Fluid Statics Lecture Notes

Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Statics
[3-1]
Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri
[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics
[3-1] Fluid Statics
Fluid Pressure
Fluid pressure is the normal force exerted by the fluid per unit area at some location within the fluid Fluid pressure has the units: N/m2 Pascal 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 psi pound-force per square inch = 6,894.757 Pa Bar 1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 Kpa Atmosphere 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 bars 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 104 N/m2
[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri
psia (pounds-force per square inch absolute) gauge pressure plus local atmospheric pressure
[3-1] Fluid Statics
Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the actual pressure at a given position
However, the absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute zero pressure

This is why most pressuremeasuring devices (called gages) read zero in the atmosphere
3 [3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri [3-1] Fluid Statics
Gage and Vacuum Pressures

When the pressure gages read a pressure value this value would be the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure
This difference is called gage pressure (Pgage) Pgage = Pabs Patm If Pgage is negative then it is called vacuum pressure Pvac = Patm - Pabs
[3-1] Fluid Statics
Gage and Vacuum Pressures
[3-1] Fluid Statics
Gage Pressure
The gage used to measure the air pressure in an automobile tire reads the gage pressure Therefore, the common reading of 32 psi indicates a pressure of 32 psi above the atmospheric pressure At a location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.3 psi, for example, the absolute pressure in the tire is 32 + 14.3 = 46.3 psi
Example
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber
We know that Pabs = Patm Pvac = 14.5 5.8 = 8.7 psi
[3-1] Fluid Statics
Pressure at a Point
Consider a small wedgeshaped fluid element of unit length (into the page) in equilibrium
The mean pressures at the three surfaces are Pn, Px, and Pz, and the force acting on a surface is the product of mean pressure and the surface area
Pressure at a Point
By writing the equation of equilibrium for the x direction, we obtain: For the z direction, we obtain:
Now, when we divide this equation by the product lycos and the fluid element shrinks to a point (l0)m the last term disappears. Thus we have: Ultimately, this implies that :
Since is arbitrary and Pn is independent of , we conclude that the pressure at a point in a static fluid acts with the same magnitude in all directions:
Variation of Pressure with Depth

To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider the element shown in the figure with a length of l, A in cross-sectional area, and inclined at angle with the horizontal A force balance in the vertical z-direction gives:
Upon simplification:
However, if we let the length approach zero, then p/l=dp/dl. Note also that sin = dz/dl. Therefore:

This is the basic equation for hydrostatic pressure variation with elevation It implies that pressure changes with the vertical distance but remains constant in the other directions The pressure changes inversely with elevation. If one travels upward in the fluid (positive z direction), the pressure decreases; and if one goes downward (negative z), the pressure increases Of course, a pressure increase is exactly what a diver experiences when descending in a lake or pool

If the specific weight of the fluid is uniform then it is constant. Thus the previous equation (dp/dz = -) becomes after integration:
The sum of the terms p/ and z is called the piezometric head. This is constant throughout an incompressible static fluid
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One can easily relate the piezometric head at one point to that of another point in the fluid as in the following:
[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri
[3-1] Fluid Statics

Thus, the pressure difference between two points in a constant density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance z between the points and the density of the fluid In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly with depth as we go down and vice versa
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[3-1] Fluid Statics

A pressure difference of 10 psi can be specified in terms of pressure head as 23.1 ft of water ( = 62.4 lb/ft3), or 518 mm of Hg ( = 133 kN/m3) As illustrated by the figure, a 23.1ft-tall column of water with a crosssectional area of 1 in.2 weighs 10 lb
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[3-1] Fluid Statics

If we take point 1 to be at the free surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere where the pressure is the atmospheric pressure (Patm) then the pressure at a depth h from the free surface becomes:
P = Patm + gh or Pgage = gh
Example
Determine the pressure in psi at a depth of 20 ft below the free surface of a body of water if = 62.4 lb/ft3 P = h = 62.4 20 = 1,248 lb/ft2 P = 1,248/144 = 8.67 psi
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
Determine the pressure at a depth of 9 m in oil of specific gravity 0.75 P = h = 9.79 0.75 9 = 66.1 kPa
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
What depth of oil of specific gravity 0.75 will produce a pressure of 40 psi? What depth of water?
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
Find the pressure at the bottom of a tank containing glycerin under pressure
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
What is the water pressure at a depth of 35 ft in the tank shown?
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
Oil with a specific gravity of 0.80 forms a layer 0.90 m deep in an open tank that is otherwise filled with water. The total depth of water and oil is 3 m. What is the gage pressure at the bottom of the tank?
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
Because of a leak in a buried gasoline storage tank, water has seeped in to the depth shown in the figure. The specific gravity of the gasoline is 0.68
Determine the pressure at the gasolinewater interface and at the bottom of the tank
Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
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Pressure Transmission
In a closed system, a pressure change produced at one point in the system will be transmitted throughout the entire system This phenomenon of pressure transmission, along with the ease with which fluids can be moved, has led to the widespread development of hydraulic controls for operating equipment such as hydraulic presses
In the figure the air pressure from a compressor establishes the pressure in the oil system, which in turn acts against the piston in the lift
It can be seen that if a pressure of 600 kN/m2, for example, acts on the 25-cm diameter piston, then a force equal to pA, or 29.5 kN, will be exerted on the piston To handle larger or smaller loads it is necessary only to increase or decrease the pressure
Example
A hydraulic jack has the dimensions shown. If one exerts a force F of 100 N on the handle of the jack, what load, F2, can the jack support? Neglect lifter weight
Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
In the figure the areas of the plunger A and cylinder B are 6.00 and 600 in2, respectively, and the weight of B is 9000 lb. The vessel and the connecting passages are filled with oil of specific gravity 0.750. What force F is required for equilibrium, neglecting the weight of A?
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Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid Note that the pressures at points A, B, C, D, F. F, and C are the same since they are at the same depth, and they are interconnected by the same static fluid
However, the pressures at points H and I are not the same since these two points cannot be interconnected by the same fluid although they are at the same depth
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Measurement of Pressure Barometer

Absolute atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called barometer and thus the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure
If we immerse the open end of a tube in a liquid that is open to the atmosphere (atmospheric pressure), and if we exhaust air from the tube, the liquid will rise in the tube
If the tube is long enough and if we have removed all the air, the only pressure on the surface of the liquid in the tube will be that of its own vapor pressure, and the liquid will have reached its maximum possible height
[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri [3-1] Fluid Statics
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From the concepts developed earlier, we see that the pressure at 0 within the tube and at a on the surface of the liquid outside the tube must be the same; that is:
P0 = Pa = Patm
In addition, we have:
P0 = y + Pvapor or Patm = y + Pvapor

If we neglect the vapor pressure, then we would have:
Patm = y

The liquid used in barometers is usually mercury because: its density is sufficiently great to enable a reasonably short tube to be used Its vapor pressure is negligibly small at ordinary temperatures Standard sea-level atmospheric pressure in different ways are: 29.92 in Hg = 760 mm Hg 33.91 ft of water = 10.34 m of water
Example
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 740 mm Hg and the gravitational acceleration is g = 9.81 m/s2. assume that the temperature of mercury to be 10C at which the density is 13,570 kg/m3 We know that:
Patm = y + Pvapor
Neglecting the vapor pressure we have: Patm = y = gh = 13,5709.810.74 = 98.5103 Pa
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
What would be the reading on a barometer containing carbon tetrachloride at 68F at a time when the atmospheric pressure was equivalent to 30.26 in Hg?
For carbon tetrachloride at 68F we have: = 3.08 slugs/ft3 and Pvapor = 1.9 psia Convert Patm to the units of psia Patm = 30.26 14.696 / 29.92 = 14.86 psia Y = (Patm Pvapor)/g = (14.86 1.9)/(3.0832.2) = 18.82 ft of carbon tetrachloride
Measurement of Pressure Piezometer

Measuring pressure involves the use of devices that use liquid columns. These measuring devices are called manometers The simplest type of manometer, called a piezometer tube, consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to the container in which the pressure is desired
Measurement of Pressure Piezometer

Because manometers involve columns of fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is P = h + P0 which gives the pressure at any elevation in terms of the vertical distance h between P and P0 Application of this equation to the piezometer tube indicates that the pressure PA can be determined by a measurement of h1 through the relationship
PA = 1h1
where 1 is the specific weight of the liquid in the container Since the tube is open at the top, the pressure P0 can be set equal to zero (we are now using gage pressure for PA) Because point (1) and point A within the container are at the same elevation then PA = P1
Measurement of Pressure U-Tube Manometer

Another type of manometer is used and consists of a tube formed into the shape of a U To find the pressure PA in terms of the various column heights, we start at one end of the system and work our way around to the other end, simply utilizing equation:
P1 = h + P2
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[3-1] Fluid Statics

Figure 1. The liquid is at the same height in each leg and pressure is equal at both ends Figure 2. When positive pressure is applied to one leg, the liquid is forced down in that leg and up in the other. The difference in height, "h," which is the sum of the readings above and below zero, indicates the pressure Figure 3. When a vacuum is applied to one leg, the liquid rises in that leg and falls in the other. The difference in height, "h," indicates the amount of vacuum

Thus, we will start at point A and work around to the open end The pressure at points A and (1) are the same As we move from point (1) to (2) the pressure will increase by
y1h1
The pressure at point (2) is equal to the pressure at point (3), since the pressures at equal elevations in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must be the same
42 [3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics
[3-1] Fluid Statics

With the pressure at point (3) specified we now move to the open end where the pressure is zero As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount
y2h2
As such we can write
PA + 1h1 2h2 = 0
And the pressure PA can be written as column heights as:
PA = 2h2 1h1
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
A closed tank contains compressed air and oil (SGoil = 0.90). A U-tube manometer using mercury (SGHg = 13.6) is connected to the tank. The column heights are h1 = 36 in., h2 = 6 in., and h3 = 9 in
Determine the pressure reading (in psi) of the gage
Example
Following the general procedure of starting at one end of the manometer system and working around to the other, we will start at the airoil interface in the tank and proceed to the open end where the pressure is zero. The pressure at level (1) is: This pressure is equal to the pressure at level (2), as these two points are at the same elevation in a homogeneous fluid at rest. As we move from level (2) to the open end, the pressure must decrease by YHgh3, and at the open end the pressure is zero. Thus, the manometer equation can be expressed as:
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
Assume that the gage pressure remains at 3.06 psi, but the manometer is altered so that it contains only oil. That is, the mercury is replaced by oil. A simple calculation shows that in this case the vertical oil-filled tube would need to be h3 = 11.3 ft tall, rather than the original h3 = 9 in. There is an obvious advantage of using a heavy fluid such as mercury in manometers
Measurement of Pressure Differential Manometers

The U-tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure between two containers or two points in a given system Consider a manometer connected between containers A and B as is shown in the figure. The difference in pressure between A and B can be found by again starting at one end and working around to the other end
Measurement of Pressure Differential Manometers

For example, at A the pressure is PA, which is equal to P1, and as we move to point (2) the pressure increases by
1h1
The pressure at P2 is equal to P3, and as we move upward to point (4) the pressure decreases by 2h2 Similarly, as we continue to move upward from point (4) to (5) the pressure decreases by 3h3 Finally, P5 = PB, as they are at equal elevations. Thus, PA + 1h1 2h2 2h2 = PB PA PB =2h2 + 2h2 1h1
The pressure difference

[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
The nozzle creates a pressure drop, PA PB, along the pipe. The pressure drop is measured with a differential U-tube manometer of the type illustrated
(a) Determine an equation for PA PB in terms of the specific weight of the flowing fluid, 1, the specific weight of the gage fluid, 2 and the various heights indicated
Example
If we start at point A and move vertically upward to level (1), the pressure will decrease by 1h1 and will be equal to the pressure at (2) and at (3). We can now move from (3) to (4) where the pressure has been further reduced by 2h2 The pressures at levels (4) and (5) are equal, and as we move from (5) to B the pressure will increase by 1 (h1 + h2). Thus, in equation form PA 1h1 2h2 + 1 (h1 + h2) = PB PA PB =h2(2 1)
It is to be noted that the only column height of importance is the differential reading, h2
[3-1] Fluid Statics
Measurement of Pressure Inclined Manometers

To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in the figure is frequently used One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle and the differential reading l2 is measured along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure PA PB can be expressed as: PA + 1h1 2l2 sin 3h3 = PB PA PB = 2l2 sin + 3h3 1h1 where it is to be noted the pressure difference between points (1) and (2) is due to the vertical distance between the points, which can be expressed as l2 sin Thus, for relatively small angles the differential reading along the inclined tube can be made large even for small pressure differences
Example
For the open tank, with piezometers attached on the side, containing two different immiscible liquids as shown in the figure, find: (a) The elevation of the liquid surface in piezometer A (b)The elevation of the liquid surface in piezometer B (c) The total pressure at the bottom of the tank
Example
(a) Liquid A will simply rise in piezometer A to the same elevation as liquid A in the tank (i.e., to elevation 2 m) (b) Liquid B will rise in piezometer B to elevation 0.3 m (as a result of the pressure exerted by liquid B) plus an additional amount, hA, as a result of the overlying pressure of liquid A, PA PA = h = (0.72 9.79)(1.7) = 11.98 kPa hA = p/ = 11.98/(2.36 9.79) = 0.519 m Liquid B will rise in piezometer B to elevation 0.3 + 0.5 19 = 0.819 m (c) Pressure at bottom = (0.72 9.79)(1.7) + (2.36 9.79)(0.3) = 18.9 kPa
Example
Determine the pressure at A in psi gage due to the deflection of the mercury, SG = 13.57 in the U-tube gage shown in the figure Pressure head at B = pressure head at C PA/ + 2.00 ft water = 2.65 13.57 ft water Solving, PA/ = 34.0 ft water, and PA = (62.4 34.0)/144 = 14.7 psi
Example
A manometer is attached to a tank containing three different fluids, as shown in the figure. Find the difference in elevation of the mercury column in the manometer (for instance find the value of y in the figure) pressure at A = pressure at B 30 + (0.82 9.79)(3) + (9.79)(3.00) = (13.6 9.79)(y) Y = 0.627 m
Example
Oil of specific gravity 0.750 flows through the nozzle shown in the figure and deflects the mercury in the U-tube gage. Determine the value of h if the pressure at A is 20.0 psi
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
For a gage pressure at A of -10.89 kPa, find the specific gravity of the gage liquid B in the figure
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
For a gage reading at A of 2.50 psi, determine: (a) the elevations of the liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G (b) the deflection of the mercury in the U-tube gage i
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
Since the unit weight of the air (about 0.08 lb/ft3) is very small compared with that of the liquids, the pressure at elevation 49 may be considered to be -2.50 psi without introducing significant error in the calculations
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
The loss through a device X is to be measured by a differential gage using oil of specific gravity 0.750 as the gage fluid. The flowing liquid has SG 1.50. Find the change in pressure head between A and B for the deflection of the oil shown in the figure
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
A differential mercury manometer is connected to two pressure taps in an inclined pipe. Water at 50F is flowing through the pipe. The deflection of mercury in the manometer is 1 inch. Find the change in piezometric pressure and piezometric head between the two points
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[3-1] Fluid Statics
Example
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Example
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Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

However, the absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute zero pressure

Gage and Vacuum Pressures

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

Gage and Vacuum Pressures

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

Variation of Pressure with Depth

Variation of Pressure with Depth

[3-1] Fluid Statics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

Variation of Pressure with Depth

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri

[3-1] Fluid Statics

[3] Fall 2010 Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Mohammad N. Almasri