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INVESTIGATION INTO THE EROSION MODELLING AND DESIGN OF TUBULAR AIR PRE-HEATER ENTRANCE ISSUES

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN POWER PLANT TECHNOLOGIES BY UGONNA CHIDERA MBAEZUE REG. NO: 201189490

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering University of Strathclyde Glasgow 2012

SUPERVISOR: DR. WILLIAM DEMPSTER

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Copyright Declaration
To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made.

This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university.

Signature:

Date:

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Acknowledgement
I would like to express sincere gratitude to my project supervisor, Dr. William Dempster for the assistance he gave me through the course of this project. Without his guidance and assistance, the progress of this thesis would have been stalled. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. William Nicholls, who endured and patiently answered all the questions that gave me cause for concern during the course of this thesis. My gratitude also goes to my course director, Dr. Matthew Stickland, for his assistance throughout the period of this postgraduate degree. To all my tutors, I thank you all for having the patience to clarify problems that I had in your modules. I also want to thank the security personnel stationed at Livingston tower who endured my late hours and movements in and out of the building at very odd hours without complaints. To Sri Harold Klemp and his crew of 973, I sincerely express my gratitude to you guys for all the help you gave me from start to finish of this degree. I could not have made it this far without your ever present presence. Thank you. Finally, I would like to say thank you to the ones I live for; my parents, brothers and sister.

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Abstract
The erosive effect of particles transported by flue gas has always been a major concern in the power generation industry. The ash particles in the flue gas tend to impinge on the wall surface of the tubes in which they are transported causing significant erosion. The intensity of this erosion is felt most at the inlet region of the tube, where due to the difference in areas between the open area and the tube inlet, the incoming flow separates from the tube wall. In the process of reattachment to the wall surface, the fluid and its entrained particles strike the tube surface at an elevated angle causing bits of the tube to be removed. A cumulative effect of this surface removal is the failure of the tube in that region. In this project, the CFD software FLUENT was used in modelling a single phase flow using the Eulerian approach. The geometry created was similar to that of a heat exchanger common in power plants. Upon validation of the flow model, the Lagrangian approach was used to specify the discrete phase representing the ash particles entrained in the single phase flow. The erosive effect of the discrete phase in tube geometries with different design modifications made at the tube inlet and the regions surrounding it was then analysed. The goal was to determine the efficacy of the design modifications in the reduction of the rate of erosion by impingement of the tube wall by ash particles. Results showed that although the modifications reduced the erosive effects of the flue gas on the tube wall, in none of the cases was it completely eliminated. It was also discovered that some of the modifications produced adverse effects in the tube which would render them unsuitable for use in erosion mitigation.

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Table of Content
INVESTIGATION INTO THE EROSION MODELLING AND DESIGN OF TUBULAR AIR PRE-HEATER ENTRANCE ISSUES .................................................................................................................................... i Copyright Declaration ............................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................. iii Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iv Table of Content ..................................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................ vii List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... ix Notations and Units: ............................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1................................................................................................................................................. 1 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................... 1 Background: ............................................................................................................................ 1 Objectives of thesis: ................................................................................................................ 3 Outline of thesis: ..................................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 2................................................................................................................................................. 5 Literature Review .................................................................................................................................... 5 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.7 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................... 5 Coal combustion: .................................................................................................................... 5 Air Pre-heaters: ....................................................................................................................... 8 Erosion: ................................................................................................................................. 10 Mechanisms of erosion: ........................................................................................................ 11 Factors influencing erosion: .................................................................................................. 13 Design to mitigate effects of erosion: ................................................................................... 17 CFD and Erosion Modelling: .................................................................................................. 19 Summary of literature review ............................................................................................... 21

Chapter 3............................................................................................................................................... 22 Methodology......................................................................................................................................... 22 3.0 3.1 3.2 Introduction: ......................................................................................................................... 22 General Overview of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): ................................................ 22 Components of ANSYS-FLUENT: ........................................................................................... 24 Basic Flow Equations:.................................................................................................... 24 Discrete Phase Tracking: ............................................................................................... 29

3.2.1 3.2.2

Conclusion: ........................................................................................................................................ 32 v|Page

Chapter 4............................................................................................................................................... 33 Single Phase Flow Validation ................................................................................................................ 33 4.0 4.1 Introduction: ......................................................................................................................... 33 Geometry Creation: .............................................................................................................. 33 Procedure: ..................................................................................................................... 33

4.1.1

Geometry: ..................................................................................................................................... 33 Meshing: ....................................................................................................................................... 37 4.2 Pre-processing:...................................................................................................................... 38 Procedure: ..................................................................................................................... 38

4.2.1

4.3 Post-processing ........................................................................................................................... 39 4.3.1. ............................................................................................................................................. 39 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 Single phase flow model validation: ............................................................................. 40 Test for mesh sensitivity: .............................................................................................. 41 Test for turbulence model sensitivity: .......................................................................... 42

Chapter 5............................................................................................................................................... 44 Results and Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 44 5.0 5.1 Introduction: ......................................................................................................................... 44 Results: .................................................................................................................................. 44 Empirical results: ........................................................................................................... 44 Simulation Data: ............................................................................................................ 46

5.1.1 5.1.2 5.2 5.3 5.4

Comparison of erosion rates by particle size, for cases studied:.......................................... 76 Suggested design modifications at the tube inlet. ............................................................... 79 Validation for coefficients of restitution............................................................................... 81

Test for coefficients of restitution sensitivity: .............................................................................. 81 Chapter 6:.............................................................................................................................................. 88 Conclusion and Recommendations: ..................................................................................................... 88 6.0 6.1 6.2 Introduction: ......................................................................................................................... 88 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................ 88 Recommendations: ............................................................................................................... 91

References ............................................................................................................................................ 92 Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................ 97 Model validation: .......................................................................................................................... 97 Appendix B .......................................................................................................................................... 101

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List of Figures
Figure 1. 1: Cross section of a pulverised power plant ........................................................................... 2 Figure 2. 1 Structural model of high volatile bituminous coal....6 Figure 2. 2 : Diagrammatic representation of ash formation during high temperature combustion of coal .......................................................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 2. 3 Tube bank of air preheater. .................................................................................................. 9 Figure 2. 4 Flow separation at tube inlet. Courtesy .............................................................................. 10 Figure 2. 5 Typical location of erosion at the inlet of air heater tube .................................................. 11 Figure 2. 6 Erosion by plastic deformation. .......................................................................................... 13

Figure 4. 1: Plain tube inlet without modifications ............................................................................... 34 Figure 4. 2: Addition of sleeve insert at tube inlet. ............................................................................... 35 Figure 4. 3: Design modification with perforated plate with the same diameter as the tube. ............... 35 Figure 4. 4: Design modification with pore plate of diameter 1.2D. .................................................... 36 Figure 4. 5: Design modification with smooth transition at the tube inlet. ........................................... 36 Figure 4. 6: Meshed Geometry in Gambit ............................................................................................ 37 Figure 4. 7: Meshed Geometry in Gambit ............................................................................................ 38 Figure 4. 8: Stream function of single phase fluid showing point of separation................................... 39 Figure 4. 9: Vector representation of single phase flow of fluid, showing recirculation zone. ............ 39 Figure 4. 10: Y-Plus value at the tube wall. .......................................................................................... 40 Figure 4. 11: Location of pressure drop as a result of contraction at tube inlet. ................................... 41

Figure 5. 1: Graph of erosion intensity relative to impingement angle................................................. 45 Figure 5. 2: Plain pre-heater tube without modifications. ..................................................................... 49 Figure 5. 3: Flow contraction or vena contracta formation at tube inlet. .............................................. 50 Figure 5. 4: Location of erosion occurrence on the tube plate and the tube wall. ................................ 50 Figure 5. 5: Graphical representation of maximum erosion location from the tube inlet ..................... 51 Figure 5. 6: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone. (a) ...................................... 51 Figure 5. 7: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone. (b) ...................................... 52 Figure 5. 8: Zone of maximum turbulence in the tube. ......................................................................... 52 Figure 5. 9: Design modification with sleeve insert at tube inlet.......................................................... 54 Figure 5. 10: Recirculation zone location at tube inlet after flow contraction. ..................................... 55 Figure 5. 11: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone at tube inlet. ...................... 55 Figure 5. 12: Recirculation zone location along tube wall after flow expansion .................................. 56 Figure 5. 13: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone after flow expansion. (b) .. 56 Figure 5. 14: Locations of erosion occurrence on the tube plate and the inserted sleeve. .................... 57 Figure 5. 15: Shear stress occurrence along inserted sleeve. ................................................................ 57 Figure 5. 16: Location of maximum turbulent intensity at tube inlet. .................................................. 58 Figure 5. 17: Graph showing drop in total pressure after flow expansion from sleeve contraction. .... 58 Figure 5. 18: Graph showing rise in static after flow expansion from sleeve contraction. ................... 59 Figure 5. 19: Design modification with perforated plate of same diameter as pre-heater tube located before tube inlet. ................................................................................................................................... 61 vii | P a g e

Figure 5.20: Vector representation of recirculation zone formed between perforated plate and tube plate. (a) ................................................................................................................................................ 61 Figure 5.21: Velocity profile of flow within tube. ................................................................................ 62 Figure 5.22: Locations of erosion occurrence on the tube plate and the inserted sleeve. ..................... 62 Figure 5. 23: Location of maximum turbulent intensity at tube between perforated plate and tube plate. ...................................................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 5.24: Wall Shear stress occurrence along perforated plate wall, tube plate and tube inlet. ....... 63 Figure 5.25: Vector representation of flow reversal at tube inlet.......................................................... 64 Figure 5.26: Magnified vector representation of recirculation zone formed between perforated plate and tube plate. ....................................................................................................................................... 64 Figure 5.27: Design modification with perforated plate of diameter 1.2D of pre-heater tube inlet...... 66 Figure 5.28: Locations of erosion occurrence along pore plate wall and tube plate. ............................ 67 Figure 5.29: Graph identifying location of maximum erosion from tube inlet. .................................... 67 Figure 5.30: Shear stress occurrence along pore plate, tube plate and tube inlet.................................. 68 Figure 5.31: Recirculation zone location between pore plate and tube plate. ....................................... 68 Figure 5. 32: Vector representation of recirculation zone between the pore plate and the tube plate. . 69 Figure 5. 33: Location of maximum turbulent intensity occurring at the tube inlet. ............................ 69 Figure 5. 34: Design modification with smooth transition introduced at pre-heater tube inlet. ........... 71 Figure 5. 35: Stream function of fluid flow at the tube inlet................................................................. 71 Figure 5. 36: Location of maximum flow velocity at tube inlet. .......................................................... 72 Figure 5. 37: Vector representation of flow velocity at tube inlet. ....................................................... 72 Figure 5. 38: Wall shear stress occurrence at tube inlet. ....................................................................... 73 Figure 5. 39: Location of erosion occurrence along tube plate and tube inlet. ..................................... 73 Figure 5. 40: Graph showing location of maximum erosion from tube inlet ........................................ 74 Figure 5. 41: Location of maximum turbulent intensity occurring at the tube inlet. ............................ 74 Figure 5. 42: Vector representation of erosion at the tube inlet. ........................................................... 75 Figure 5. 43: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 50-microns for cases considered .............. 76 Figure 5. 44: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 60-microns for cases considered .............. 77 Figure 5. 45: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 80-microns for cases considered .............. 77 Figure 5. 46: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 90-microns for cases considered .............. 78 Figure 5. 47: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 100-microns for cases considered ............ 78 Figure 5. 48: Further possibilities of design modifications to mitigate erosion. ................................... 79 Figure 5. 49: Prediction of locations of erosion occurrence by coefficients of restitution used in simulation.............................................................................................................................................. 82 Figure 5. 50: Location of maximum erosion from tube inlet ................................................................ 82 Figure 5. 51: Prediction of locations of erosion occurrence by altered coefficients of restitution. ...... 83 Figure 5. 52: Location of maximum erosion from tube inlet ................................................................ 84 Figure 5. 53: Prediction of locations of erosion occurrence by altered coefficients of restitution. ...... 85 Figure 5. 54: Location of maximum erosion from tube inlet ................................................................ 85 Figure 5. 55 : Location of maximum erosion intensity in geometry used in simulation. Geometry 1 .. 86 Figure 5. 56: Location of maximum erosion intensity for geometry with further refinement applied to the mesh. Geometry 2 ........................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 5. 57: Location of maximum erosion intensity for geometry with further refinement applied to the mesh. Geometry 3 ........................................................................................................................... 87

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List of Tables
Table 2. 1 Elemental composition of minerals found in coal fly ash. ..................................................... 7

Table 4. 1: Variations in results observed with increased mesh refinement ......................................... 42 Table 4. 2: Variations in results observed with different turbulence models. ....................................... 43

Table 5. 1: Impingement angle coefficients used in the simulation ...................................................... 47 Table 5. 2: Coefficients of restitution used in the simulation. .............................................................. 47 Table 5. 3: Erosion rate dependency on size of particle ....................................................................... 48 Table 5. 4: Erosion rate dependency on particle size ............................................................................ 53 Table 5. 5: Erosion rate dependency on particle size ............................................................................ 60 Table 5. 6: Erosion rate dependency on particle size ............................................................................ 65 Table 5. 7: Erosion rate dependency on particle size ............................................................................ 70 Table 5. 8: Coefficients of restitution applied in the simulation showing erosion rates obtained according to particle size. ..................................................................................................................... 81 Table 5. 9: Altered Coefficients of restitution applied in the simulation showing erosion rates obtained according to particle size. ..................................................................................................................... 83 Table 5. 10: Altered Coefficients of restitution applied in the simulation showing erosion rates obtained according to particle size. ....................................................................................................... 84 Table 5. 11: Geometries tested with different levels of refinement applied to the mesh ...................... 86

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Notations and Units:


Cell face area at the wall boundary Constant ( ) kg mg
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Coefficient of particle size CD Cp , Cq dh, Drag Coefficient Concentrations of pyrite & quartz Hydraulic diameter Diameter of particle Cross-diffusion term Volume of surface removed
, p

m m

gms mg/kg

Rate of erosion Coefficient of particle impact angle Function of angle of impact

External body forces Turbulent kinetic energy Generation of Vickers hardness of material surface

Hm Iq Ie KT Kp, Km,

Melting enthalpy of material Quartz abrasiveness Erosion index of ash Kinetic energy transfer as a result of impact Mechanical and physical constants of particle & material Downstream separation length Downstream separation height

cm-2 sec-2

m m

Summation of mass of particles Mass of erodent Mass of material removed

Mass flow rate of particle Static pressure of flow

g/cm3 kgf/mm2 K m/s gms/s m

Qp

Particle loading rate Material surface condition Reynolds number

R ,

Geometry of particle Radial & axial coordinates Mass of entrained particles & User-defined functions Melting temperature of material Velocity of impact of particle Volume of material removed by deformation mechanism & Dispersion of k and

Tm ,

Greek letters: , Density of particle & material Yield stress of material

Energy to extract unit volume from the component surface Angle of impingement of particle Stress tensor Gravitational body forces Molecular viscosity , Subscripts: m q Superscripts: , Particle Material Quartz Kinetic energy Velocity exponent Effective diffusivity of k and -

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Chapter 1
1.0 Introduction:
This chapter will give a brief explanation of the working principles of a power plant and the process of flue gas production. It also outlines the objectives of the thesis and concludes with a layout of the thesis with regards to chapter arrangement and content.

1.1

Background:

The recent explosion in world population has led to an increase in demand for energy and electricity. It is projected that by the year 2035, the world would require 769.8 Quadrillion Btu of energy to sustain it. This represents a significant rise from the total consumption of 504.7 Quadrillion Btu in 2008 (U.S. DOE, 2011). Of this vast quantity, fossil fuels are expected to provide over 80% of resources required for power generation (U.S. DOE, 2011). These fossil fuels come in the form of Liquids, Coal and Natural gas. In this same order, they also represent the divisions from where the largest quantities are mined and delivered. Hence the importance of coal to the future of the human race in terms of energy production and consumption cannot be taken for granted. Factors contributing to the frequent choice of coal as a source of energy include its wide availability and relative cheapness (Beer, 2000). Coal is used in the boiler/furnace of a power plant to produce thermal energy which in turn is used to generate steam to rotate turbines. The journey of coal begins in the crushing facility where it is crushed and reduced to the particular size required. From this facility, it is transported to the pulveriser where its size is further reduced to a finer form and then, it is finally transported to the burners. A mixture of both air and the macerated coal are fed into the furnace where coal is completely combusted. A significant portion of the ash produced from this process drops to the bottom of the furnace and there it is extracted while the other portion is engulfed by the flue gases and carried away. The ash entrained in the flue gas is referred to as fly-ash (Basu et al., 2000). The flue gas is usually channelled through many sections of the plant in a bid to extract as much heat energy as possible from it before it is finally exhausted into the atmosphere. Some of these sections include the air pre-heater, where the temperature of the combustion air is raised as a result of the heat exchange between the two fluids. Also included, are the super-heater and the re-heater surfaces through which the flue gas is also channelled. The energy from the flue gas is also absorbed in the economiser, where it is used to preheat the water before it enters the drum and the evaporator tubes of the boiler. Before final exhaust, the gas is passed through a gas-solid separator where
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a large quantity of the ash is collected in devices such as bag-houses or an electrostatic precipitator. To reduce its nitric oxide and sulphur dioxide content, a selective catalytic reducer and a flue gas desulfurizer is usually employed. An induced draft fan then extracts the gas and exhausts it through the stack.

Figure 1. 1: Cross section of a pulverised power plant Source: (Termuehlen & Emsperger, 2003)

Asides the environmental concern of exhausting flue gas into the atmosphere, the ash produced during the combustion process has been identified as one of the drawbacks of coal use as a fuel. This is as a result of the detrimental effects the fly-ash has on the heat exchanger tubes, as the flue gas in which it is entrained flows through the tubes. It is stated by Das et al., (2006) that up to 20% of the ash produced during coal combustion cause an erosive effect on different components of the boiler. Some of the contributing factors to this erosive effect of the fly ash include its particle size, velocity of flow, angle of impact on component surface, material surface composition and temperature of the carrier gas (Tylczak, Adler, & Rawers, 2003). Extensive research has been carried out by various scholars, to relate resultant erosion to these determinant factors and some of these results are detailed in subsequent chapters. Erosion and its location of maximum intensity is another data required from this process, to enable the engineer to properly design for and mitigate the effects (Bremhorst & Brennan,

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2011). General available data explains that this location is usually at the inlet of tubes but the exact location has hardly been explored. Another area that has received very little attention is the exploration of possible designs that could mitigate the effects of flue gas erosion at the inlet of air-pre-heater tubes. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) since its development has enabled the accurate simulation of flow for different components of which physical visualization or a physical model set-up would have been difficult, hence earning its title of being cost effective and highly efficient (Vuthaluru & Vuthaluru, 2006). Different CFD software packages are readily available and some of them include: FLUENT, PHOENICS, FG-DVC, FLASH CHAIN, CINAR, CFX etc. (Korytnyi et al., 2008). Though different, the principles of their operation are still basically governed by the use of a series of complex numerical equations to simulate the interaction between flow and its constituent particles; such that certain inferences as heat transfer, amount of material wear, efficiency of the system etc. can be drawn.

1.2

Objectives of thesis:
Investigation of erosion and causes of erosion to include a review of available literature on erosion & CFD modelling of erosion with the investigation & assessment of current designs to mitigate erosion Development of air pre-heater tube geometry in 2D using GAMBIT, simulation of single-phase gas flow in this geometry using ANSYS-FLUENT and finally, its validation Implementation of gas particles Euler-Lagrange flow models to predict erosion at the tube entrance and an analysis of the erosion rates. Investigation of the efficacy of certain designs to mitigate erosion within the preheater tube.

1.3

Outline of thesis:
Chapter 2: Literature review of past works of knowledge covering the issues of interest, a comprehensive study of erosion, erosion mechanisms and its engendering factors. Chapter 3: Detailed explanation of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) as a flow simulation tool, with a concentration in ANSYS-FLUENT. Chapter 4: Creation of the pre-heater tube geometry, simulation of the single phase flow, and its validation.
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Chapter 5: Analysis of results Chapter 6: Conclusions and recommendations.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review


2.0 Introduction:
This chapter presents a summary of research carried out by different scholars exploring erosion mechanism and its effect on different material components. It was observed that quite a lot of research documentation containing results that detail the factors that enhance the detrimental effects of erosion already exists. Some researchers however, went further to develop empirical or semi-empirical mathematical models in a bid to relate the variables which they discovered escalate erosion to the process of erosion itself. These models were meant to act as guides in accurately predicting the process by which erosion occurs in order to reduce it. This chapter begins with a general description of coal and the plant component (air preheater) in question. Erosion mechanisms and prediction models derived from experiments carried out through extensive laboratory work and simulation of the working environment is then detailed. The chapter is concluded by examining the different proposals suggested by researchers as to the modification of pipes/tubes to mitigate the effects of material wear by solid particles. It was discovered that little literature exists detailing a model, whether empirical or semiempirical to pinpoint the exact location erosion intensity is expected to be greatest in a preheater tube. The absence of sufficient research in this area forms a part of this thesis.

2.1

Coal combustion:

Basu et al., (2000) describes coal as a heterogeneous material composed of fossilized carbonaceous material with dispersed mineral inclusion (Flagan & Seinfield, 1988). Coal is produced as a result of the transformation in plant and material structure over a long period of time, usually over millions of years in the presence of high temperature and pressure present below the earth surface. As a result of this lengthy period of formation referred to as coalification, a class division in which coals can be categorised has been developed. These include in order of oldest coal: anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, lignite and peat. The physical structure of coal is basically made up of two categories of materials: organic or macerals and inorganic or mineral matter (Ward, 2002). The inorganic materials have very little significance when combusted while on the other hand, its mineral or inorganic materials are associated with the erosion, corrosion or stickiness in components
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parts producing the detrimental effects associated with coal combustion (Gupta, Wall, & Baxter, 1999) Upon heating to extract latent energy, coal particles as a result of reactions within its internal structure disintegrate into tiny pieces (Flagan & Friedlander, 1978). Its combustion is triggered by the reaction of the volatile materials forming part of the coals chemical structure at high temperatures. Thermal stresses develop within its structure and a build-up of these stresses eventually lead to the breakdown of the pulverised coal chunk. Flagan & Seinfield (1988), explain that two mechanisms exist through which ash is formed during coal combustion. In the first mechanism, as carbon within the coal combusts, constituent mineral compounds upon contact bond to form large ash clusters. High temperatures emanating from the coal would lead to a breakdown of these clusters into globules of ash which settle on the shell of the char. The char then further combusts leading to the formation of what is referred to as residue ash. Further breakdown of the residual ash at high temperatures would lead to the transformation in its physical structure from its round structure, to one of a spherical nature. These new ash particles are known as cenospheres and their sizes range from a few micrometres, to several micrometres. In the second mechanism of ash formation, only a small percentage (1%) (Flagan & Seinfield, 1988) of the ash melts as a result of high temperatures. A fraction of the melted ash then coalesces to form minute particles. The size diameter of these particles increase as additional volatilized ash particles condense on its surface.

Figure 2. 1 Structural model of high volatile bituminous coal Source: (Shinn, 1984)

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Figure 2. 2 : Diagrammatic representation of ash formation during high temperature combustion of coal Courtesy (Flagan & Seinfield, 1988) Table 2. 1 Elemental composition of minerals found in coal fly ash.

Element Silicon Aluminium Iron Titanium Phosphorous Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Sulphur Manganese Total
Courtesy (Das et al., 2006)

Compound in ash Silica (SiO2) Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Titanium oxide (TiO2) Phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5) Calcium oxide (CaO) Magnesium oxide (MgO) Sodium oxide (Na2O) Potassium oxide (K2O) Sulphur (S) Manganese oxide (MnO) SiO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3

% composition 55.20 30.80 3.67 1.61 0.35 5.01 1.40 0.20 0.73 0.20 0.03 89.67

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2.2

Air Pre-heaters:

An air pre-heater usually made of ductile material can be described as a heat exchanger designed to facilitate the transfer of heat energy between flue gases and incoming combustion air. They may be designed in any of the following forms as noted by Kakac & Liu (2002): i. Regenerativetype: are air pre-heaters designed for continuous heating operations such that the heating matrix alternates between the gases where heat transfer is required. They are further sub-divided into two; a. Rotating plate type: in this design, the component rotor is installed with the plate heating surfaces and contained by box housing. As the rotor spins, the plates are exposed to both the flue gas and the incoming combustion air in an alternating cycle. The design allows for the transfer of heat energy to the plate surface when exposed to the flue gases and then a final transfer of the stored heat energy to the incoming air.
b. Stationary plate type: in this design, the plates are fixed while the air/gas

sections circle around it. Its working principle is similar to that of the rotating plate. Component parts include a stator, seal system and an air hood (Basu Kefa, & Jestin, 2000). ii. Recuperative-type: in these air pre-heaters, heat transfer is carried out across plates or the tube walls. They have neither rotating nor moving components, and are usually larger that the regenerative types (Basu Kefa, & Jestin, 2000). Their weights double that of the regenerative type and occupy about nine times the volume of its counterpart. They are further subdivided into two; a. Tubulartype: For this air heater type, its design is such that the hot flue gas streams in the longitudinal direction within the tubes while the combustion air flows in the crosswise direction. The flue gases make a single pass through the tubes but the combustion air is required to make a number of passes before it exits the heat exchanger. An increase in its number of passes, usually results in a lower temperature difference between the two fluids and also a drop in combustion air velocity as a result of the resistance presented by the increased number of pipes. The arrangement of multiple passes is common in large capacity boilers (Basu Kefa, & Jestin, 2000). Tubular-type air pre-heater geometries constitute the major part of this thesis.

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Figure 2. 3 Tube bank of air preheater.

b. Plate-type: in this arrangement, parallel-lined plates are used to channel fluid flow, and replace the use of pipes/tubes. iii. Heat pipe.

In coal fired power plants, a mixture of air and macerated coal pieces is fed into the furnace to generate heat energy which is absorbed through radiation by the evaporator tubes lining the furnace surface. Upon combustion, some of the ash produced by the coal drops to the bottom and is extracted while the flue gas bearing the remainder of the ash begins its journey towards the plant stack. Along the way, the entrained ash referred to as fly ash1 is deposited on plant components such as the walls, pipe surfaces etc. To increase plant efficiency, the flue gas usually still at a very high temperature is passed through several types of heat exchangers of which one is the air pre-heater where it mixes with the incoming combustion air and in the process transfers heat to it. These air pre-heaters are usually in the form of gas-in/air-over configuration where the flue gas flows inside the tubes while air flows over it. As the flue gas flows from the large open area into the constricted and smaller area of the preheater tube inlet, a pressure drop occurs at the tube entrance which is followed by a shift in flow pattern from an axial pattern to one of a cross-patterned nature (Bremhorst & Lai, 1979). The separation in flow pattern usually stems from flow entering the tube at an angle larger than the angle of the tube inlet axis (Bremhorst & Brennan, 2011). Takahashi & Horiuchi (1969) examined the hydrodynamic interaction between tube inlets and fluids approaching it.
1

The term fly ash first appeared in Journal Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute in 1937 (www.undeerc.org).

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Their experiments showed that at the inlet of water bearing pipes of high pressured feed water heaters, two strong eddies are formed which transformed the nature of the fluid flow to one of a highly turbulent nature. At the other end the tube outlet, the flow turbulence had disappeared containing no vortex. The separation of the incoming flow coupled with the increased acceleration of the flow, would lead to the entrained fly-ash particles striking the tube wall at an angle causing gradual surface removal. A build-up of this would ultimately lead to the complete failure of the tube in that region (Basu Kefa, & Jestin, 2000).

Figure 2. 4 Flow separation at tube inlet. Courtesy Source: (Bremhorst & Lai. 1979)

2.3

Erosion:

Basu, Kefa, & Jestin, (2000) describes erosion as the wear of any solid plane as a result of repeated impingement by hard particles while Hutchings & Winter (1974) describe erosion as the resultant detrimental effect of minute particles which are entrained in a flowing fluid striking a material surface and leading to its wear by abrasion. The detrimental effects of erosion, is felt across all industries where fluid is transported in confined conduits such as pipes or tubes. This abrasion generally leads to the failure of components and the loss of millions in revenue each year, as plants have to be shut down for either maintenance or replacement purposes. The effects of erosion are so prominent that the DOE (Materials & Components, 1998), recognised erosion by fly-ash present in flue gas as the second most important cause of tube failures in power plants and Basu, Kefa, & Jestin, (2000) concur that in certain instances, one-third of all tube failures in power plants could be traced to fly-ash erosion.

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Figure 2. 5 Typical location of erosion at the inlet of air heater tube

2.4

Mechanisms of erosion:

Das et al., (2006), explains that there are 3 major mechanisms by which metal surface removal occurs: 1. Cutting wear mechanism: in which particles of ash impinge the material surface at an acute angle with a velocity much more than that required for the material surface to be penetrated. Coupled with the velocity, is the transfer of heat energy from the particle to the material surface upon impact leading to an increase in shear strain at that location. When strain build-up surpasses the elastic strain boundary of the material, the ash particle penetrates the material surface removing a portion of it. Raask (1969) explains that this mechanism is predominant in ductile materials as the action of cutting depends on how ductile the impinging surface is. Kragelsky et al., (1982) developed an erosion model to this effect but it was modified by Das et al., (2006) to produce an erosion model based on the cutting action of the ash- particles:

2.1

Bitter (1963) also observed that erosion wear occurred by two mechanisms, by the deformation of the component surface as a result of repeated impact by the solid particles and by an acerbic attack of the flow constituent particles. He derived an erosion prediction model for wear by deformation based on the kinetic energy transferred on impact.

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2.2 2. Plastic deformation mechanism: In this mechanism, wear occurs as a result of the combined effects of extrusion and forging. Upon impingement by ash particles, highly strained lip-shaped (Hutchings & Winter, 1974) forms are developed by the surface which is susceptible to easy removal by particles either by adhesion to the ash particles, or through a process of extrusion between the particle and the material surface. Adiabatic shear heating is generated in the vicinity of the impact and just below the material surface, a work hardened layer is formed. This layer develops owing to the fact that velocity of ash particle impact is much more than required to strain the surface. When the surface of the component is completely covered by these distorted forms and the work hardened layer attains a level of stability and appreciable thickness, erosion sets in. Maximum erosion occurs as the work hardened layer functions as an anvil hence increasing the ease with which the impinging particles extrude-forge the surface of the material. Sheldon & Kanhere (1972) developed a model relating the indentation formed by a surface upon impingement by a particle: 2.3 Das et al., (2006) also proposed an erosion prediction model:

2.4

Levy (1986) examined the surface of an eroded metal using high magnification electron scanning microscope and discovered that the eroded surface bore a close resemblance to that of a surface which had experienced a combined effect of extrusion and forging. The visual examination corroborates the proposition by Raask (1969) that for ductile materials, wear occurred by a combination of both plastic deformation & cutting while for brittle materials, erosion occurred predominantly by the action of plastic deformation.

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Figure 2. 6 Erosion by plastic deformation. Source: Levy (1986)

3. Erosion as a function of temperature: occurs as a combined effort of both plastic and cutting wear. Sheldon & Kanhere (1972), Sheldon et al., (1977) Sheldon et al., (1977), Fan et al., (1990) and Jun & Tabakoff, (1994), Das et al., (2006) all document an erosion rate, based on this mechanism.

2.5

The temperature function was developed into a polynomial equation, relating it to the yield stress of the different materials considered by (Lee et al.,1999).

2.5

Factors influencing erosion:

The intensity of erosion of a material surface is dependent on many factors surrounding the impinging particle. Some of these factors are discussed: 1. Particle impingement velocity: plays an important role in deciding the extent to which a material surface is deformed. The erosion rate (E) was proposed by Basu, Kefa, & Jestin, (2000) to be directly related to velocity at an exponent; for ductile components, and = 2 - 4 for brittle components.
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= 2.3 - 2.7

2.6 Researchers after considerable experiments have attributed different constants to the value of but a common trend is found in their discoveries; they agree that the

particles travel at a different velocity from the flow in which they are entrained. Finnie (1960) asides from being one of the pioneers in the field of prediction of erosion models also recognized difficulties that might hinder the correct prediction of this process, the difficulty of accurately predicting entrained particle velocity. In his experiments, he explored erosion mechanism on both brittle and ductile materials. These he notes are not without difficulties in parameter identification which he identifies before building a mathematical model based on the cutting effect of a single grain. Finnie scaled his calculated values up and then compared them with values obtained experimentally for cutting wear of multiple grains acting on a surface. He found a close relationship between the two. In conclusion, he infers that the amount of surface wear of a material is related to the velocity conditions of flow of the fluid with respect to its constituent particles as well as the nature of the impingement surface and its reaction when hit by the abrasive particles. He based this upon the observation that surfaces bruised by solid particles were more likely to cause an increase in turbulence of the fluid flow, and therefore invariably increase the speed of surface removal. He verifies this theory for ductile materials, but warns that it does not hold true for brittle materials. Raask (1969) after due examination of the different factors (angle of impact, abrasiveness of ash, temperature of metal surface, etc.) that contribute to erosion intensity, also agreed that velocity of flow was the most important parameter to consider when designing to mitigate erosion. 2. Flow conditions: the relationship between amount of surface removal and condition of flow was studied by Dosanjh & Humphrey, (1985). Their experiment results showed that an increase in flow turbulence had an inverse relationship with the rate at which erosion occurred. Basu, Kefa, & Jestin, (2000) explains that this phenomenon could be partially attributed to the decrease in particle impact speed and flux in relation to the material surface, with increase in turbulence of the gas phase. 3. Particle impingement angle: Haller, (1939) examined the influence of wear on metal surfaces and discovered upon examination of his specimen surfaces after impact that for high impact angles, a flat and distorted surface was formed while for low impingement angles, a grazed and less distorted surface was formed. His conclusion

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was that erosion could only be as a result of the angle of particle impact. Wellinger (1949) also experimented with a view to determining the influence impact angle had on erosion mechanism. His results showed that erosion as a function of impingement angle had a more severe effect at lower angles for low carbon steel which is soft and ductile when compared to hardened high-carbon steel which is brittle. At high impingement angles, he observed that the reverse occurred. His results also showed that the mechanical properties of the component played a huge part in its resistance to erosion. Nagarajan et al., (2009) developed an erosion model predicting with an accuracy of >90%, the dependence of erosion on fly-ash impact angle. Their report presents an experiment which used 3 types of low-alloy steels, 3 ash samples obtained from power stations, impingement angles of 150, 300 & 450 and a velocity of flow varied by using compressed air pressure which was then measured using the rotatingdouble-disk technique. Using High Level Analysis (HLA), their results showed and verified past well documented experimental data that the rate of erosion was directly related to increased particle flow velocity, but that as a function of impingement angle, the rate of erosion increased up to a certain value then decreased or flattened out. In addition, they documented other factors which might affect the rate of erosion such as the effect of particle size where they recorded a direct relationship between erosion rate and particle size up to a size of 120m, and a levelling effect afterwards. Mechanical properties of the test samples such as hardness and composition were found to play a minor role in material erosion when compared to the surface condition of the material (roughness) which was a major decider in the susceptibility of the material to erosion. With all the data gathered and sorted, a mathematical model was developed, which when they compared to values measured in real life situations, showed an accuracy of >90%. They however note that these results are only obtainable at room temperature conditions in which the experiments were conducted and for elevated temperatures, the results would be quite different.

2.7

For Oka et al., (1997) the approach was to test the effect of varied impingement angles on rate of erosion for different materials which included metals, ceramics and plastics. For their experiments, a sand blast rig was used at low impingement angles
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and observations suggested that striking velocity of particles and rate of surface removal were directly related while erosion rates varied for different classes of metal at lower angles of impingement. Their erosion model was derived based on trigonometric functions of both impingement angle and the materials hardness. They also discovered that the hardness of the components played a role in its erosion. For example, softer materials experienced more erosion at shallower angles than their tougher counterparts. 2.8 Mbabazi, et al., (2004) also discovered that erosion intensity attained a maximum value at angles between 250 & 300 for mild steel tubes and afterwards the rate fell sharply. 4. Ash particle size: Nagarajan et al., (2009), investigated the influence of particle size on erosion and observed that erosion rose steadily as particle size increased towards 120m. Sizes larger than 120m produced a constant value in the plot. Basu, Kefa, & Jestin, (2000), also investigated this factor, and noted that erosion rates increased steadily for particle sizes between 10m and 100m, but that above this value, volume of material removed was independent of the size of the impinging particles. 5. Temperature of flue gas: when a particle impinges upon a surface at a high velocity, heat energy is transferred form the particle to the material surface. This would usually result in the intermittent melting and re-solidification of the extruded portion. Upon further impact, the extruded portion is easily removed by the impinging particle. Jennings et al., (1976) investigated the consequence of transfer of heat energy as a result of impact by dust particles which results in the melting of the impacted surface. They were able to develop a mathematical model for predicting erosion mechanism based on the heat energy transferred between the particle and the material surface as they interacted. The model was developed using dimensional analysis obtained from an experiment which employed alloys (aluminium, beryllium copper and titanium) and stainless steels as the material surfaces and dust samples (2 specimens with angular shaped specks and the other specimen spherically shaped). ZT =

2.9 2.10

Y= G1/3/R1/3KTTmHm

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Xie & Walsh (1995) also explored the influence of nitrogen and oxygen concentrations in conjunction with temperature on the rate of erosion. Their results showed that low erosion rates were directly related to low temperatures irrespective of oxygen concentrations at that temperature. They were also able to show that erosion progressed slowly at greatly oxidized high temperature, with erosion rates being highest at low oxygen concentrations in the presence of high temperatures. Where the incident ash particles were accelerated by a nitrogen stream jet, they observed that metal wear steadily increased with increasing temperature. Experiment temperature ranges, were between 4500K and 6000K. Yong & Ruff (1977) however proffered the theory that high temperatures could lessen the effects of erosion as a result of increase in ductility of the material. This would cause the impinging particles to embed themselves in its surface hence providing a form of surface protection for the component. Sense can be seen in this theory as observations by Raask (1969) suggest that erosion intensity was observed only in plants that had little or no deposit. 6. Abrasiveness of ash content: as mentioned earlier, the organic contents of coal hardly contribute to its erosive effects. Hence the detrimental effects of coal can be traced to its inorganic material make up. Borio & Levasseur, (1984) note that the influence of quartz and its size distribution could be the most damaging characteristic of coal. A mathematical relationship was developed by (DOE, Materials & Components, 1992), to relate the ash quartz and pyrite content to the abrasiveness expected from the coal. Ic = [Cq + (0.2 to 0.5) Cp] Iq 2.11

2.6

Design to mitigate effects of erosion:

To properly design for erosion mitigation, the location at which its intensity is maximum, needs to be predicted with near accuracy. A few researchers have taken steps beyond erosion prediction modelling, to propose where the effect of erosion is expected to be greatest in a fluid bearing tube. For example, Bremhorst & Lai (1979), utilized flow visualization and velocity distribution studies to determine the flow characteristics obtained at the inlet of shell and tube heat exchangers. From their studies, they were able to describe this flow as crosspatterned in nature and that its intensity was greatest a location approximately 3-4D from the pipe inlet, where D represents the diameter of the pipe. With reference to size of particles,
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they were able to prove that particles less than 1mm in diameter were likely to separate from the flow and impinge directly on the pipe walls. Tucker (1967) also studied flow patterns obtained at the inlet of condensers and observed that erosion was most intense at a distance 2in from the tube inlet and could be attributed to the cross flow pattern generated at the pipe inlet. In his experiments, he also discovered that cross flow of fluids led to flow separation at the tube inlets which subsequently led to particle impingement. He suggested tube modifications such as the attachment of bell-mouths to the pipe inlets to eliminate pressure drops responsible for generating cross flows at the tube inlets. Other modifications include; the attachment of a deflector plate in the cooling water feed pipe. Basu, Kefa, & Jestin, (2000) specifically studied the mechanisms of erosion in air pre-heater tubes. They worked with the erosion model proposed by (CBSC, 1973) and deduced that the location of maximum wear occurred at the inlet, at a point; X= 2d, where d is the pipe diameter They went ahead to prescribe design modifications at the pre-heater tube inlet region to reduce the rate at which this area is attacked; these measures were derived from conclusions that particle velocity was the most influential factor in the determining the rate at which metal surfaces are eroded. Some of the modifications include; the attachment of sleeve tubes 2-4d long, at pipe entrances such that the sleeves are eroded rather than the pipe itself. The use of a pore plate placed at about 0.26d from the tube inlet with diameter 1.2d; of which its function is to force gas contraction in order to reduce swirl at the tube inlet. Others include a smooth transition at the inlet of the tube, and the use of a perforated plate of same diameter as the tube, such that flow contraction occurs between the plate and a normalized axial flow enters the tube. Fan et al., (2001) also explored design enhancements of pipe bends to mitigate the resulting erosion caused by incoming gas streams. They discovered that the attachment of fins to the outer side surface of the pipe bend reduced the amount of material eroded by a significant value. Fan et al., (1999) also proposed design modification to straight pipes to reduce the velocity of incoming gas streams. They attached fins to both sides of the tube with a view to reducing wall-particle interaction by reducing gas flow which consequently changes the constituent particle trajectory. Although this method is riddled with complexities such as increasing the weight and length of the pipe and causing a possible reduction in heat transfer efficiency (especially for heat exchangers), they conclude that the final decision would rest with the designer as to how to balance these effects while still achieving optimised conditions. Lai & Bremhorst (1979) carried out the most extensive studies in the design of
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parts with which the tube inlet and its surrounding regions are modified in order to mitigate erosion. They examined the efficacy of flow rectification devices such as perforated plates, deflector plates or fences and a prismatic flow corrector in the mitigation of erosion. These devices were designed with different specifications and placed at different locations from the tube inlet. They came to the conclusion that the perforated plated device produced the best and most desirable results.

2.7

CFD and Erosion Modelling:

The development of fluid simulation software computational fluid dynamics CFD has greatly enhanced the ease with which experiments are carried out. Real life situations can now be replicated without the rigours of acquiring and setting up equipment to simulate operation conditions. Results obtained from these computer simulations are also found to have good accuracy in their result prediction. Hence in recent years, they have gained popularity in their use to model interaction between components and their constituent elements. Researchers in the field of erosion have greatly utilized this benefit to revalidate empirical models developed through physical experiments and data collection by past researchers. For example, Wang & Yang (2008) examined the theory that observed erosion effects varied for both ductile and brittle materials with the use of Finite Element Modelling (FEM). They discovered that for ductile materials, erosion occurred as a result of micro-cutting and micro-ploughing of the surface by the abrasive particles; while for brittle components a transfer of energy upon impact from the particles to the component surface was the source of crack generation and subsequent spread. This further strengthens observations made through physical experiments. They developed a Finite Element model using the CFD software code ANSYS/LS-DYNA and the erosion models proposed by (Johnson & Cook, 1983) and

(Johnson & Holmiquist,1999). Hence with Finite Element Analysis (FEA), they were able to study the effects obtained when flow conditions and impingement angle were varied and their results tallied with those achieved through experimental means. Their experiments produced results which examined and correctly predicted the behaviour of both ductile and brittle materials in an erosive environment. Das et al. (2006) developed an erosion model with a computer code EROSIM-1 as a predictive tool for studying erosion mechanisms on metal surfaces. With this code, they explored the effects of varying temperature conditions on the tensile properties of the metal and its ability to render a metal surface susceptible to erosion. Their observations suggested that under elevated temperature conditions and at angles less than 900, metal surface erosion increased considerably and at high impingement angles,
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temperature had no significant effect. This signified that steels exhibit characteristics typical of ductile materials at high temperatures. They calibrated their model by juxtaposing the results it produced with those obtained experimentally by other researchers. These results were found to agree and hence proved the capability of their code to accurately predict erosion mechanisms at room and elevated temperatures. Dhamangaonkar et al., (2011) utilized the Cold Air Velocity Test (CAVT) technique to determine the velocity of flow in different sections of the boiler in order to correctly predict erosion occurrence. Fly-ash velocity can be directly linked to the velocity of the flue gas in which it is entrenched and although the two components might have different velocities, a correlation could still be established between the two. They used the CFD code FLUENT to simulate the CAVT in the boiler for different zones, and found that the results were in appreciable agreement with a deviation of 23%. Wallace et al., (2004) in an attempt to determine the accuracy to which CFD models could predict erosion, also discovered that for choke valves which were their material specimens, material wear was most intense at the entrance. This intensity dwindled as length increased within the choke as rightly predicted by (Bremhorst & Lai, 1979). Habib et al., (2005) examined factors that engender erosion at the tube inlet region of shell and tube heat exchangers. Using the Langrangian model to predict particle velocity and the empirical erosion equations proposed by Wallace., (2000), their results showed that particle size and velocity magnitude escalated erosion at the entrance of tubes. When the particle sizes were large and flowed at low velocities, the erosion intensity was minimal as eddies created at the tube entrances by pressure drops at the tube inlet were too low to increase particle acceleration. Lee et al., (2000), developed a predictive model to compare the Eulerian approach of modelling flow conditions, to the commonly used Lagrangian method. They compared parameters such as impact velocity, impact angle and particulate concentration for both approaches, and concluded that the Euler method produced slightly more accurate results than the Lagrangian method. Model results, also proved that the Eulerian approach required much less data input to achieve even better results than the Lagrangian method. They calibrated their results with experimental results obtained by Bauver et al., (1984) and found them to be in sound agreement. Mohanarangam et al., (2007), also compares the efficiency of the Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches to fluid modelling when they numerically simulated a turbulent gas-particle flow in a 900 bend pipe. The results obtained for both models, were calibrated against experimental results produced by (Kliafas & Holt, 1987); while the Eulerian model showed good agreement with the yardstick data, the

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Lagrangian model showed considerable discrepancies, requiring more computational mesh and time. They recommend that for complex flows, the Eulerian model should be employed.

2.7

Summary of literature review

Literature studied showed that quite a lot of time and resources has been spent researching and detailing erosive effects in different components of the boiler. Focus has been more on verification of empirical models and detailing factors that could encourage pipe degradation by particle impingement. A few researchers have indicated that the inlet of pipes suffers most from particle impingement effects, while even fewer have been able to indicate the exact location it is to be expected. Research has also been limited in the area of design of parts used in the modification of tubes, whether at the inlet or the surrounding regions to mitigate the erosive effects of the fly-ash particles. CFD as a simulation tool has been proven to show sensible accuracy and efficacy in the execution of fluid flow scenarios or models in order to study them. This is evident in the pivotal roles it has played in several empirical formulae validations.

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Chapter 3 Methodology
3.0 Introduction:
This chapter presents an in-depth description of the principles governing the equations employed in the analysis of erosion by flue gas flow in air pre-heater tubes using the CFD package ANSYS-FLUENT. The rationale behind the selection of the simulation models, are also outlined.

3.1

General Overview of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD):

The influence of fluid and its dynamics in our everyday lives can hardly be ignored from the aerodynamics generated when we drive our cars, to the ventilation flow of our cooling systems; it is obvious that we live in a fluid world. Fluid dynamics covers all applications that involve fluid flow or heat transfer. It can then be correctly said that the principles of fluid dynamics govern all aspects of product manufacture intended for human use. Therefore the accurate knowledge of the fluid dynamics involved in any system or component would ensure that the component or system is designed to perform at optimal efficiency. To achieve this, a high degree of complexity both in design and functionality has to be introduced and this invariably introduces an equal degree of complexity in the fluid dynamics of the component or system. Test runs on potential prototypes or product efficiency modelling is usually hindered by the need to set up physical models to visualize or obtain accurate results which would mean accurately modelling the fluid flow involved. Since the development computational fluid dynamics (CFD), product design, operation and analysis have all become easily obtainable as a result of the use of a virtual simulation platform. Problems involving complex motion requiring transient analysis e.g. the internal components of an engine, phase change as a result of cooling or heating and multi-physics phenomenon such as the interaction of fluids and its constituent elements are now easily solved and accurate results obtained without the need for the set-up of physical structures. CFD has thus been able to save the designer costs usually incurred during the design/production life of a component or system. CFD packages although numerous and commercially available, all have an underlying principle which is the use of mathematical equations to model transport phenomenon in

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complex shapes or geometries. This process is accomplished in a particular order which is described below: Pre-processing: enables the designer to reproduce geometry similar to that of interest. It provides an option of either a 2-D or 3-D structure. Meshes are also generated and deployed in the pre-processor interface. Meshes used, are classified into two categories, namely: o Structured mesh o Unstructured mesh. Variables related to the model geometry such as its boundary conditions and their numerical parameters are all produced from the pre-processor interface. The boundary conditions may involve laminar or turbulent types of flow and FLUENT lists models which govern them. If flow involves particle tracking (particles entrenched in a fluid) or multiphase flows, the desired governing equations are specified. Solver: once geometry, boundary and flow conditions are specified, it is solved. The function of the solver is to solve the equations in each of the mesh grids, hence ensuring that the model is harmonised with its boundary conditions. This solution follows a technique called Discretisation, and is carried out by either of the following methods: o Finite Difference Method (FDM): utilizes the Taylor series expansions (Smith G.D., 1985) to solve complex flow equations. This is achieved by dividing the flow region into small elements and a variable for the dependent quantity is assumed. Different numerical analysis procedures (Zienkiewicz & Taylor, 1989) are then used to develop expressions for the first and second order derivatives of the sought variable. This value is computed for each element on the meshed surface of the geometry, after which all the equations are gathered and solved for. o Finite Volume Method (FVM): splits the flow region into different control volumes which were generated by the mesh function. Conservation equations are applied and solved by method of integration in each volume (Patankar, 1980) and (Versteeg & Malalasekera, 1995). ANSYS-FLUENT, utilizes this discretization technique in its numerical analysis. o Finite Element Method:
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Post-processing: includes the section of CFD dedicated to the analysis of generated results. Visual representation in the form of graphs, contour plots etc. are usually generated from the post-processor which enable easy interpretation of data.

A typical CFD package used in this thesis is called ANSYS-Workbench which comprises of a host of simulation packages which include Analysis systems, Component systems, Custom systems and Design exploration. These have their respective sub-divisions designed to model and analyse various conditions in different components. One of its design suites FLUENT, is the fluid flow package used for this analysis.

3.2

Components of ANSYS-FLUENT:

As stated earlier, this thesis employs the use of the CFD software ANSYS-FLUENT which is one of the many design suites available in ANSYS-WORKBENCH. A description of the mathematical equations governing its fluid flow modelling and analysis will be described. This will be done, with a bias for the topic of interest which is the analysis of erosion effects in air pre-heater tubes. 3.2.1 Basic Flow Equations: The first solution of ANSYS-FLUENT is directed towards resolving the conservation equations for mass and momentum for all flows. This is done regardless of the nature of flow whether laminar or turbulent. Additional equations are then provided to cater for such conditions as heat transfer, particle tracking, turbulence etc. within the fluid flow. Mass conservation equation: 3.1

Eqn. above describes the general equation of mass conservation used to solve incompressible flows as well as compressible flows. Continuity equation for 2D axisymmetric geometry is defined by: 3.2

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Conservation of momentum equations, specifically for non-accelerating frames of reference is represented by the following equation: 3.3

Equation of stress tensor is represented by: = * + 3.4

Represent molecular viscosity, I represents unit tensor. 3.2.1.1 Turbulence flow model: ANSYS-FLUENT provides a series of turbulence models meant to assist the designer correctly represent the fluctuations in velocity prevalent in turbulent or laminar flows. Turbulence models available were designed based on the physics governing the flow, degree of accuracy desired, computational power at the designers disposal, available time needed for result production and the stipulated guidelines for the resolution of a specific type of problem. Examples of some of the models provided are listed below: Spalart-Allmaras model. k- models, further sub-divided into the following sub-models o Standard k- model o Renormalization-group (RNG) k- model o Realizable k- model k- models o Standard k- model o Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k- model Transition k-kl-w model Transition SST model model (add-on) Reynolds Stress Models (RSM) o Linear pressure-strain RSM model o Quadratic pressure-strain RSM model o Low-Re stress-omega RSM model Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) model, which also covers the RANS models o Spalart-Allmaras RANS model
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o Realizable k- RANS model o SST k-w RANS model Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model, further divided into the following sub-models o Smagorinsky-Lilly subgrid-scale model o WALE subgrid-scale model o Dynamic Smargorinsky model o Kinetic-energy transport subgrid-scale model. The turbulence model used in this simulation and analysis was selected from the k- model group with Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k- model being preferred over the Standard version. This was done in accordance with the stipulated guidelines of the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) for the accurate prediction of the extent of pressure drop across tube contractions. Pressure drop prediction across the tube inlet was chosen as a yardstick to validate the single-phase flow model. The equations involved in the depiction of turbulence in fluid flow when the SST k- model is used is further described in detail below The k- turbulence model: consists of the Standard and the Shear-Stress Transport (SST) turbulence models. The Standard version of the model is based on the same principles as the Wilcox k- model (Wilcox, 1998) which accounts for low-Reynolds number effects, compressibility and shear flow spreading. Its suitability for modelling wall-bounded flows is based on its accuracy in predicting free shear flows spreading rates with similar results obtained in the measurement of far wakes, mixing layers, plane, round and radial jets. The Shear Stress Transport version was developed by Menter (1994) and is a more accurate version of the two turbulence models, producing better accuracy for near-wall region models. This accuracy is as a result of the incorporation or the modification of the standard model, to include: A damped cross-diffusion derivative term in the -equation. Different model constants Modification of the turbulent viscosity, to recognise turbulent shear stress transportation. Addition of an appropriate blending function to increase model stability in near-wall and far-field regions. Cross diffusion term incorporation in the -equation.
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k- (SST ) transport models. ( and ( ) 3.6 ) 3.5

Equation for the effective diffusivity is given as: 3.7

3.8 and represent the turbulent Prandtl numbers for the k and constants respectively. 3.9

S accounts for the strain rate magnitude, and 3.10

3.11

F1 & F2 denote the blending functions, and are given as: 3.11a * ( ) +

3.11b

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*(

)+

is the distance to the next surface, while diffusion term. For the turbulence production;

represents the positive portion of the cross-

, represents the turbulence kinetic energy , represents the production

3.12

3.13 The equations above, are represented differently in the Standard model, and form part of the dissimilarities between the two models. For turbulence dissipation, 3.14 3.15 For Cross-Diffusion equation, 3.16 Model constants are represented by, = 1.176, , = 1.0, , ,

3.2.1.2 Flow solvers: The equation solvers used by ANSYS-FLUENT flow analysis are divided into two namely: i. ii. The Pressure-based solver; The Density-based solver.

The two numerical approaches have a few similarities which include; the solution of the velocity field from the momentum equation, use of a comparable discretization method

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(finite-volume) and use of the control-volume-based method, to resolve integral equations of mass and momentum conservation, energy and other scalar quantities e.g. turbulence. This is usually achieved by: a. Dividing the flow region into distinct control volumes using a computational grid. b. Integration of equations each volume, thereby building algebraic equations to represent the discrete dependent unknowns e.g. temperature, velocity etc. c. Linearization of the discretized equations and solving the resulting equations to yield new values of the dependent variables. Dissimilarities exist between both methods, as though the finite-volume process is common to both methods, procedures for discretized equation linearization and solutions are completely different. Also for the case of the density-based solver, a continuity equation is used to derive solutions for the density field, while equation of state, is used to determine the pressure field. 3.2.2 Discrete Phase Tracking: In the analysis of two-phase flows especially one in which one of the phases is solid, FLUENT provides an easy means to create the solid phase, inject it into the second phase be it liquid or gas, and finally track the trajectory of the solid through the second phase. This is achieved through either the Euler-Lagrange or the Euler-Euler numerical approaches. For this simulation, the Euler-Lagrange approach was used, where the single-phase was simulated using the Euler approach and then the discrete phase comprising the solid ash particles was created using the Lagrange approach. The building blocks of the Euler-Lagrange numerical equations are presented below: 3.2.2.1 Euler-Lagrange This method can also be referred to as the Lagrangian discrete phase model, where Navier-Stokes equations are used to solve the equations of flow of the carrier fluid. The fluid is treated as a continuum, while the mass, momentum and energy of its constituent particles are tracked within this continuum. The projectile of each particle is calculated at specific intervals making it suitable for the analysis of this simulation. In this modelling approach, assumption is made that the dispersed phase occupies a low volume fraction as compared to the continuous phase providing a means for easy individual tracking of the particulate phase at specific intervals.

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Navier-Stokes particle motion equations: Particle projectile prediction is achieved by balancing the forces acting on the particles in the fluid. This is referred to as force balance (Fluent guide, 2009), and it balances particle inertia with the fluid forces acting on it. ( ) 3.17

, represents an added acceleration, as particle acceleration is also affected by the motion of the fluid, the ( ) term signifies drag force/unit mass of particle, where 3.18

,
| = |

3.19

3.2.2.2 Particle Erosion and Accretion theory: FLUENT caters for this phenomenon, with the equation:

* (

3.20 +) + ( )

3.21

In the simulation, the erosion model given by FLUENT eqn. 3.20, was modified using Tabakoffs erosion model (Basu. et al., 2000) eqn. 3.21, where the coefficients for the angle of impact was chosen to induce maximum erosion at an impact angle of 300. The coefficients of restitution chosen for the simulation were also paired in a third-order polynomial equation with the angles of particle impact.

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3.2.2.3 Trajectory Calculations: The trajectory of particles in a fluid simulated in FLUENT, behave differently at the boundaries of the geometry. The reflect-type of behaviour is described below, giving further clarity to the idea of a coefficient of restitution and the essence of its specification at the tube wall. Discrete Phase Boundary Condition Type: a. Reflect: In this condition, the particles impacts upon the surface of the boundary losing some of its initial momentum. The value of momentum lost, is dependent on the coefficient of restitution, subdivided into the two:

i.

Normal coefficient of restitution; which accounts for loss of momentum upon impact by the particle in the direction normal to the wall surface. It is defined by the equation, 3.22 represents the velocity of particle normal to the wall, with subscripts 1 & 2, representing the conditions before and after impact.

ii.

Tangential coefficient of restitution (

, accounts for the loss in particle

momentum after striking the wall in the tangential direction. This boundary condition is applied mainly at wall boundaries so that the after effects of the particles impact can be obtained at the wall.

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3.2.2.4 One-Way and Two-Way Coupling In FLUENT, prediction of discrete particle trajectory can be accomplished in one of two ways: i. One-way coupling or the uncoupled method; where trajectory is predicted based on a fixed continuous phase flow field, i.e. the discrete phase is assumed not to have any effect on the velocity of the continuous phase. This approach is acceptable when the discrete phase is at a low mass and momentum loading, as compared to the continuous phase. ii. Two-way or the coupled method: discrete phase particles are treated as having an impact on sizeable effect on the continuous phase flow pattern. For the simulation, the one-way coupling approach was used to track particle trajectory in the geometry, as it ensured that the system remained stable. It also showed negligible variations in results obtained, when compared with the two-way coupling method.

Conclusion:
A summary of the equations governing the parameters selected have been outlined in the chapter above. FLUENT offers more parameters, but these were selected as they are specifically tailored to treat particle transport phenomenon.

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Chapter 4 Single Phase Flow Validation


4.0 Introduction:
This chapter details the method used to build the single phase flow model and the process of its validation. This will be done in three (3) sections namely: Geometry creation and Preprocessing. The section on geometry creation gives details on the procedure used in the generation of the different geometries analysed. The pre-processing section gives an outline of the models selected to describe the turbulence of flow in the fluid. The post-processing section explains the process of validation for the k- turbulence model which as mentioned in chapter 3, was used to depict the turbulent fluid flow. Results are also presented that show to what extent divergence in results would occur when the stipulated procedure is deviated from.

4.1

Geometry Creation:

Geometry was created using GAMBIT 2.4.6, running on windows 7 Enterprise, Intel Core i5-2400 CPU @ 3.10GHz, 8GB RAM, 64-bit Operating System. 4.1.1 Procedure: Geometry: Using the CFD Best Practice Guidelines for modelling pressure loss and flow characteristics: Incompressible flow in sudden contractions set by the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU), dimensions for the open area and the pre-heater tubes were created using the geometry software GAMBIT 2.4.6. The geometries was treated as axisymmetric, only half of each geometry was created with the knowledge that conditions observed in this half, would apply without change in the other half. Dimensions: Diameter of open area, upstream of the tube inlet contraction (D1) = 65mm Diameter of the pre-heater tube (D2) = 40mm Length of pipe, upstream of the tube inlet contraction = 10D1= 650mm Length of pipe, downstream of the tube inlet contraction = 50D2= 2000mm

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Figure 4. 1: Plain tube inlet without modifications

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Figure 4. 2: Addition of sleeve insert at tube inlet.

Figure 4. 3: Design modification with perforated plate with the same diameter as the tube.

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Figure 4. 4: Design modification with pore plate of diameter 1.2D.

Figure 4. 5: Design modification with smooth transition at the tube inlet.

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Meshing: Geometries created were meshed according to the best practices guidelines set by ESDU as mentioned above. It entailed Creation of quadrilateral mesh elements with minimum expansion factor of 1.04 perpendicular to the wall, inlet and outlet boundaries. Mesh was also created such that the distance of the first mesh node distance from the wall, was less than 100. Y-Plus<100.

Figure 4. 6: Meshed Geometry in Gambit

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Figure 4. 7: Meshed Geometry in Gambit

4.2

Pre-processing:

Pre-processing was done with the CFD package, ANSYS-FLUENT 13.0 running on windows 7 Enterprise, Intel Core i5-2400 CPU @ 3.10GHz, 8GB RAM, 64-bit Operating System. 4.2.1 Procedure: Simulations were carried out on the geometries created with the specifications mentioned below: Flow velocities and pattern, were predicted using a numerical scheme incorporating the k- with SST turbulence model. Turbulent intensity of flow was described by the equation; an approximate value of 3.7. Hydraulic diameter specified as dh, whered represents in the case of circular pipes/tubes, the diameter of the tube in question gave values of 0.0325m and 0.02m for the inlet and outlet boundary conditions respectively. Second-order upwind spatial discretization was activated for Momentum, Turbulent Kinetic Energy and Specific Dissipation Rate. SIMPLE Scheme was used to predict the pressure-velocity coupling. Under-Relaxation Factors were left as default, The convergence criterion was set at 10-6. After initialization, number of requested iterations was set at 700, and calculation activated.

which gave

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4.3 Post-processing
4.3.1. The contour plots below represent the condition of flow obtained from the simulation. Fig. 4.8 shows the axial nature of the flow before it approaches the tube contraction. The flow separation can also be seen at the tube inlet region. Fig. 4.9 shows the turbulence within the contracted region and the increased velocity caused by the flow contraction.

Figure 4. 8: Stream function of single phase fluid showing point of separation.

Figure 4. 9: Vector representation of single phase flow of fluid, showing recirculation zone.

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4.3.2 Single phase flow model validation: Justification of geometry created and the SST k- turbulence model was done using the three approaches set by the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU): A. Measurement of the flow separation size downstream of the contraction plane (Please refer to Appendix A for details of calculation): i. ESDU empirical calculations gives: Downstream separation length Downstream separation height ii. = 0.028 = 0.0028

From the vector plots of velocity magnitude for the simulation, the line/rake tool was used to create a new surface representing locations for the length and height of the recirculation zone. Values obtained were: Downstream separation length Downstream separation height = 0.0304 = 0.00284

Obtained values show reasonable agreement with the values obtained using the ESDU empirical equations. B. ESDU data stipulates that the Y-Plus value at the Wall boundary should be less than 100:

Figure 4. 10: Y-Plus value at the tube wall.

Graph taken from a Y-Plus plot of the tube clearly shows the maximum value for the Wall YPlus to be below 100.
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C. Empirical formula method (Please refer to Appendix A for details of calculation): i. ESDU calculations gives continuity-mean weighted total pressure drop and mass-flow weighted total pressure drop across tube inlet respectively as:

= 1212Pa = 1021Pa ii. Model contour plots for total pressure at the inlet of the contraction gives a value of 7535Pa, while total pressure at the open area a value of 8592Pa This would show a drop in pressure of approximately 1058Pa. This forms an acceptable value as ESDU states that the continuity-mean weighted pressure drop represents an overprediction of the actual pressure drop that occurs, while that of the mass-flow weighted pressure drop, represents an under prediction of the actual pressure drop that occurs.

Figure 4. 11: Location of pressure drop as a result of contraction at tube inlet.

4.3.3 Test for mesh sensitivity: After validation, geometry was tested to observe the effect of grid size reduction which involves further refining the mesh of the geometry. The numbers of cell divisions close to the wall were increased to find out the overall effect it would have on certain parameters. Parameters chosen to observe these variations include: the maximum velocity at tube inlet, the separation length and the separation height. These parameters were chosen as they
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represent two important flow conditions that determine the extent to which erosion would occur at a tube inlet. This is because from erosion literature studied, high flow velocities have always been identified as the principal cause of erosion. In addition to this, the angle at which the particle will strike the component surface is determined by the extent to which the flow separates and the height of this separation. Therefore the importance of these two parameters cannot be overlooked if accurate values of erosion rates are desired.
Table 4. 1: Variations in results observed with increased mesh refinement

No. of cells

Value at which Max. velocity simulation magnitude at convergence tube inlet (m/s) 340 3006 4232 124 122.3 123

ESDU Calculations Geometry 1 Geometry 2 Geometry 3

14305 157723 254373

Length of Length of downstream downstream separation separation length ( height ( 0.028 0.0028 0.0304 0.00284 0.0305 0.00293 0.0300 0.00244

As observed from the results in Table 4.1, grid size reduction has only a slight influence on the final values of the simulation. The number of mesh cells created for the geometry was increased in two steps representing an increase of over 1300%. This produced marginal variations in the maximum velocity at the inlet of the tube. Geometry 2 and geometry 3 also showed marginal variations from the results obtained from the ESDU calculations for length of downstream separation length ( . But for the case of separation height ( ,

geometry 2 slightly over predicted the value, while geometry 3 under predicts the value. Therefore, after an analysis of the results it would be concluded that reduction of grid size or increase in number of cell divisions close to the wall beyond that presently used has negligible effect on the output of the parameters desired. 4.3.4 Test for turbulence model sensitivity: The different turbulence models available in FLUENT were tested on the geometry to determine which one would produce results with the closest agreement to the values which would be obtained using the ESDU recommended empirical formulae. Again, such parameters as the maximum velocity at tube inlet, maximum total pressure, length of downstream separation length and length of downstream separation height, were chosen to observe the variation in results from the different turbulence models. The reason behind their

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selection is that they are the principal determinants as to the extent to which erosion would occur in the geometry created.
Table 4. 2: Variations in results observed with different turbulence models.

Turbulence model

Convergence Max. velocity at tube inlet (m/s) 340 355 341 396 123 123 104 122

Max. Total pressure (Pascal) 8592 8783 9027 8731

ESDU Calculations k- (SST) k- (RNG with enhanced wall treatment) k- (Standard with standard wall treatment) k- (Realizable with standard wall treatment)

Length downstream separation length ( 0.028 0.0304 0.0305 0.0088 0.0366

of Length of downstream separation height ( 0.0028 0.00284 0.00270 0.00109 0.00377

From the values obtained, it was observed that the k- (SST) turbulence was the only turbulence model that had the closest resemblance to the values obtained using the ESDU recommended validation empirical equations. The k- (RNG with enhanced wall treatment) also produced values which very closely agreed with these values including values for maximum total pressure and maximum flow velocity at tube inlet. The k- (Standard with standard wall treatment), was however found to severely under predict the separation length and the separation height, while the k- (Realizable with standard wall treatment) over predicted the values for the separation length and the separation height of the contracted flow.

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Chapter 5 Results and Analysis


5.0 Introduction:
This chapter includes a presentation of the results obtained after the erosion conditions were analysed. Firstly, erosion rates were calculated with an empirical formula, and then results obtained were used to determine the appropriate coefficients used in the modification of the erosion equation set by FLUENT. Erosion rate dependence on particle size was also examined when a range of particle sizes were analysed, and each compared with the erosion they produced in the different geometries. Based on these conclusions, a sub-section was devoted to the proposal of possible designs which could possibly provide even better results in terms of erosion mitigation. The final sub-section was used to show justification for the choice of coefficients of restitution chosen in the form of a validation exercise.

5.1

Results:

5.1.1 Empirical results: Tabakoffs erosion equation (Basu et al., 2000), represented by eqn. 5.1 was used to calculate the erosion mass parameter ( ) in order to determine the ratio of the eroded mass of the

target material in milligrams (mg) to the mass of the impinging particles in grams (g), (Refer to Appendix B for calculation results). Fig. 5.1 is a graphical summary of the results.
* Where and ( * +) + ( ) 5.1

are the impact velocity and impingement angle respectively;

R1 =1- 0.0016 sin = 250, assumed angle of maximum erosion

Ck = 1 for Ck = 0 for
= 0.296

3 >3

= 1.5 x 10-6 5.0 x 10-12

From Fig 5.1, it can be deduced that an increase in fluid flow velocity is directly related to an increase in surface removal. Raask (1969) and Nagaranjan et al., (2009) both agree that an increase in flow velocity would lead to an increase in erosion rates. It is also observed from
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the graph that increase in the angle of particle impact steadily increased erosion rates, reaching a peak at approximately 300 and thereafter the intensity of erosion began to fall. These results are in agreement with the observations made by Mbabazi et al., (2004) and also Basu et al., (2000) The analysis described above as observed from Fig. 5.1 was used as foundation to modify the erosion equation provided in FLUENT, where the coefficients defining particle momentum after impact (restitution) and the coefficients for the angle of impingement of the particle used in the simulation had to be specified.

Erosion rate vs. Angle of Impact


7000

6000

Erosion rate 1x 10-08

5000

4000 velocity = 10m/s velocity = 20m/s 3000 velocity = 30m/s

2000

1000

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Angle of Impact
Figure 5. 1: Graph of erosion intensity relative to impingement angle.

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5.1.2 Simulation Data: The erosion model provided by ANSYS-FLUENT is given as:

5.2

With the information obtained from calculating eroded mass of target material values from Table 5.1 were assigned to represent the coefficient

the

in the erosion model of

eqn. 5.2. It would be observed that the maximum coefficient 1 is assigned to the 30 0 angle. This was done to ensure that all particles impinging the tube wall at that angle would produce much greater surface removal than other particles impinging the tube wall at different angles. This decision was made as a result of the outcome of the empirical method calculation which showed that maximum erosion occurred at an angle of approximately 300. The coefficients of restitution presented in Table 5.2, were used to describe the change in momentum of the particle after impacting the tube wall at an angle . The angle of impact and coefficients of restitution were then paired in a 3rd degree polynomial equation as presented in eqn. 5.3 & eqn. 5.4, to describe the impact the coefficient of restitution would have on the angle of impact of the particle. 5.3 5.4 Where WN and WT represent the normal and tangential components of the particle velocity, the subscripts 1 & 2 indicate conditions before and after particle impact and representing the angle of impact of the particle.

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Table 5. 1: Impingement angle coefficients used in the simulation

Angle 0 10 20 25 30 35 40 60 80 90
Table 5. 2: Coefficients of restitution used in the simulation.

Coefficients 0 0.4 0.6 0.9 1 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2

Tangent 0.988 -0.029 6.43e-04 -3.56e-06

Coefficients of Restitution Normal 0.993 -0.0307 4.75e-04 -2.61e-06

Flow velocity

= 30m/s
= 2.3

Velocity exponent

Open area diameter (D1) = 65mm Inlet tube diameter (D2) = 40mm Total length of tube (L) = 2650mm Steel tube density (s) = 8030kg/m3 Ash particle density (a) = 1500kg/m3 Minimum number of particles injected and tracked for each analysis = 1150 Design modifications: Case 1: Normal tube without modifications. Case 2: Addition of sleeve tube at pipe inlet of length 2-4D. Case 3: Attachment of perforated plate with same diameter as the tube inlet at height 0.4D above tube. Case 4: Attachment of pore plate with diameter slightly larger at 1.26D than the tube inlet, and placed at height 0.26D. Case 5: Smooth transition entry at tube inlet, to normalise flow. Equation 5.5 was used to calculate the amount of material removed per year in mm.
( ( ) )

( )

5.5
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Simulation Results: 5.1.2.1 Case 1: Normal tube without modifications

Table 5. 3: Erosion rate dependency on size of particle

Particle size 50-microns 60-microns 80-microns 90-microns 100-microns

Erosion rate (kg/m2-s) 3.659e-08 6.0914e-08 8.8315e-08 1.1267e-07 1.2115e-07

Erosion rate (mm/yr.) 0.144 0.239 0.347 0.442 0.476

Observations indicate that as a result of the difference in flow area between the tube and the open space, fluid velocity increased rapidly as the fluid attempted entry into the tube. At this increased velocity, the fluid flowed around the sharp edged inlet leading to the fluid entry angle being larger than the angle of the tube inlet axis. A consequence of the high inlet velocity and large inlet angle was the separation of flow from the inner wall of the tube causing the fluid to contract or the formation of a vena-contracta at the inlet region of the tube (Fig. 5.3). Basu et al., (2000) predicted that the location of the minimum diameter of the formed vena-contracta would be at a point 0.4D from the tube inlet; but from the contour plots of the simulation, the line/rake tool was used to trace this location and this location was found to be 0.3D from the tube inlet. Fig. 5.8 shows the turbulence in the flow within this region of separation which equally led to an increase in the turbulence of the entrained particles trapped within that zone. Hence erosion of the tube surface was bound to occur downstream of the recirculation zone or the contracted flow. This is in agreement with Finnie (1960) where it was stated that high turbulence in flow would lead to the erosion of component surface in that vicinity. Using the same line/rake tool, it was found the maximum erosion occurred at a distance of 3-3.5D from the tube inlet. The value for this location is corroborated by the predictions of Lai and Bremhorst (1979) where they indicate that maximum erosion usually occurred at a distance 3-4D (where D is the diameter of the tube) from the entrance of the tube. Fig. 5.4 shows the erosion along the tube wall with this same phenomenon indicated graphically in Fig. 5.5. From the Fig. 5.5, it will be observed that the value of erosion falls to a negligible value downstream of the tube wall after reaching its maximum at the earlier mentioned location. Contour plots of the simulation observed showed that the rate of erosion increased as particle size increased. This is in accordance with observations made by Nagaranjan et al., (2009) that
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at high velocities, larger particle sizes tend to cause more erosion than smaller particles. While at low velocities, the reverse case is obtainable, due to the effects of buoyancy forces acting on the large particles and causing them to settle at the tube base preventing their impaction on the tube surface (Habib et al., 2006). Also observed, was that as particle size increased, the location of maximum erosion tended towards a distance 2D from the tube inlet as was predicted by Basu et.al (2000).

Figure 5. 2: Plain pre-heater tube without modifications.

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Figure 5. 3: Flow contraction or vena contracta formation at tube inlet.

Figure 5. 4: Location of erosion occurrence on the tube plate and the tube wall.

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Figure 5. 5: Graphical representation of maximum erosion location from the tube inlet

Figure 5. 6: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone. (a)

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Figure 5. 7: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone. (b)

Figure 5. 8: Zone of maximum turbulence in the tube.

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5.1.2.2

Case 2: Addition of sleeve at tube inlet, of length 2-4D

Table 5. 4: Erosion rate dependency on particle size

Particle size 50-microns 60-microns 80-microns 90-microns 100-microns

Erosion rate (kg/m2-s) 2.8213e-07 9.9754e-07 1.1528e-06 2.5617e-06 2.7434e-06

Erosion rate (mm/yr.) 1.1080 3.9176 4.5274 10.060 10.7740

As expected, velocity was greatest at the inlet of this modification with a value of 226m/s. This was as a result of further reduction being applied at the tube inlet, where the contraction ratio between the tube and the open space was reduced from an initial value of 0.38 to a value of 0.21. This led to an increase in pressure drop, flow velocity and turbulence at the inlet of the tube. In addition, two recirculation zones were formed as a result of the sleeve insert modification. The first recirculation zone shown in Fig. 5.10 was formed as a result of flow contraction when the fluid travelled from the large open area to the smaller area of the tube inlet, while the second recirculation zone shown in Fig. 5.12 formed behind the flow as it emerged from the contraction, and re-attached itself to the tube wall. The latter development could be assumed to be similar to conditions observed in a fluid emerging from a smaller region into a larger region (a sudden expansion zone). The length and strength of the recirculation bubble formed downstream of the tube inlet was found to be directly related to the ratio of expansion between the sleeve and the tube as reported by Vikram et al., (2010). Upon exit from the contraction, flow experienced a drop in total pressure while the value of static pressure rose sharply. This agrees well with ESDU (ESDU, 2008) predictions for pressure gains and losses in sudden expansions in pipes. Figures 5.17 & 5.28; show the drop and rise in these pressure values respectively. As observed from Fig. 5.15, the intensity of shear stress occurrence was predominant along the sleeve insert due to the high velocity condition of flow within that region. A consequence of this would be the high rate of surface removal on the sleeve and this was correctly predicted by contour plots obtained from the simulation, and visually presented in Fig. 5.16. Another cause of the erosion of the sleeve insert could be attributed to the recirculation zone formed at the tube inlet as mentioned earlier. As a result of high turbulence within this zone, entrained particles were able to impinge the sleeve insert at much higher velocities than normal, leading to an increase in erosion rates beyond that obtained for the same particle
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sizes in other designs. As flow exited the contraction region, the high velocity and sudden expansion also led it to impinge on the outlet tip of the inserted sleeve. This also led to the erosion of the sleeve tip at the exit. Although extremely high erosion rates were recorded with this particular modification, it was observed that the tube component itself was hardly affected by erosion and thus the addition of the sleeve partly achieved the aim of particle impingement reduction on the tube wall. Adversely, the extremely high wear rates would lead to an increase in frequency of maintenance in the heat exchanger as sleeve inserts would require regular replacement as a result of rapid wear. This could be one of the hindrances of this modification with Bremhorst and Flint (1990) reporting its unsuccessful implementation in the industry. Remediating measures to eliminate the formation of recirculation zones upon contraction and expansion could include the reduction of the thickness of the sleeve tube. This is because as noted by Vikram et al., (2010) an increase in expansion ratio is directly related to the formation of large recirculation zones with recirculation bubbles of increased strength and size. For the simulation, a thickness of 5mm was used which represents a significant value as the tube was treated as axisymmetric with a 20mm radius. In real life applications, the radius between the sleeve and the tube should be reasonably large to prevent an excessive pressure drop, or recirculation zone formation at contraction and expansion of the flow.

Figure 5. 9: Design modification with sleeve insert at tube inlet.

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Figure 5. 10: Recirculation zone location at tube inlet after flow contraction.

Figure 5. 11: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone at tube inlet.

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Figure 5. 12: Recirculation zone location along tube wall after flow expansion

Figure 5. 13: Vectors showing flow motion within the recirculation zone after flow expansion. (b)

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Figure 5. 14: Locations of erosion occurrence on the tube plate and the inserted sleeve.

Figure 5. 15: Shear stress occurrence along inserted sleeve.

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Figure 5. 16: Location of maximum turbulent intensity at tube inlet.

Figure 5. 17: Graph showing drop in total pressure after flow expansion from sleeve contraction.

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Figure 5. 18: Graph showing rise in static after flow expansion from sleeve contraction.

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5.1.2.3

Case 3: Attachment of perforated plate with same diameter as the tube inlet and located 0.4D above the tube.

Table 5. 5: Erosion rate dependency on particle size

Particle size 50-microns 60-microns 80-microns 90-microns 100-microns

Erosion rate (kg/m2-s) 7.9349e-08 1.1351e-07 2.0838e-07 3.2062e-07 3.4957e-07

Erosion rate (mm/yr.) 0.3116 0.4458 0.8184 1.2592 1.3729

It was observed that flow was normalised before entry into the tube as correctly predicted by Basu et al., (2000) and clearly pointed out by the velocity contour plots of Fig. 5.20. From this figure it could also be seen that although no recirculation or cross-patterned flow was generated at the tube inlet, a reversal in flow direction occurred at a distance approximately 4-5D from the tube inlet. The origins of this occurrence could be traced to fluid flow velocity being extremely poor at the wall region while that in the mid-region of the tube remained sufficiently high. Therefore as the mid-region flow attempted to reattach itself to the tube wall surface, its higher velocity forced a reversal in flow direction for the weaker fluid as a result of its weak resistance. Fig. 5.23 reveals the after effects of a flow reversal at the tube inlet, where the reversed flow collides with incoming flow of equally low velocity. This collision led to an increase in the combined velocity of the two flows and resulted in the impingement of the sharp edge of the tube inlet. The cause of the poor distribution in fluid flow velocity observed at the entrance of this geometry could be traced to the trapped recirculating air formed between the perforated plate wall and the tube plate which can be seen in Fig. 5.23. The diameter of the formed recirculating air was the same size as both the tube plate and the perforated plate; this enabled its circumference to distort the axial or normalised flow entering the tube. Although of low velocity, this recirculating air was sufficient to create distortion/mixing in the axial flow approaching the tube entrance, causing a poor distribution of flow velocity across the fluid. It was also observed that at the point of flow reversal, the graph of the velocity profile of fluid flow shown in Fig. 5.24 rose sharply and then fell indicating an increase in flow velocity in that region. This would explain the significant erosion rates recorded within the geometry itself at distances even further down the tube than obtained at normalized conditions. This would suggest that the collision of the two flows produces an effect of increased velocities for both flows. Fig. 5.25 shows the locations of erosion occurrence for both the perforated
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plate, and the inner wall of the tube. These locations also corresponded to locations where turbulent intensity (Fig.5.26) and wall shear stress (Fig. 5.27) showed significant intensity. The latter discovery has led to the belief that even without a discrete phase presence in the flow, locations of possible erosion occurrence could easily be predicted. As a consequence of the conditions mentioned, the locations of erosion include the perforated plate wall, the sharp edge inlet of the tube, and the inner wall of the tube.

Figure 5. 19: Design modification with perforated plate of same diameter as pre-heater tube located before tube inlet.

Figure 5.20: Vector representation of recirculation zone formed between perforated plate and tube plate. (a)

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Figure 5.21: Velocity profile of flow within tube.

Figure 5.22: Locations of erosion occurrence on the tube plate and the inserted sleeve.

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Figure 5. 23: Location of maximum turbulent intensity at tube between perforated plate and tube plate.

Figure 5.24: Wall Shear stress occurrence along perforated plate wall, tube plate and tube inlet.

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Figure 5.25: Vector representation of flow reversal at tube inlet.

Figure 5.26: Magnified vector representation of recirculation zone formed between perforated plate and tube plate.

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5.1.2.4

Case 4: Attachment of pore plate with diameter slightly larger than the tube inlet, placed at height 0.26D from tube inlet.

Table 5. 6: Erosion rate dependency on particle size

Particle size 50-microns 60-microns 80-microns 90-microns 100-microns

Erosion rate (kg/m2-s) 9.3406e-08 2.8965e-07 3.5094e-07 3.7682e-07 3.8642e-07

Erosion rate (mm/yr.)

0.3668 1.1375 1.3782 1.4798 1.5176

Similarities in design between Case 3 & Case 4 meant that a recirculation zone was also formed between the pore plate and the tube-plate as seen in Fig. 5.35. This led to an increase in fluid velocity as the fluid made contact with the tube plate surface, leading to a significant amount of surface removal occurring on the surface of the tube plate. The near-normalization of flow pattern obtained in this modification clearly shows the impact differences in diameter between the pore plate and the tube plate could have on a flow pattern. As seen in Fig. 5.29 of Case 3, the circumference of the trapped recirculating air was large enough to distort the normalised fluid flow pattern entering the tube. But from Fig 5.35, it would be observed that the circumference of the recirculating air limited by the diameter of the pore plate was not large enough to cause distortions in fluid flow pattern. This allowed an undisturbed flow to approach the tube inlet. However, it was observed that a small recirculation zone was formed at the inlet region of the tube leading to significant erosion occurrence around that region. This was caused by the fluid entering the tube at an angle slightly larger than that of the inlet of the tube; therefore, in an attempt to attach to the tube wall, a small vacuum was formed within which flow recirculation occurred. The condition at the tube inlet thus remained as was obtained in Case 1, where no modifications were made to the tube. However, the separation length (Ls2x) and separation height (Ls2r) of the recirculation zone formed were much smaller. As was expected, this design produced the lowest velocity at tube inlet partly because of the near-normalized flow pattern and partly because of the negligible influence the recirculating air formed between the pore plate and the tube plate had on the fluid itself. Hence the axial flow remained stable until entry into the tube. Another explanation of the low velocity at inlet could be that the velocity of the fast flowing fluid had been significantly reduced as it struck the pore plate. Although erosion rates were quite significant, it was observed that the main
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locations of erosion occurrence were on the pore plate wall and the tube plate surface where the latter erosion occurrence, could be solely attributed impingement by the recirculating air trapped between the pore plate and the tube plate. The actual erosion within the tube as a result of the recirculation zone can be deduced from Fig. 5.32, and it should be mentioned that the value seems quite small and near insignificant when compared to values obtained from the other design modifications. Lai and Bremhorst (1979) in their laboratory experiments also achieved success with this design modification, although with different dimensions for the pore plate and at a different distance from the tube plate. They also reported that flow was normalized, and a uniform velocity distribution achieved. Their report goes on to say that this design is already in use within the industry, with the only problems arising from its high cost of installation and the high pressure losses usually associated with the use of a pore plate.

Figure 5.27: Design modification with perforated plate of diameter 1.2D of pre-heater tube inlet.

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Figure 5.28: Locations of erosion occurrence along pore plate wall and tube plate.

Figure 5.29: Graph identifying location of maximum erosion from tube inlet.

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Figure 5.30: Shear stress occurrence along pore plate, tube plate and tube inlet.

Figure 5.31: Recirculation zone location between pore plate and tube plate.

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Figure 5. 32: Vector representation of recirculation zone between the pore plate and the tube plate.

Figure 5. 33: Location of maximum turbulent intensity occurring at the tube inlet.

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5.1.2.5

Case 5: Smooth transition entry at tube inlet, to normalise flow.

Table 5. 7: Erosion rate dependency on particle size

Particle size 50-microns 60-microns 80-microns 90-microns 100-microns

Erosion rate (kg/m2-s) 5.6373e-08 1.0378e-07 1.4502e-07 3.0877e-07 3.2384e-07

Erosion rate (mm/yr.) 0.2214 0.4076 0.5695 1.2126 1.2718

The stream function contour plot observed from Fig. 5.40 for this design modification type, shows the streamlined entrance of the fluid at the tube inlet as a result of the smooth transition at that location. As a result of the streamlined flow, all cross patterned flows consistent with the other modifications studied and also consistently linked to recirculation zone formation were completely eliminated. A direct impact of this was seen in the erosion studies of this design as the design consistently produced the lowest erosion rates for the different particle sizes studied when compared to the other design modifications. Although some form of erosion occurred as observed in Fig. 5.44, it could be attributed to the particles impinging upon the smooth transition surface of the tube just before entry into the tube, as seen in Fig. 5.42. The lowest value for maximum total pressure was also obtained at the tube inlet after all the other cases had been considered. This observation goes to agree with the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU, 2008) report that the method of introducing a smooth transition at the entrance of a tube would reduce a build-up of pressure at the tube inlet, hence reducing by a reasonable quantity the extent to which pressure would drop as it approached the tube contraction. Another influence of the smooth axial fluid flow at the tube inlet was seen in the low velocity at the tube inlet. This modification produced the second lowest velocity of 101m/s at the tube inlet, only surpassed by case 4, which had a velocity of 99m/s at the tube. These two conditions of both low velocity and low pressure at the tube inlet, give validity to the low erosion rates recorded with this geometry. Although Bremhorst and Flint (1990), report a failure of erosion mitigation by this design, it should be noted that their case study presented a different phase of flow which was a liquid (slurry), bearing solids much harder than ash particles with erosion and corrosion occurring simultaneously. It would be added that better streamline design of the tube entrance region, could go on to reduce erosion values or intensity to near insignificant figures. This is because as observed
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from the contour plots of both wall shear stress and turbulent intensity; Fig. 5.43 and Fig. 5.46 respectively, the transition section did not make a full smooth curve. Therefore, the ash particles were able to strike at the irregular surface formed.

Figure 5. 34: Design modification with smooth transition introduced at pre-heater tube inlet.

Figure 5. 35: Stream function of fluid flow at the tube inlet.

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Figure 5. 36: Location of maximum flow velocity at tube inlet.

Figure 5. 37: Vector representation of flow velocity at tube inlet.

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Figure 5. 38: Wall shear stress occurrence at tube inlet.

Figure 5. 39: Location of erosion occurrence along tube plate and tube inlet.

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Figure 5. 40: Graph showing location of maximum erosion from tube inlet

Figure 5. 41: Location of maximum turbulent intensity occurring at the tube inlet.

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Figure 5. 42: Vector representation of erosion at the tube inlet.

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5.2

Comparison of erosion rates by particle size, for cases studied:

Erosion dependence on particle size for the modified geometries is presented below. The values presented, show agreement with that observed by Nagaranjan et al., (2009). As stated earlier, the second modification with the inserted sleeve along tube inlet revealed approximately twice the rate of erosion occurrence than obtained in the other modifications for the same particle size; while the design modification with a smooth transition inlet (case 5), produced the lowest erosion rates amongst all the design modifications considered. As seen from the bars, cases 2 5 representing the design modifications, all consistently produced erosion rates higher than those obtained in the original/control model, Case 1. Although this occurred, it must be stated that a large percentage of the surface removal actually occurred on the modifications themselves and not on the tube component wall. Therefore, it could be assumed that the modifications achieved success to a certain degree.

Comparison of erosion rates for the five cases based on particle diameter of 50-microns.
5 4 3 2 1 0.00E+00 5.00E-08 1.00E-07 1.50E-07 2.00E-07 2.50E-07 3.00E-07

Figure 5. 43: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 50-microns for cases considered

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Comparison of erosion rates for the five cases based on particle diameter of 60-microns.
5 4 3 2 1 0.00E+00 2.00E-07 4.00E-07 6.00E-07 8.00E-07 1.00E-06 1.20E-06

Figure 5. 44: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 60-microns for cases considered

Comparison of erosion rates for the five cases based on particle diameter of 80-microns.
5 4 3 2 1 0.00E+00 2.00E-07 4.00E-07 6.00E-07 8.00E-07 1.00E-06 1.20E-06 1.40E-06

Figure 5. 45: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 80-microns for cases considered

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Comparison of erosion rates for the five cases based on particle diameter of 90-microns.
5 4 3 2 1 0.00E+00 5.00E-07 1.00E-06 1.50E-06 2.00E-06 2.50E-06 3.00E-06

Figure 5. 46: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 90-microns for cases considered

Comparison of erosion rates for the five cases based on particle diameter of 100-microns.
5 4 3 2 1 0.00E+00 5.00E-07 1.00E-06 1.50E-06 2.00E-06 2.50E-06 3.00E-06

Figure 5. 47: Variation of erosion rates for particle size of 100-microns for cases considered

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5.3

Suggested design modifications at the tube inlet.

Figure 5. 48: Further possibilities of design modifications to mitigate erosion.

Possible design features were developed based on observations made during the simulation. In design modification 1, a sleeve tube extending beyond the inlet of the tube to also cover the tube plate is suggested. This is because in almost all of the simulations, it was observed that the tube plate suffered significantly from direct impingement by the fluid and its entrained ash particles. It would also be seen that both design modification 1 and design modification 2, introduce smooth transitions at both the beginning and at the end of the sleeve
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insert. The idea behind the design is based on observations of flow conditions in Case 5 and Case 2; where in the former, it was observed that the cross-flow pattern developed at the inlet tube was eliminated simply by introducing a smooth transition at the inlet of the tube; while the sudden expansion at the end of the sleeve insert in Case 2 led to the formation of a recirculation zone as the expanding flow attempted to reattach to the tube wall. Therefore, it is suggested that the introduction of two smooth transitions or streamlines at both ends of the sleeve insert could lead to the elimination of recirculation zone formation at both ends of the sleeve. Fluid would thereafter experience smooth transitions as it contracts at the tube inlet and expands at the end of the sleeve insert. Another advantage of the smooth transition at the inlet of the sleeve was highlighted in the analysis of case 5, where the total pressure and flow velocity at the tube inlet remained lower than that obtained for all other cases. Therefore, adding a curve at the entrance region of the sleeve insert would produce an effect opposite to that observed when a plain sleeve insert with sharp edges is used.

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5.4

Validation for coefficients of restitution

The sensitivity of changes in values for the coefficients of the restitution is tested to determine to what extent changes would occur in the final answers or erosion rates observed in the tube. Test for coefficients of restitution sensitivity: The coefficients of restitution of a particle, define the state of its momentum after impact on a surface. Specifying this value as one (1), would mean that the particle retains all its momentum after impact. While a coefficient value of zero (0), would mean that all momentum was lost after impact. In the sensitivity test carried out, values for the coefficients of restitution were changed in three situations to determine the effect it would have on accurately predicting erosion rates and location. From an analysis of the results obtained in the three geometry studies below, it would be correct to infer that the values for the coefficients of restitution selected for the simulation, predicted to an acceptable accuracy the location of maximum erosion. i. Coefficients restitution used in the simulation studies:
Table 5. 8: Coefficients of restitution applied in the simulation showing erosion rates obtained according to particle size.

Tangent 0.988 -0.029 6.43e-04 -3.56e-06

Normal 0.993 -0.0307 4.75e-04 -2.61e-06

Particle (m) 50 60 80 90 100

size Erosion rate (kg/m2-s) 3.659e-08 6.0914e-08 8.8315e-08 1.1267e-07 1.2115e-07

Observations:
-

Fig. 5.49 and Fig. 5.50 show the location of maximum erosion intensity as correctly predicted by Bremhorst and Lai, 1979 to occur at the location 3-4D of the tube inlet, where D is the Diameter of the tube inlet.

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Figure 5. 49: Prediction of locations of erosion occurrence by coefficients of restitution used in simulation.

Figure 5. 50: Location of maximum erosion from tube inlet

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ii.

Modified coefficients of restitution I:


Table 5. 9: Altered Coefficients of restitution applied in the simulation showing erosion rates obtained according to particle size.

Tangent 0.988 -0.029 6.43e-02 -3.56e-04

Normal 0.993 -0.0307 4.75e-02 -2.61e-04

Particle size (m) 50 60 80 90 100

Erosion rate (kg/m2-s) 3.3431e-08 4.1724e-08 6.3981e-08 7.8324e-08 1.0337e-07

Observations: Observing Fig. 5.51 & Fig. 5.52, would reveal the failure of these coefficients to report any erosion occurrence at the tube inlet or the tube inlet regions. Instead, erosion was only reported to occur at the tube plate surface.

Figure 5. 51: Prediction of locations of erosion occurrence by altered coefficients of restitution.

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Figure 5. 52: Location of maximum erosion from tube inlet

iii.

Modified coefficients of restitution II:


Table 5. 10: Altered Coefficients of restitution applied in the simulation showing erosion rates obtained according to particle size.

Tangent

Normal

Particle (m)

size Erosion rate (kg/m2-s)

-0.988 0.029 -6.43e-04 3.56e-06

-0.993 0.0307 -4.75e-04 2.61e-06

50 60 80 90 100

1.8904e-07 3.9286e-07 6.5121e-07 8.9041e-07 1.0361e-06

Observations: From Fig. 5.53 & Fig. 5.54, it would be seen that location of maximum erosion intensity was well away from locations obtained experimentally by researchers. Using these coefficients, location of maximum intensity was at 6.5D from tube inlet, where D is the inlet pipe diameter.

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Figure 5. 53: Prediction of locations of erosion occurrence by altered coefficients of restitution.

Figure 5. 54: Location of maximum erosion from tube inlet

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5.5

Test for mesh refinement sensitivity

The effects of applying further refinement to the mesh grid was tested, to ascertain the effect it would have on the accurate prediction the location of maximum erosion intensity. The geometry used in the validation of the single phase flow, was maintained, and the results are presented below. An analysis of the contour plots produced showed that the prediction of location of maximum erosion intensity was not affected by the extent to which the mesh was refined. The number of cells created for the geometry was sufficient to accurately predict the location of maximum occurrence.
Table 5. 11: Geometries tested with different levels of refinement applied to the mesh

Geometry 1 Geometry 2 Geometry 3

No. of cells 14305 157723 254373

Value at which simulation convergence 340 3006 4232

Figure 5. 55 : Location of maximum erosion intensity in geometry used in simulation. Geometry 1

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Figure 5. 56: Location of maximum erosion intensity for geometry with further refinement applied to the mesh. Geometry 2

Figure 5. 57: Location of maximum erosion intensity for geometry with further refinement applied to the mesh. Geometry 3

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Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations:


6.0 Introduction:
Chapter details conclusions and inferences drawn from the results obtained from the simulation. Recommendations are also outlined, as to areas upon which future development could be built on.

6.1

Conclusion:

A single phase flow model was simulated using the Eulerian approach and validated using specifications set by the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU). Results obtained from the simulation showed good agreement with the results obtained through the use of the empirical formulae set by ESDU. It was thus agreed that the single phase flow model was valid to study flow conditions in an air pre-heater tube. Contour plots obtained from the single phase flow simulation depicting flow conditions such as turbulent intensity, velocity magnitude and wall shear stress were then studied to predict the possible sites of erosion occurrence. Using Tabakoffs erosion equation, the erosion rate dependence on particle impingement angle and impact velocity was next studied. Results obtained confirmed that maximum erosion intensity occurred when particles impinged the tube wall at approximately 300. The results gave validity to various literature on erosion studied in the course of the thesis. Further results obtained also validated the theory on the direct relationship between increasing fluid flow velocity and increased erosion rates. Using the validated single phase flow as a model and the results obtained from the empirical calculations as a foundation, a two-phase flow model consisting of a solid and gaseous phase was simulated to study the effects of erosion in a pre-heater tube. The solid phase of the flow consisted of ash particles which were specified and tracked using the Langrangian approach. Particle properties such as diameter and angle of impingement were studied to determine the extent to which they influenced the rate of erosion occurrence. The predictions initially made from the study of the single phase flow conditions coupled with the effects observed from the two-phase flow, validated the direct relationship between the condition of flow of a fluid with respect to velocity, turbulence etc., particle characteristics such as diameter & angle of impingement and the amount of surface removal in the form of erosion and its region or locations of occurrence.
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Design modifications in the form of the addition of a sleeve insert, a pore plate, a perforated plate and change of tube inlet geometry from a sharp edged inlet to a smooth transition inlet were then applied to the pre-heater tube to determine their efficacy in the mitigation of erosion at the tube inlet region. Results obtained showed that the modifications achieved to a certain degree their intended purposes but none of the modifications managed to achieve complete elimination of erosion in the tube inlet region. Some of the modifications also produced adverse effects which might render them unsuitable for erosion mitigation in a preheater tube. In the modification by insertion of a sleeve at the tube inlet, the sleeve bore the brunt of particle impaction but introduced undesirable pressure drops within the tube which led to the formation of recirculation zones with increased turbulence in fluid flow. As the likelihood of erosion occurrence is directly related to turbulence and recirculation zones, it cannot be ruled out that any change in operating conditions of the plant such as an increase in velocity of flow of the flue gas will not cause the location of erosion to shift back to the tube wall. Another difficulty likely to present itself, will be the need for regular parts replacement due to high erosion intensity on the sleeve as a result of the reduced contraction ratio between the tube inlet and the open area. Although the influence of the reduced contraction ratio is dependent on operating conditions such as fluid velocity at the tube inlet, it nonetheless poses a problem which should be considered before deployment of sleeves in the heat exchangers tubes. The perforated plate modification initially showed promise as it achieved the aim of normalising the contracted flow before it approached the tube inlet. However, the presence of the perforated plate caused the formation of a dead zone or a recirculating zone between its surface and the surface of the tube plate. A combined effect of both the formed recirculation zone and the equality in diameters of both the perforated plate and the tube was the distortion of the normalised axial flow approaching the tube inlet. As detailed in the chapter 5, this distortion led to a plethora of flow issues which culminated in erosion occurrence at locations which could have been avoided. A location such as within the tube was caused by the collision of the flows with different velocities, and the erosion of the tube inlet was caused by the exiting reversed flow impinging that region. Another surface which would give considerable concern is the tube plate, as the trapped recirculating air impinges repeatedly on its surface causing rapid surface removal. Conclusions drawn from the analysis of this design show that the erosion occurring within the tube could be put down solely to the design
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specifications or dimensions of the perforated plate. A redesign carried out on both the dimensions and location of the perforated plate from the tube inlet could produce much better results than currently obtained. The pore plate design provided an alternative to the perforated plate modification as the dimensions and location of the plate from the tube inlet had been changed. This produced a different set of flow conditions with the most influential being none distortion of the axial flow approaching the tube inlet. This meant that flow was able to remain stable until it entered the tube. This modification could have proved the most effective of all the designs considered but for the recirculation zone formed at the tube inlet. Although small in size with near insignificant erosion production, it cannot be completely ruled out that the size of this recirculation zone and its ripple effect of pressure drop and erosion would not increase exponentially if operation conditions changed in the plant. Operation conditions which could result in increased flow velocity would certainly lead to the formation of a much larger recirculation zone and more erosion. This latter condition would leave very little margin for deviation in operating conditions within the plant. The problems associated with the trapped recirculating zone impinging the tube plate and causing surface removal was also observed with this modification. Asides the recirculation zone formed, this modification achieved the aim of allowing the incoming flow assume an axial pattern before entering the tube and also reduction in the value of velocity of flow approaching the tube inlet. The best results were observed in this design with the smooth transition inlet. This was down to the streamlined effect the tube inlet had on the incoming flow. The tube inlet geometry was designed in such a way as to trace the pattern of flow of the incoming fluid, allowing it to travel smoothly into the tube without experiencing the separation usually observed in flows travelling between regions of different areas. A direct impact of this was seen in the intensity of erosion which fell to values lower than expected and below that observed in any of the other modifications. All detrimental flow conditions linked to erosion such as high velocities at the tube inlet, high pressures and high turbulence in the flow were all reduced in this design and although erosion still did occur, it was at a location where remediation of the process could be achieved with guaranteed success. The remediation could come in the form of smoother design of the tube inlet or the use of an insert with a smooth transition at the inlet with an extension to also protect the tube plate.

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6.2

Recommendations:

It would be recommended that as CFD provides accurate replication of flow conditions, various design modifications should be explored to determine their effects on flow conditions (velocity, pattern of flow, etc.) with respect to rectification or normalization. Designs such as the extension of the sleeve insert to include a smooth transition at the inlet and a smooth transition at its end could prove useful in the elimination of the formation of the two recirculation zones. Possible design modifications are limitless, and should be continuously explored. Asides testing new designs, the current designs studied in this chapter could be reanalysed with emphasis no longer placed on the modification shape, but on the distance of the modification from the tube inlet. Observations on the effects of changing the location/distance of the modification relative to the tube inlet should be carried out. Studies hereafter should look at the effects the trapped recirculating gas observed in the design modifications of case 3 and case 4 would have on the flow approaching the inlet of the tube directly above the tube where it was formed. It is assumed that this effect could be in the form of that experienced by case 3, where distortion and mixing induced poor velocity distribution in the fluid flow. Therefore depending on the results obtained, further erosion could occur in other tubes.

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References
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Appendix A
Model validation: Model was validated using the empirical equations set by the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU), results are presented below:
Inlet velocity = D1 = D2 = Upstream length = Downstream length = Total length = Turbulence model used = Turbulence intensity = Hydraulic length = Convergence residuals = Wall Y-plus value < 100 Fluid (air): Density = Viscosity (dynamic) = 30m/s 65mm 40mm (Tube inlet) 10D1 = 10 x 65 = 650mm 50D2 = 50 x 40 = 2000mm. 2650mm k- (SST) and Low-Re corrections 3.7% 7%Dh 1e-06

1.225 kg/m3 1.7894e-05 kg/m-2

Calculation:

Mass flow rate:

= 1.225 x 0.00332 x 30

= 0.122 kg/s Since flow is incompressible, should be constant across the contraction. Therefore:
= = = = 79m/s

1.33 x 105 2.16 x 105

From the above calculations, it can be deduced that both flows are turbulent. Contraction ratio:

= 0.38

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1. Continuity-mean total pressure loss co-efficient: Where - [1

= 0.543 x (A2/A1)3 2.018 x (A2/A1)2 + 1.475; = 0.543 x (0.38)3 2.018 x (0.38)2 + 1.475 = 0.0298 0.2914 + 1.475 = 1.2134 = - 0.26 x (A2/A1)3 + 0.335 x (A2/A1)2 = - 0.26 (0.38)3 + 0.335 (0.38)2 = - 0.0143 + 0.04837 = 0.0341

= 1.1726 0.8556 = 0.317 = x 0.5 x 1.225 x 792. = 1211.77Pa

- [1

2. Mass-flow weighted pressure loss: - [JKE, d - JKE, u -0.476 JKE, d = 9.788 x (1.33E5) + 1.021 = 1.057 -0.476 JKE, u = 9.788 x (2.16E5) + 1.021 = 1.049 = 1.1726 0.9055 = 0.267 = x 0.5 x 1.225 x 792. = 0.267 x 0.5 x 1.225 x 6241
= 1021Pa

- [1.057

3. To estimate the flow separation size downstream of the contraction plane according to ESDU specifications; Ls2x = downstream separation length Ls2r = downstream separation height

Values for

&

are obtained from the figures below. Therefore,

x
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= 0.7 x 0.04 = 0.028

= 0.07 x 0.04 = 0.0028 From vector plots of the velocity magnitude, the line/rake tool was used to create a new surface representing these locations. Values obtained: x0 = 0.650038, x1 = 0.6804208 Therefore: = 0.6804 0.6500 = 0.0304 y0 = 0.01999315, y1 = 0.01715017 Therefore:

= 0.01999 - 0.01715
= 0.00284 Obtained values show reasonable agreement with the values obtained using the ESDU empirical equations.

99 | P a g e

100 | P a g e

Appendix B
Constant velocity, 10 m/s with change in angle of impingement,

Vel. (m/s) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Angle of impingement 0 10 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90

Eroded mass parameter ( 0 9.4775x 10-7 1.8534x 10-6 2.1538 x 10-6 2.301 x 10-6 2.2847 x 10-6 2.1232 x 10-6 1.5272 x 10-6 8.8060 x 10-7 4.1523 x 10-7 1.88446 x 10-7 0.00000005

mg/g

Constant velocity, 20 m/s with change in angle of impingement,

Vel. (m/s) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Angle of impingement 0 10 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90

Eroded mass parameter ( 0 7.5718 x 10-6 1.4792 x 10-5 1.7184 x 10-5 1.8356 x 10-5 1.8237 x 10-5 1.6966 x 10-5 1.2281 x 10-5 7.2222 x 10-6 3.6110 x 10-6 1.8748 x 10-6 0.0000008

mg/g

Constant velocity, 10 m/s with change in angle of impingement,

Vel. (m/s) 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

Angle of impingement 0 10 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90

Eroded mass parameter ( 0 2.5521 x 10-5 4.9803 x 10-5 5.7843 x 10-5 6.1787 x 10-5 6.1412 x 10-5 5.7197 x 10-5 4.1661 x 10-5 2.4974 x 10-5 1.3163 x 10-5 7.567 x 10-6 0.00000405

mg/g

101 | P a g e

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