Mechanical Prop Textbook: William D. Callister Jr., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 6th edition, TA403.

C23 2003
Chapter 6 Mechanical Properties Chapter 8 Failure Chapter 7 Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms (if time is allowed)

Instructors coordinates: Prof. Shi San-Qiang (Room FG603) Department of Mechanical Engineering Office hour: 16:30~18:00, every Monday Email: mmsqshi@polyu.edu.hk Phone: 2766 - 7821 Fax: 2365 - 4703
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Mechanical Prop Lectures: Monday Tuesday Wednesday Lab Arrangement: Time: Lab work: Tutorials: Oct. 30 and Nov. 6, 2012 See Lab Arrangement Sheet Tensile tests, room DE006 Oct. 29 and Nov. 9: group 1 Nov. 2 and Nov.12: group 2 10:30 - 11:30, AG710 11:30 - 12:30, AG710 17:30 - 18:30, AG710

Lecture notes and tutorial questions are sent to your email.

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Mechanical Prop A design problem: How to determine the diameter (or dimensions) of a chair leg?

To answer the above question, what do you need to know?

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties

Why study mechanical properties ? Mechanical properties -> design -> qualification of mechanical/design engineers 6.1 Introduction This chapter covers: - concept of stress-strain - stress-strain behavior of materials - mechanical properties - scatter of materials data and safety factor

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Mechanical Prop 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain Schematic of mechanical testing: tension, compression, shear, and torsion.

Tension

Compression

Shear

Torsion

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Mechanical Prop Tension tests: - a specimen is deformed gradually with increasing load, to fracture - cross section of the specimen is usually circular - standard diameter is ~12.8 mm - reduced section length is at least 4 times of this diameter - the specimen is elongated at a constant rate - a standard tensile specimen is shown below:

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Mechanical Prop Engineering stress: is defined as instantaneous load divided by original area of the cross section F = A0 - one common unit is MPa (1 MPa = 106 N/m2) (Pa=N/m2) - another common unit is psi (1 psi = 1 lb/in2) Engineering strain: is defined as elongation over original length

li l0 = l0
- it is dimensionless - sometimes it is given in percentage

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Mechanical Prop Compression tests - similar to tension tests, except that (1) elongation becomes contraction, and (2) load direction is reversed - conducted usually when in-service load is compressive Shear and torsional tests: F Shear stress is defined as shear force over an area: = Shear strain is defined as the tangent of shear angle A 0
= tan
if << 1.
Compression

torsion* shear

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Mechanical Prop Geometric consideration of the stress state in tension test - stress state is a function of orientation of applied planes - on horizontal plane, it is tensile only - on plane pp, it is not a pure tensile anymore - force balance requires:

' = cos2

' = cos sin

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Mechanical Prop 6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior Hookes law Tension: = E - the stress is proportional to strain, as shown in the figure below. - the proportionality constant is the modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus). It is ~ 40 GPa to 400 GPa (G = 109, Pa=N/m2) - this is true for linear elastic deformation, i.e., when stress is small. * linear elastic deformation (Hookes law) is nonpermanent. Shear:

= G - similar as in normal stress-strain - G is called shear modulus - = tan - when << 1, .

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Mechanical Prop Non-linear elastic behavior: - tangent modulus is used sometimes, and it is defined as the local slop. - secant modulus is also used, and it is defined as the slop of a straight line connecting origin with the local point.

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Mechanical Prop Origin of elastic deformation: - stretching of atomic bonds corresponds to deformation (fig below) - tangent of force curve corresponds to the modulus

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Mechanical Prop Origin of elastic deformation - stretching of atomic bonds corresponds to deformation (fig below) - tangent of interatomic force curve corresponds to the modulus
dF E dr r0

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Mechanical Prop Temperature dependence of the modulus

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Table 6.1 Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and Poissons Ratio for Various Metal Alloys

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Mechanical Prop 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials When a material elongates along z under a uniaxial tension, it will contract along x and y directions. The Poissons ratio is defined as: y x = = z z Theoretical value of the Poissons ratio is 0.25, and the maximum is 0.50. Relationship between Youngs and shear moduli in isotropic solid:

E = 2G(1 + )

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Poissons ratio

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Remember that E=
z

X Y = = Z Z

Z = X =
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L = L0

L f L0 L0 d f d 0 d0
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d d0

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Mechanical Prop Positive Poissons ratio Negative Poissons ratio

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http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/Poisson.html

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6.6 Tensile Properties Elastic limit: is usually 0.005 in strain. Beyond this, the deformation is plastic, and typical plastic behaviors are shown on the left below.

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Yield strength

Typical metals

Some steels

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Yielding point and yield strength: - a convention is that the offset strain is 0.002 the stress at X (fig) is the yield strength y. - when elastic is not linear, yielding is defined to occur at a fixed strain (e.g., 0.005). - when upper and lower yielding points exist, the yield strength is taken to correspond to the lower yielding point. - yield strength: 35 MPa for Al to 1400 MPa for high-strength steels.

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Concept Check: Cite the primary difference(s) between elastic and plastic deformation.

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Mechanical Prop Tensile strength (TS) - stress-strain behavior after yielding is shown in the figure below. - tensile strength is the stress at point M. - necking starts at this point - fracture occurs if this stress is maintained. - tensile strength: 50 MPa for Al to 3000 MPa for the high-strength steels

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Concept Check: On the tensile engineering stress-strain curve in the earlier page, plot a compressive engineering stress-strain curve for the same alloy. Explain any differences between tensile and compression.

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Mechanical Prop Ductility: a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. - a material is brittle if it fractures with little plastic deformation - ductile vs brittle (see fig) Quantitative characterization of ductility - percent elongation lf l0 %EL = 100 l0 gauge length is ~ 50mm. - percent reduction of area

Ao Af 100 %RA = Ao
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~5%
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Mechanical Prop Ductility as a function of temperature

Iron

Higher temperature --> more ductile.

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Mechanical Prop Resilience: capacity of absorbing energy during elastic deformation, and then recovering it during unloading. - quantitative measure: modulus of resilience Ur, and it is defined as the strain energy per unit volume required to stress an unloaded state up to the point of yielding. - graphically, it is the area in fig (left) - mathematically, it is: y 1 U r= d U r = y y 0 Hooke 2 2 Ur = y 2E * high yield strength and low moduli of elasticity --> resilient materials, and they are good to be used as springs.
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Mechanical Prop Toughness: a measure of ability to absorb energy before fracture. - under dynamic loading with a notch, notch toughness is used - when a crack is present, fracture toughness is used - under static loading, it is like the ductility, except the final stress is the fracture stress. Toughness = area under the stress-strain curve up to fracture - ductile materials are usually tougher.

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Table 6.2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Several Metals and Alloys in an Annealed State

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Mechanical Prop Mechanical properties for plastic polymers: Modulus of elasticity and ductility are defined in the same way as for metals. Yield point (or yield strength) for plastic polymers is defined as the maximum stress in the curve. Tensile strength (TS) corresponds to the stress at which fracture occurs, as shown below. Strength of polymers usually refers to tensile strength. polymer

TS might be smaller than y

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6.7 True Stress and Strain True stress: load divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional area. True strain: integration of instantaneous strains. Li

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T = F / A i T = (1 + )

Relationship with engineering stress (strain) if volume is conserved:

dL = ln(Li /L 0 ) T = L L0

T = ln(1 + )

* note: these relationships are good up to necking point only. Corrected refers to correction of tensile stress due to necking (3D stress)
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Mechanical Prop Strain hardening - ideally, plastic deformation continues without increase of stress - in reality, the stress and strain during plastic deformation up to necking obey: = K n
T T

the exponent n is called strain-hardening component (table below)

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Mechanical Prop 6.8 Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation Upon unloading, after plastic deformation, a fraction of the deformation recovers elastically, as shown in the figure below. - initial yield strength y0 - yield strength yi after the elastic recovery

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Mechanical Prop 6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation - it is in general similar to tensile deformation - compression does not induce necking - compression leads to different fracture mode

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Apart from tensile test, there are many other types of mechanical tests, such as impact test, fatigue test, creep test. we will look at these tests in Chapter 8 Failure.

We now briefly discuss Hardness Test.

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Mechanical Prop 6.10 Hardness Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. --better wear properties.
e.g., 10mm sphere apply known force (1 to 1000g) measure size of indent after removing load

Smaller indents mean larger hardness.

Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties Materials Tech: 06 and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)

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Mechanical Prop Different Types of Hardness Test

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Comparison of hardness scales

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Mechanical Prop Correlation between hardness and tensile strength - using HB, the tensile strength is roughly proportional to hardness

TS( MPa ) 3.45 HB

for steel.

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Mechanical Prop Equipments for Hardness Measurement A portable and fast hardness gauge, for testing aluminum, mild steel, brass and copper with thickness range of 0.025 to 1/4 inch.

For hardness determination of plastics and elastomers

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Mechanical Prop Equipments for Hardness Measurement

Brinell Hardness Tester

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Mechanical Prop Equipments for Hardness Measurement

Rockwell Hardness Testers

Digital type
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Mechanical Prop Equipments for Hardness Measurement

Room: GH702 Micro-Hardness Testers

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Mechanical Prop Equipments for Hardness Measurement

Room: GH702 Nano-Hardness Testers

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Mechanical Prop 6.11 Variability of Material Properties - uncertainties exist in experimental measurement - inhomogeneities may exist in samples - typical value of a property is usually taken as the average of many measurements

x=

x
i =1

- degree of scatter is measured by the standard deviation

s=

( x i x )2
i =1

n 1
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Mechanical Prop 6.12 Safety Factor - A safe stress or working stress is taken to be 1/N times of the yield strength, and N is usually between 1.2 and 4

w =

y N

- The factor N is the safety factor.

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Mechanical Prop 6.00 Summary Stress-strain relationship (two types) Mechanical tests: tension, compression, shear, and torsion Materials properties: elastic modulus, Poissons ratio, yield strength, tensile strength, ductility, modulus of resilience, toughness, and hardness Hardness measurement: Rockwell, Brinell, Knoop, and Vickers Relationship between hardness and tensile strength Scatter of materials data --> safety factor

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Homework Assignments: Questions 6.20 and 6.30. Due on next week.

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