6.

012 - Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Lecture 7 - Bipolar Junction Transistors - Outline

Announcements
First Hour Exam - Oct. 7, 7:30-9:30 pm; thru 10/2/09, PS #4

Review/Diode model wrap-up

Exponential diode: iD(vAB) = IS (eqvAB/kT -1)
(holes) (electrons)

with IS A q ni2 [(Dh/NDn wn*) + (De/NAp wp*)] Observations: Saturation current, IS, goes down as doping levels go up Injection is predominantly into more lightly doped side Asymmetrical diodes: the action is on the lightly doped side

Diffusion charge stores; diffusion capacitance:

(Recitation topic)

Excess carriers in quasi-neutral region = Stored charge

Bipolar junction transistor operation and modeling

Bipolar junction transistor structure Qualitative description of operation: 1. Visualizing the carrier fluxes
2. The control function 3. Design objectives Operation in forward active region, vBE > 0, vBC < 0: E, B, F, IES
(using npn as the example)
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09 Lecture 7 - Slide 1

Biased p-n junctions: current flow, cont.

The saturation current of three diode types:
IS's dependence on the relative sizes of w and Lmin
p(xn) n(-xp) x p(x), n(x)

Short-base diode, wn << Lh, wp << Le:

# -wp -xp xn wn n2 Dh qv AB / kT i J h (x n ) = q e -1] % [ ' * % N Dn ( w n " x n ) Dh De 2 , [e qv AB / kT -1] + $ iD = Aqn i ) 2 n De ) N Dn ( w n " x n ) N Ap ( w p " x p ) , ( + J e (-x p ) = q i [e qv AB / kT -1] % N Ap ( w p " x p ) % &
p(x), n(x) p(xn)

Long-base diode, wn >> Lh, wp >> Le:

n(-xp)

" -wp -xp xn wn n 2 Dh qv AB / kT i J h (x n ) = q -1] $ [e & D $ N Dn Lh De ) qv AB / kT 2 h + -1] # iD = Aqn i ( + [e n 2 De qv AB / kT N Dn Lh N Ap Le * ' J e (-x p ) = q i -1] $ [e $ N Ap Le %

General diode:
!

" D De % qv AB / kT h iD = Aqn $ + -1] ' [e # N Dn w n,eff N Ap w p,eff &

2 i

Hole injection into n-side

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Electron injection into p-side

Lecture 7 - Slide 2

Note : w n,eff " Lh tanh( w n - x n ), w p,eff " Le tanh( w p - x p )

Asymmetrically doped junctions: an important special case Current flow impact/issues A p+-n junction (NAp >> NDn): " D Dh De % qv AB / kT 2 2 h iD = Aqn i $ + -1] " Aqn i ' [e [e qv AB / kT -1] N Dn w n,eff # N Dn w n,eff N Ap w p,eff &
Hole injection into n-side

An n+-p junction (NDn >> NAp): " D De % ! AB / kT De 2 h iD = Aqn i $ + -1] ( Aqn 2 ' [e qv [e qv AB / kT -1] i N Ap w p,eff # N Dn w n,eff N Ap w p,eff &
Electron injection into p-side

Note that in both cases the minority carrier injection is predominately into the lightly doped side. Note also that it is the doping level of the more lightly doped junction that determines the magnitude of the current, and as the doping level on the lightly doped side decreases, the magnitude of the current increases.
Two very important and useful observations!!
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09 Lecture 7 - Slide 3

Biased p-n junctions: excess minority carrier (diffusion) charge stores

Diffusion charge store, and diffusion capacitance:
Using example of asymmetrically doped p+-n diode
p(x), n(x) p(xn)

Note: Assuming negligible charge

stored on p-side

n(-xp)

Charge stored on n-side (holes and electrons)

x wn

-wp

-xp

xn

Notice that the stored positive charge (the excess holes) and the stored negative charge (the excess electrons) occupy the same volume in space (between x = xn and x = wn)!

qA,DF (v AB ) = Aq[ p'(x n ) " p'(w n )]

[w n " x n ]
2

w n,eff n i2 qv AB / kT Aq "1] [e N Dn 2

The charge stored depends non-linearly on vAB. As we did in the case of the depletion charge store, we define an incremental linear equivalent diffusion capacitance, Cdf(VAB), as:

#qA,DF Cdf (VAB ) " #v AB

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

$
v AB =VAB

q2 n i2 qv AB / kT A w n,eff e 2kT N Dn
Lecture 7 - Slide 4

p(x), n(x)

Diffusion capacitance, cont.:

p(xn)

Excess holes and electrons stored on the n-side

n(-xp)

x wn

-wp

-xp

xn

A very useful way to write the diffusion capacitance is in

terms of the bias current, ID:

ID " Aqn i2 Dh D [e qVAB / kT #1] " Aqni2 N wh e qVAB / kT for VAB >> kT N Dn w n,eff Dn n,eff
q2 n i2 qVAB / kT A w n,eff e Cdf (VAB ) 2kT N Dn " Dh ID (VAB ) Aqn i2 e qVAB / kT N Dn w n,eff

To do this, first divide Cdf by ID to get:

!

2 q w n,eff

2 kT Dh

Isolating Cdf, we have:

!
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

2 w n,eff q ID (VAB ) Cdf (VAB ) " ! 2 Dh kT

* Notice that the area of the device, A, does not appear explicitly in this expression. Only the total current!

Lecture 7 - Slide 5

Comparing charge stores; small-signal linear equivalent capacitors:

Parallel plate capacitor

qA (x) d/2 -d/2 qB( = -qA)

" qA,PP = A v AB d
x

$qA,PP C pp (VAB ) # $v AB

=
v AB =VAB

A" d

Depletion region charge store

(x) qNDn -xp qA qB
( = -QA)

qA,DP (v AB ) = "A 2q#Si [$ b " v AB ]

!
xn x

[N

N Ap N Dn
Ap

+ N Dn ] A #Si w(VAB )

-qNAp

Cdp (VAB ) = A

N Ap N Dn q#Si 2[$ b " VAB ] [ N Ap + N Dn ]

QNR region diffusion charge store

p(x), n(x) p(xn)

!
n(-xp )

qA, qB (=-qA)

qAB,DF (v AB ) " Aqn i2

Note: Approximate because we are only accounting for the charge store on the lightly doped side.

Dh [e qVAB / kT #1] N Dn w n,eff =

2 w n,eff iD (v AB ) 2 Dh

x wn

-wp

-xp

xn

Cdf (VAB ) "

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

2 w n,eff q ID (VAB ) 2 Dh kT

Lecture 7 - Slide 6

p-n diode:

large signal model including charge stores

A IBS
Non-linear resistive element

qAB
Non-linear capacitive element

qAB: Excess carriers on p-side +

excess carriers on n-side + junction depletion charge.

small signal linear equivalent circuit

a gd b
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Cd

#iD gd " #v AB

v AB =VAB

% 0 ' $ & qID ' kT (

for

VAB < 0

for VAB >> kT /q

#qAB Cd (VAB ) " #v AB

v AB =VAB

% Cdp (VAB ) for VAB < 0 $& ( Cdp (VAB ) + Cdf (VAB ) for VAB >> kT /q
Lecture 7 - Slide 7

Moving on to transistors!

Amplifiers/Inverters:
V CC RD
D

back to 6.002
V CC RC
C

RT vT (t) = V T + vt (t)
+ -

+
S

RT vT (t) = V T + vt (t)
+ -

+
E

+ vIN -

vOUT -

+ vIN -

vOUT -

An MOS amplifier or inverter:

the transistor is an n-channel MOSFET
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

A bipolar amplifier or inverter:

the transistor is an npn BJT
Lecture 7 - Slide 8

npn BJT: Connecting with the n-channel MOSFET from 6.002

A very similar behavior*, and very similar uses.

iD iG

D
+

MOSFET
G+
vGS

Linear iD or Triode

Saturation (FAR) iD ! K [vGS - V T(vBS)]2/2!

vDS

BJT
iB

iC

C
+

S
Cutoff vDS

B+
vBE

vCE

Saturation i
B

iC

FAR

iB ! IBSe qV BE /kT vCE > 0.2 V

Forward Active Region iC ! !F iB

Cutoff

0.6 V

vBE

0.2 V

Cutoff

vCE

Input curve
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Output family
Lecture 7 - Slide 9

* At its output each device looks like a current source controlled by the input signal.

How do we make a BJT?

Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) - cross-section

Base, B Emitter, E
Al n+ n Si SiO2

An npn BJT
Adapted from Fig. 8.1 in Text

Al

Collector, C

The heart of the device, and what we will model

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

How does it work?

Lecture 7 - Slide 10

Bipolar Junction Transistors: basic operation and modeling

how the base-emitter voltage, vBE, controls the collector current, iC

iC
C B

iC
n NDC

Reverse biased
vCB, the reverse bias on the collector-base junction, insures collection of those electrons injected across the E-B junction that reach the C-B junction as the collector current, iC

+ vBE

iB +

p NAB n+

vCE

Forward biased
vBE, the bias on the emitter-base junction, controls the injection of electrons across the E-B junction into the base and toward the collector.

vBE

NDE E

iE

A good way to envision this is to think "carrier fluxes":

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Next foil

Lecture 7 - Slide 11

Bipolar Junction Transistors: the carrier fluxes through an npn

iC
C

iB
B +

iC n NDC

vCE

The base supplies the small hole flux Reverse biased BC junction collects electrons coming across the base from the emitter
Hole ux

vBE

iB
+

p NAB n+ NDE

iB

+
Forward biased n+-p EB junction emits electrons into the base towards the BC junction

iC

vBE

Electron ux

vBE iE

E

iE

Our next task is to determine:

Given a structure, what are iE(vBE,vCE), iC(vBE,vCE), and iB(vBE,vCE)?
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09 Lecture 7 - Slide 12

Bipolar Junction Transistors: basic operation and modeling

how the base-emitter voltage, vBE, controls the collector current, iC

vCE - iE
E n NDE p NAB n NDC

+
C

vBE
-wE

iC
x

+B
0
p!, n!

iB
wB wB + wC

Electron (ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1) Electron ux 2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1) (ni ux

0 (ohmic)
Hole ux Hole ux

E E

0 (vBC = 0) 0 wB

iC 0 (ohmic) i
C

-wE
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

+ +

vBE vBE

wB + wC
Lecture 7 - Slide 13

B B

iB iB

This is rigorous for vCB = 0, but also very good when vCB > 0.

+ +

Excess Carriers: iE iE

C C

Bipolar Junction Transistors: basic operation and modeling

how the base-emitter voltage, vBE, controls the collector current, iC

vCE - iE
E n NDE p NAB n NDC

+
C

vBE
-wE

iC
x

+B
0
p!, n!

iB
wB wB + wC

Electron (ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1) Electron ux 2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1) (ni ux

0 (ohmic)
Hole ux Hole ux

E E

0 (vBC = 0) 0 wB

iC 0 (ohmic) i
C

-wE
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

+ +

vBE vBE

wB + wC
Lecture 7 - Slide 14

B B

iB iB

This is rigorous for vCB = 0, but also very good when vCB > 0.

+ +

Excess Carriers: iE iE

C C

npn BJT: Forward active region operation, vBE > 0 and vBC 0

Excess Carriers:
p!, n! (ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1) (ni2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1) 0 (ohmic) -wE 0 ie, ih -wE ihE [= !EieE] 0 wB wB + wC x ieE iC [= ieE (1 !B )] ~ 0 (vBC < 0) wB 0 (ohmic) x wB + wC

Currents:

}
iE [= ieE + ieE = ieE (1 + !E)]
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

iB [= ihE + !B ieE = ieE (!E + !B )]

Lecture 7 - Slide 15

npn BJT: Approximate model for iE(vBE,vBC) and iC(vBE,vBC)

in forward active region, vBE>0, vBC<0
p!, n! (ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1) (ni2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1) 0 (ohmic) -wE 0 ~ 0 (vBC < 0) wB 0 (ohmic) x wB + wC

The emitter current, iE Begin with the good current, the electron current into the base, ieE:

ieE = "Aqn i2

De [e qVBE / kT "1] N AB w B,eff

Next find the bad current, the hole current back into the emitter, ihE:

ihE = "Aqn i2

!
ihE =
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Dh [e qVBE / kT "1] N DE w E ,eff

and write it as a fraction of ieE:

N AB w B ,eff Dh ieE = "E ieE De N DE w E ,eff

We'll define E on the next foil.
Lecture 7 - Slide 16

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

ie, ih -wE ihE [= !EieE] iE [= ieE + ieE = ieE (1 + !E)] 0 wB wB + wC x ieE iC [= ieE (1 !B )]

iB [= ihE + !B ieE = ieE (!E + !B )]

The emitter current, iE, cont. In writing the last equation we introduced the emitter defect, E:

"E #

w ihE D N = h $ AB $ B ,eff ieE De N DE w E ,eff

To finish for now with the emitter current, we write it, iE, in terms of the emitter electron current, ieE: ! " ihE % iE = ieE + ihE = $1+ ' ieE = (1+ (E ) ieE # ieE &
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09 Lecture 7 - Slide 17

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

ie, ih -wE ihE [= !EieE] iE [= ieE + ieE = ieE (1 + !E)] 0 wB wB + wC x ieE iC [= ieE (1 !B )]

iB [= ihE + !B ieE = ieE (!E + !B )]

The collector current, iC

The collector current is the electron current from the emitter, ieE,
minus the fraction that recombines in the base, BieE:

iC = (1" #B ) ieE
To find the fraction that recombine, i.e. the base defect, B, we note that we can write the total recombination in the base, BieE, ! as: wB

"B ieE = #Aq %

0

n'(x) dx $ eB

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 18

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

The base defect, B If the recombination in the base is small (as it is in a good BJT) then the excess electron concentration will be nearly triangular and we can say:
wB

"
0

n'(0)w B,eff n'(x)dx # 2

wB

and

ieE " # Aq DeB

n'(0) w B,eff

Thus

"B =

#A q %
0

n'(x) dx $ eB

ieE

n'(0)w B,eff #Aq 2 2 w B ,eff w B,eff 2$ eB & ! = = n'(0) 2DeB $ eB 2 L2 eB #A q DeB w B,eff

The collector current, iC, cont. Returning to the collector current, iC, we now want to relate it to the total emitter current:

iC = "(1" #B ) ieE $ (1" #B ) i = "' i % iC = " F E iE = (1+ #E ) ieE & (1+ #E ) E

with " F #

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

(1$ %B ) (1+ %E )

Lecture 7 - Slide 19

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

So far... We have:

# D De & qVBE / kT h iE = " Aqn % + "1] ([e %N w ( $ DE E ,eff N AB w B ,eff ' # D De & qVBE / kT 2 h = " IES [e "1] with IES = Aqn i % + ( %N w ( $ DE E ,eff N AB w B,eff ' and we have: iC (1# &B ) iC " iE : iC = # $ F iE with $ F % # = iE (1+ &E ) ! These relationships can be represented by a simple circuit model:

2 i

B iB
+

vBE

C !FiF or "FiB iF IES

iE = " iF iC = # F iF

with iF = IES (1" e qv BE / kT ) with # F $ "

iC (1" %B ) = iE (1+ %E )

iB = " iE " iC = (1" # F )iF

E Note: iF = -iE.
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Looking at this circuit and these expressions, it is clear that to make iB small and |iC| |iE|, we must have F 1. We look at this next.

Lecture 7 - Slide 20

npn BJT: Approximate forward active region model, cont.

iC
C

iB
B +

iC
Reverse biased BC junction collects electrons coming across the base from the emitter
Hole ux

vBE

B iB
+

iB +
B
The base supplies the small hole flux

vBE

C !FiF or "FiB iF IES E

Electron ux

vBE
E

Forward biased EB junction emits electrons into the base towards the BC junction

n+-p

iE

iE = " iF = " IES (1" e qv BE / kT ) iC = # F iF iB = " iE " iC = (1" # F )iF

Lecture 7 - Slide 21

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

npn BJT: What our model tells us about device design.

We have:
"F =

(1# $B ) (1+ $E )
2 w B ,eff 2L2 eB

and the defects, E and B, are given by:

"E

Dh N AB w B,eff = # # De N DE w E,eff

and

"B #

We want F to be as close to one as possible, and clearly the smaller we can make the defects, the closer F will be ! ! to one. Thus making the defects small is the essence of good BJT design:

Doping : npn with N DE >> N AB w B,eff : very small LeB : very large and >> w B,eff
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09 Lecture 7 - Slide 22

npn BJT: Well designed structure (Large F, small E and dB)

E and B are small and F is 1 when NDE >> NAB, wE << LhE, wB<<LeB

Excess Carriers:

p!, n! (ni2/NAB)(e qvBE/kT - 1)

(ni2/NDE)(e qvBE/kT - 1) 0 (ohmic) -wE 0 ie, ih -wE ihE [= !EieE] 0 wB wB + wC x ieE iC [= ieE(1 !B ) " ieE] iB [= iE ( iC ) = ieE(!E + !B ) " ieE!E]
Lecture 7 - Slide 23

0 (vBC = 0) wB

0 (ohmic) x wB + wC

Currents:

iE [= ieE(1 + !E)]
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

npn BJT,cont.: more observations about F.A.R. model

It is very common to think of iB, rather than iE, as the controlling current in a BJT. In this case we write iC as depending on iB:
qV / kT qV / kT $ *iB = (1" # F ) IES [e BE "1] = IBS [e BE "1] "1] & & & #F iC = iB = ) F iB %(+ (1" # F ) & & ' & iE = "iC " iB = () F + 1) iB ,

iE = " iF = "IES [e iC = # F iF iB = (1" # F )iF

with

qVBE / kT

"F #

$F (1% &B ) = 1% $ F (&E + &B )

and

IBS " (1# $ F ) IES =

IES (% F + 1)

Two circuit models that fit this behavior are the following:

C
!

C
!

B iB
+

!FiB IES

vBE
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

iB B+

!FiB IBS

Note: "F =

vBE

#F (# F + 1)

E
!

Lecture 7 - Slide 24

npn BJT: Equivalent FAR models

C B iBF
+

C B iB
+

C iB B+ !FiB IBS
IBS
E = IES (" F + 1)

!FiF iF IES

!FiB IES
E #F "F = (1$ # F )

vBE

vBE

vBE

IES = Aqn i2 ( Dh N DE w E,eff + De N AB w B ,eff )

" F = # F (# F + 1)

A useful model using a break-point diode:

!

C iB !FiB VBE,ON

vAB

A iD IS B

vAB

A iD VBE,ON B

vBE

E
Lecture 7 - Slide 25

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

This is a very useful model to use when finding the bias point in a circuit.

npn BJT: The Ebers-Moll model

The forward model is what we use most, but adding the reverse model we cover the entire range of possible operating conditions. Forward:

C !FiF iF IES

Reverse:

C ICS iR RiR E
C ICS iR
" D De % h ICS = Aqn $ + ' $N w ' # DC C ,eff N AB w B,eff & (1) *B ) , + = (1) *B ) (R = R (*C + *B ) (1+ *C ) w i D N *C , hC = h - AB - B ,eff ieC De N DC wC ,eff
2 i 2 2 w B ,eff w B,eff *B . = 2De / e 2L2 e

vBC B iBR
2 i

B iBF
+

vBE

*E ,

ihE ieE

" D De % h IES = Aqn $ + ' $N w E N AB w B,eff ' # DE E,eff & (1) *B ) , + = (1) *B ) (F = F (*E + *B ) (1+ *E ) 2 2 w B,eff w B ,eff Dh N AB w B ,eff = , *B . = De N DE w E ,eff 2De / e 2L2 e

vBC
!

Combined they form the

full Ebers-Moll model:

!FiF IES iF

B+

vBE

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

!RiR E

Note: iF = -iE(vBE,0) and iR = -iC(0,vBC).

Lecture 7 - Slide 26

You are not responsible for this model.

npn BJT: The Gummel-Poon model

Another common model can be obtained from the Ebers-Moll model is the Gummel-Poon model: Forward:

C !FiF iF IES

C B
+

Reverse: vBC
+

C !RiBR E

B iBF
+

iBF IS/!F

IS/!R iBR

!FiBF E

vBE

E
IS "

vBE

#F #R IES = ICS # F + 1) # R + 1) ( (

= $ F IES = $ R ICS
Combined they form the Gummel-Poon model:

vBC

C !FiBF - !RiBR E
Lecture 7 - Slide 27

!
Aside from the historical interest, another value this has for us in 6.012 is that it is an interesting exercise to show that the two forward circuits above are equivalent.
Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

+ B+

IS/!R iBR iBF IS/!F vBE

You even less responsible for this model.

6.012 - Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Lecture 7 - Bipolar Junction Transistors - Summary Review/Junction diode model wrap-up

Refer to "Lecture 6- Summary" for a good overview Diffusion capacitance: adds to depletion capacitance (p -n example)
+

In asym., short-base diodes: Cdf(VAB) (qID/kT)[(wn-xn)2/Dh]

(area doesn't enter expression!)

Bipolar junction transistor operation and modeling

C iC wB + wC
n

Currents (forward active):

iE(vBE,0) = IES (eqvBE/kT 1) iC(vBE,0) = F iE(vBE,0) with F [(1 B)/(1 + E)]

(npn example)

iB B + vBE

Electron Flux

wB 0 -wE

Emitter defect, E (DhNABwB*/DeNDEwE*) Base defect, B (wB2/2Le2)

(ratio of hole to electron current across E-B junction) (fraction of injected electrons recombining in base)

Hole Flux
n+

iE

n!, p! Also, iB(vBE,0) = [(dE + dB)/(1 + dE)] iE(vBE,0) and, iC(vBE,0) = bF iB(vBE,0), with bF aF/(1 aF) = [(1 dB)/(dE + dB)]

Clif Fonstad, 10/1/09

Lecture 7 - Slide 28

MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.edu

6.012 Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Fall 2009

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