species A and B are related to as: jB = njA = njC If B is a dilute species in a stagnant layer of A of height L and a total pressure p, one can use the following expression for jB jB = pDAB p pBL ln RT L p pB0
The quantity jC can then be converted to appropriate rate of formation as mass or volume or moles or thickness as desired using the properties of C.
93
G. Phanikumar
Appendix A Derivations
A.1 The quotient rule
Adapted from section 2.62 of [Ari62]. Let bi be any vector and aij be a matrix of nine numbers (i, j = 1, 2, 3). If a relation could be found such that aij bi = cj is vector, then aij is a tensor of order 2. Consider a co-ordinate transformation with the tranformation matrix Tij . Since b and c are vectors, b = Tpi bi or bi = Tpib (A.1) p p c = Tqj cj q In the new co-ordinate system:
a bp = c = Tqj cj = Tqj aij bi = Tqj aij Tpib pq q p
(a Tpi Tqj aij )b = 0 pq p Since b is only the arbitrary vector bi in new co-ordinate system which is independent of aij p the only way the above equation can hold is if a = Tpi Tqj aij pq which is the denition for the entity aij to be a tensor of order 2.s
A.2
Symmetric tensors are diagonalisable
Adapted from section 2.5 of [Ari62]. If aij is a tensor and bi is an arbitrary vector then by quotient rule, cj = aij bi is a vector. For some bi , the vector ci could be in the same orientation such that if is the ratio of their magnitudes, aij bi = bj = ij bi . (aij ij ) bi = 0 94
A.2. SYMMETRIC TENSORS ARE DIAGONALISABLE This is a set of three unknowns (a1 , a2 and a3 ) and for a solution to exist, must satisfy the following equation: det (aij ij ) = 0 3 X2 + Y Z = 0 X = aii = Trace(aij ) Y = a22 a33 a23 a32 + a11 a33 a13 a31 + a22 a11 a12 a21 Z = det(aij ) X, Y and Z are three invariants of aij under rotation of co-ordinate system. The above is called the characteristic equation of the tensor aij and the three values of its characteristic values / latent roots / eigen values. For the three eigen values (p) , p = 1 : 3, the corresponding characteristic vectors (bi(p) , p = 1 : 3 be denoted as Tj1, Tj2 and Tj3 . T11 T12 T13 b1(1) b1(2) b1(3) T = b2(1) b2(2) b2(3) = T21 T22 T23 b3 (1) b3 (2) b3 (3) T31 T32 T33 aij Tj1 = 1 Ti1 aij Tj2 = 2 Ti2 Multiply the rst equation with Ti2 and the second equation with Ti1 . aij Tj1 Ti2 = 1 Ti1 Ti2 aij Tj2 Ti1 = 2 Ti2 Ti1 Transpose the second equation (swap the indices i and j in second equation): aij Tj1 Ti2 = 1 Ti1 Ti2 aji Ti2 Tj1 = 2 Tj2 Tj1 If aij is symmetric, then aij Tj1 Ti2 = 1 Ti1 Ti2 aij Ti2 Tj1 = 2 Tj2 Tj1 ie., aij Tj1 Ti2 = 1 Ti1 Ti2 = 2 Tj2 Tj1 Since 1 and 2 are distinct, the above equation can be true only if Transport Phenomena Notes 95 G. Phanikumar (A.6) (A.5) (A.4)
(A.2)
(A.3)
APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS
Ti1 Ti2 = ij
(A.7)
If we choose a co-ordinate transformation with the transformation matrix to contain the elements of Tij made out of the three eigen vectors, a = Tip Tjq aij = p Tip Tiq = p pq pq ie., apq is diagonal.
A.3
Levi-Civita tensor is isotropic
Adapted from section 2.7 of [Ari62]. Since ijk is a tensor of order 3, for an arbitrary co-ordinate transformation Tij , T1p T1q T1r = T2p T2q T2r T3p T3q T3r
Tip Tjq Tkr ijk
(A.8)
In the above determinant, if p = q or p = r or q = r, two columns being same will make the R.H.S. go to 0. If p, q and r are cyclic (e.g., 1, 2, 3) then the R.H.S. is the determinant of the transformation matrix itself which is 1. If p, q and r are anti-cyclic (e.g., 1, 3, 2), then the R.H.S. is the determinant of the transformation matrix (with two rows interchanged) which is -1. These are the values dened for pqr . Hence the R.H.S. can be equated to . Thus, pqr = Tip Tjq Tkr ijk pqr Since the above result is applicable for any Tij , ijk is isotropic.
A.4
General form of isotropic tensor of order four
Adapted from section 2.7 of [Ari62]. An isotropic tensor aijkl of order 4 should be invariant under any co-ordinate transformation Tij . apqrs = Tip Tjq Tkr Tls aijkl We categorise the 81 components of aijkl : i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3 in to classes to gure out the non-zero (independent) components. G. Phanikumar 96 Transport Phenomena Notes
A.4. GENERAL FORM OF ISOTROPIC TENSOR OF ORDER FOUR Class I II III(i) III(ii) III(iii) IV component T1111 T1112 T1122 T1221 T1212 T1123 remark All suxes are same (nnnn) Three suxes are same (nnnm) Two suxes are same (nnmm) Two suxes are same (nmmn) Two suxes are same (nmnm) Only two suxes are same (mmno)
Since class II doesnot include the elements of class I, introduce a tensor Xijkl dened as below:
if i = j = k = l Xijkl = 1 else Xijkl = 0
(A.9)
We now choose co-ordinate rotation operations so that Tij can take such values that will make a conclusion about the relation between components in each of the above mentioned classes is clear.
Operation A B C
Description Rotation about [111] axis by 120o Rotation about [001] axis by 90o Rotation to inverse the direction of [111] 97
form of Tij T12 = T31 = T23 = 1 T12 = T21 = T33 = 1 T13 = T22 = T31 = 1 G. Phanikumar
APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS Class I conclusion T1111 = T2222 T1111 = T2222 T1111 = T3333 all equal Xijkl T1112 = T2223 T1112 = T2221 T1112 = T3332 T2223 = T2221 all zero T1122 = T2233 T1122 = T2211 T1122 = T3322 all equal ij kl Xijkl T1221 = T2332 T1221 = T2112 T1221 = T3223 all equal il jk Xiljk T1212 = T2323 T1212 = T2112 T1212 = T3232 all equal ik jl Xikjl T1123 = T2231 T1123 = T2213 T1123 = T3321 T2231 = T2213 all zero operation A B C Overall conclusion Representation A B C C Overall conclusion A B C Overall conclusion Representation A B C Overall conclusion Representation A B C Overall conclusion Representation A B C C Overall conclusion
II
III(i)
III(ii)
III(iii)
IV
Since there is no obvious relation between the components of classes I, III(i), III(ii) and III(iii), we can represent aijkl by a linear combination of each class: aijkl = 1 (ij kl Xijkl ) + 2 (ik jl Xijkl ) + 3 (il jk Xijkl ) + 4 Xijkl or aijkl = 1 ij kl + 2 ik jl + 3 il jk + (4 1 2 3 )Xijkl Choose an operation D : arbitrary rotation by some angle. Given the form of Xijkl, the elements will not remain the same under such a transformation. Hence the last term in the above equation drops o giving the most general form of a fourth order isotropic tensor as: aijkl = 1 ij kl + 2 ik jl + 3 il jk G. Phanikumar 98 Transport Phenomena Notes
A.5. SIMPLIFICATION OF TENSOR PROPERTIES FOR CRYSTALS
A.5
Simplication of tensor properties for crystals
Lars Onsager has proved ([Ons31a],[Ons31b]) using microscopic reversibility that for crystals with symmetries of order 3,4,6 etc., the thermal conductivity tensor is symmetric. k11 k12 k13 kij = k12 k22 k23 k13 k23 k33
(A.10)
For cubic crystals, the form of the tensors simplies even further. Take co-ordinate system rotations about x3 by 900 for which the transformation matrix is: 0 1 0 T = 1 0 0 0 0 1 By denition, if T is the transformation matrix of a co-ordinate axes rotation,
kij = Tpi Tqj kpq
(A.11)
Since the tensor in discussion is a property that should not change upon co-ordinate rotations that leave the crystal identical, k = k Take k11 and expand the above denition of tensor: k11 = Ti1 Tj2 kij = T21 T21 k22 = k22 or k11 = k22 Similarly, k21 = Ti2 Tj1 kij = T12 T21 k12 = k12 = k21 or k21 = k12 = 0 Similarly rotating the co-ordinate system about the other two axes will show that all o diagonal terms of kij vanish and all diagonal terms are same. 0 k11 0 k11 0 = kij kij = 0 0 0 k11
(A.12)
Thus, only one value of k is needed to completely specify the second order symmetric tensor property such as thermal conductivity of a cubic crystal. Transport Phenomena Notes 99 G. Phanikumar
A.6
Change of variable with multiple integrals
Adapated from section 3.16 of [Ari62] In cartesian co-ordinates the element of volume dV is the volume of rectangular parallelepiped of sides dx1 , dx2 and dx3 : dV = dx1 dx2 dx3 It is sometimes convenient to describe position by some other co-ordinates, say, 1 , 2 and 3 . The change of co-ordinate system must be given by xing a point x such that xi = xi (1 , 2 , 3) Small dierences in the new co-ordinate system are given by dxi = xi dj j
If dx(j) are vectors with components ( xji dj ) for j = 1, 2, 3 then the volume of the element is dV = dx(1) (dx(2) dx(3) ) Using ijk to write the short form of determinant (triple product), dV = ijk xi xi xi d1 d2 d3 1 2 3
dV = Jd1 2 d3 where J is the Jacobian of the transformation of variables. J= In determinant form, it is J =

x1 1 x2 1 x3 1 x1 2 x2 2 x3 2 x1 3 x2 3 x3 3
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) xi xj xk = ijk (1 , 2 , 3 ) 1 2 3
Evidently, when two of the rows are same, the determinant is zero.
(A.13)
A.7
Dilation
Adapated from section 4.21 of [Ari62] G. Phanikumar 100 Transport Phenomena Notes
A.7. DILATION
dV = Jd12 d3 = JdV0 or J= dV dV0

dJ . dt
The change in dilation as we follow the motion is given by the material derivative d dt xi j = j dxi dt ui j
Since ui is a function of x1 , x2 and x3 , ui ui x1 ui x2 ui x3 ui xl = + + = x1 j x2 j x3 j xl j j Using dierentiation by parts in J = ijk xi xj xk 1 2 3 uj 2 xk xi xj + 3 1 2 uk 3
dJ = ijk dt dJ = ijk dt
ui 1
xj xk xi + 2 3 1
ui xl xl 1
xj xk xi + 2 3 1
uj xl xl 2
xk xi xj + 3 1 2
uk xl xl k
Each of the terms in the above equation is expressible as a determinant shown in the previous section. The dummy index l can take values from 1 to 3. The rst term is non zero only when l = i and the second when l = j and the thrid when l = k as the determinant goes to zero when two of its rows are same. Hence, dJ ui vj vk xi xj xk = ijk + + + + xk 1 2 3 dt xi xj or dJ = J [i ui ] dt Divergence of a velocity eld i ui can now be interpreted as the rate of dilation or rate of change of elemental volume following the ow path. Since incompressible uids are dened u as those with no dilatation during ow, i ui = 0 or = 0 is the condition for incompressible uid ow. Transport Phenomena Notes 101 G. Phanikumar
A.8
Reynolds transport theorem
Adapted from section 4.22 of [Ari62]. Let f (, t) be any function and V (t) be a closed volume moving with the uid ie., consisting x of the same uid particles.
f (t) =
f (, t)dV x
V (t)
is a function of t that can be calculated. We are interested in the material derivative Df . Since Dt the integral is varying over V (t), dierentiation cannot be taken through the integral sign. If the dierentiation is with respect to a volume in the material co-ordinate system (1 , 2 , 3 ), it D would be possible to interchange dierentiation and integration since Dt is dierentiation with respect to time keeping constant. The transformation x = x(, t) with V = JdV0 allows us to this, for V (t) has been dened as a moving material volume and so came from some xed V0 at time t = 0. D Dt D f (x, t)dV = Dt V (t) f (x(, t), t)JdV0
V0
Since the integral is over the same volume V0 , we can take the dierentiation operator inside the integral.
D Dt
V0 )
f (x, t)dV
= = =
( df
V0 V0
dt
Using the expression for material derivative
( df
V0
( df
) J + f dJ dV0 dt
dt
) + f ( JdV0 u) ) + f ( dV u)
(A.14)
dt
D = + (u ) Dt t D Dt
V0
f (x, t)dV =
V (t)
f + (f dV u) t
Apply Greens theorem to the second term, with S(t) as the surface of the element following the uid ow and n as the unit normal to S(t): D Dt f + t
f (x, t)dV =
V (t)
V0
S(t)
f ndS u
Rate of change of the integral of any function f within a moving element is the sum of integral of rate of change at a location and the net ow of f over the surface enclosing the element. G. Phanikumar 102 Transport Phenomena Notes
A.9. RTT AND CONTINUITY EQUATION
A.9
RTT and Continuity Equation
Using f = in the Reynolds Transport Theorem given in section A.8, one recovers continuity equation. Using f = G in RTT given in section A.8 where G is any dynamical property per unit mass (such as G = ui, momentum per unit mass) one can bring the material derivative inside the integration. D Dt GdV =
V
G dV + t
Gu ndS
Using Gauss theorem to convert a surface integral to volume integral, D Dt G GdV = G + dV + (ui F ) dV t t V V
Keeping ui together and expanding the integrand of the second integral, D Dt Regrouping, D Dt GdV = ) G ( G dV + ui G + (ui ) dV + t t V G (ui ) + (ui ) G dV GdV = G + dV + G t t V V
Recognising that the term in square brackets in the rst integral is zero because of continuity equation and the integrand of the second integral could be simplied using the material derivative, D Dt GdV =
V
DG dV Dt
A.10
Cauchys stress principle
Adapted from section 5.11 of [Ari62]. Let n be the unit outward normal at a point of the surface S and ( ) the force per unit n area exerted there by the material outside S. Then Cauchys principle asserts that ( ) is a n function of the position x, the time t and the orientation n of the surface element. Thus the total internal force exerted on the volume V through its bounding surface S is ( )dS n
If f is the external force per unit mass (e.g., f = gx3 ), the total external force will be Transport Phenomena Notes f dV 103 G. Phanikumar
APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS The principle of conservation of linear momentum asserts that the sum of these two forces equals the rate of change of linear momentum of the volume. d dt vdV = f dV + ( )dS n
S
If V is a volume of a given shape with a characteristic dimension d then V d3 and S d2 . As we let V shrink on a point but preserve the shape, the rst two integrals decrease as d3 where as the last will as d2 . So, 1 lim 2 d0 d ie., the stresses are locally in equilibrium. ( )dS = 0 n
A.11
Stress is a tensor
Adapted from section 5.12 of [Ari62] and section 1.3, pg.9 of [Bat67]. Stress is dened as force per unit area. Consider all the forces acting instantaneously on the uid within an element of volume V in the shape of a tetrahedron. The three orthogonal faces have areas A1 , A2 and A3 and unit outward normals as a, and c. The fourth inclined b face has area A and unit normal n. The resultant of surface forces is ( )A + (a)A1 + ( n b)A2 + ()A3 c In view of the orthogonality of three of the faces, A1 = a nA b A2 = nA A3 = c nA Thus the balance of forces along direction i can be written as j i (2 ) + cj i (3 ) nj n x x x A i ( ) aj i (1 ) + b
As we shrink the volume (V d3 ), since the area shrinks only as S d2 , the quantity in square brackets must go to zero for local equilibrium. ie., i ( ) = aj i (1 ) + j i (2 ) + cj i (3 ) nj n x b x x
If we represent the quantity in the ower brackets on R.H.S. as ij , n i ( ) = ij nj
Since the vectors i (surface force per unit area) and n (unit normal to the surface) donot depend on the choice of co-ordinate axes, the quantity connecting them ij must represent (i, j)-component of a axes-independent entity namely, a tensor of order 2. This is also true by the quotient rule of tensors. G. Phanikumar 104 Transport Phenomena Notes
A.12. STRESS TENSOR IS SYMMETRIC
A.12
Stress tensor is symmetric
Adapted from section 2.7 pg. 57 of [SAH89]. Consider stress at the center of a control volume of size x1 x2 x3 as shown in the gure. The torque produced by the forces about an axis along x3 and through the center of gravity of the CV is T = 12 x1 x3 x2 21 x2 x3 x1 or T = (12 21 )x1 x2 x3 The torque may be equated to the product of angular acceleration (3 ) and the moment of inertia taken about the previously mentioned axis (3 ): x (12 21 )x1 x2 x3 = or (12 21 ) = (x2 + x2 )3 2 12 1 x1 x2 x3 (x2 + x2 )3 1 2 12
As we shrink the CV to innitesimal size, since the term in the bracket on the right goes to zero, if the L.H.S. were to remain nite 3 must blow up. It can be prevented only if L.H.S. is zero. ie., 12 = 21 or The tensor ij is symmetric.
A.13
Meaning of terms in strain rate tensor
Figure A.1 shows how a uid element deforms during its motion. The deformation can be analysed into dierent modes and the respective strains and strain rates can be expressed in terms of the velocity gradients as shown below. Initial Positions: A B D x0 (x0 + x) x0 y0 y0 (y0 + y)
Velocities: A B D u (u + (u +
u x) x u y) y
v (v + (v +
v x) x v y) y
105
G. Phanikumar
Translation
Rotation
Shear
Dilation
R S D C Q P B
Figure A.1: Analysis of deformation of a uid element Positions after dt: P Q S x0 + udt (x0 + x) + (u + u x)dt x x0 + (u + u y)dt y y0 + vdt v y0 + (v + x x)dt (y0 + y) + (v + v y)dt y Shear strain along y is Shear strain along x is
P Qy . AB P Sx . AD
Dilational strain along x is Dilational strain along y is Dilational Strain rate:
P Qx AB . AB P Sy AD . AD
e11 =
u xdt x
x
v ydt y
1 u = dt x 1 v = dt y
e22 =
Shear Strains: =
v xdt x
x
u ydt y
v dt x u dt y v u + x y Transport Phenomena Notes
= Pure shear strain rate: e12 Pure rotational rate: 12 G. Phanikumar
1 1 1 = ( + ) = 2 dt 2 1 1 1 = ( ) = 2 dt 2 106
v u x y
A.14. VELOCITY GRADIENT IS A TENSOR
A.14
Velocity gradient is a tensor
Adapted from section 4.41 of [Ari62] Consider two points P and Q at co-ordinates and + d. At time t they are to be found at x(, t) and x( + d, t). Using only the rst term of Taylors expansion, xi dj j
xi ( + d, t) = xi (, t) + So the displacement vector is
dx = x( + d, t) x(, t) where dxi = xi dj j

xi j
Since dx and d are vectors, by quotient rule, the nine quantities a tensor of order 2. Since we dene velocity v as v = is
dx , dt
form the components of
the relative velocity of two uid particles at and + d
dui =
ui d xi dk = dj k dt j
Using the inverse of the relation given above, ui k ui dxj = dxj k xj xj
dui =
ui Once again, by quotient rule, the components of xj form a tensor or order 2. This is called velocity gradient tensor. Like any tensor of order two, velocity gradient tensor can be split into two tensors, one symmetric and one anti-symmetric.
ui 1 = 2 xj
ui uj + xj xi
1 + 2
ui uj xj xi
We denote the symmetric part of the velocity gradient tensor as eij (strain rate tensor) and the anti-symmetric part as ij (vorticity tensor). ui = eij + ij xj Transport Phenomena Notes 107 G. Phanikumar
APPENDIX A. DERIVATIONS As shown in the section A.13, we can recognise that eij represents rate of strain (both dilational and shear) and ij represents rigid body rotation.
G. Phanikumar
108
Bibliography
[Ari62] [Bat67] Rutherford Aris. Vectors, Tensors and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics. Prentice Hall Inc, Eaglewood Clis, N.J., 1962. G.K. Batchelor. An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press, Eaglewood Clis, N.J., 1967.
[BSL02] R. Byron Bird, Warren E. Stewart, and Edwin N. Lightfoot. Transport Phenomena. John Wiley and Sons, 2002. [Gas92] [GP94] David R. Gaskell. An Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Engineering. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York 10022, 1992. D.R. Geiger and G.H. Poirier. Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing. TMS, Warrendale, PA, USA, 1994.
[Ons31a] Lars Onsager. Reciprocal relations in irreversible processes - i. Physical Review, 37:405426, 1931. [Ons31b] Lars Onsager. Reciprocal relations in irreversible processes - ii. Physical Review, 38:22652279, 1931. [PT83] N.V. Perelomova and M.M. Tagieva. Problems in Crystal Physics with solutions. Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1983.
[SAH89] Rolf H. Sabersky, Allan J. Acosta, and Edward G. Hauptmann. Fluid Flow : A rst course in Fluid Mechanics. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 3 edition, 1989.
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MM2040: Introduction to Transport Phenomena

course website: http://mme.iitm.ac.in/moodle February 1, 2010

Transport Phenomena Notes

8.4 Mass transfer with advection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

CONTENTS 8.4.3 8.4.4 Sherwood number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Chilton-Colburn Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

8.5 Reaction mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 A Derivations 94

Transport Phenomena Notes

Chapter 1 Introduction to Tensors

Nabla or Del or Grad:

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS Gradient: Divergence:

1.3. LEVI-CIVITA SYMBOL

= 231 = 213 = 112 = 221 = 331

Det(a) = Iaij I Det(a) = ijk a1i a2j a3k

Transport Phenomena Notes

Similarly the other terms will also vanish.

1.5. CO-ORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS

(f) = f + ( f ) g) g (f = ( f ) f ( g) g) (f = f ( f ) + (g )f (f )g g) g( g) (f = f ( + ( f) + f (g) + (f) g) g g 1 (f f ) = f f + (f )f 2 g) h h)g h)f (f = (f (g h)g g)h h) f (g = (f (f g) g) g) (f (f = |f |2 |g|2 (f 2

(1.8) (1.9) (1.10) (1.11)

(1.12) (1.13) (1.14) (1.15)

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS

Figure 1.1: Co-ordinate Transformation

Transport Phenomena Notes

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TENSORS

1.7. OPERATIONS ON TENSORS

a is a symmetric tensor if aij = aji Transport Phenomena Notes 15 G. Phanikumar

a is a skew-symmetric or anti-symmetric tensor if aij = aji

The vector formed by the components of an anti-symmetric tensor: 1 k = 2 3 0 3 2 ij = 3 0 1 2 1 0 1 k = kij ij 2

Transport Phenomena Notes

1.9. TENSORS THAT REPRESENT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

ijkl = 1 ij kl + 2 ik jl + 3 il jk Proof is given in section A.4.

Tensors that represent physical properties

Ji = ij Ej eij = ij T Pi = dijk jk ejk = lijk Ei ij = rijk Ek eij = cijkl kl

1. Prove that gradient of a continuous scalar function is a vector. ai = i = (1.34)

Transport Phenomena Notes

This quantity has a special meaning in mechanical behaviour of materials.

Transport Phenomena Notes

Chapter 2 Navier-Stokes Equations

2.2. CONTINUITY EQUATION

and dividing by , (2.9)

Actually Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem

Transport Phenomena Notes

CHAPTER 2. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

(2.12) Transport Phenomena Notes

CHAPTER 2. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

1 p = kk 3 so that ij = pij + dij

Strain rate tensor

ui = eij + ij xj 1 eij = 2 1 ij = 2 Dene as u = or i = ijk uj,k = ijk G. Phanikumar 24 uj xk ui uj + xj xi ui uj xj xi

(2.27) Transport Phenomena Notes

2.7. RELATION BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN-RATE so that, 1 ij = ijk k 2 (2.28)

Relation between stress and strain-rate

are zero for a stationary uid.

2.8. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

Expanding the material derivative Transport Phenomena Notes

and writing in vector notation: 27 G. Phanikumar

CHAPTER 2. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

u1 1 p + (u )u1 = F1 + 2 u 1 t x1 1 p u2 + (u )u2 = F2 + 2 u 2 t x2 1 p 2 u3 + (u )u3 = F3 + u3 t x3

Signicance of the linear relation and Viscosity

N-S equations in cylindrical co-ordinate system

CHAPTER 2. NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

Transport Phenomena Notes

Chapter 3 Specic cases of uid ow

Steady state: Time derivative of the velocity is to be taken zero.

Trivial case reproducing Newtons Law