Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 142 (2007) 288302 www.elsevier.

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Some perspectives on carbon sequestration in agriculture

J.J. Hutchinson, C.A. Campbell, R.L. Desjardins *
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 960 Carling Avenue, K.W. Neatby Building, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0C6 Received 2 December 2004; received in revised form 15 November 2005; accepted 15 March 2006

Abstract One of the main options for greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation identied by the IPCC is the sequestration of carbon in soils. Since the breaking of agricultural land in most regions, the carbon stocks have been depleted to such an extent, that they now represent a potential sink for CO2 removal from the atmosphere. Improved management will however, be required to increase the inputs of organic matter in the top soil and/or decrease decomposition rates. In this paper we use data from selected regions to explore the global potential for carbon sequestration in arable soils. While realising that C sequestration is not limited to the selected regions, we have, however, focussed our review on two regions: (i) Canadian Prairies and (ii) The Tropics. In temperate regions, management changes for an increase in C involve increase in cropping frequency (reducing bare fallow), increasing use of forages in crop rotations, reducing tillage intensity and frequency, better crop residue management, and adopting agroforestry. In the tropics, agroforestry remains the primary method by which sequestration rates may be signicantly increased. Increases in soil C may be achieved through improved fertility of cropland/pasture; on extensive systems with shifting cultivation cropped fallows and cover crops may be benecial, and adopting agro forestry or foresting marginal cropland is also an alternative. In addition, in the tropics it is imperative to reduce the clearing of forests for conversion to cropland. Some regional analyses of soil C sequestration and sequestration potential have been performed, mainly for temperate industrialized North America where the majority of research pertaining to C sequestration has been carried out. More research is needed, especially for the Tropics, to more accurately capture the impact of region-specic interactions between climate, soil, and management of resources on C sequestration, which are lost in global level assessments. By itself, C sequestration in agricultural soils can make only modest contributions (36% of fossil fuel contributions) to mitigation of overall greenhouse gas emissions. However, effective mitigation policies will not be based on any single magic bullet solutions, but rather on many modest reductions which are economically efcient and which confer additional benets to society. In this context, soil C sequestration is a signicant mitigation option. # 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Carbon sequestration; Mitigation options; Canadian Prairies; Tropics; Tillage; Fertilizer effects; Cropping frequency

1. Introduction 1.1. Global warming In 1987, the Bruntland ReportOur Common Future made by the World Commission on Environ-

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 613 759 1522; fax: +1 613 759 1432. E-mail address: desjardins@agr.gc.ca (R.L. Desjardins). 0168-1923/$ see front matter # 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2006.03.030

ment and Development, focussed world attention on problems such as global warming, ozone depletion, desertication, reduced biodiversity, the burgeoning demands of a growing world population, and the need for a global agenda directed to sustainable development (Bruntland, 1987). The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), set up by the WMO (World Meteorological Organization) and UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme), produced its rst scientic assessment of these concerns in 1990 (IPCC, 1990).

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They concluded that emissions from human activities were increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and warned that this could lead to a warming of the earths surface with unknown consequences for mankind. For many centuries, the rates of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere were balanced by rates of gases lost, so that the gaseous composition of the atmosphere has remained nearly constant. However, this balance has been disrupted by increasing emissions from human activity, so that some gases are now accumulating in the atmosphere at an increasing rate thereby altering the composition of the atmosphere. 1.1.1. Role of agriculture in global warming Agriculture occupies a larger portion of global land area (about 35%) than any other human activity (Betts and Falloon, 2007). Because of its scale and intensity, agriculture emits a large quantity of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere (Salinger, 2007). It presently accounts for about 25% of the CO2, 50% of the CH4 and 70% of the N2O released globally via human sources. However, because farmlands are intensively managed, farmers can, to some extent, control the amounts of these gases released. For example, by choosing different practices, it may be possible to reduce emissions. Farmlands may, in fact, even be made to absorb more gases than they emit, thus helping to absorb CO2 emitted from fossil fuels and restore air quality. This is of importance with regards to C, because when this occurs the land acts as a sink or storehouse for C. 1.2. Objectives The objective of this paper is to discuss some of the agricultural management practices that can be used to reduce atmospheric CO2 via increased C sequestration in soils. We restrict our discussion to arable land (i.e., we will not discuss C sequestration in wetlands, forests, histosols, or oceans). Further, we only discuss C sequestration, although we recognize that management may have a positive (benecial) effect on CO2 emissions (C sequestration) while this is counterbalanced by negative (unfavourable) effects on other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide (Desjardins et al., 2005). We mainly report on research conducted in Canada, where considerable research has been carried out on the potential of agricultural soils to sequester C. We also present some information on C sequestration in tropical environments.

2. Background information 2.1. Carbon sequestrationdenition Carbon sequestration can be dened as persistent increase in C storage (in soil or plant material or in the sea). Some argue that only very recalcitrant C should be regarded as sequestered C; however, soil C varies in degree of permanence (or in its residence time). Some soil C date is modern while other components date is greater than 1000 years (Campbell, 1967). Thus any denition of sequestration of C based on residence time is arbitrary. We need to assume that if a management is adopted which promotes sequestration, sequestration will continue until some steady-state asymptote is achieved, as long as the management is not changed and weather conditions remain similar from year to year. 2.2. Uncertainties in estimating carbon sequestration and permanence Various management techniques can be used to increase carbon sequestration in soils (Janzen et al., 1999). Large uncertainties are associated with quantifying the impact of the various crop management practices on greenhouse gas emissions. Further, the spatial and temporal scales involved in quantifying greenhouse gas emissions from, and C sequestration in, agro-ecosystems make it very difcult to obtain accurate estimates of the GHG emission or C sink values. The uncertainty about future climatic conditions is also a complicating factor because the magnitude of the effect engendered by many of the crop management practices that may be adopted to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are so dependent on climate and weather as they inuence primary productivity and thus C inputs into the soil. 2.3. Climate and soils Most of the ensuing discussion deals with soils in temperate climates of North America where agriculture is generally intensive, highly mechanized, and large amounts of chemical (fertilizers, pesticides) inputs are used. Low temperatures prevail for 36 months of each year, which preclude active crop growth during the winter months. There is little new land remaining to be converted to agriculture in North America and, for economic reasons, there is often surplus arable cropland that is being converted to grassland, [CRP in the USA and Permanent Cover Programme (PCP) in Canada], agroforestry and urban uses. There are semi-arid

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regions in which bare fallow, for conserving water, is frequently used, and wheat (Tricicum aestivum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oilseeds and pulses are the main crops grown, and managed pastures and rangeland occupy large proportion of the land area. There are subhumid areas where much less fallow exists and oilseeds and pulse crops area is greater than on semi-arid areas but wheat and barley in Canada, and millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), sorghum (Sorghum halepense L.), maize (Zea mays L.) in the USA, are major crops. In Canada the soils are partitioned into Zones with the Brown, Dark Brown, Black and Dark Grey Chernozems as we go from south-west (short-grass prairie) to North-east (tall-grass prairie), and then into Grey Luvisols (under forest vegetation). In the USA or Great Plains, similar soils exist where the Brown, Dark Brown and Black Chernozems equivalents are called Aridic, Typic and Udic Borolls, respectively, and the Grey Luvisols are called Alsols. The cool conditions for long periods of the year and dry conditions in some regions are conducive to signicant C sequestration (low rates of C decomposition and mineralization of organic matter). However, crop production is generally low, especially when bare fallowing is practiced regularly and therefore C inputs are low. Nonetheless, in recent years producers have been adopting more frequent usage of no-tillage and snow management techniques, both of which promote more efcient soil water storage and use (Campbell et al., 1986) and which has allowed them to increase their cropping frequency, and reduce fallow frequency (Campbell et al., 2005). A similar trend to the latter has also been observed in the USA (Campbell et al., 2005). 2.4. Global potential for C sequestration Agriculture and land-use change contributes about 20% of the anthropogenic emissions of CO2 (Dumanski and Lal, 2004). Average soil organic carbon (SOC) in the top 30 cm of native soil worldwide is approximately 15 Mg ha1. However, when cultivated, about 2030% of this C is released to the atmosphere within the rst 20 years in temperate regions, and 5075% in the tropics (Dumanski and Lal, 2004). There is however considerable potential to regain some of this lost C by adopting soil conservation practices on arable soils. For example, Dumanski and Lal (2004) proposed the following scenarios:  The potential for C sequestration in US cropland is 75208 Tg C year1. This is about 24% of US reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.

 The potential for C sequestration in cropland in Canada is approximately 24 Tg C year1, representing about 10% of Canadas reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol.  The potential for C sequestration in cropland in the European Union is approximately 90120 Tg C year1, if all known best land management practices were implemented.  The potential for C sequestration in China is 105 198 Tg C year1, and in India is 3949 Tg C year1, or about 47% of current, annual fossil fuel emissions.  Recent evidence from the humid tropics indicates that these regions have considerable potential for sequestration of C. For example, C accumulation rates in tropical agroforestry systems range from 4 to 9 Mg C ha1 year1, more above ground than in the soil. Over a normal rotation of 2025 years, above-ground C accumulations in plant biomass can be as high as 50 Mg C ha1, and C accumulations in the soil can be as high as 50 Mg C ha1. 3. Opportunities for increasing soil C sequestrationCanada This section discusses research results primarily from the Canadian Prairies but the ndings are very similar to those for the United Sates Great Plains, which are not presented here. A number of agricultural land management practices have been shown to increase soil C (Desjardins et al., 2001; Campbell et al., 2005). Janzen et al. (2001 unpublished internal document of Agriculture and AgriFood Canada) provides a list reecting the current understanding and knowledge of this subject by Canadian scientists (Table 1). Extensive research has shown that soil C in cropland can often be increased by adopting C-conserving practices, notably reducing tillage intensity, eliminating summer fallow, planting more forages, and increasing residue inputs from higher yields. The benets of these practices vary among regions, soil taxonomy, soil texture and climatic conditions. For example, studies in central and eastern Canada show that adopting reduced tillage does not always increase soil C (Angers et al., 1997). The practices in Table 1 are shown for their independent effect; however, producers often adopt some of these practices in combination and their combined effect may or may not be additive. For example, a reduction of summer fallow (increase in cropping frequency) in the semi-arid prairies of western Canada is usually accompanied by adoption of conservation tillage, greater use of fertilizer N, stubble

J.J. Hutchinson et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 142 (2007) 288302 Table 1 Proposed list of practices to store more C in agricultural soils (adapted from Janzen et al., 2001) Practice Cropland Reduced tillage Ratesb Condence c Feasabilityd Associated impactse Areaa 6 1 1 (10 ha) (Mg C ha year ) 46 0.00.4 M H

291

Eliminate summerfallow Include more forage in rotation

3 4

0.00.5 0.00.5

H M

H M

Increase residue return by increasing yields (e.g., nutrient amendment, irrigation, better varieties) or avoiding removal or burning Restore permanent grass or woodland Use organic residues (e.g., manures, biosolids, crop residues) more efciently, especially to restore depleted soil Grazing land Improved grazing practices (e.g., changes in grazing intensity or frequency) Increase in productivity (e.g., nutrients amendment, irrigation, new species)

0.00.3

1 1

0.21.0 0.10.5

H H

L M

Reduced erosion, enhanced biodiversity, more leaching, variable yield response Reduced erosion, less leaching Improved soil structure and fertility; not always feasible (e.g., in arid lands) Increased production, sometimes leaching to higher economic returns More wildlife habitat

10 1

0.00.1 0.00.3

L M

L M

a An estimate of the increase in area over which the practice could be applied. These estimates are rough approximations, best viewed as indicators of relative area of potential adoption rather than as denitive, absolute values. The value estimates the total area of land affected; for example, elimination of 1 Mha of fallow, where fallow now appears only once every 3 years, affects 3 Mha of land. b Rates of potential C gain are average rates over a projected duration of 20 years. Thereafter, rates may diminish and eventually approach zero. The range of rates reects uncertainty and variability arising from differences in climate, soil properties, and management history. c Condence denotes the degree of scientic consensus on the suggested rates of C gain. H = high (little disagreement), M = medium (some disagreement about estimated rates but reasonable consensus that an effect exists), L = low (Some disagreement over whether the effect even exists). d Feasability is an index of the likelihood of acceptance by producers. H = high, M = medium, and L = low. e Partial listing of other pertinent effects (ve or +ve).

management to increase snow trap, and crop diversication (i.e., including oilseeds and/or pulse crops in rotation rather than mono-culture wheat). McConkey et al. (1999) discuss how one can calculate the effect of several interacting factors regarding their impact on C sequestration on the Canadian Prairies. Below we highlight some of the more promising agricultural practices that may be used to increase C sequestration in agricultural soils in Canada. 3.1. Effect of converting cropland to grassland Converting cropland into perennial forage production may result in a substantial increase in soil C sequestration. Conant et al. (2001) in a comprehensive literature review, reported rates of soil C sequestration as high as 1.01 Mg C ha1 year1 for conversion from cultivated land to grassland. This value is larger than the value of 0.62 Mg C ha1 year1 estimated by the CENTURY model for Canada by Smith et al., 2000. Conversion of cropland to forage production does not

always lead to increased soil C. For example, Campbell et al. (2000a) observed very little increase in soil C on land previously in fallow-wheat for >60 years when the land was cropped to crested wheat grass (Agropyron desertorum L.) for 10 years in semi-arid Southern Saskatchewan (Table 2). They ascribed this somewhat surprising result to poor weather conditions for growing grasses experienced during the experimental period. In contrast, Bremer et al. (2002) in a study similar to Campbell et al. (2000a) but conducted at Bow Island, Alberta (Table 2) observed, after 6 years, that the largest increase in soil C occurred under seeded grass. One difculty in assessing C gains under grassland is concerned with how we assess the C in plant material (e.g., root crowns) under grasses. 3.2. Effect of including forage in crop rotation Most rotation studies show a consistent positive contribution of grasses to soil carbon sequestration (Table 2) (Conant et al., 2001). Perennial grasses or

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Table 2 Effect of forages on SOC in 015 cm depth in crop rotations in Canadian Prairies Indian Head c (Black Chernozem) Indian Head, SK (19571997) Campbell et al. (2000a)a FWW (no fert.) LGMWW (no fert.) FWWHHH (no fert.) Melfort sil (Black Chernozem) Melfort, SK (19571987) Campbell et al. (1991) b FWW (N + P) LGMWW (N + P) FWWHHW (N + P) Swinton sil (Brown Chernozem) Mg ha1 28.0 31.2 34.5 Mg ha1 61.2 64.0 63.6 Mg ha1

Fig. 1. Effect of cropping frequency on mean annual rate of change of SOC relative to well-fertilized continuous cropping, tilled treatments (control) in Canadian prairie studies (adapted from Campbell et al., 2005).

Swift Current, SK (19871996) Campbell et al. (2000b) FWW (N + P) 33.4 (1.0) c LGMWW (N + P) 32.2 (1.4) Grass (N + P) 31.1 (2.2) Bow Island, cl (Brown Chernozem) Bow Island, AB (19921997) Bremer et al. (2002) FW (N + P) FWW (N + P) Grass Mg ha1 20.2 a 20.9 b, c 23.2 a

Ffallow, Hhay, LGMlegume green manure, Wwheat. a, b, c, denote signicant difference (P < 0.05) if letter differs using Duncans multiple regression test. a LSD = 3.8. b LSD = 3.0. c Values in parentheses denote standard error of mean.

legumes in rotation return large amounts of crop residues to the soil and can potentially increase SOC thus increasing the likelihood for sequestering atmospheric CO2. Use of legumes in crop rotations can also appreciably reduce the requirements for N fertilizers for various cropping systems (Zentner et al., 2001, 2004), thereby reducing net fossil fuel requirements and the C cost of manufacturing N fertilizers. In the semiarid prairies of Canada, forage crops grown in rotation with cereals and oilseeds that follow the forage in the rotation, often negatively inuence available water and thus yields of the succeeding crop thereby resulting in lower C inputs (Table 2). Rotations that include forages are most advantageous in sub-humid regions, such as the Black Chernozems and Gray and Dark Gray Luvisolic soils of western Canada, where water is less limiting to production (Table 2). 3.3. Effect of reduced tillage No-till management is one of the most efcient practices for sequestering C in cropland. Currently, the

rate of 0.20 Mg C ha1 year1 has been suggested for use for all soils across Canada (Bruce et al., 1998). However, the net effect of tillage on C sequestration is complex. Campbell et al. (1986) have shown that this effect depends on soil texture, being directly proportional to clay content and varies with soil zone and cropping frequency (Fig. 1) (Campbell et al., 2005). For example, in semi-arid conditions on the Canadian Prairies, SOC gains under no-till were about 0.25 Mg C ha1 year1 greater than for tilled systems regardless of cropping frequency; in sub-humid environments on the prairies, the advantage was about 0.05 Mg C ha1 year1 for rotations with fallow, but 0.25 Mg C ha1 year1 with continuous cropping. The increase in soil moisture that is associated with the adoption of no-till often results in higher crop yield, especially in arid and semiarid environments where notill is often combined with snow management. However, higher moisture may also lead to more rapid soil C decomposition. In contrast, the lower temperatures and more limited soil aeration at higher soil moisture may lead to less soil C decomposition. Hence, it is no surprise that there are conicting observations with respect to the impact of reduced tillage on soil C, depending on where the measurements are carried out (Campbell et al., 2005). In addition, no-tillage is accompanied by a reduction in fossil fuel emissions because of reduced machinery and tractor use (Dyer and Desjardins, 2003). Greater conservation of soil moisture by the surface residue layer under conservation tillage (especially if combined with snow management) (Campbell et al., 1986) may also facilitate continuous cropping in semi-arid environments, thereby resulting in increased crop production and C inputs into soil, and shorter periods of wet soil that would facilitate C decomposition.

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Under arid or semiarid conditions, the yield increase from no-till is more a function of greater water conservation and the latter benet may either not be signicant in more humid regions or may even be a detriment on heavy-textured soils. In any event, in the more humid conditions of Eastern Canada, Angers et al. (1997) reported that reduced tillage rarely resulted in SOC gains. No-till may also increase SOC at a given site by preventing erosion, though this does not represent a net removal of C from the atmosphere. The results of Campbell et al. (2001b) indicate that without adequate fertilization the adoption of no-tillage will not necessarily increase soil C (Fig. 2). Conservation tillage would appear to be more prevalent in North America than in Europe (Smith et al., 2000). In European countries, where no-tillage might yield great benets in terms of water conservation (e.g., in Spain), reduced tillage accounted for less than 5% of the total land cultivated in 1995 (Costa, 1996). 3.4. Reduction of bare fallow (or increase in cropping frequency) Greater cropping intensity, by reducing the frequency of bare fallow (cropping more frequently) in crop rotations, will increase crop production and increase C inputs to soil.

Increase in cropping frequency will also increase water use, keeping soils dryer longer, and thus reduce the rate of soil decomposition. On the Canadian Prairies, the area under summer fallow has decreased from 12 to 5 million ha in recent years and is expected to decrease to 3 million ha in 1020 years (Dumanski et al., 1998). It has been estimated that reduction of summer fallow by 1.8 million ha in the Canadian prairies would remove from the atmosphere; about 1.5 Tg CO2 year1 by 2010 (Desjardins et al., 2001). Conversion from summer fallow to cropped land will reduce erosion (though this is not truly C sequestration). The rate of increase in SOC due to a change in cropping frequency is a function of climatic conditions (Table 3). That is, if weather is consistently favourable, production (C inputs) will be greater than if weather is consistently unfavourable and, hence, SOC gains will be greater in favourable weather situations (Campbell et al., 2001a, 2005). 3.5. Nutrient additions via fertilizers Many agricultural ecosystems are nitrogen-limited. Adding N fertilizer usually results in increased crop production (i.e., C inputs) and may therefore increase C sequestration in soils (Fig. 2 and Table 4). In considering the net effect of fertilizer on C sequestration, we must take into account the fact that there is about 1 kg C emitted in the manufacture and transportation of 1 kg N fertilizer that must also be accounted for in any C balance (Janzen et al., 1999). Nonetheless, in a long term experiment conducted in a Black Chernozem in Saskatchewan, Campbell et al. (2001b) recorded signicant increases in C sequestration even after allowing for the latter expenditures in C from fertilizer N manufacture and transportation. 3.6. Interaction of fertilization and cropping frequency The application of fertilizers to crops may increase SOC (Campbell et al., 1987; Nyborg et al., 1995; Solberg et al., 1997; Campbell et al., 2001b). The magnitude of the increase in SOC is much larger in soils with inherently low C than in ones where C is already high (Janzen et al., 1998). The inuence of fertilization on SOC also depends on the frequency of bare fallow. As shown in ndings at Swift Current and Indian Head, Saskatchewan, even after 2430 years, fallow-containing rotations showed little C increase due to fertilization; only continuous wheat (Cont W) showed a signicant increase due to fertilization (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Effect of fertilizer N and P and cropping frequency on SOC in 015 cm depth, measured in a Black Chernozem at Indian Head, Saskatchewan, in 1987 after 30 years of conventional tillage and again in 1997, 7 years after conversion to no-tillage management and increased rates of N (adapted from Campbell et al., 2001b).

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Table 3 Rate of increase of SOC (015 cm depth) relative to FWa in three periodsb in Swift Current Old Rotation study (adapted from Campbell et al., 2005) Rotation Rotation no. 19671976 = 10 years SOC in 1976 (Mg ha1) 32.8 32.3 32.0 34.8 30.0 36.1 30.5 31.1 36.3 37.5 2.3 1.8 1.5 4.3 0.5 5.6 0 0.6 5.8 7.5 Storage increasea (kg ha1 year1) 230 180 150 430 50 560 0 60 580 700 19761990 = 15 years SOC in 1990 (Mg ha1) 31.0 32.8 29.0 35.7 30.5 32.0 29.7 32.7 32.9 35.7 1.3 3.1 0.7 6.0 0.8 2.3 0 3.0 3.2 6.0 Storage increasea (kg ha1 year1) 87 207 47 400 53 153 0 200 213 400 19901999 = 10 years SOC in 1999 (Mg ha1) 37.1 38.3 36.6 42.0 35.3 42.2 36.5 37.9 39.7 41.7 0.6 1.8 0.1 5.5 1.2 5.7 0 1.4 3.2 5.2 Storage increasea (kg ha1 year1) 60 180 10 550 120 570 0 140 320 520

FWW (+P) FWW (N + P) F-Flx-W (N + P) F-Rye-W (N + P) FWW (+N) Cont W (N + P) FW (N + P) Cont W (+P) F-5W (N + P) c W-Lent (N + P)
a b

1 2 3 4 5 8 11 12 13 19

Relative to FW (assume no change since initiation in 1967 because was FW before). The period 19671976 reects change to Cont cropping; 19761990 = a dry period; 19901999 = a wet period. c This rotation was initially made up of two 3-year continuous cropping rotations for the rst 18 years of study (Zentner and Campbell, 1988; Campbell et al., 2001a).

3.7. Effect of type of crop in rotation Specic crops also inuence SOC (Fig. 3). Replacing spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) in a continuous crop rotation had little effect on SOC at Swift Current, while replacing wheat with lower-yielding ax (Linum usitatisimum L.) reduced SOC gains, and replacing wheat with erosion-preventing fall rye (Secale cereale L.) increased SOC gains (Fig. 3). 3.8. Effect of weather conditions on SOC gains The rate of SOC storage is highly dependent on weather conditions because of its inuence on net primary production (C input) and rate of C decomposition (Campbell et al., 2001a). These scientists attempted to demonstrate this point using results from the 35-year-old Old Rotation Experiment, on an Brown Chernozem at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, by estimating the rate of SOC increase relative to FW (Control) during three periods: (i) an initial change-over period (19671976) after 60 years of FW; (ii) a droughty period (19761989), and (iii) a period of above-average precipitation (19901999) (Table 3). Relative to FW, the other fallow-containing treatments (excluding the rotation with fall rye) gained SOC at an average rate of 102 kg ha1 year1 in the change-over period while the well-fertilized, frequently cropped systems (including the 6-year F-5W rotation) gained SOC, on average, at 613 kg ha1 year1. The F-Rye-W

rotation was excluded from the fallow system because its fallow period is much shorter than for the springseeded cereal systems. The 6-year rotation was included with the frequently cropped systems because it was continuously cropped during the rst 18 years of the experiment (Zentner and Campbell, 1988). During the droughty period (Campbell et al., 2001a) SOC gains for the fallow-containing systems (relative to FW) were even less than that for the 19671976 changeover period (60 kg ha1 year1) as were gains for the frequently cropped systems (255 kg ha1 year1). Then, in the more humid decade of the 1990s, SOC gains in the fallow-containing systems (relative to FW) continued to decrease (26 kg ha1 year1), while gains for the frequently cropped systems were much higher than for the droughty 1980s, but less than for the initial changeover period (470 kg ha1 year1). These results conformed to our understanding of how certain factors inuence SOC changes. The fallow-containing systems should now be approaching a steady state because this land was in FW for 60 or more years prior to initiation of the study. The change to continuous cropping would initially increase C inputs and reduce SOC decomposition (drier soil for longer periods), thus resulting in marked SOC gains compared to previous FW. Droughty periods will tend to reduce C gains (reduced C inputs slightly counterbalanced by reduced SOC decomposition due to dry conditions), and wet conditions should increase SOC gains (increased C inputs slightly counterbalanced by increased SOC decomposition due to higher soil moisture).

J.J. Hutchinson et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 142 (2007) 288302 Table 4 Amount of C sequestered in agricultural soils for various management practices Practice Nutrient additions via fertilizer Amount C sequestered (range) (Mg C/(ha year) 0.30 0.050.15 0.140.18 0.16 0.04 Nutrient additions via manure Converting cultivated lands to grasslands Including more forages (especially legumes) in rotations Adopting conservation tillage 0.20.5 1.01 0.62 0.75 0.44 0.06 0.30.6 0.10.5 0.13 0.200.35 0.140.56 0.50.8 0.170.56 0.120.29 0.090.29 0.120.29 0.1230.185a 0.07b 0.030.14 0.020.04 0.050.4 0.50.6 0.59 0.28 0.050.3 Region Forty-two data points USA USA Canada USA Twenty-three data points Canada Six data points Canada Canada USA USA Canada Canada USA USA Dev. Countries Asia Africa L. America Canada Canada Canada Canada USA Australia Canada/US Australia USA Investigators Conant et al. (2001) Lal et al. (1998) Halvorson et al. (1999) Lee and Dobson (1996) Smith et al. (2001) Follett (2001) Conant et al. (2001) Smith et al. (2001) Conant et al. (2001) Smith et al. (2001)

295

Smith et al. (2001) Follett and McConkey (2000) Lal (2001) Smith et al. (2001) McConkey et al. (1999) Lal (1997) Lal et al. (1998) Lal (1997) Lal (1997) Lal (1997) Lal (1997) Campbell et al. (2001b) Campbell et al. (2001b) Smith et al. (2001) McConkey et al. (1999) Lal (2001) Gifford et al. (1992) Conant et al. (2001) Conant et al. (2001) Lal (2001)

Conversion from conventional till to no-till

Reduction of summer fallow

Improved grassland management

a b

Change from 50% fallow to continuous cropping. Change from fallow-wheat (Triticum aesitivum) to fallow-wheat-wheat.

3.9. Estimating changes in SOC due to change in a combination of management practices on the Canadian prairies Many studies have been conducted on research plots in which the impact of various cultural practices (tillage, fertilizers, cropping frequency, etc.) on SOC on the Canadian Prairies have been measured (Campbell et al., 2005). Many of these studies are single factor experiments, but scientists are interested in estimating the net change in SOC due to multi-factored changes in cultural practices because these practices are more feasible and effective when adopted together. This can be assessed by the use of simulation models such as

Fig. 3. Change in SOC (19671999) in 015 cm depth in Swift Current Old Rotation Study, as measured and as estimated by the model of Campbell et al. (2001a). All treatments receive N and P. (Assumed SOC in 1967 = 30.5 Mg ha1 as measured in FW which was rotation on test site during previous 70 years.) (Adapted from Campbell et al., 2005.)

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CENTURY (Parton et al., 1987), DAYCENTURY (Parton et al., 1998) or EPIC (Williams et al., 1983; Williams, 1995). However, McConkey et al. (1999) proposed a simple model, based on Expert Opinion and a coefcient-based technique, as another approach in achieving this goal. In this approach one is able to estimate SOC gains as a function of cropping frequency, tillage, fertilization, soil texture and landscape position, or any combination of these factors. 3.10. Estimating changes using deterministic models Campbell et al. (2005) used the CENTURY model (version 4.2) to simulate SOC in the 015 cm depth for three well-fertilized rotations (FW, FWW and Cont W) from the Old Rotation Experiment at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, for the period 19671998 (Fig. 4a and b). The simulation results (Fig. 4b) suggested that SOC in the FW would remain constant throughout the 33 years; SOC in FWW would increase by 171 g C m2 (i.e., 1.7 Mg ha1) and in Cont W by 500 g C m2 (5.0 Mg C ha1) with the increase being generally linear over time. Thus the simulated rates of gain in SOC would be 0, 0.05 and 0.16 Mg C ha1 year1 respectively for FW, FW W and Cont W. These compare with rates of increase of 0.055, 0.12 and, 0.20 Mg C ha1 year1 respectively,

estimated by the Campbell et al. (2000a,b) model (Fig. 4c), and 0.09, 0.18, and, 0.29 Mg C ha1 year1 measured (Fig. 4a). Generally both of these models performed reasonably well in estimating trends in SOC change though model estimates were somewhat lower than measured. Models are also useful for projecting expected changes in SOC under various anticipated conditions. For example, Desjardins et al. (2005) used CENTURY to estimate annual changes in SOC in the 020 cm depth for various management practices under a FWW rotation for the period 19802029 at Lethbridge, Alberta (Fig. 5). The following changes in management were simulated: conversion from conventional tillage to no-tillage, conversion from cultivated land to permanent grassland, elimination of summer fallow, introduction of forage crops, and a decrease (50%) and increase (150%) in N-fertilizer addition. Fig. 5 shows cumulative soil C change over the simulated 30 year period for four of these management practices. The largest changes in soil C were due to the elimination of summer fallow, and the second largest due to a change in conventional tillage to no-tillage. 4. Opportunities for increasing soil C sequestrationother countries Sequestration of carbon in arable land is likely to be greatest in regions where virgin soils had the greatest quantity of C prior to breaking for agriculture. These areas are primarily those that were developed under native grass vegetation, such as Chernozemic soils, especially Dark Brown, Black and Grey-Black Chernozems (i.e., Typic and Udic Borolls,) and are present in cooler climates. Such soils are mainly located in the

Fig. 4. Effect of cropping frequency on SOC trends 19671999 in three monoculture wheat rotations in Swift Current Old Rotation Study (015 cm depth): (a) measured, (b) CENTURY model and (c) Campbell model (Campbell et al., 2001a) (adapted from Campbell et al., 2001a).

Fig. 5. Annual changes in soil C for various management changes for a wheat-wheat-fallow rotation in Lethbridge, Alberta (19802029) simulated with CENTURY model (adapted from Desjardins et al., 2005).

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Great Plains of North America and the former Soviet Union. Other areas of the world with high potential to sequester C are probably the Pampas of Argentina, areas of the Former Soviet Union (Kolchugina and Vinson, 1996) and the Veldt of South Africa. These soils have the potential to sequester much C in arable land because primary production is high while cool, relatively dry conditions are conducive to high C inputs and low rates of decomposition and C mineralization. There are countries in the tropics and sub-tropics with large land mass of arable soils (e.g., Brazil, Southeast Asia, some parts of Africa, where there is potential to sequester C but not at as high a rate because even where primary production of crops is great, the rate of decomposition and mineralization of SOC is so great due to high temperature and moisture that the SOC storage is usually small. Since we have provided an adequate example for temperate ecosystem using the North American experience, we will concentrate the remainder of this paper on the situation in the tropics. 4.1. C sequestration in tropical ecosystems Tropical agriculture is highly diverse, ranging from intensive, highly developed management systems to extensive, low input subsistence production. Agriculture is practiced on all major soil types, in warm conditions differing mainly in the amount of rainfall. The constraints on agriculture potential to sequester C in tropical environments differ from those in temperate regions. A large proportion of agriculture in the tropics is subsistence-based, with low production inputs and low yields. Such systems often require an extensive land base (i.e., shifting cultivation) and there is high demand for alternative uses of crop residues (e.g., fodder, fuel). In contrast to most of the temperate zone, food demand exceeds supply in much of tropics and the agriculture land-base is expanding, resulting in large losses of biomass and soil C due to deforestation (Houghton et al., 1993; Paustian et al., 1997; Verge et al., 2007). 4.1.1. In the semi-arid tropics This region includes parts of Central and South America (e.g., Argentina, North-east Brazil) some parts of West, East and Southern Africa and some of the Indian sub-continent where annual precipitation averages <100 cm. The predominant native vegetation is savannah and forest and agricultural systems are mainly grazing, shifting cultivation and dry-land agriculture (growing small grains such as millet, sorghum, and drought-tolerant pulse crops). Burning

is often employed to control shrub and tree cover and continuous heavy grazing can often lead to soil degradation. Often, the crop residues are not returned to the soil as it is either used for feed or fuel, and the manure is also used for fuel. Soil C is inherently low (about 25 Mg C ha1) (Tiessen et al., 1998). Agricultural systems are subject to frequent res causing C loss to the atmosphere and production is low and fertilizers rarely used (Paustian et al., 1997). Following clearing, C loss is rapid (30 50% in 6 years); however, C levels rarely drop below 50% (Tiessen et al., 1998), because declining fertility results in the land being abandoned to become bushfallow. Thus, overall, these soils are inherently low in soil C and the limited available water, high temperatures, and relatively low fertility and poor (but necessary) management of crop residues, result in limited opportunities to sequester much C in soils. 4.1.2. In the sub-humid tropics This region includes large parts of the African continent, the major part of the Indian sub-continent and continental South-east Asia and parts of Latin America and Australia. These are areas characterised by 100 200 cm of average annual rainfall with extended seasons. The native vegetation is tropical deciduous or dry forests. Fires are common in the drier areas. In the more humid areas there is a tendency for the use of more mechanization and high inputs, as found in temperate agro-ecosystems. Grazing is an important practice. In less favourable soils, extensive grazing is used in combination with subsistence agriculture, with manure from livestock used on crops. In the more humid areas fertilization, weed control and species selection are used to maximize production. Shifting cultivation and fallow rotation is also practiced. In sub-humid areas of Africa, mixed continuous cropping (maize, beans, bananas, sugarcane, coffee) with little mechanization is practiced. Crop residues are used for feed but the manure and composts are often used to increase productivity. The mechanized cropping is mainly increased in Southern Asia with the advent of the Green-Belt Revolution, which introduced more fertilization, pesticides, and improved varieties. The native soils in the sub-humid tropics (mostly Alsols, Ultisols, Oxisols, and Psamments) typically are low in soil C (3050 Mg C ha1) in the surface horizon (Sanchez et al., 1982)). Ploughing in seed-bed preparation causes rapid decline in soil C to as low as 815 Mg C ha1 in <10 years (Lal, 1989). Similar declines in soil C will occur when shifting cultivation is used, because of high temperatures and moisture plus

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tillage; however use of bare-fallow will result in rapid recovery during the fallow phase (Nye and Greenland, 1960). An important mechanism for slowing the rate of soil C loss caused by rapid decomposition is to maintain good soil aggregation and structure (Monnier, 1965) by encouraging root and soil fauna activity (Dalal and Bridge, 1996). Low activity clay soils predominate in these soils and SOC content is directly proportional to the amount of clay and silt sized (120 mm) fractions (Feller, 1993). Earthworms are important in promoting soil aggregation (Laville et al., 1992). The cultural practices that promote high C inputs and increase root and faunal activity are mulch farming, conservation tillage, cover crops, manure and agroforestry (Paustian et al., 1997). The use of improved fallows and cover crops within cropping sequences and woody species in agroforestry systems have been shown to be effective on Alsols and Psamments in sub-humid and humid regions of Tropical Africa. Where applicable, these practices maintain higher levels of soil C and nutrients than under conventional cropping (Kang et al., 1991). In sub-humid tropical soils, cropping systems that produce large biomass, provide quick ground cover and have appropriate crop combinations that conserve soil and water resources, can better maintain productivity and SOC levels over time. Improved fertility management is a key component in intensifying cropping systems. Use of chemical fertilizers can enhance soil fertility (Juo and Kang, 1989), increase biomass production and increase soil C levels. In summary, many agricultural soils of the subhumid tropics and highly weathered, with low C and fertility status. Further, they have poor soil physical properties leading to crusting, compaction, and accelerated soil erosion. However, there is potential for C sequestration in these soils. The best strategies are to improve soil physical conditions by conservation tillage, mulch farming, improved fallows, cover-crops and agroforesrtry. C inputs and soil C will also be enhanced by fertilizers manure. 4.1.3. In the humid tropics This region covers large areas in South America (e.g., the Amazon), and Africa (e.g., the Congo), and South-east Asia, areas with very high annual rainfall (>200 cm). Tropical evergreen forests are the climax vegetation while non-climax natural vegetation occurs in patches with shifting cultivation. Crop production is limited by low fertility and soil acidity due to leaching and by rapid invasion by weeds. Shifting cultivation and fallow rotation systems include a broad group of landuse systems based on a few years of crop production

with declining soil organic matter contents and a recovery fallow period for a few years or for longer periods. On suitable soils, notably on upland Andosols and rice paddies, intensive food cropping exists. If crop residues are returned and supplemented with nutrient inputs, these systems maintain adequate soil organic matter and production levels. Large scale conversions of forest to pasture land, such as in the Amazon region, are a recent land-use change. The degree to which improved pastureland management techniques are practiced has a major impact on their sustainability and on soil C levels. In many instances, poor management has resulted in overgrazing and nutrient deciencies, leading to land degradation. In detailed studies of a number of sites in Rondonia, western Amazonia, Neil et al. (1997) found similar or higher C levels under pasture compared to the native forest from which they were derived. With good pasture management, they calculated a potential increase in soil C storage of 1023 Mg ha1 compared to forest. However, this is less than 10% of the 140180 Mg ha1 1 lost from forest biomass with conversion to pasture (Neil et al., 1997). In Colombia, Fisher et al. (1994) reported very large below-ground C increases of 2570 Mg ha1 within 5 10 years after establishing pastures of deep-rooting African grasses. It seems that the C sequestration potential in moist tropical pastures can be signicant under favourable conditions and that sound management practices are essential to realize this potential for reducing C losses from land-use conversions (Paustian et al., 1997). Many of the other practices described for sub-humid regions (e.g., improved fallows, cover crops, conservational tillage, agroforesrtry) can promote C sequestration in the humid tropics. In the sub-humid zone, most of the suitable land is already in agriculture whereas much of the humid tropics remain under forest vegetation. However, current rates of deforestation are high (Houghton et al., 1993; Skole et al., 1994) with large CO2 emissions associated with the loss of biomass and soil C (Dixon et al., 1994). Thus, the single most signicant mitigation option related to agriculture in the tropics is to reduce the pressure for converting new (forested) land to agriculture (Paustian et al., 1997). Although we did not discuss tree-based systems in this paper, note that Palm et al. (2004) state that, in the tropics, tree-based systems reduce net global warming potential compared to annual cropping and pasture systems. Table 5 below summarizes C stocks (over time) in tropical systems. Furthermore, some of the

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Table 5 Summary of the aboveground time averaged C stock (mean and range) of the land-use systems applied at sample sites (adapted from Palm et al., 1999) Meta land-use systems Undisturbed forest Managed/logged forests Shifting cultivation Country and specic land-use Indonesia Peru Brazil/Peru, Cameroon, Indonesia Cameroon Shifting cultivation23 year fallow Bush fallow9.5 years Chromolaena fallow4 years Brazil/Peru Short fallow5 years Improved fallow5 years 23 year fallow Cameroon cacao Indonesia rubber Cameroon cacao Indonesia rubber Brazil/Peru Coffee monoculture Multistrata system Peach palm, oil palm, rubber Cameroon Oil palm Indonesia Pulp trees Brazil/Peru Extensive pastures Intensive pastures Indonesia Cassava/Imperata Time-averaged C of land-use system (Mg C ha1) 306 (207405) 294 150 (123185), 228 (221255), 93.2 (51.9134). 77.0 (60.2107) 28.1 (22.138.1) 4.52 (2.686.38) 6.86 (4.279.61) 11.5 (9.5013.4) 93 (80.5101) 88.7 (57.2120) 89.2 (49.4129) 61 (4083) 46.2 (28.975.2) 11.0 (8.7312.5) 61.2 (47.574.7) 47 (2761) 36.4 37.2 (23.650.7) 2.85 3.06 <2

Complex/extensive agroforests Permanent rotational

Simple agroforests/ intensive tree-crop

Grassland/crops

tree-based systems are more protable than the agricultural systems. However, widespread adoption of tree-based systems can be limited by high start-up costs, credit limitations, cash-ow limitations, and higher labour costs (Palm et al., 2004). 5. Concluding remarks Globally, under the terms of the Kyoto Agreement, several countries committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions in the rst commitment period (2008 2012) below the 1990 baseline year levels. The agricultural sector is expected to help meet this target, by reducing their own GHG emissions, and increasing carbon sequestration. We recognize that CO2 is only one of three GHGs which are of concern in agriculture and that management inuencing CO2 in a desirable manner may at the

same time have the opposite effect on the other GHGs thereby cancelling any benets (Desjardins et al., 2005). Further, we recognize that in this paper we have only considered the direct effect of agricultural management on C sequestration without accounting for C expended in such mechanisms as fertilizer manufacture and transportation etc. which could offset some of the advantages gained from C sequestration as a result of nutrient additions. In some cases the C gains measured as a result of agronomic treatment involves changes in due to erosion and no adjustments were made for this. Nor have we considered the inherent difculties in obtaining accurate measurements of C sequestration, nor the difculty in extrapolating point measurements to a landscape basis. Nonetheless, we have provided useful information on how various management practices might aid in the mitigation of CO2 emissions by trapping C in the soil.

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Below we list some points worth emphasizing further in this discourse: i. Increasing soil C via management The adoption of agricultural management practices capable of sequestering C is hampered both by environmental (weather, etc.) and socio-political factors. The latter constraints, including the supply and demand for agricultural products, production costs, subsidies, incentives to reduce environmental impacts and social, aesthetic and political acceptance for changes, may well be the most important factors in deciding whether or not suggestions are applied by producers. It must be understood though, that in the end, producers will only adopt new management practices if it is found to be economically feasible. Analyses of these factors are highly complex, and studies on this are in their infancy (Cole et al., 2006). ii. Equilibrium levels of soil C There is great uncertainty regarding the size of the potential C sink the soil may become, especially because agricultural soils have the potential to become net sinks for CO2. Soils are not able to indenitely accrue C. Odum (1969) based on ecological studies, postulated that soil C will eventually achieve an equilibrium point which is not able to be exceeded. iii. A question of permanence It should be emphasized that C sequestration, whether in vegetation or in soils, does not represent a permanent solution to the issue at hand. The C carbon sequestered should not irreversibly locked-up; but rather, that the build-up of offset terrestrial C stocks through changes in management is reliant on the long-term maintenance of those practices throughout time. iv. Value of incentives for progressive producers Governments have a difcult problem to contend with regarding producers who adopt best management techniques and sequester C for which they are rewarded if they (Governments) refuse to reward producers who, because they had the foresight to adopt such management several years in the past, are not rewarded for the C they sequestered. This is especially troublesome if the latter farmers soils are now approaching equilibrium levels of soil C therefore making it difcult to sequester more C in the soil. v. Weather the main constraint to C sequestration Because C sequestration is a function of primary production and rate of organic matter decomposi-

tion, the most important factor inuencing sequestration is weather (moisture and temperature). Thus, the amount of C sequestered depends on weather conditions over which we have no control. Projections on this subject are therefore always going to be tenuous at best. vi. Rewards for adopting best management practices Fortunately, the same best management practices that will enhance C sequestration in soil are precisely the ones which will lead to greater net returns, reduced risk, more efcient energy use and often, improved environmental quality (Zentner et al., 2001). Thus, producers will likely be willing to adopt such practices as reduced tillage, use crop rotations instead of monocultures, increase cropping frequency at the expense of bare fallow in arid and semi-arid environments, grow forage crops on marginal land and make more efcient use of fertilizers by using soil test criteria, all of which are positive alternatives for reducing CO2 emissions and increasing C sequestration. References
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