MCS Study Sheet Commutativity of conjunction, can be moved left to right Commutativity of disjunction Commutativity of equivalence Associativity of conjunction,

parentheses can change group over the same operation Associativity of disjunction Associativity of equivalence Distributivity of conjunction over disjunction, like a multiplication, the outer operation applies over parentheses Distributivity of disjunction over conjunction, De Morgans First Law, and becomes or, not distributes to all parameters De Morgans Second Law, or becomes and, not distributes to all parameters Unit of conjunction, A and true is A Zero of conjunction, A or true is true Zero of conjunction, A and false is false Unit of disjunction, A or false is A Idempotence of conjunction, anything and or itself is itself Idempotence of disjunction First absorption law, distributivity of A, into A and or B, is A Second absorption law Contradiction, anything and its exact opposite is false Excluded Middle, anything or its exact opposite is true Double negation, the opposite of the opposite of anything is itself Definition of implication, implication means the negated first or the second

Modus ponens, A is true, if A is true then B is true, B is true, A and B is true Contrapositive, if A is true then B is true, if B is not true then A cannot be true Contrapositive of equivalence Currying, if A and B is true, then C is true, if A is true then C is true if B is true

Necessary and Sufficient condition A necessary condition of a statement must be satisfied for the statement to be true. If the necessary condition A sufficient condition is a condition that if satisfied, assures the statements truth. If sufficient condition Well-Defined Recursive Definition A well-defined recursive definition is a recursive definition which has the following arithmetic steps to fulfilling the recursion: A base case or base cases defined for a stopping of the recursion without the recursive function A recursive step with the recursive function directed towards the previously defined base case , N is

, S is the

Reflexivity When a law is applied onto a proposition which reflects itself. Examples: Reflexivity of equality: Reflexivity of non-strict less than: Reflexivity of non-strict more than: Reflexivity of divisibility: Proof: It is allowed to write Reflexivity of subset

Symmetry When a law is applied onto a proposition which is true when applied in reverse. Examples: Symmetry of equality:

Antisymmetry When a law is applied into a proposition and also in reverse, then it is equivalent. Example: Antisymmetry of non-strict less than: Antisymmetry of non-strict more than: Antisymmetry of divisibility: Proof: and , in this case it is only possible that number, the equivalence wont hold

and

because for any other

Antisymmetry of subset:

Transitivity When a law is applied onto a proposition and a consecutive proposition, then the law carries from the first proposition to the second proposition. Examples: Transitivity of non-strict less than: Transitivity of non-strict more than: Transitivity of divisibility: Proof: and

Totality

Transitivity of subset:

When a law is applied onto a proposition or its reverse, then it must be the first proposition or the reverse. Examples: Totality of non-strict less than: Meaning: One number must be less than or equal to the other or vice versa Totality of non-strict less than: Meaning: One number must be more than or equal to the other or vice versa

Sets Nomenclature for all for some an element of a subset of Two types of sets: listed and property based Subsets For elements of a set which are also elements of another set , we say that . Examples: and are a subset of in the natural numbers and is a is a subset of . or, which means a set of natural numbers divisible by 3

means that items

means for values of multiple of 6, those numbers are a subset of B We should also note that the empty set Compound Sets Let and be two distinct sets,

is also a subset of another set and that

, intersection of sets means elements that belong to both sets

, union of sets means elements that belong to either sets

, difference of sets means elements that belong to one set but not the other. In this case S but not T

, complement of set means all other elements of the universe except the complemented set, in this case S

Power set and Cardinality A power set is when a set is made out of all the possible combinations of the elements. The contents should always include the null set, , and the set itself. Example:

is the power set of S, notice how S and the null set is present in the set. The cardinality of a set is just the number of elements in a set. For the set above we have the cardinality and for the the cardinality would be . In general, for a power set, the cardinality would be where n is the cardinality of the original set.

Functions A set of rule that maps elements in one set to another. For example colour and object: Red Blue Green Hammer Chair Tree Table The notation for functions between two sets is as follows:

For the function we have above, we can write is as a function called object:

where:

The set from which the function starts is called the domain and the set being mapped onto is called the codomain. Although we can write out a function for the definition such as above which has finite elements, for infinite elements such as natural numbers has to be written in a formula or a rule. Injectivity A function is called injective if one element from the domain maps onto one element in its codomain but not all elements of the codomain has to be mapped onto: Red Blue Green Hammer Chair Tree Table In notation, assuming a function , for all elements In a contrapositive way, if two elements maps onto the same element in the codomain, it means that the domain elements are the same, for all elements

Surjectivity A function is called surjective if all elements in the codomain is mapped by elements in the domain. Assume another function : Car Bike Airplane Alex Bob Carl Donna We can see that all the persons have a mode of transport and the whole codomain is being mapped onto. This function is not injective because one vehicle is mapped onto two different persons. Bijectivity A function is called bijective if it is both surjective and injective, meaning that the function maps from one element in the domain onto one element in the codomain and all the elements in the codomain are mapped onto. Assume a function:

1 2 3 4

A B C D

As shown the function maps injectively (no element maps twice) and surejectively (all codomain elements are mapped onto). In other words the function is one-to-one

Axioms and Theorems An axiom is a proposition simple enough to be considered true without a proof A theorem is a proposition that is derived from axioms via logical rules List of Axioms for Natural Numbers Zero is the identity of addition, any number add zero is itself Commutativity of addition Associativity of addition Cancellation for addition, if A add C is equal to B add C then A equals B Injectivity of successor (for natural numbers only) Zero absorbs multiplication One is the identity of multiplication Commutativity of multiplication Associativity of multiplication Cancellation for addition Distributivity of multiplication over addition

Graphs A graph is a structure with a finite set of or vertices (or nodes) and edges. Edges connecting two vertices and , can be represented as or . There are several ways of describing the graph. We can say:

is an edge between and is incident on and joins vertices and and are adjacent vertices and are incident on

A loop is when a vertex joins itself via an edge. If there is more than one edge joining two same vertices, we call it a multigraph and the edges are called multiple edges. Without multiple edges and loops, a graph is considered simple

A weighted graph or network is when a real number is associated with each edge in a graph A directed graph or digraph is an ordered graph where it consists of arcs instead of vertices. The arcs have a unique direction in which it points to the vertex hence can only be represented by . We can say: is an arc from to Vertex is adjacent to vertex Vertex is adjacent from vertex Arc is incident from Arc is incident to

Following the previous statements on graphs, if a real number is associated with each arc, we have a weighted digraph or a directed network. When each arc is converted into an edge, we have the underlying graph and if a graph contains both arcs and edges we call it a mixed graph.

A bipartite graph is a graph where the vertices are grouped in two sets and there is an edge connecting each vertex. The notation for such a graph is . The graph is called a bipartite digraph if all the edges were arcs from to .

A simple graph is complete if there is an edge between every pair of vertices. And a digraph is complete if its underlying graph is complete and is denoted by . For a simple bipartite graph to be complete, there must be an edge between every possible combinations of vertices in and in . If there are vertices ion and vertices in , the complete graph is denoted by A graph is a subgraph of if is a subset of and is a subset of