Learning Objectives Upon completion of CHAPTER 1, you should be able to: 1.1 Define psychology. (p.

4) The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology values empirical evidence - information acquired by direct observation and measurement using systematic scientific methods and critical thinking the process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information. Studying psychology offers practical solutions to everyday problems and develops an appreciation for scientific methods of research, as opposed to pseudo psychologies (false psychologies) that pretend to discover psychological information through nonscientific methods. 1.2 What are psychologys four main goals? (pp. 6-7) The four goals of psychology are: (1) Description - to describe particular behaviors by careful scientific observation, (2) Explanation to explain behaviors by conducting experiments to determine their causes, (3) Prediction to predict when a behavior being studied will occur in the future, and (4) Change to change inappropriate behavior or circumstances. psychologists investigate behavior with basic research or applied research. 1.3 Summarize psychologys major career specialties. (pp. 7-9) - Psychologists can specialize in several areas, including clinical and counseling psychology, biopsychology/neuroscience, experimental, cognitive, developmental, industrial/organizational, educational psychology, school psychology. A description of the different areas/specialties of psychology is shown in Table 1.1.The number of psychologists working in the different fields is highlighted in Figure 1.2. 1.4 Contrast structuralism versus functionalism, and list the seven major perspectives that guide modern psychology. (pp. 9-13) Historically psychologists have taken various approaches regarding the study of behavior. They eventually emerged to form various schools of psychology with distinct approaches to the study of behavior. The following nine major schools are discussed: (1) structuralism, (2) functionalism, (3) psychoanalytic/psychodynamic, (4) behavioral, (5) humanistic, (6) cognitive, (7) neuroscience/biopsychology, (8) evolutionary, and (9) sociocultural. The contributions of women and minorities are highlighted. 1. Structuralism - Titchener brought Wundt's ideas to America and coined the term structuralism, which is now used to refer to the school of thought that focused on the investigation of thought processes and the structure of the mind. 2. Functionalism - Feeling the need for practical applications of psychology, some psychologists turned to functionalism. Functionalism focused on the function of mental processes in adapting the individual to the environment. Darwins theory of evolution had an impact on this school and William James was the leading force in the functionalist school. 1.5 Describe the biopsychosocial model. (pp. 14-15) Early schools of psychology have disappeared or blended into newer, broader perspectives. The biopsychosocial is introduced as a unifying theme of modern psychology and today, many psychologists recognize its merit. Table 1.2 highlights seven major perspectives in contemporary

psychology. Neuroscience/Biopsychology Perspective A modern perspective that explores the role of biological factors such as genetics and biological brain processes.

1.6 What is the difference between basic and applied research, and what are the six basic steps of the scientific method? (pp. 16-18) Research strategies are generally seen as either basic or applied research. Basic research is conducted to study theoretical questions without trying to solve a specific problem. It studies behavior for its own sake simply for knowledge. Applied research, however, utilizes the principles and discoveries of psychology for practical purposes attempting to find solutions to real-world problems. Psychologists follow standardized scientific procedures in the same way as other scientists. Psychologists strive to maintain high ethical standards in research, therapy, and other areas of professional psychology. A. The Scientific Method: A Way of Discovering - Generally involves six carefully planned steps, as summarized in Process Diagram 1.1. The steps include: (1) identify question and literature review, (2) develop a testable hypothesis, (3) select a research method and collect the data, (4) analyze the data and accept or reject the hypothesis, (5) publish, replicate, and seek scientific review, and (6) build a theory 1.7 What are the key ethical issues in psychological research and therapy? (pp. 18-20) Ethical Guidelines: Protecting the Rights of Others - Psychologists are expected to maintain high ethical standards. The American Psychological Association (APA) has published specific guidelines detailing these standards. Three important areas are discussed: (1) human participants informed consent, voluntary participation, use of deception, debriefing, confidentiality, and use of students as subjects, (2) animal rights, and (3) clients in therapy confidentiality. 1.8 Explain how experiments help researchers determine cause and effect. (pp. 21-22) It allows the experimenter to manipulate and control the chosen variables to determine cause and effect. 1.9 Compare and contrast experimental versus control groups and independent versus dependent variables. (pp. 22-24) A. Experimental Research: A Search for Cause and Effect - An experiment is the only research method that can identify cause and effect. 1. Variables - Independent variables are the factors the experimenter manipulates whereas the dependent variables are measurable behaviors of the participants. 2. Control and Experimental Condition - The control condition treats participants identically to participants in the experimental condition, except that they do not receive the independent variable. In the experimental condition, all participants are exposed to the independent variable. 1.10 How do researchers guard against experimenter bias and ethnocentrism? (pp. 22-25) To safe guard against experimenter bias an experimenter can set up objective methods for collecting and recording data, such as audiotape recordings to present the stimuli and computers to record the

responses. Another option is to use blind observers (neutral people other than the researcher) to collect and record the data without knowing what the researcher has predicted. In addition, researchers can arrange a double-blind study, in which neither the observer or the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment. To safeguard against ethnocentrism researchers can use cross-cultural sampling, which isolates the differences in behavior between the two cultures.

1.11 How do researchers safeguard against sample bias and participant bias? (pp. 25-26) Sample bias- research psychologists generally use random/representative sampling and random assignment. Participant bias- researchers attempt to control by offering anonymous participation and other guarantees for privacy and confidentiality. Also, single and double-blind studies and placebos offer additional safeguards. 1.12 Why do we sometimes mislabel our emotions? (p. 27) Research Highlight: Love at First Fright? Research by Dutton and Aron suggest that individuals physiologically aroused by a fear-producing situation may mistakenly attribute their arousal to attraction. This phenomenon has come to be called the Misattribution of Arousal Process. 1.13 Explain descriptive research and its three key methodsnaturalistic observation, surveys, and case studies. (pp. 28-31) Descriptive Research: Naturalistic Observation, Surveys, and Case Studies -When it is not feasible for ethical or practical reasons to study behavior experimentally, psychologists use descriptive techniques including: (1) naturalistic observation - used to study behavior in its natural habitat, (2) surveys - using tests, questionnaires, and interviews to sample a wide variety of behaviors and attitudes, and (3) case study - an in-depth study of a single research participant. 1.14 Compare correlational research and correlation coefficients. (pp. 31-33) Correlational research is a methodology that researchers use to identify relationships between variables, whereas correlation coefficients are statistical measures used in correlational research, as well as with surveys and other research designs. 1.15 Describe biological research and its major tools for discovery. (pp. 33-36) Biological research is how we study the living human brain and other parts of the nervous system. Tools for exploring the brain and nervous system are: brain dissection, ablations/lesions, observation/case studies, electrical recordings of brain activity (EEG), electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). 1.16 Are there cultural universals? (pp. 38-39) Cultural psychologists conduct research to discover which behaviors are human universals and which are specific to individual cultures. For many universalists, emotions and facial recognition of emotions provide the clearest example of possible cultural universal. Numerous studies conducted over many years with people from very different cultures suggest that everyone can easily identify facial expressions for at least six basic emotions: happiness, surprise, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust. 1.17 How can I use psychology to study and learn psychology? (pp. 39-47) There are several important psychological techniques that fall into general categories: active reading, time management, strategies for grade improvement, and additional resources.

Key Terms critical thinking (p. 4) Process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information. naturenurture controversy (p. 6) ongoing dispute over the relative contributions of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment). psychology (p. 4) scientific study of behavior and mental processes. behavioral perspective (p. 11) emphasizes objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior. biopsychosocial model (p. 14) unifying theme of modern psychology that incorporates biological, psychological, and social processes. cognitive perspective (p. 12) focuses on thinking, perceiving, and information processing. evolutionary perspective (p. 12) focuses on natural selection, adaptation, and evolution of behavior and mental processes. humanistic perspective (p. 11) emphasizes free will, self-actualization, and human nature as naturally positive and growth-seeking. neuroscience/biopsychology emphasizes genetics and other biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. perspective (p. 12)

positive psychology (p. 12) scientific study of optimal human functioning, emphasizing positive emotions, positive traits, and positive institutions. psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective (p. 10) focuses on unconscious processes and unresolved past conflicts. sociocultural perspective (p. 13) emphasizes social interaction and cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes. applied research (p. 16) research designed to solve practical problems. basic research (p. 16) research conducted to advance scientific knowledge. debriefing (p. 19) informing participants after the research about the purpose of the study, the nature of the anticipated results, and any deceptions used. hypothesis (p. 17) specific, testable prediction about how one factor, or variable, is related to another. informed consent (p. 18) participants agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect.

meta-analysis (p. 16) statistical procedure for combining and analyzing data from many studies. operational definition (p. 17) precise description of how the variables in a study will be observed and measured. theory (p. 17) interrelated set of concepts that explain a body of data. biological research (p. 33) scientific studies of the brain and other parts of the nervous system. case study (p. 30) in-depth study of a single research participant. control group (p. 24) group that receives no treatment in an experiment. correlation coefficient (p. 32) number indicating strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. correlational research (p. 31) researcher observes or measures (without directly manipulating) two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationships between them. dependent variable (DV) (p. 24) variable that is measured; it is affected by (or dependent on) the independent variable. descriptive research (p. 28) research methods that observe and record behavior and mental processes without producing causal explanations. double-blind study (p. 25) procedure in which both the researcher and the participants are unaware (blind) of who is in the experimental or control group. ethnocentrism (p. 25) believing that ones culture is typical of all cultures; also viewing ones own ethnic group (or culture) as central and correct and judging others according to this standard. experiment (p. 21) carefully controlled scientific procedure that involves manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. experimental group (p. 24) group that receives a treatment in an experiment. sample bias (p. 25) occurs when research participants are not representative of the larger population. random assignment (p. 26) using chance methods to assign participants to experimental or control conditions, thus minimizing the possibility of biases or preexisting differences in the groups placebo [pluh-SEE-bo] (p. 25) inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control technique, usually in dug research, or given be a medical practitioner to a patient. participant bias (p. 26) occurs when experimental conditions influence the participants behavior or mental processes. naturalistic observation (p. 29) observation and recording behavior and mental processes in the participants natural state or habitat.

experimenter bias (p. 22) occurs when a researcher influences research results in the expected direction. independent variable (IV) (p. 24) variable that is manipulated to determine its causal effect on the dependent variable. misattribution of arousal (p. 27) different emotions produce similar feelings of arousal, which lead to mistaken inferences about these emotions and the source of arousal.