1

Engineering Vibration
3rd Edition, D. J. Inman Prentice Hall
1. Introduction to Vibration and the
Free Response
2
1.1 Introduction
Vibration: the repetitive motion of objects;
exchange between potential energy and kinetic
energy.
Harmful: discomfort, fatigue failures, etc.
Useful: vibrating sifters, hammer, conveyers, etc.
Why to study vibration?
Design: how to reduce vibration, how to utilize
vibration.
Maintenance: machine condition monitoring and
fault diagnostics, preventive maintenance.
3
Motivation The Millennium Bridge a
Recent Vibration Problem (2000-1)
Lack of consideration of dynamic loads and
Vibration caused this to new bridge to vibrate wildly
The goal of this course is to understand such
phenomenon and how to prevent it
4
Classifications
Free vibrations: no external excitation, caused
by initial disturbance.
Forced vibrations: excited by external persistent
force.
Degree of Freedom (DOF): No. of coordinators
needed to define the position of an object.
Lumped-parameter systems: single-DOF, multi-
DOF
Distributive-parameter or continuous-parameter
systems: infinite-DOF.
Linear systems and nonlinear systems.
5 5
1.2 Spring-Mass System
Equation of motion for a mass-spring system
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0
(0) , (0)
mx t kx t mx t kx t
x x x v
= + =
= =
Procedure to find equation of motion
1. Sketch the structure or system
2. Sketch a free body diagram (FBD)
3. Apply Newtons Second Law
2
nd
-order ordinary differential equation
Ideal elements
Spring: massless,
spring law, unit=N/m
Mass: point, unit=kg
6
Spring Law: consider a spring-mass
system and perform a static experiment
From strength of
materials recall:

A plot of force versus displacement:
FBD:
linear
nonlinear
experiment
k
f kx =
7 7
Vibration is caused by the interaction of two
different forces: one related to position (stiffness)
and one related to acceleration (mass).
m
k
x
Displacement
Mass Spring
Stiffness (k)
Mass (m)
f
k
= kx(t)
( ) ( )
m
f ma t mx t = =
Proportional to displacement
Proportional to acceleration
statics
dynamics
8 8
Solution to 2
nd
-order DE:
x(t) = Asin(e
n
t +|)
Lets assume a solution:
Differentiating it twice gives:
2 2
( ) cos( )
( ) sin( ) - ( )
n n
n n n
x t A t
x t A t x t
e e |
e e | e
= +
= + =
Substituting back into the equation of motion gives:
me
n
2
Asin(e
n
t +|) + kAsin(e
n
t +|) = 0
me
n
2
+ k = 0 or e
n
=
k
m
Natural frequency
t
x(t)
rad/s
0 0
( ) ( ) 0, (0) , (0) mx t kx t x x x v + = = =
2
( ) ( ) 0, ( ) ( ) 0
n
k
x t x t x t x t
m
e + = + =
9
Example 1.1.3 wheel, tire and unsprung
mass, m=30 kg, f
n
= 10 Hz, what is k?
( )
2
2 5
cylce rad
30 kg 10 2 1.184 10 N/m
sec cylce
n
k me t
| |
= = =
|
\ .
This is the estimate of stiffness for tire
There are more complex models of suspension systems and these
appear later in the course as our tools develop
10
Initial Conditions
If a system is vibrating then we must assume that
something must have (in the past) transferred energy
into to the system and caused it to move. For example
the mass could have been:
moved a distance x
0
and then released at t = 0 (i.e.
given Potential energy) or
given an initial velocity v
0
(i.e. given Kinetic energy) or
some combination of the two above cases
From our earlier solution we know that:
0
0
(0) sin( 0 ) sin( )
(0) cos( 0 ) cos( )
n
n n n
x x A A
v x A A
e | |
e e | e |
= = + =
= = + =
11 11
Determine the Integration Constants
Using the Initial Conditions
Solving these equations gives:
2 2 2 1
0
0 0
0
Amplitude
Phase
1
, tan
n
n
n
x
A x v
v
e
e |
e

| |
= + =
|
\ .
|
v
0
e
n
x
0
1
e
n
e
n
2
x
0
2
+ v
0
2
t
x(t)
x
0
Slope
here is v
0

n
e
|
12 12
The total solution for the spring-
mass system is
( )
2 2 2
0 0 1
0
0
( ) sin
, tan
n
n
n
n
x t A t
x v
x
A
v
e |
e
e
|
e

= +
+
= =
Called the solution to a simple harmonic oscillator
and describes oscillatory motion, or simple harmonic
motion.
13
A note on arctangents
Note that calculating arctangent from a
calculator requires some attention. First, usea
right unit: radians.
The argument atan(-/+) is in a different
quadrant then atan(+/-), and usual calculators
will return an arctangent in between -p/2 and
+p/2, reading only the atan(-) for both of the
above two cases.
|
|
In MATLAB, use the atan2(y,x) function to get
the correct phase.
+
+
-
_
+
+
-
-
14
( )
2 2 2
0 0 1
0
0
0 0
0 0
( ) sin , , =tan
Example. A system is defined by 2 kg, 8 N/m.
Determine and plot response to each of the following conditions
1. 1.5 mm, 4 mm/s
2. 1.5 mm, 4
n
n
n
n
x v
x
x t A t A
v
m k
x v
x v
e
e
e | |
e

+
= + =
= =
= =
= =
0 0
0 0
mm/s
3. 1.5 mm, 4 mm/s
4. 1.5 mm, 4 mm/s
Solutions
1. 2.5sin(2 0.644) mm, 2. 2.5sin(2 0.644) mm
3. 2.5sin(2 2.50) mm, 4. 2.5sin(2 3.77) mm
x v
x v
x t x t
x t x t
= =
= =
= + =
= + = +
15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
x
1
,

x
2

(
m
m
)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
time (sec)
x
3
,

x
4

(
m
m
)
16
Example 1.1.1 The Pendulum
Solution procedure
Sketch the structure
or part of interest
Draw a free body
diagram (FBD)
Apply Newtons
Second Law to find
the equations of
motion

2
0 0 0
2
,
sin ( ) ( )
J J ml
mgl t ml t
u
u u
= =
=

M
17
The problem is one dimensional,
hence a scalar equation results
2
0
( ) sin ( ) ( ) sin ( ) 0
restoring
force
J t mgl t ml t mgl t u u u u = + =
This is a second order, nonlinear ordinary differential equation

For a small amplitude oscillation, we can linearize the equation
by using the approximation
sinu ~u
2
( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) 0
g
ml t mgl t t t
l
u u u u + = + =
A solution requires knowledge of (0) and (0) u u
the initial position and initial velocity.
18
More Examples of Single-
Degree-of-Freedom Systems
Compound Pendulum
( )
0 1 2
2 2
0 1 2
( ) 0.5 ( ) 0
1
3
J t m m gl t
J m l m l
u u + + =
= +
Shaft and Disk
u
( ) ( ) 0 J t k t u u + =
Torsional
Stiffness
k
Moment
of inertia
J
19
Section 1.2 Harmonic Motion
T =
2t rad
e
n
rad/s
=
2t
e
n
s (1.11)
The natural frequency in the commonly used units of hertz:
The period is the time elapsed to complete one complete cycle
f
n
=
e
n
2t
=
e
n
rad/s
2t rad/cycle
=
e
n
cycles
2t s
=
e
n
2t
Hz (1.12)
For the simple pendulum:
rad/s, 2 s
n
g l
T
l g
e t = =
e
n
=
k
J
rad/s, T = 2t
J
k
s
For the disk and shaft:
20 20
Understand harmonic motion
t
x(t)
x
0
Slope
here is v
0

n
e
|
Period
T =
2t
e
n
Amplitude
A
Maximum
Velocity
A
n
e
f
n
=
e
n
rad/s
2t rad/cycle
=
e
n
cycles
2t s
=
e
n
2t
Hz
( )
( ) sin
n
x t A t e | = +
21
Relationship between Displacement,
Velocity and Acceleration
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-1
0
1
x

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-20
0
20
v

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
-200
0
200
Time (sec)
a

A=1, e
n
=12
x(t) = Asin(e
n
t +|)
x(t) =e
n
Acos(e
n
t +|)
x(t) = e
n
2
Asin(e
n
t +|)
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
22
Example 1.2.1, the spring-bolt system
mass of bolt: m= 49.2x10
-3
kg,
stiffness of spring: k=857.8 N/m
initial displacement: x
0
= 10 mm,
find the natural freq. and the max amplitude of vibration
mm 10
1
) (
s 0476 . 0
sec
21
1 1 2
Hz 21
2
rad/s 132
kg 10 49.2
N/m 8 . 857
0
2
0
2
0
2
max
3 -
= = + = =
= = = =
= =
=

= =
x v x A t x
cyles
f
T
f
m
k
n
n
n n
n
n
n
e
e
e
t
t
e
e
Note: common unit is Hertz
Units depend on system
23
Compute the solution and max.
velocity and acceleration

v(t )
max
=e
n
A=1320 mm/s =1.32 m/s
a(t )
max
=e
n
2
A =174.24 10
3
mm/s
2
=174.24 m/s
2
~17.8g!
| = tan
1
e
n
x
0
0
|
\

|
.
|
=
t
2
rad
x(t ) =10sin(132t +t / 2) =10cos(132t ) mm
g = 9.8 m/s
2

2.92 mph
90
~0.4 in max
24
Example 1.2.2 Pendulums
and measuring g
A 2-m pendulum
swings with a period
of 2.893 s
What is the
acceleration due to
gravity at that
location?
2
2
2
2 2
2
2 4
2 m
2.893 s
= 9.434 m/s
n
g l l
T
g
t t
e
| |
= = =
|
\ .

This is g in Denver, CO, USA, at 1638m

and a latitude of 40
2
( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( ) 0
n
g
t t
l
t t
u u
u e u
+ =
+ =
25 25
Does gravity matter in spring
problems?
Let A be the deflection caused by
hanging a mass on a spring
(A = x
1
-x
0
in the figure)

Then from static equilibrium:
mg = kA
Next sum the forces in the vertical for some point x > x
1
measured
from A or total deflection is x+ A :
( )
0
( ) ( ) 0
mx k x mg kx mg k
mx t kx t
=
= + A + = + A
+ =
So no, gravity does not have an effect on the vibration
as long as x is dynamic deflection.
(note that this is not the case if the spring is nonlinear)
Example 1.2.1, the spring-bolt system
mass of bolt: m= 49.2x10
-3
kg,
stiffness of spring: k=857.8 N/m
Determine its static deflection
26
3
3
49.2 10 (9.8)
0.5621 10 m or 0.5621 mm
857.8
mg k
mg
k

= A
A =

= =
27
Compound Pendulum
Determine equation of motion and natural
frequency for each of the following systems
27
28
Review of Complex Numbers and
Complex Exponential (See Appendix A)
9

b
a
A
c = a + jb = Ae
ju
A complex number can be written with a real and imaginary
part or as a complex exponential (Eulers formulas)
Where
a = Acosu,b = Asinu
Multiplying two complex numbers:
c
1
c
2
= A
1
A
2
e
j (u
1
+u
2
)
Dividing two complex numbers:
c
1
c
2
=
A
1
A
2
e
j (u
1
u
2
)
29
Equivalent Solutions to 2nd order
Differential Equations (see Window 1.4)
x(t ) = Asin(e
n
t +|)
x(t ) = A
1
sine
n
t + A
2
cose
n
t
x(t ) = a
1
e
je
n
t
+ a
2
e
je
n
t
All of the following solutions are equivalent:
The relationships between A and |, A
1
and A
2
, and a
1
and a
2

can be found in Window 1.4 of the course text, page 17.
Sometimes called the Cartesian form
Called the magnitude and phase form
Called the polar form
2 2 1
1 2 1 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
, tan ( / )
, ( )
/ 2 / 2, / 2 / 2
A A A A A
A a a A j a a
a A jA a A jA
|

= + =
= + =
= = +
30
Derivation of the solution
2
2
1 2
1 2
Substitute ( ) into 0
0
0
( ) and ( )
( )
n n
n n
t
t t
n
jt jt
jt jt
x t ae mx kx
m ae kae
m k
k k
j j
m m
x t a e x t a e
x t a e a e

e e
e e

= + =
+ =
+ =
= = =
= =
= +
This approach will be used again for more complicated problems
(1.18)
31
Is frequency always positive?
From the preceding analysis, = + e
n
then
x(t) = a
1
e
e
n
jt
+ a
2
e
e
n
jt
Using the Euler relations for trigonometric functions, the
above solution can be written as (recall Window 1.4)
x(t) = Asin e
n
t +|
( )
(1.19)
It is in this form that we identify as the natural frequency e
n

and this is positive, the + sign being used up in the transformation
from exponentials to the sine function.
32
1.3 Viscous Damping
All real systems dissipate energy when they vibrate. To
account for this we must consider damping. The most simple
form of damping (from a mathematical point of view) is called
viscous damping. A viscous damper (or dashpot) produces a
force that is proportional to velocity.
Damper (c)
( ) ( )
c
f cv t cx t = =
x
f
c

Mostly a mathematically motivated form, allowing
a solution to the resulting equations of motion that predicts
reasonable (observed) amounts of energy dissipation.
33
Differential Equation Including Damping
M
k
x
Displacement
c
For this damped single degree of freedom system the force acting
on the mass is due to the spring and the dashpot i.e. f
m
= - f
k
- f
c
.
( ) ( ) ( )
or
( ) ( ) ( ) 0 (1.25)
mx t kx t cx t
mx t cx t kx t
=
+ + =
To solve this for of the equation it is useful to assume a
solution of the form:

x(t) = ae
t
34
Solution to DE with damping included
(dates to 1743 by Euler)
2
t
t
x(t) ae
x(t) ae

=
=
The velocity and acceleration can then be calculated as:
If this is substituted into the equation of motion we get:
ae
t
(m
2
+ c + k) = 0 (1.26)
Divide equation by m, substitute for natural frequency and
assume a non-trivial solution

ae
t
= 0 (
2
+
c
m
+e
n
2
) = 0
35
Solution to DE with Damping Included
(1.30)
2
2 is the critical damping coefficient
cr
cr
c c
=
c
km
c km
, =
=
For convenience we will define a term known as the damping
ratio as:
The characteristic equation:

(
2
+2,e
n
+e
n
2
) = 0
Solving for then gives,
2
1 2
1 (1.31)
Depending the value of , three possibilities exist.
, n n
,e e ,
,
=
Lower case Greek zeta
36
Possibility 1. Critically damped motion
Critical damping occurs when ,=1. The damping coefficient
c in this case is given by:


1,2
= 1e
n
e
n
1
2
1= e
n
definition of critical
damping coefficient
=1 2 2
cr n
c c km m , e = = =
The solution then takes the form
x(t) = a
1
e
e
n
t
+ a
2
te
e
n
t
Solving for then gives,
A repeated, real root
Needs two independent solutions, hence the t
in the second term
37
Critically damped motion
a
1
and a
2
can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),
x = (a
1
+ a
2
t )e
e
n
t
a
1
= x
0
v = (e
n
a
1
e
n
a
2
t + a
2
)e
e
n
t

v
0
= e
n
a
1
+ a
2
a
2
= v
0
+e
n
x
0
0 1 2 3 4
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Time (sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)

k=225 N/m , m=100 kg ,=1
x
0
=0.4mm v
0
=1mm/s
x
0
=0.4mm v
0
=0mm/s
x
0
=0.4mm v
0
=-1mm/s
No oscillation occurs
Useful in door
mechanisms, analog
gauges
Example. Find free response of a door with
a door damper and its max. opening angle.
38
0
2
0
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
where 20 kgm , 48 Nm/rad/s, 28.8 Nm/rad
0, 4 rad/s
t t
t t
J x t c x t k x t
J c k
u u
+ + =
= = =
= =
39
Possibility 2: Overdamped motion
An overdamped case occurs when ,>1. Both of the roots of the
equation are again real.


1,2
= ,e
n
e
n
,
2
1
x(t) = e
,e
n
t
(a
1
e
e
n
t ,
2
1
+a
2
e
e
n
t ,
2
1
)
a
1
and a
2
can again be calculated
from initial conditions (t=0),

a
1
=
v
0
+( , + ,
2
1)e
n
x
0
2e
n
,
2
1
a
2
=
v
0
+(, + ,
2
1)e
n
x
0
2e
n
,
2
1
0 1 2 3 4
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Time (sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)

k=225 N/m , m=100 kg
x
0
=0.4mm v
0
=1mm/s
x
0
=0.4mm v
0
=0mm/s
x
0
=0.4mm v
0
=-1mm/s
Slower to respond than
critically damped case
2 , =
40
Possibility 3: Underdamped motion
An underdamped case occurs when ,<1. The roots of the
equation are complex conjugate pairs. This is the most
common case and the only one that yields oscillation.

1,2
=,e
n
e
n
j 1,
2
x(t) = e
,e
n
t
(a
1
e
je
n
t 1,
2
+a
2
e
je
n
t 1,
2
)
= Ae
,e
n
t
sin(e
d
t +|)
e
d
= e
n
1,
2
(1.37)
The frequency of oscillation e
d
is called the damped natural
frequency is given by.
41
Underdamped motion
A and |

can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0),

A =
1
e
d
(v
0
+,e
n
x
0
)
2
+(x
0
e
d
)
2
| = tan
1
x
0
e
d
v
0
+,e
n
x
0
|
\

|
.
|
0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Time (sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

Gives an oscillating
response with exponential
decay
Most natural systems vibrate
with an underdamped
response
See Window 1.5 for details
and other representations
42
Example 1.3.1: consider the spring of Example
1.2.1, if c = 0.11 kg/s, determine the damping
ratio of the spring-bolt system.
oscillate bolt will the and
is motion the
0085 . 0
kg/s 12.993
kg/s 11 . 0
=
kg/s 993 . 12
8 . 857 10 2 . 49 2 2
N/m 8 . 857 kg, 10 2 . 49
3
3
d underdampe
c
c
km c
k m
cr
cr
= =
=
= =
= =

,
43
Example 1.3.2
The human leg has a measured natural frequency of
around 20 Hz when in its rigid (knee locked) position, in
the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the length of the
bone) with a damping ratio of , = 0.224.
1. Calculate the response of the tip of the leg bone to an
initial velocity of v
0
= 0.6 m/s and zero initial
displacement (this would correspond to the vibration
induced while landing on your feet, with your knees
locked from a height of 18 mm) and plot the response.

2. What is the maximum acceleration experienced by the
leg assuming no damping?

44
Solution:
e
n
=
20
1
cycles
s
2t rad
cycles
= 125.66 rad/s
e
d
=125.66 1 .224 ( )
2
= 122.467 rad/s
A =
0.6 + 0.224
( )
125.66
( )
0
( ) ( )
2
+ 0
( )
122.467
( )
2
122.467
= 0.005 m
| = tan
-1
0 ( ) e
d
( )
v
0
+,e
n
0 ( )
|
\

|
.
|
= 0
x t
( )
= 0.005e
28.148t
sin 122.467t
( )

A =
1
e
d
(v
0
+,e
n
x
0
)
2
+(x
0
e
d
)
2
| = tan
1
x
0
e
d
v
0
+,e
n
x
0
|
\

|
.
|
45
Use the undamped formula to
get maximum acceleration:
( ) ( )( )
2
2
0
0 0 0
0
2 2 2
, 125.66, 0.6, 0
0.6
m m
0.6
max 125.66 rad/s 0.6 m/s 75.396 m/s
n
n
n n
n n
n
v
A x v x
v
A
x A
e
e
e e
e e
e
| |
= + = = =
|
\ .
= =
| |
= = = =
|
\ .
maximum acceleration = g 68 . 7
m/s 81 . 9
m/s 396 . 75
2
2
= g
46
Here is a plot of the displacement
response versus time
Matlab Codes
47
clear
m=input('m = ');
k=input('k = ');
c=input('c = ');
x0=input('x0 = ');
v0=input('v0 = ');
wn=sqrt(k/m);
zeta=c/(2*sqrt(m*k));
wd=wn*sqrt(1-zeta^2);
A=sqrt((v0+zeta*wn*x0)^2+(x0*wd)^2)/wd;
phai=atan2(x0*wd,v0+zeta*wn*x0);
T=2*pi/wn;
dt=T/20;
t=0:dt:3*T;
x=A*exp(-zeta*wn*t).*sin(wd*t+phai);

figure(1),plot(t,x)
Here is a plot of the velocity
response versus time
48
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
time (sec)
d
x

(
m
/
s
)
Here is a plot of the acceleration
response versus time
49
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
time (sec)
d
d
x

(
m
/
s
2
)
50
Example 1.3.3 Compute the form of the response of an
underdamped system using the Cartesian form of the
solution given in Window 1.5.
1 2
0
0 1 2 2 0
1 2
1 2
sin( ) sin cos cos sin
( ) sin( ) ( sin cos )
(0) ( sin(0) cos(0))
( sin cos )
( cos sin
n n
n
n
t t
d d d
t
n d d
t
d d d
x y x y x y
x t Ae t e A t A t
x x e A A A x
x e A t A t
e A t A
,e ,e
,e
,e
e | e e
,e e e
e e e

+ = +
= + = +
= = + =
= +
+
0 1 0 1 0
0 0
1
0 0
0
0 0
0
)
( sin 0 cos 0) ( cos 0 sin 0)

( ) sin cos
cos , sin
n
n d
n
d
t
n
d d
d
n
d
t
v A x A x
v x
A
v x
x t e t x t
v x
A A x
,e
,e e
,e
e
,e
e e
e
,e
| |
e

= + +
+
=
| |
+
= +
|
\ .
+
= =