THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION

MDS (NDA)

BY

SIMON PETER

INTRODUCTION 1. Regional Integrationcan be defined as a segment of the world bound

together by a common set of objectives based on geographical, social, cultural, economic and political ties and possessing a formal structure provided for in formal intergovernmental agreements.1 Regional integration efforts have a long history in Africa dating back to pre-independence era. The inclination to unite was an initial response of Africas founding fathers to the balkanization process of the colonial era and the desire to overcome colonially imposed artificial boundaries.2 In recent times however, the

need for sustainable economic development in the face of the harsh realities of globalization and trade liberalization has been the motive force driving regional integration in Africa. The increasing integration of African economies into the global economy and the unfavourable conditions of international trade has continuously ensured the deliberate transfer of wealth from African countries to developed countries. As long as this practice persists Africa will continue to be impoverished. In reaction to this and in view of the many benefits of integration, there arose a spontaneous tendency for economic cooperation and integration in Africa as a means of enhancing self reliance and reducing their individual and joint

vulnerabilities. Consequently the initial motive for integration in Africa was mainly economic in nature. THEORIES AND PHASES OF INTEGRATION 2. Earlier integration theories developed out of political science theories

of the functionalist and neo-functionalist frameworks and liberal economic

theoretical framework. They basically focus on the characteristics and processes of regional economic organization itself and the concept of supra-national organization. They explained supra-national organization as a process in which national actors are persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities toward a new centre. In general, the main theories of integration are: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Realism Functionalism Neo-Functionalism Intergovernmentalism Transactionalism Institutionalism Regime Theory Customs Union Theory Optimal Currency Area Theory

Realism 3. Realism is an approach to the study and practice of international

politics in relation to integration. It emphasizes the role of the nation-state and makes a broad assumption that all nation-states are motivated by national interests. The grand theories of the realist school that emerged out of American political thought view the state as the single most important actor in the international system with predetermined national interests, which often quantifies costs and benefits involved in different policy alternatives to achieve desired goals. The realists view the international system as lacking in any centralized authority to make and enforce laws

governing inter-state relationships. It adopts the concept of states being sovereign and that in international politics states compete with one another without established rules and norms. Under this condition, states rely on the means they can generate and the arrangements they can make for themselves. In addition, the realists argue that the basic anarchical structure of the international system determines inter-state relations where states seek selfpreservation and application of force in the pursuit of their national interests, which largely accounts for conflict of interests. They contend that international cooperative schemes grow as competing states interests converge. Critics of this theory however believe that it did not give enough explanation for the reasons why states enter into cooperation within regional economic organisations.3 In general terms, the realist blue print seem to have significantly predicted the behavior of ECOWAS member states in their basic assumptions in that states tend to pursue policies with maximum national benefits at minimum cost. Functionalism 4. The functionalist blue print based its assumptions on the believe that

in a world of economic interdependence, apolitical problems such as social, technical and humanitarian could be prioritized and solved. It insists that in a world of economic interdependence, common economic interests create the need for international institutions and rules.The functional approach is evolutionary in process and holds that states that have common interests,

values and experiences can transfer their sovereign will by a function for the realization of set goals, objects, and objectives in the hope that in time the integrating states would shift from working together in certain technical areas of interest to creating a political union as a higher level of cooperation.4 The central point of the functionalist approach is that by cooperating in specific, usually nonpolitical issues (such as trade), states can learn to trust one another to the point, in the stream of time, where causes of political conflict are eliminated. Functionalism is hinged on the

reduction of extreme forms of nationalism to pave way for greater mutual trust and confidence. It proposes to build a form of authority based on functions and needs, which linked authority with needs, scientific knowledge, expertise and technology, i.e. it provided a supraterritorial concept of authority.Its assumptions emphasized a practical approach to problem solving insisting that this could be achieved by prioritizing areas of common interests while concluding that cooperation in economic and social fields may eventually spill over into the political fields. Functionalism pessimists strongly illuminate the set backs involved in a regional integration programme due to the reluctance of member states in a regional organization to transfer sovereignty to a higher level particularly in areas of strong national interests.In reality, the theory of functionalism provides an insight into the operations of international organizations, by successfully tracing the origins of international cooperation to functional interdependence. The theory of functionalism has not fully explained integration

withinECOWAS because so far, cooperation in the social, technical and economic fields have not automatically yielded increased dividends in other

areas within the community. Further, one major challenge within ECOWAS remains the reluctance of member states to transfer decision-making powers to the regional body. Also, ECOWAS legislations and protocols are often left at the mercy of member states to decide whether to enforce them or not. Therefore, the success of functionalism within the frame work of ECOWAS is severely limited because the basic ingredients for the success of its basic assumptions are not evident in the case of ECOWAS. Neo-Functionalism 5. Neo-Functionalists seek to refine the functionalist assumptions and

hinged on three main processes the actors, the motives and the process and context.5 In order to avoid the pit falls of functionalism, the theory upgraded the importance of nation-states by insisting that states are the primary actors in an integration process, within which are interest groups and political parties. This approach agrees with the functionalists on the need for states that have common interests, values and aspirations to work together but they disagree on the timetable of the evolutionary process. The neofunctionalists believe that the timetable of the evolutionary process will not move quickly enough to sort out the several differences that require resolution. The neofunctionalist advocate the establishment of an institutional mechanism to promote more collaboration tendencies and behaviours rather than stake transition from non political arms of cooperation to political union. Neofunctionalists see integration as a direct response to the functional needs of state. It also foresaw that domestic, transnational and supranational actors would engage in regional integration to improve their efficiency in governance given their relative close proximity and the various possibilities and advantages.They viewed integration as an

outcome of joint action by all parties as problems in one area could only be solve through recourse to action in other sectors. This is to be achieved by upgrading of common interests under the guidance of a regional supranational body. Regional integration efforts in Africa is tending towards the neo-functional approach. African nations do not just need to agree to live and work together in certain areas of cooperation, but there is the need to work out an institutionalized framework for harmonizing perceptions, intuitions, interests, values and strategies for achieving set goals. Intergovernmentalism 6. The theory of intergovernmentalism conceptualized integration as a

series of bargains between the heads of government of the leading states in a region. Its basic assumption is based on the belief that integration takes place within domestic politics and entirely a logical consequence of intergovernmental negotiations while down grading the importance of supra-national institutions in the process of integration. It assumed that converging interests within an integration process are essentially the interests of large states and that harmony is maintained within the union by the big states buying off the small ones. However, the theory contends that weak states would need international institutions as they are confronted with more expansive and complex issues.The intergovernmentalism placed a lot of emphasis on heads of states as major players in the integration process without due regard to the importance of several behind the scene events that take place before inter-state bargains.

This theory is applicable in SADC and most African regional organizations. Its assumptions that the constraints and opportunities imposed by economic interdependence shape national preferences and that outcomes of inter-state bargains are results of relative bargaining power of governments etc. is a reality as South Africa exerts enormous influence in SADC while Cote DIvoire and Senegal wielded a lot of influence in UEMOA especially before the Ivorian crisis. Transactionalism 7. Transactionalism is based on the assumption that integration is a

function of the level of communication between states. It offers a much broader definition of integration than functionalism in economic sense to include,social perceptions, values, sentiments and articulation of these values and sense of community in formal and structured forms. It holds the view that cooperation could indeed be enhanced and empirically quantified in term of the frequency of transactions between states. Transactionalism is believed to be an effective mechanism for social mobilization of communities and initiate historical processes of national development.6It contends that solid network of transactions between states would lead to more interaction and enhanced feelings of mutual benefits and trust from increased transactions would motivate further interactions. The theory insists that the potential for integration is guaranteed in regions with mutual high international transaction, which would be actualized if states are responsive to one another. The effective adaptation of this theory to the circumstances of ECOWAS and UEMOA may pose serious problem as greater percentage of

transactions within the community are basically informal and unrecorded, but how these high informal transactions within the region have promoted greater reciprocal relevance or the feeling of trust between member states is difficult to quantify. Despite the relatively large informal contact and informal transaction within the ECOWAS region, the feeling of distrust among member states is still relatively high especially between the francophone and the Anglophone states. The level of trade within the UEMOA region like other regions is very low because of the homogeneity rather than complementarity of goods produced. Institutionalism 8. The theoretical framework for institutionalism is hinged on the basic

assumption that institutions are important because of their impact on political outcomes they provide the contexts where actors conduct useful bargains and serve as information pool with relative transparency.7Generally, institutions intervene between preferences of actors and policy outcomes. However, institutionalist theoretical agenda is diverse with three major variants and so are their accounts of the importance of institutions, actors preferences and indeed how and when they are formed. They differ in terms of the extent institutional structure influences the actor Historical and rational choice variants while some others further distinguish between historical and sociological institutionalism. All the variants generally agree that institutions are important and are not passive tools but significantly shape political out comes.

Rational choice institutionalism assumes that actors will only engage in rational pursuit of their self-interest, and views preference formation as undertaken quite outside the institutional venue. In this context, institutions shape or moderate the strategies that political actors adopt in the pursuit of their interests. They insist that states create institutions in order to benefit from the important services offered by them particularly in the reduction of transaction costs. Regime Theory 9. Regime theoretical concept is defined as a set of implicit or explicit

principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which actors expectations converge in a given area of international relations.8Regime theoretical framework insisted that states interests and capabilities as well as the increasing global interdependence can promote cooperation. The theory assumes international institutions moderate states and promote understanding between them, thereby providing an avenue for monitoring states behaviour and reducing uncertainties and transaction costs. International institutions succeed if they are able to establish principles and facilitate the convergence of expectations and interests. The framework emphasizes the importance of cognitive factors in international politics. Regime theory is viewed as an amalgam of the realist and liberal traditions.9Those closer to the realist concepts assume that the conflicting nature of the international system diminish free flow of cooperation and that a hegemon is needed to restore sanity within the system emphasizing the

importance of sanctions. They insist that sanctions and monitoring are important to sustain cooperation among self-interested states. However, Regime theorists with more liberal orientation de-emphasize the application of sanctions and monitoring in international cooperation, assuming that increasing interdependence and common interests, enhancement of available information and norms are sufficient to foster cooperation. In most regional integration groups in Africa, particularly ECOWAS, there is still little hope as to the readiness of member states to transfer some measure of sovereignty to the regional body. In addition, it remains quite doubtful if there is any member state of ECOWAS with sufficient resources to play the role of a Benevolent Hegemon without necessarily jeopardizing their immediate national interests and needs, thus, the concept in all its dimensions do not go far in explaining the state of regional integration in West Africa. The experience of Nigeria in Liberia within the framework of ECOMOG an example. Customs Union Theory 10. The Customs Union examines markets and goods within a region and

the effect of discrimination within the integrating area. Customs Union is defined as the process of elimination of intra-trade barriers and the equalization of tariffs on imports from non-member countries.The background work on customs theory was done by Jacob Viner and he conceptualized trade creation and trade diversion within an integrating area10. He argued trade creation occurs when the output of inefficient producers are replaced after the elimination of tariffs by cheaper imports of more efficient producers within the region to the benefit of both producers and consumers.

On the other hand, trade diversion effect occurs when imposition of common external tariff puts suppliers from countries outside the integrating area in a competitive disadvantage by encouraging imports from less efficient suppliers with the union. Thus, this condition leads to trade diversion which reduces the economic welfare and benefits accruable to members of the union. In general terms, conventional economic theories are hinged on the gains derivable from changes in the existing trade patterns within a region based on the condition thatemployment is full under a given input of resources and that domestic prices of products must be a practical reflection of opportunity cost under a free market allocation of resources. These two basic conditions will ensure the attainment of integration through the gradual elimination of quantitative restrictions between member states of an integrating area. Some scholars and authors like Belassa and Lipede categorize the process of removing discrimination into five stages as listed below.11 a. Free Trade Area b. Customs Union c. Common Market d. Economic Union e. Total Economic Integration While others like Kaptoum, Fischer and Straubhaar evolved a 6 stagemodel.12These stages are also known as phases of integration and will be discussed in details in the next section. This paper will rely on the 5 stage concept.

Optimal Currency Area Theory 11. Optimal currency area is defined as an area in which exchange rates are immutably fixed or in which a common currency exists13. The theory basically examines the conditions under which the formation of a currency is economically viable and hinged on money, markets for goods and markets for factors of production. It seeks to achieve both internal and external balance in the least costly way without compromising monetary and fiscal policies. However, the proponents of the optimal currency area are divided as to the best avenue to achieve both internal and external balance [i.e. Flexible or fixed exchange rates]. The first group favours the adoption of flexible exchange rates to maintain both internal and external balance while the second group insists that payment equilibrium would be achieved if real exchange rates are fixed thus reducing its volatility. However, both strands converge at the point that the success of a currency area depends on the availability of high mobility of factors of production within the region14. Optimal currency theory framework has been successfully implemented in the UEMOA region with a common currency and fixed exchange rates. The much desired economic benefits of ensuring both internal and external balance as well as the attainment of low/non-inflationary growth has been achieved minimally within the UEMOA region, however the member states economies remains very weak, highly fragile and structurally truncated with little or no influence on the international economic system. Indeed the rate of growth and development in Anglophone West Africa is relatively higher than in the UEMOA region. The transition tofull liberalization within the Union and harmonization of member states economic and fiscal policies

should help accelerate integration as well as development in the UEMOA region. PHASES OF INTEGRATION The phases of integration refer to the various stages through which nations quest for economic integration must evolve. Economic integration, as defined here, can take several forms that represent varying degrees of integrationSome authors actually refer to these phases also as the theories of economic integration15. There are divergent views over the number of phases involved. While some believe there are 5 phases16, others believe there are 617 and still others restrict themselves to 3 phases18.The 6 stage model begins with the Preferential Trade Area before the Free Trade Area of the 5 stage model while the 3 stage model begins with the customs union and ends with the economic union. However the 5 stage model is generally accepted and most phases are believed to overlap and cannot always be neatly separated19. The 5 phases of integration are: a. Free Trade Area b. Customs Union c. Common Market d. Economic Union e. Complete Economic Integration

Free Trade Area A free-trade areais a trade bloc whose member countries have signed a free-trade agreement (FTA), which eliminates tariffs, import quotas, and preferences on most (if not all) goods and services traded

between them.20Countries choose this kind of economic integration if their economical structures are complementary and it is believed that this phase would gradually evolve into a Customs Union. Unlike in a customs union,members of a free-trade area do not have a common external tariff, which means they have different quotas and customs, as well as other policies with respect to non-members. In a free-trade area, tariffs between the participating countries are abolished, but each country retains its own tariffs against non members.21To avoid tariff evasion the countries use the system of certification of origin most commonly called rules of origin, where there is a requirement for the minimum extent of local content to the goods. Only goods that meet these minimum requirements are entitled to the special treatment envisioned by the free trade area provisions. The aim of a free-trade area is to reduce barriers to exchange so that trade can grow as a result of specialisation, division of labour, and most importantly via comparative advantage. The net result will be an increase in income and ultimately wealth and well-being for everyone in the free-trade area. Also Free Trade Areas allow the agreeing nations to focus on their competitive advantage and to freely trade for the goods they lack the experience at making, thus increasing the efficiency and profitability of each country.But the theory refers only to aggregate wealth and says nothing about the distribution of wealth; in fact there may be significant losers, in particular among the recently protected industries with a comparative disadvantage. In principle, the overall gains from trade could be used to compensate for the effects of reduced trade barriers by appropriate inter-party transfers.

Customs Union A customs union is the second stage in the 5 phase integration model. According to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs a customs union shall be understood to mean the substitution of a single customs territory for two or more customs territories, so that (i) duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated with respect to substantially all the trade between the constituent territories of the union and, (ii) substantially the same duties and other regulations of commerce are applied by each of the members of the union to the trade of territories not included in the union."
22

Essentially, it consists of an agreement between two or more

countries (usually within the same geographical region) to remove trade barriers, and reduce or eliminatecustoms duty or other restrictions on mutualtrade as well as the establishment of uniform tarrif on trade with non members. A customs union generally imposes a commonexternal-tariff (CET) on imports from non-member countries and (unlike a common market) generally does not allow free movement of capital and labour among member countries. A customs Union can therefore be said to consist of a free trade area with a common external tariff. Establishing a customs union involves, besides the suppression of discrimination in the field of commodity movements within the union, the equalization of tariffs in trade with nonmember countries23.The participant countries therefore set up common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different import quotas. Common competition policy is also helpful to avoid competition deficiency.The purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. A clear

understanding of the customs union was made by Jacob Viner in his work on customs union.24Through abolishing tariffs within the union and maintaining them against third countries, a customs union entails the suppression of discrimination between home-produced goods and goods produced in partner countries, and, at the same time, it gives rise to discrimination between commodities produced in partner and in third countries. Customs Union therefore involves trade creation and trade diversion.There are 2 well established customs unions in Africa, the first being the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) while the second transcends the customs union to a monetary union, the Union Economique et Monetaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA) which has a well defined customs union integrated within its structure.The European Union also has a well defined customs union. Common Market A common market is a type of trade bloc composed of a free trade area (for goods) with common policies on product regulation, and freedom of movement of the factors of production (capital and labour) and of enterprise and services. The goal is that the movement of capital, labour, goods, and services between the members is as easy as within them as possible.The physical (borders), technical (standards) and fiscal (taxes) barriers among the member states are removed to the maximum extent possible. These barriers obstruct the freedom of movement of the four factors of production. A higher form of economic integration is therefore attained in a common market, where not only trade restrictions but also restrictions on factor movements are abolished.

A common market has many benefits. With full freedom of movement for all the factors of production between the member countries, the factors of production become more efficiently allocated, further increasing

productivity.For both business within the market and consumers, a common market is a very competitive environment, making the existence of monopolies more difficult. This means that inefficient companies will suffer a loss of market share and may have to close down. However, efficient firms can benefit from economies of scale, increased competitiveness and lower costs, as well as expect profitability to be a result. Consumers are benefited by the common market in the sense that the competitive environment brings them cheaper products, more efficient providers of products and also increased choice of products. Businesses in competition will alsoinnovate to create new products thereby creating more benefits for consumers. Transition to a single market can have short term negative impact on some sectors of a national economy due to increased international competition. Enterprises that previously enjoyed national market protection and national subsidy (and could therefore continue in business despite falling short of international performance benchmarks) may struggle to survive against their more efficient peers, even for its traditional markets. Ultimately, if the enterprise fails to improve its organization and methods, it will fail. The consequence may be unemployment or migration. The European Economic Community was the first example of a both common market, but it was an economic union since it had additionally a customs union. Similarly the UEMOA is a common market and has all its characteristics in principle. Indeed one of the reasons for the establishment

of UEMOA was the need to reinforce the monetary union with a customs union in order to attain a common market based on free movement of persons, goods, services and capital.but the efficiency of the common market is highly degraded by the low intra UEMOA trade and the low industrial and economic base of member countries. ECONOMIC UNION An economic union is a type of economic integration which is composed of a common market with a customs union. The participant countries have both common policies on product regulation, freedom of movement of goods, services and the factors of productionand a common external trade policy.The countries often share a common currency. An economic union, as distinct from a common market, combines the suppression of restrictions on commodity and factor movements with some degree of harmonization of national economic policies, in order to remove discrimination that was due to disparities in these policies. The reasons for establishing a economic union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. The EU is an economic union as well as the UEMOA because they both have common markets, customs union as well as common currencies. However the efficiency of the economic union in the case of UEMOA is highly degraded because of the low volume of trade as well as inability of member countries to meet up with the macroeconomic convergence criteria established by the Union.

COMPLETE ECONOMIC INTEGRATION Complete economic integrationpresupposes the unification of monetary, fiscal, social, and countercyclical policies and requires the setting-up of a supra-national authority whose decisions are binding for the member states. The member countries therefore operate as one nation in terms of integration of their various economies. An "economic union" combines customs union with a common market whileacomplete economic integration introduces a shared fiscal and budgetary policy. In order to be successful this stage of integration is typically accompanied by unification of economic policies (tax, social welfare benefits, etc.), reductions in the rest of the trade barriers, introduction of supranational bodies, and gradual moves towards a "political union".25 The EU is at this stage of integration. While theoretically, the UEMOA which is considered to have gone the farthest on the road to integrationis supposed to have reached this stage of integration, practically it is far from this point because of the inability to effectively harmonize budgetary policies, unification of social welfare benefits and an inability to go beyond economic integration to social integration as well as the tendency for some countries to tow the path of national interest against the collective interest of the region. The inability of UEMOA to make its decisions binding on all members as well as the over dependence on France which seeks to promote its own interest is also militating against UEMOAs ability to move forward on the integration ladder.

END NOTES
1. L.A Bennett, International Organisations: Principles and Issues, 3 rd edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984. p.289. 2. A. Y. Yansan, Evaluation of the State of Integration in Africa: How to Strengthen the African Economic Community, in O.M Iheduru (ed.), Contending Issues in African Development: Advances Challenges and the Future, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2001. p.241. 3. R. O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p.7. 4. 5. 126. D. Mitrany, A world Peace System, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1996.p.31. E.B Haas, The Uniting of Europe, Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1958. p.

6. S.M Anadi, Regional Integration in Africa: The Case of ECOWAS, Phd Thesis University of Zurich, April 2005.p. 134. 7. 8. 9. 10. ibid. p. 145. www.wikipaedia.org accessed on 3 April 2012. S.M Anadi, op. cit. p. 146. J. Viner, The Customs Union Issues in S.M Anadi, op. cit. p. 148.

11. BelaBelassa in his work on Economic Integration cited hereafter and Prof Lipede in her lecture notes to students of MDS at the Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna both talked about 5 stages of economic integration. 12. P.C Kaptouon, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past and Present of an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of Berlin Discussion Paper 19, 2007.Kaptouon reproduced a 6 stage model designed by Fischer and Straubhaar on page 16 of the above quoted reference. 13. WMattli,The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1999.p. 105. 14. S.M. Anadi, op. cit.

15. B. Belassa, The Theory of Economic Integration:Illinois, Richard D. Irwin Publishers, 1961.p. 2. 16. B. Belassa,op. cit.p. 1.

17. P.C Kaptouon, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past and Present of an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of Berlin Discussion Paper 19, 2007. 18. M. Hpner and A.Schfer, A New Phase of European Integration: Organized Capitalisms in Post-Ricardian Europe, Discussion Paper No. 4,Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, March 2007 p. 7. 19. ibid. 20. www.wikipaediaonline.org assessed 19 April 2012.. 21. B. Belassa, op. cit. p. 1.

22. GATT, Basic Instruments and Selected Documents, Vol. I ( Geneva, 1952), Part III, Article XXIV, Sec. 8(a). 23. 24. 25. B. Belassa, op. cit. p. 2. J. Viner, The Customs Union Issue in Belassa, op. cit. p.21. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integration.Assessed on 22 April 2012.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Belassa B., The Theory of Economic Integration:Illinois, Richard D. Irwin Publishers, 1961. Bennett L.A, International Organisations: Principles and Issues, 3 rd edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984. HaasE.B, The Uniting of Europe, Stanford: Stanford University Press,1958. Keohane R. O., After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984. MattliW, The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Mitrany D., A world Peace System, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1996. Yansan A. Y., Evaluation of the State of Integration in Africa: How to Strengthen the African Economic Community, in O.M Iheduru (ed.), Contending Issues in African Development: Advances Challenges and the Future, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2001. Discussion Papers Kaptouon P.C, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past and Present of an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of Berlin Discussion Paper 19, 2007. M. Hpner and A. Schfer, A New Phase of European Integration: Organized Capitalisms in Post-Ricardian Europe, Discussion Paper No. 4,Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, March 2007. Internet Sources www.wikipaedia.org www.wikipaediaonline.org www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integration Unpublished Work S.M Anadi, Regional Integration in Africa: The Case of ECOWAS, Phd Thesis University of Zurich, April 2005.