BASICS EXAMINATION OF ISNT LEVEL III

Dr.Oruganti Prabhakar Nanyang Technological University Singapore

March 28, 2001

Contents
1 Subject General Knowledge
1.1 Technology of NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 De nitions and methodology of applying NDT . . . . . 1.1.2 Speci c and distinctive characteristics of these methods 1.1.3 Areas of NDT applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 Quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.5 Maintenance Defectology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.6 Evaluation of properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.7 Material Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.8 Purpose for Use of NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.9 NDT IN FRACTURE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

2.1 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Strength and elastic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 Material Properties testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 ORIGIN OF DISCONTINUITIES AND FAILURE MODES . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Inherent discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Process-induced discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Service-induced discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Failures in metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 Failures in nonmetallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 STATISTICAL NATURE OF DETECTING AND CHARACTERIZING DISCONTINUITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 CLASSES OF PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPERTIES OF DESIGN . 3.3 LOADING SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE 3.3.1 Loading systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 The Tensile Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Compression Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Transverse Rupture Testing . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 Shear Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.5 Fatigue Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.6 Creep Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.7 Notched Bar Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

3 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS INTRODUCTION

13

13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 15

CONTENTS
3.4.8 Bend Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.4.9 Hardness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.5 Factor of safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4 FUNDAMENTALS OF FABRICATION AND PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY 17 5 THE NATURE OF MATERIALS AND SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS 19
5.1 THE EFFECT OF ENERGY ON THE ATOM . . . . . . . 5.2 METALLIC STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 SOLIDIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Grain Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Work hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Plastic Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Cold Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 RECRYSTALLIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 Recrystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3 Grain Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 AGE HARDENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 ALLOTROPIC CHANGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.1 Approximate Equilibrium Heat-Treatment Processes 5.8.2 Austenitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.3 Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.4 Normalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.5 Spheroidizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.6 Hardening of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.7 Tempering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 CASE HARDENING OF STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9.1 Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9.2 Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 CHOOSING METALS AND ALLOYS 6.1.1 Ferrous Raw Materials . . . . . 6.2 CAST IRONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Wrought Iron . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Steel Making . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Plain Carbon Steel . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Alloy Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 RAW MATERIAL PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4.2 METAL PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4.2.1 Primary metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21

6 FERROUS METALS

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7 NONFERROUS METALS

7.1 MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

23

CONTENTS

3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 CASTING
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

Green sand molded . . . . . . . . . . . . METAL MOLDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . INVESTMENT MOULDING . . . . . . HEAT TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . THE PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS . . . . 8.6.1 SOLIDIFICATION . . . . . . . . 8.7 POURING AND FEEDING CASTING 8.7.1 Casting Design . . . . . . . . . . 8.7.2 Pouring the Gating Systems . . . 8.7.3 Risers Chill . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28

9 FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY

9.1 SAND MOLDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1 Green Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.2 Dry Sand Molds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.3 Floor and Pit Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.4 shell Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.5 METAL MOLD AND SPECIAL PROCESSES 9.1.6 Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.7 Investment Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.8 Plaster Mold Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.9 Centrifugal Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.10 Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 MELTING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 Cupola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 Crucible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3 Pot Furnances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.4 Reverberatory Furnances . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.5 Electric Arc Furnances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.6 Induction Furnances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 FOUNDARY MECHANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . .

27

CONTENTS

List of Figures

LIST OF FIGURES

List of Tables
3.1 Some typical modulus of elasticity of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3.2 Moh's Hardness Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 1

Subject General Knowledge

1.1 Technology of NDT
1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.1.5 1.1.6 1.1.7 1.1.8 1.1.9 De nitions and methodology of applying NDT Speci c and distinctive characteristics of these methods Areas of NDT applications Quality control Maintenance Defectology Evaluation of properties Material Failures Purpose for Use of NDT NDT IN FRACTURE CONTROL

10

CHAPTER 1. SUBJECT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

Chapter 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

2.1 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
2.1.1 Strength and elastic properties 2.1.2 Physical properties 2.1.3 Material Properties testing 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5

2.2 ORIGIN OF DISCONTINUITIES AND FAILURE MODES

Inherent discontinuities Process-induced discontinuities Service-induced discontinuities Failures in metallic materials Failures in nonmetallic materials

2.3 STATISTICAL NATURE OF DETECTING AND CHARACTERIZING DISCONTINUITIES

11

12

CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 3

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS INTRODUCTION

Properties of materials is understood based on the two models: 1. Chemical bonds. 2. Hard Ball Model. In the ball model the spherical atoms occupy the xed locations in a crystal structure. The arrangement of atoms in di erent planes or cross sections will determine the mechanical behaviour of materials. In the case of face centred cubic structure the (111) plane is the close packed plane. It is easy to shear this plane along (111) and not perpendicular.

3.1 CLASSES OF PROPERTIES 3.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPERTIES OF DESIGN 3.3 LOADING SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE
3.3.1 Loading systems

3.4 TESTING

3.4.1 The Tensile Test

The tensile test yields the mechanical properties of a material tested in tension. The tensile specimens have to be as per some standard. They have the following features: Gauge Length A certain portion in the main specimen (pl see Figure) is marked as gauge length. This is used to calculate the percen elongation. It should be borne in mind that the shorter the gauge length the higher the value of the percent elongation determined. A-B : Elastic Range B = Elastic Limit: Above this point plastic deformation occurs. C = Yiled point D-E = Work hardening region. E = Ultimate tensile strength. F = Fracture strength. Modulus of elasticity of all plastics is low compared to most metals. Drawn Nylon laments hasve a tensile strength of 50000 psi which is actually greater than some low strength steels. Nylon is crystalline. It is used as insulators. It is light in weight, has easily colorability and used in ber reinforced plastics. Materials with Poorly de ned Yield Point 13

14

CHAPTER 3. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS INTRODUCTION

Al alloys 10 X 106 psi Cu alloys 14 to 19 X 106psi Gray Cast Iron 12 to 19 X 106psi Steel 28 to 30106psi Cemented carbide 50 X106psi Table 3.1: Some typical modulus of elasticity of materials

Modulus of Elasticity It is also known as Young's Modulus and is represted as E. This is the slope of elastic or the initial part of the stress - strain curve . Factors that increase the yield strength of materials at room temperature

Features of the microstructure that prevent the movement of dislocations like : Grain boundary ii) Precipitates iii) alloying additions will increase the strength. At elevated temperatures the grains start sliding one over the other and hence large grains are preferable. Precipitates and alloying additions also improve the high temperature strength.
Ductility

(L P ercentageElongation = (Lf ) ; ) o ) X100 (L

o

(3.1)

Resilience and Toughness Toughness

Resilience is the area under the stress-strain curve upto the elastic limit from zero load. It represents the energy that is recoverable.

This is the total area under the stress- strain curve starting from load upto fracture. This value represnts the ability of the material to absorb energy without fracture.

True Stress-True Strain

When the tensile test is carried out the specimen is constantly deforming and the cross secional area is constantly decreasing. True stress is calculated based on the actual area of the specimen during the progress of the test. In a similar way the the strain calculated based on the actual length of the specimen during test is known as True Strain. Certain materials like are stronger in compression than in tension. For example cast iron has a compression strength that is twice its tensile strength. The compression test is carried out much the same way as the tensile testing.

3.4.2 Compression Testing

3.4.3 Transverse Rupture Testing

This test is usually employed for brittle materials the tensile testing is not very useful. So for brittle materials like concrete this test is used. 3PL (Sr ) = 2b(d2) (3.2)

3.4. TESTING
Moh's Indentation Hardness Number Hardness,kg/mm2 Talc 1 23 Gypsum 2 30 Calcite 3 100 Fluorite 4 160 Apatite 5 400 Orthoclase 6 600 Quartz 7 810 Topaz 8 1200 Corundum 9 1860 Diamond 10 7800 Table 3.2: Moh's Hardness Values Mineral

15

3.4.4 Shear Testing

This test is usually carried out for bolts and rivets. P = 2A

(3.3)

In fatigue testing the loading is cyclic. A mojority of industrial failures are caused by fatigue (about 90I stage: Cracks are initiated. II stage: The crack grows during cyclic loading. The crack surface formed during this stage appears smooth and polised. III stage: The area of cross section bearing the load is constantly reducing and ata certain stage the cross sectional area remaining connected is so much reduced the stree developed exceeds the yield stress and sudden brittle fracture occurs. The fractured surface developed during this stage shows a well de ned grain structure.

3.4.5 Fatigue Testing

3.4.6 3.4.7 3.4.8 3.4.9

material. Hardness is proportional to material properties like strength. It is di cult to convert from one value to another. Moh's test : Moh's scale of hardness varies from 1 to 10. Diamond is 10 and corundum is 9, Talc is 1. Hardness tests: 1. File test. 2. Brinell test A steel ball is impressed (10 mm in diameter) is impressed on the material whose hardness is to be determined. BHN = Load in kg/ Area of impression in mm2 . This test gives consistent results. Modern micro processor based equipment are self loading. Thin material can not be tested by this method. Rockwell Test This is also an impression test. It has 10 kg as minor load and 60, 100 or 150 kg as the major loads. Di erential depth between the minor and the major loads is then directly read by a dial gauge as a Rockwell hardness number.

Hardness is a measure of the ability of a material to resist penetration of the near surface

Creep Testing Notched Bar Testing Bend Testing Hardness Testing

16

CHAPTER 3. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS INTRODUCTION

3.5 Factor of safety

Chapter 4

FUNDAMENTALS OF FABRICATION AND PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY

4.1 RAW MATERIAL PROCESSING 4.2 METAL PROCESSING
4.2.1 Primary metals
Metal ingot production Wrought primary metals

17

18CHAPTER 4. FUNDAMENTALS OF FABRICATION AND PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 5

THE NATURE OF MATERIALS AND SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS

5.1 THE EFFECT OF ENERGY ON THE ATOM 5.2 METALLIC STRUCTURE
Microstructure is the appearance of the polished specimen under the microscope.

5.3 SOLIDIFICATION
5.3.1 Grain Size

5.4 SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS

5.4.1 Work hardening
The strength of metal is increased by plastic ow and the elastic limit is raised.

5.4.2 Plastic Deformation

This includes slip, twinning etc. Cold work makes the metal(which is strain hardening by nature) stronger and harder. In most metals dislocation processes are accompanied by discrete releases of mechanical energy called stress waves. 19

20CHAPTER 5. THE NATURE OF MATERIALS AND SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS

5.4.3 Cold Work

5.5 RECRYSTALLIZATION
5.5.1 Recovery 5.5.2 Recrystallization 5.5.3 Grain Growth
Cold worked metal has strained grains. A heat treatment can produce new and unstrained grains. This is called recrystallization. Higher the cold work it is easier to recrystallize the metal.

5.6 AGE HARDENING 5.7 ALLOTROPIC CHANGES 5.8 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
5.8.1 5.8.2 5.8.3 5.8.4 5.8.5 5.8.6 5.8.7

5.9 CASE HARDENING OF STEELS

5.9.1 Carburizing 5.9.2 Flame Hardening

Approximate Equilibrium Heat-Treatment Processes Austenitization Annealing Normalizing Spheroidizing Hardening of Steel Tempering

Chapter 6

FERROUS METALS
6.1 CHOOSING METALS AND ALLOYS
6.1.1 Ferrous Raw Materials

6.2 CAST IRONS 6.3 STEEL

6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4

Low Alloy Structural Steels Low Alloy AISI Steels Stainless Steels Tools and Die Steels Cast Steels

Wrought Iron Steel Making Plain Carbon Steel Alloy Steels

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CHAPTER 6. FERROUS METALS

Chapter 7

NONFERROUS METALS
7.1 MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

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CHAPTER 7. NONFERROUS METALS

Chapter 8

CASTING
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Green sand molded METAL MOLDS INVESTMENT MOULDING HEAT TREATMENT THE PROCESS SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS

8.6.1 SOLIDIFICATION
subsectionShrinkage

8.7 POURING AND FEEDING CASTING

8.7.1 Casting Design 8.7.2 Pouring the Gating Systems 8.7.3 Risers Chill

25

26

CHAPTER 8. CASTING

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CHAPTER 9. FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 9

FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
9.1 SAND MOLDING
9.1.1 Green Sand
Patterns Flasks Sand Compaction Cores Green Sand Advantages and Limitations

9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.1.5

9.1.6 9.1.7 9.1.8 9.1.9 9.1.10 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6

Permanent Mold Casting

Dry Sand Molds. Floor and Pit Models shell Molds METAL MOLD AND SPECIAL PROCESSES

9.2 MELTING EQUIPMENT

Cupola Crucible Pot Furnances Reverberatory Furnances Electric Arc Furnances Induction Furnances

Die Casting Investment Casting Plaster Mold Casting Centrifugal Casting Continuous Casting