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Chapter 1
Vector Algebra
Scalars and Vectors Unit Vector Vector Addition, Subtraction Vector Multiplication Chapter 2
Coordinate Systems
Vector Calculus
Differential Length, Area and Volume Del Operator Gradient of a Scalar Divergence of a Vector Curl of a Vector Laplacian of a Scalar Classification of Vector Fields Chapter 4
Electrostatic Fields
15
Coulombs Law and Field Intensity Electric Flux Density Gausss Law Electric Potential Electrostatic Energy Chapter 5
33
43
Magnetostatic Fields
45
Biot-Savarts Law and Magnetic Flux Intensity Amperes Circuit Law Magnetic Flux Density Magnetic Vector Potential
Chapter 8
53
Magnetic Forces Magnetization Magnetic Materials Boundary Conditions Inductance Magnetic Energy Chapter 9
Maxwells Equations
63
Faradays law Displacement Current Maxwells Equations Time Varying Potentials Time Harmonic Fields Chapter 10
71
Waves Equations in Source-Free Region Electromagnetic Power and Poynting Theorem Solution of Uniform, Time-Harmonic Plane Wave Motion
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Chapter 1
VECTOR ALGEBRA
I. Scalars and Vectors
Scalar a quantity that has only magnitude (exe: time (t), mass (m), distance (d), temperature (T)) Vector a quantity that has both magnitude and direction r r r (exe: velocity ( v ), force ( F ), displacement ( d ) ) Field a function that specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a region. If the quantity is a scalar (or vector), the field is said to be a scalar field (or vector field).
r r A A uA = r = A A
Note that u A = 1 .
where
r r A = A : magnitude of A
Ax u x + Ay u y + Az u z Ax + Ay + Az
2 2 2
r A
uz
uA
y Ax x x Ay
ux
uy
r A = Ax u x + Ay u y + Az u z r B = Bx u x + B y u y + Bz u z
r r r C = A+ B
= ( A x + B x )u x + ( A y + B y )u y + ( A z + B z )u z
Subtraction :
r r r D= AB
= ( Ax B x )u x + ( A y B y )u y + ( Az B z )u z
3 basic laws of algebra obeyed by any given vectors A, B, C : LAW Commutative Associative Distributive Addition
r r r
r r r r A+ B= B+ A r r r r r r A+ B+C = A+ B +C r r r r k A + B = kA + kB
Multiplication r r kA = A k
) (
r r k (lA) = (kl) A
rP = OP = xu x + yu y + z u z
P O
rP
rPQ
rP
r Q
Q x
The distance vector (or separation vector) in Cartesian of P and Q is the displacement from P to Q;
rPQ = rQ rP = ( x Q x P )u x + ( y Q y P )u y + ( z Q z P )u z
V.
Vector Multiplication
V.1. Scalar (or dot) product
r r A.B = Ax .B x + Ay .B y + Az .B z
Distributive :
r r r2 A. A = A = A 2 r r r r AB A.B = 0
r r r r r r r A. B + C = A.B + A.C
(Cartesian :)
u n .u m = 0 u n .u n = 1
with
n, m {x, y, z} nm
r r r r A B = A B = A.B. sin AB .u n
r r AB : the smaller angle between A and B
un
r r A B
r B
AB AB
r A r B
r A
r r A B
ux r r A B = Ax Bx
uy Ay By
Basic properties: i) ii) iii) iv) It is not commutative: It is anticommutative: It is not associative:
It is distributive: r r r r A parallel to B A B = 0
r r r r A B B A r r r r A B= B A r r r r r r A BC A B C r r r r r r r A B+C = A B+ AC
( ( r
) ( )
r r r r r r r r r A BC = B C A =C A B
V.4. Vector Triple Product
) (
) (
r r r r r r r rr A B C = B A.C C A.B
Remark :
) ( ) ( )
r
but
r r (A.B)C A(B.C ), r r r
r r (A.B)C = C(A.B) r r r r
Chapter 2
SYSTEMS OF COORDINATE
We shall restrict ourselves to 3 coordinate systems: Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical coordinate systems.
I.
< x < + < y < + < z < + r A vector A in Cartesian can be written as: r A = Ax u x + A y u y + Az u z
where u x , u y , u z are unit vectors along x, y and z directions.
r A = Ar u r + A u + A u + Az u z
Note that the direction of u is the same as the direction of u in cylindrical coordinate system.
Chapter 3
VECTOR CALCULUS
I.
dx.dz.u y dx.dy.u z
un
Remark : dS = dS .u n = l.m.u n
m
dS
dv = dx.dy.dz
dx dz
ux
dx dy
dy O z x
dz
uy
dx y
dz
uz
dy
O y
dl = d .u + .d .u + dz.u z
dS = .d .dz.u
ii) Differential normal area :
d .dz.u
.d .d .u z
iii) Differential volume :
z
dv = .d .d .dz
d dz .d y
dv = r 2 . sin .dr.d .d
r.d dr
. d=r.sin.d
r A
c
dl
path L a
If the path of integration is a closed curve (or path) such as a-b-c-a (see figure), the integral becomes a closed contour integral ; and we define the circulation of A around L as :
A.dl
L
CIRCULATION of A around L Given a vector field A , continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S, we define the surface integral (or the flux) of A through S as :
r A
un
dS
surface S
Remark :
= A.dS
S
.dv
r = u x + u y + u z y x z
Vector differential operator / Gradient operator
Cylindrical :
r 1 = u + u + z u z r 1 1 = u r + u + r sin u r r
Spherical :
r V or
grad (V )
Cartesian :
r V V V V = u x + y u y + z u z x r V 1 V V V = u + u + z u z r V V = r
Properties:
Cylindrical :
Spherical :
1 V u r + r
1 V u + r sin u
r r r (V + U ) = V + U r r r (VU ) = VU + UV r r r V UV VU = U2 U r n r V = nV n 1V
U,V : scalar n : integer Remarks : The magnitude of V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance.
r V points the direction of the maximum rate of change. r V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface which passes through that r r
point.
10
Cartesian :
Cylindrical :
Spherical :
r r r rr rr A + B = A + B
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
(or GAUSS-OSTROGRADSKY THEOREM) The total outward flux of a vector field A through the closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A . Where,
r A.dS =
S
r r . A.dv
v
11
V.
r r r r curl ( A) = rot ( A) = A x Ax A Ay Ay Ax A A u x + x z u y + = Ay = z u z y y y z z x A y z z
Cylindrical :
r r 1 Az A A Az 1 (A ) 1 A A= u + u + u z z z
1 ( A sin ) A r sin
Properties:
Spherical :
r r A=
( (
) ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
vanishes) vanishes)
STOKES THEOREM
(or ROTATIONAL THEOREM) The circulation of A around a closed path L is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L. ( A and A are continuous on S) Where,
A.dl = ( A).dS
r r r
L S
12
r 2V 2V 2V 2V = 2 + 2 + 2 x y z
r 1 V 2V = 1 2V 2V + 2 2 + z 2
Cylindrical : Spherical :
r 2V = 0
(Laplaces Equation)
r r r r r r r r r 2 A = . A A
( )
(Cartesian :)
r r r r r 2 A = 2 Ax u x + 2 A y u y + 2 Az u z
r r . A = 0
A curl-free field (the circulation of the vector field around a closed path is zero) is irrotational :
r r r A=0
A solenoidal (or divergenceless) field has neither source nor sink of flux. An irrotational field is also known as a conservative field (the line integral of an irrotational field is independent of the chosen path)
13
We may classify vector fields as : 1. Solenoidal and irrotational. (exe : a static electric field in a charge-free region)
2. Solenoidal but not irrotational. (exe : a steady magnetic field in a current-carrying conductor)
4. Neither solenoidal nor irrotational. (exe : an electric field in charged medium with a time-varying field)
HEMHOLTZS THEOREM r r r . A = v r Any vector A satisfying the equations : r (where v can be regarded as the source density A = S r of A and S its circulation density) with both v and S vanishing at infinity can be written as the
sum of 2 vectors: one irrotational, the other solenoidal. Where,
r r r r A = V + B
14
Chapter 4
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
We begin with fundamental concepts that are applicable to static electric fields in free-space (vacumm). An electrostatic field is produced by a static charge distribution. We investigate 2 fundamental laws governing electrostatic fields : Coulombs law Gausss Law
I.
COULOMBS LAW
The force between 2 charged bodies, q1 and q2, that are very small compared with the distance of separation, R12, is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, the direction of the force being along the line connecting the charges. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other. Using vector notation, Coulombs Law can be written mathematically as:
F12 = k
q1 q 2 R12
2
u R12 =
q1 q 2
4 0 R12 2
u R12
In this case, we say F12 is the force exerted on point charge q2 due to q1 with
k=
1 4 0
0 8.854 10 12 F / m
1 F /m 36 10 +9
We may write,
F12 =
q1 q 2 4 0 R12
2
u R12 =
q1 q 2 q q r r R12 = 1 2 2 1 3 3 4 0 r r 4 0 R 2 1
F12
q2
q1
r2
O (Origin)
F21
r1
15
Remarks : Since u R12 = u R21 , we have : F12 = F21 The distance R between q1 and q2 must be large compared with the linear dimensions of the bodies. q1 and q2 must be static (at rest). The signs of q1 and q2 must be taken into account.
For N charges (q1,q2, . qN) located respectively at points with position vectors
1 2 N
(r , r ,....r ) , the resultant force on a charge q located at point rr is the vector sum of the
r q k r rk Fq = r 4 0 k =1 r r 3 k
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY The force exerted to a charge is due to the electric field created by another charge. By definition, the electric field intensity is the force per unit charge that a very small stationary test charge experiences when it is placed where an electric field exists.
r r F E= , q
exe:
r r F = qE
E 21 =
q2
4 0 R21
u R21
In general, the electric field intensity created by a point charge q at a point of observation P can be written as:
r E=
q 4 0 R
2
u R V/m
P
r R
r E
r E=
r q k r rk r 4 0 k =1 r r 3 k 1
N
16
q
4 0 R 2
: electric field at a point given due to a line charge : electric field at a point given due to a surface charge : electric field at a point given due to a volume charge
zB
with dl = dz
Remark :
We denote the field point by (x, y, z) and the source point (of the line charge AB) by (x, y, z).
dE z
dE
( , , z)P
2 B 1
dE
uR
r R
17
We have :
cos 2
d d
dz ' =
Hence,
cos 2
r . E= l 4 0 =
l cos .d .u + tan . cos .d .u z 4 0 l cos .d .u + sin .d .u z = 4 0 l cos .d .u + sin .d .u z = 4 0 l (sin 1 sin 2 )u + (cos 2 cos 1 )u z = 4 0
[ [
Remark : For an infinite line charge (A at (0, 0, -) and B at (0, 0, +)), 1 will tend to /2, and 1 will tend to - /2, where the electric field at point P becomes :
r E=
l u 2 0
18
S .dS
0
R2
r R = u + hu z r 1/ 2 R = R = ( 2 + h 2 )
hence,
r .dS . .d .d r E = S 2 u R = S R 4 0 R 4 0 R 3 = =
S 4 0 S 4 0
.d .d
2
+ h2
3/ 2
( u
+ hu z
)
)
2 .d .d h. .d .d uz u + 3/ 2 3/ 2 2 + h2 2 + h2
Remark: For an infinite surface charge, due to the symmetry of the distribution, for each dE1 , there is dE 2 , hence the component along of the vector sum of dE1 and dE 2 will vanish. The resultant vector E has only z-component.
19
Hence,
r E= S 4 0 = = =
h. .d .d
2
+ h2
3/ 2
uz
S .h 2 .d 0 d 0 ( 2 + h 2 )3 / 2 u z 4 0 S .h 1 1 (2 ) dm.u 0 2 3/ 2 4 0 (m + h ) 2 z
S .h 1 / 2 (m + h 2 ) 0 uz 2 0 = S uz 2 0 m= 2
= m
d = 1 2 m dm dm = 1 dm 2
.d =
m 2 m
We define the electric flux density (also called electric displacement) as:
r r D = 0 E C/m2
and,
= D.dS Coulombs S
= Qenclosed
20
Remark: The definition of flux is given by: can be written as: defined by:
S
= D.dS = D.dS
S
Knowing that the surface is a closed surface bounding a volume, the expression
Qenclosed = v .dv
v
r r r D.dS = .D dv , leads us
S v
( )
(.D )dv =
r r
v v
.dv
hence;
r r .D = v
MAXWELL (the first of the Maxwells Equations to be derived)
Remark: Gausss law is an alternative statement of Coulombs law. Gausss law can be used to determine E or D when the charge distribution is symmetric. (If it is not symmetric, we must resort to Coulombs law to determine E or
r D ).
Whether the charge distribution is symmetric or not, Gausss law always hold.
V.
r D tangential/parallel to dS , r D normal/orthogonal to dS ,
21
r D = Dr .u r
dS = dS .u n = dS .u r
Gausss law :
= Qenclosed
Q r
r D
P (r, , ) y
r D.dS = Qenclosed = Q
S
Dr .dS .u r .u r = Q
S
Dr dS = Q Dr 4r 2 = Q Dr =
hence,
Q 4r 2
r Q ur D= 4r 2
2
Remark:
2 2 dS = r d sin .d = 4r
r D = D.u r , with D depends only on the distance between the observation point and the
source (the line charge). In other words, the magnitude D depends only on the coordinate of the cylindrical coordinate system.
r D = D .u
Remark :
r D
y
x l
22
Gausss law :
= Qenclosed
with and
= D.dS = D dS side = D 2l
S
Qenclosed = l .dl = l .l
hence,
r D = D u = l u 2
r D .u D= z z D z .(u z )
u side .u z = 0
The top and bottom surfaces of the Gaussian surface are considered as 2 different surfaces
z
r D
y S
P
area : A
x Gaussian Surface
Gausss law :
= Qenclosed
23
r D
with and
Qenclosed = S .dS = S . A
hence,
r D = Dz u z = S u z 2
r1 y r2
4 3 r1 3
D1 = Dr u r =
r1 v ur 3
= D.dS 2 = Dr dS 2 = Dr 4r2 2
S2
Qenclosed = v .dv = v dv = v
Where
4 3 R 3
D2 = Dr u r =
R3 3r2
2
v ur
24
r D
r r 3 v ur D= 3 R v ur 3r 2
R v 3
r R
VI.
Thus, the total work done in displacing the charge Q from a form A to B in the electric field
r r dW = F .dl = QE.dl
r E is:
B r W = Q E.dl A
V AB =
B r W = E.dl A Q
r E
dl
B
V AB = =
rB
q 4 0 r
2
rA
u r .dr.u r =
q 1 1 4 0 rB rA
q 1 1 = VB V A 4 0 rB 4 0 rA
VA and VB are the potentials (or absolute potentials) at A and B respectively. VAB may be regarded as the potential at point B with reference to A. Thus, the potential at a point P due to a point charge q is given by
V=
q 4 0 r
where r is the distance between P and Q, and the infinity is taken as the reference. 25
Remark: For an electric field due to n point charges (q1, q2, . qn) located at points with position vectors r1, r2, rn, the potential V created at point P is:
V ( P) =
1 4 0
k =1
qk r p rk
V=
1 4 0 1 4 0 1 4 0
l .dl
r
V=
S .dS
r
V=
v .dv
r
l , S , v :
=0
Where,
E.dl = 0
E.dl = ( E )dS
r r r
r r r E=0
26
E.dl = 0
or
r r r E=0
Remark: The circulation of the vector electrostatic field along a closed path is zero = the vector electrostatic field is conservative = no net work is done in moving a charge along a path in an electrostatic field = the line integral of E between two points doesnt depend on the path taken Since E = 0 , E is said to be derived from the gradient of a scalar field V, and from the way we define potential, it follows that,
r r E = V
(note that the curl of the gradient of a scalar function is always zero)
1 +q
Potential at point P :
V =V + +V +q q = + 4 0 r1 4 0 r2
1 1 r r 2 1 + q r2 r1 = 4 0 r1 r2 = +q 4 0
27
Approximation:
If r >> d,
r1 r2 r 2 qd cos V = 4 0 r 2 r2 r1 d cos
We define
r d .u r = d cos r r p = q.d r p = p = qd
r p : dipole moment,
hence,
r p.u r p = V= 2 4 0 r 4 0 r 2
The electric field due to the dipole (with centre at the origin),
r r E = .V =
4 0 r 3
(2 cos .u
+ sin .u
r D = Dx u x + D y u y + Dz u z
dx dy dz = = Dx D y Dz d .d dz = = D D Dz dr r.d r sin .d = = Dr D D
The flux lines are given by: Cylindrical: The flux lines are given by: Spherical: The flux lines are given by:
28
Equipotential surface: any surface on which the potential is the same. Remark: No work is done in moving a charge from one point to another along an equipotential surface:
V A VB = 0 r E.dl = 0
The flux lines (or the direction of E ) are always normal to equipotential surfaces. The equipotential surfaces are determined by: V = constant, Exe: point charge (if V is given) Exe: electric dipole
Flux line
Equipotential surface
Equipotential surface
Flux line
IX.
Electrostatic energy
In introducing electrostatic potentials, we defined them in terms of the work done to move a positive charge from one point to another. We will quantify the potential energy present in a system of charges by determining the amount of work that must be done to assemble such a system of charge distribution. Consider a space completely empty and does not contain any charge. No work is done to bring a point charge Q1 from infinity to a point in the free region. The work required to bring a charge Q2 from infinity against the field of a charge Q1 in free space to a distance R12 is:
W2 = Q2V2 = Q2
Q1 4 0 R12
29
The work required to bring a third charge Q3 from infinity to a point that is R13 from Q1 and R23 from a Q2 is:
Q1 Q2 W3 = Q3V3 = Q3 4 R + 4 R 0 13 0 23
The total work required to place the three charges is (which is also the potential energy stored in the system of charge distribution):
Wtotal = W1 + W2 + W3 = 0 + Q2 = = =
Q1 Q1 Q2 + Q3 + 4 R 4 0 R12 4 0 R23 0 13
Q 2 Q3 Q3 Q1 Q1Q2 + + 4 0 R12 4 0 R23 4 0 R13 Q2 Q1 Q3 Q3 Q1 1 Q2 + Q3 + Q2 + + + Q1 4 R 4 R 2 4 0 R12 4 0 R13 4 0 R23 4 0 R13 0 12 0 23 1 [Q1V1 '+Q2V2 '+Q3V3 '] 2 Wtotal = 1 N Qk Vk ' 2 k =1
1 4 0
where
Vk ' =
j=1, j k
Qj R jk
For a continuous charge distribution (line charge, surface charge, volume charge), the potential energy stored is given by:
r r .D = v r r r r r r . VD = V .D + D V
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
W =
r r 1 1 v .V .dv = 2 .D V .dv 2 r r r r 1 = . VD D. V dv 2
[ ( )
( )]
30
r r r A.dS = . A dv ,
S v
( )
and
the
relation
W =
( )
Note that
S
W=
r r 1 1 E.D.dv = 0 E 2 dv v 2 2 v
E =
WE =
dW E 1 r r 1 1 = D.E = 0 E 2 = D2 2 2 2 0 dv D2 1 1 0 E 2 dv = dv = E dv v 2 v 2 v 0
31
32
Chapter 5
Microspically, the major difference between conductros and dielectrics is the amount of the (free) electrons available for the conduction of current : dielectrics have few electrons available for conduction of current, in contrast to conductors.
I.
I=
dq dt
the transfer of charge at a rate of 1 coulomb per
Consider a flow of charge of density v , accros an element of surface S , with velocity v . r In time t , the charge moves at distance v . t . The amount of charge passing through the surface S is:
r r Q = v volume = v (v .t ) S = v t.v .S
Hence,
( )
I =
Q r = v .v .S t
r v
dS
r J
un
We define the current density; (A/m2) Hence,
r r J = v .v
Convection
Current
Density
r I = J .S
Where
33
When an electric field is applied to a conductor, conduction current occurs due to the drift motion of electrons. The electrons move and encounter forces called resistance. The average drift velocity of the electrons is directly proportional to the electric field intensity. This is explained by:
F = e E =
mv
where
Or,
v = ne For n electrons per unit volume, the density of charge is given by: Hence, from the definition of convection current, the conduction current density can be defined:
r r ne 2 J = v .v = E =E m r r J = .E Conduction Current Density (A/m2)
(also known as the point form of OHMS LAW)
II.
Conductors
Conductor has a large amount of free electrons (mobile and free to move) in its body, described by its high value of conductivity. An electric field applied to a conductor introduces coulombs forces on the charges. Free to move electrons will then move against the direction of the positively applied electric field. These electrons will then leave behind the holes (protons) which are positively charged and attract other electrons. This process continues until a certain amount of electrons are accumulated at one side of the conductor, leaving positive charges at the other side. The amount of accumulated charges is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field applied. The time taken for the conductor and its charges to reach the equilibrium is called the relaxation time. The charge accumulation leads to the creation of internal electric field whose direction is to oppose the direction of the external electric applied. This makes the total electric field inside the conductor zero. The total charge density inside the conductor is also maintained at zero in dynamic case. Conductors are then said to be equipotential body since no electric field is formed inside the it even if an external electric field is applied (hence no change in potential is found along any line inside the conductor). The presence of free to move electrons in the conductor play the role in neutralizing the total charge and electric field in its body.
34
RESISTANCE OF CONDUCTOR Consider a conductor of uniform cross-sectional area S, and of length h. A voltage V is applied to the conductor producing an electric field E .
r E
I
l V
The electric field applied is uniform: The cross-sectional area is uniform: Ohms law:
r r J = .E J = .E I V = S h
Hence,
V=
area) R:
c =
resistivity
R=
V I
E.dl r E.dS
35
III.
Dielectrics
III.1. Polarization
In ideal dielectrics, there is no electrons available for conduction of current. Charges in dielectrics are not able to move freely and they are bound by finite forces but we can expect a displacement when an externel force is applied. An atom (or molecule) of a dielectric is composed of a positively charged nucleus, surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The whole atom (or molecule) is electrically neutral (same amount of positive and negative charges). When an external electric field is applied, the positive charge is displaced in the direction of E and the negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction. These displacements create electric dipoles and polarize a dielectric. Dipole Moment :
r r p = q.d (Cm)
-q
+q
r d
Non-polar dielectric : dielectric whose molecules do not posess dipoles until the application of electric field (the dipole moment is in the direction of E ). (exe : oxygen, hydrogen, rare gases) dielectric which has built-in permanent dipoles which are randomly oriented (exe : water)
Polar dielectric :
We define polarization P (C/m2) as the dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric ;
r P = lim
r
Q
k =1
dk
v 0
r p = v
The major effect of the E on a dielectric is the creation of dipole momentswhich align themselves in the direction of E .
r p.u R V= 4 0 R 2
r P.dv.u R dV = 4 0 R 2
36
We have :
r 1 u = R ; 2 R R
hence,
r r r 1 P.u R = P. 2 R R
r r r r r r f . A = f . A + A. f
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
We find :
r P.u R r r 1 r 1 r 1 r r = P. = P .P R2 R R R
dV =
dv r 1 r 1 r r P .P 4 0 R R r 1 r 1 1 1 r r V = P dv + .P dv v 4 v 4 R 0 0 R 1 1 r 1 r r = .P dv P .dS + v S 4 4 0 R 0 R r r r 1 P.dS = + .P dv S 4 R v 4 R 0 0
( )
( )
( )
Remark :
r P.dS S 4 0 R
: Potential due to surface charge (closed surface bounding the volume of the dielectric given), with density PS = P.u n . ( PS : polarization/bound surface charge density)
4
v
1
0
( .P )dv R
r r
: Potential due to volume charge (the volume of the dielectric given), with density Pv = .P ( Pv : polarization/bound volume charge density)
r r
In other words :
A polarized dielectrics can be represented by an equivalent polarization/bound surface charge density PS and an equivalent polarization/bound volume charge density Pv for field calculations. Bound charges are those which are not free to move within the dielectric material ; they are cused by the displacement which occurs during the polarization.
37
If v is the free charge volume density, the total volume charge density in the dielectric is :
t = v + Pv = .D + Pv = . 0 E
Hence
r r
r r r r r r .D .P = . 0 E r r r r r r .D = . 0 E + .P r r r r r .D = 0 E + P r r r D = 0E + P
r r r D = 0E + P
(When E is applied to a dielectric, D is increased by amount P inside the dielectric) Note that in free space, P = 0, so that D = 0 E . To simplify the discussion, we except that P varies directly as the applied E , which is usually the case for some dielectrics and we have :
r r P = e 0 E
e : susceptibility (how sensitive a given dielectrics to electric fields)
r r D = .E
Where : : 0 : r :
= 0 . r
r = 1+ e =
permittivity of the dielectric (F/m) permittivity of free space (F/m) relative permittivity / dielectric constant (dimensionless) -depends on the frequency -equal to 1 for free space and non-dielectric materials
(otherwise, inhomogeneous)
38
IV.
Continuity equation
The principle of charge conservation: The time rate of decrease of charge within a given volume must be equal to the net outward current flow through the closed surface of the volume:
r I out = J .dS
S
: current coming out the closed surface : the time rate of decrease of charge within a given volume
dq in dt
r dq I out = J .dS = in S dt
but,
r r r J .dS = .J .dv
S v
(divergence theorem)
dq in d = dt dt
.dv =
v .dv t
r r .J .dv = v dv v v t
r r .J = v t
CONTINUITY OF CURRENT EQUATION Remark: For steady current,
charge leaving a volume is the same as the total charge entering it (which leads to Kirchoffs current law).
V.
Boundary conditions
In this section, we are going to obtain mathematical relations that describe the transitional properties of the electrostatic field from one region to another. Consider the electric field E existing in two different regions characterised by 1 = 0. r1 and 2 = 0. r2 , separated by and interface. The electric field E can be decomposed as:
tangential component of E1 (to the interface) normal component of E1 (to the interface)
39
w a b h
E2
un ut
d c
E1
E1t
E1n
Let us consider first the boundary condition of the tangential component of the electric field. Starting form the Maxwells equation
r E.dl =
abcda
ab
bc
cd
da
r )E.dl = 0
where
E1t = E2t
or
r u n E 2 E1 = 0
Similarly, we consider the boundary condition of the normal component of the electric field. Starting form the Maxwells equation (Gausss law)
D.dS = Q
S
enc
, where we construct a
closed surface (a pillbox/cylinder between the two regions) with the length h.
E2
E2n 2
un ut
E2t 1
interface
E1
E1t
E1n
40
D.dS = (D
S
2n
S ) (D1n S )
Qenclosed = S .S
u n . D2 D1 = S
D2 n D1n = S
or
the free charge density at the interface separating the two regions)
We shall consider the boundary conditions at an interface separating: 2 perfect dielectrics perfect dielectric and perfect conductors
DIELECTRIC DIELECTRIC Continuity of the tangential component of electric field E at the interface:
E1t = E2t
or
r u n E 2 E1 = 0
The free charge in any perfect dielectric is zero. Therefore, at the interface between two such dielectrics, S should be zero, where:
D1n = D2n
or
u n . D2 D1 = 0
tan 1 r1 = tan 2 r 2
Law of Refraction
E2t
E2n
E2
2 interface
E1
1 E1n
E1t
41
DIELECTRIC CONDUCTOR For a perfect conductor, . But J = .E and J , hence E = 0 . This causes v = 0 (a perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field within it). If the region 1 is taken as a dielectric and the perfect conductor is the region 2, we have:
E1t = Et = 0
conductor
Conductors are characterised by the presence of free electrons, so it is expected that free charges would exist at the interface separating a dielectric and a conductor. Because
D1n = Dn = S
42
Chapter 6
I.
r r . V = v
r r r r .D = .E = v r r E = V ,
For the general case (for inhomogeneous medium), the equation above can be written as :
and the is constant in term of the position for homogeneous material, where :
r r . V = v , r v 2V =
POISSONS EQUATION
which is the Poissons Equation. A special case of the Poissons Equation occurs when v = 0 , and the equation is reduced to :
r v 2V =
LAPLACES EQUATION
which is the Laplaces Equation. The symbol 2 is called the Laplace operator (see chapter 3). GENERAL PROCEDURE EQUATION OF SOLVING POISSONS OR LAPLACES
Identify the variable coordinate (on which the potential V depends). Chose the suitable coordinate system. Solve the Poissons or Laplaces equation (to get the general expression of the potential V in terms of the constants). Determine the constants from the boundary conditions of the problem.
43
II.2. Capacitance
Capacitance is a measure of the amount of charge of a particular configuratoin of two (or more) conductors is able to retain per unit voltage applied between them (the capacitance describes the ability of the configuration to store electrostatic energy). Consider two conductors surrounded by a homogeneous dielectric of = 0 + r . The total charge on each conductor is Q, with conductor 1 carries a total charge of +Q and conductor 2 carries Q. V is the potential difference between the two conductors. The capacitance is defined as the ratio of the amount of positive charge to the resulting potential betweev the conductors :
C=
Q Capacitance ( F ) V
1 Farad = 1 C/V
There are generally two procedures to find the capacitance : Assuming Q and calculate the electric field E (exe : using Gausss law). V can be derived from V = E.dl or E = V and apply C =
Q . V
Q . V
r E
+Q -Q
44
Chapter 7
MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS
Electric field characterized by E and D while magnetic field is characterized by H and B , where
r r H is the magnetic field intensity and B is the magnetic flux density. For linear material space, r r B = .H where is the permeability of the material, that will be discussed later in this chapter.
We have seen in the previous chapters that static charge gives electrostatic field. If the static charge is moving with a constant velocity, a static magnetic field (or magnetostatic field) is produced. We will consider a magnetostatic field in free-space. There are similarities and dissimilarities between electrostattic and magnetostatic fields. Below is the analogy between electrostatic and magnetostatic fields :
Term
Basic laws
Electric
r qq F = 1 22 uR 4R r D.dS = Qenclosed
S
Magnetic
dB = .I dl u R 4R 2
r H .dl = I enclosed
L
Force law Source element Field intesity Flux density Relationship between fields Potentials
r r F = qE
dq
r r r F = qv B
r qv = I .dl
r V (V/m) E = l r (C/m2) D= S r r D = .E
r r E = V
r I H = (A/m) l r (Wb/m2) B= S r r B = .H
r r r H = Vm if ( J = 0)
r r r B= A
r V = E.dl
Flux
= D.dS
S
= B.dS
S
dV (C : capacitance) dt 1 r r w E = D.E 2 r2 V = v I =C
V =L
45
I.
BIOT-SAVARTs Law
BIOT-SAVARTS LAW
The magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P, by the differential current element I.dl, i. is proportional to the product I. dl and the sine of the angle between the element and the line joining P the element. ii. and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between P and the element.
dH
where,
r I .dl u R I .dl R = dH = 4R 2 4R 3
r I .dl u R I .dl R = dB = 4R 2 4R 3
remark:
Remark : The direction of dH can be determined by the Right Hand Rule with the rigth hand thumb pointing the direction of the current, the fingers encircling the wire in the direction of dH :
I I I
r R
dl
dH
dH
46
we can write,
Consider a conductor with finite length AB, carrying a current I in the z direction. Using Biot-Savarts law, we define the magnetic field intensity at a point of observation P, placed at z=0.
B B
z A A
r R
P
Biot-Savarts law :
r I .dl u R I .dl R dH = = 4R 2 4R 3
with
dl = dz.u z r R = u zu z
where
r dl R = .dz.u
and we have :
R3 =
3
sin 3
47
We write dz in term of d,
tan = z=
tan dz = .d sin 2
Thus,
3 3 r B I . .dz.u sin B I . .u sin H = = .d 3 3 A A 4 4 sin 2 I B sin .d .u = 4 A
r I (cos B cos A )u H = 4
For a conuctor of infinite length,
A cos A 1 B 0 cos B 1
r I H= u 2
II.
The line integral of the tangential component of H around a closed path is the same as the net current Ienc enclosed by the path (the circulation of H equals Ienc ) :
r (applied to determine H when the current distribution is symmetrical. Just like Gausss law, Amperes law
is a special case of Biot-Savarts law)
r H .dl = I enc
r r r H = J
MAXWELL (the third of the Maxwells Equations to be derived) Remark :
r r r H 0
48
current source following the right-hand rule), with H is the magnitude of H , depending only on the distance between the observation point and the line current. In other words, the magnitude H depends only on the coordinate of the cylindrical coordinate system.
r H = H .u
dl = .d .u
Amperes law :
r H .dl = I enc
enc
H .u . .d .u = I H d = I
L L
=I
O y P
H 2 = I H = I 2 r I H = u 2
dl
x
is
along u x if the point of observation is above the surface and it is along u x if the the point of observation is below the surface (from the application of Biot-Savart), where H is the magnitude of H , depending only on the distance between the observation point and the surface current. In other words, the magnitude H depends only on the coordinate z of the cartesian coordinate system.
r H .u x H = H .u x
(z > 0) (z < 0)
z 2 infinite surface current
r K = K y .u y
I enc = K y .b
a 1 y
r K
b
49
Amperes law :
r H .dl = I enc
1 Ky 2
III.
= B.dS
S
r r B = 0 .H
r
The magnetic flux line is the path to which B is tangential at every point in a magnetic field. The magnetic flux lines always close upon themselves, which means that it is impossible to have isolated poles (or magnetic charges) of magnetic field isolated magnetic charge does not exist. The total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero, that is,
r B.dS = 0
S
Law of conservation of magnetic flux (Gausss law for magnetostatic field) Remark : Magnetostatic flux is conservative, but magnetostatic field is not. Electrostatic field is conservative, but electrostatic flux is not. Divergence theorem,
where:
r r .B = 0
MAXWELL (the forth of the Maxwells Equations to be derived) Magnetostatic fields have no source or sink (magnetostatic field lines are always continuous).
50
Summary :
Remarks
Gausss law for electrostatic field Gausss law for magnetostatic field. Nonexistance of magnetic monopole. Faradays law. Conservativeness of electrostatic field. Amperes law.
r B.dS = 0
S
r E.dl = 0
L
H .dl = I
L
enclosed
r = J .dS
S
IV.
r r H = V m
(if J = 0 )
We know that the divergence of magnetic flux is zero, .B = 0 , and since the divergence of
r r r r r r the rotational (or curl) of any vector B is zero, . B = 0 , hence we define a vector r A , the magnetic vector potential as: r r r r B= A A : magnetic vector potential
Weve seen that (for line, surface and volume current), that:
or
= A.dl
L
(using
Stokes
51
52
Chapter 8
MAGNETIC FORCES AND MATERIALS - INDUCTANCE In this chapter, we study the force a magnetic field exerts on charged particles, current elements and loops. We will also consider magnetic fields in material media, and discuss on the definition of inductance.
I.
Magnetic Forces
I.1. Force on a charged particle
A magnetic field can only exert force on a moving charge. We define, Fm , the magnetic force experienced by a charge q moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field B , as:
r r r Fm = qv B
(Remark: Fm v
and
r r Fm B )
r r r F = Fe + Fm
hence,
r r r r F = q( E + v B)
LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION
where,
53
LAPLACE FORCE
to the magnetic field B ,
We determine the force on a current element I .dl of a current carrying conductor due
r r r dF = dq.v B
r r r dF = I .dl B
LAPLACE FORCE
hence,
(the current element I .dl doesnt exert force on the element itself. Its the field
r r r F = I .dl B
r I 1 .dl1
r d (dF1 ) r R 21 r I 2 .dl 2
I2
I1
r r r d (dF1 ) = I 1 .dl1 dB 2 ,
r r r r 0 I 1 dl1 ( I 2 dl 2 u R21 ) d (dF1 ) = 2 4R 21 r r r r 0 I1 I 2 dl1 (dl 2 u R21 ) F1 = 2 4 L1 L 2 R 21 r F1 = total force on current loop 1 due to current loop 2.
Note that,
r r F1 = F2
54
II.
Magnetization in materials
Electron spin
These electronic motions produce internal magnetic fields B i that are similar to the magnetic field produced by a current loop. r r We define the magnetic moment for a current loop: m = I b S .u n S: the area of the loop Ib: the bound current
Ib
The sum of magnetic moments is zero in a material if no magnetic field is applied on it. If an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic moments more align themselves with the external magnetic field so that the net magnetic moment is not zero. Considering that there are N atoms in a given volume <v, we define the magnetization as
r M = lim
A medium is said to be magnetized if M 0 . We can show that: J b = M
m
k =1
v 0
and
r r K b = M u n , where;
r A= 0 4
v'
J b dv' 0 + 4 R
S'
55
r r r B = 0 (H + M )
where ;
r r M = mH
where,
r r B = 0 (1 + m ) H r = 0 r H r = H
with:
= 0r r = =1+ m 0
: permeability of the material (H/m) r : relative permeability of the material
III.
Diamagnetics m < 0 r 1
Paramagnetics m > 0 r 1
56
Diamagnetics & Paramagnetics: For most practical purposes, we may assume that r 1 for paramagnetic and diamagnetic material. Thus, diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials may be regarded as linear and nonmagnetic. Example - Diamagnetic: bismuth, lead, copper, silicon, diamond Paramagnetic: air, platinum, tungsten, potassium Ferromagnetics: Materials whose atoms have relatively large permanent magnetic moment. Properties: 1. Capable of being magnetized very strongly by a magnetic field. 2. Retain a considerable amount of magnetization when removed from the field. 3. Lose ferromagnetic properties to become paramagnetic when the temperature raised above the curie temperature (depends on the material). 4. Nonlinear. The relation B = 0 r H doesnt hold for ferromagnetic material because r depends on B and cannot be represented by a single value.
The closed curve: hysteresis loop (dependent on the materials) The area of the hysteresis loop: hysteresis loss (energy loss per unit volume during one cycle of the periodic magnetization of the ferromagnetic material)
IV.
57
B1n = B2n
Continuity of the normal component
or
1H1n = 2H2n
Discontinuity of the normal component of H at the boundary
r of B at the boundary
And,
2B1t = 1B2t
or
H1t = H2t
Continuity of the tangential component of H at the boundary
V.
= B.dS (Wb)
C0 I S
If the circuit Co has N identical turns, we call the flux linkage, , as: We call the INDUCTANCE, L:
= N
L=
The circuit is called INDUCTOR. Magnetic energy stored in an inductor, Wm:
N I
(Weber/Ampere) or (Henry)
Wm =
1 2 LI 2
(Joules)
Consider 2 neighbouring closed loops, C1 and C2, bounding surface S1 and S2 respectively. I1 flows in C1, creating B1 . I2 flows in C2, creating B 2 .
I1 S1 S2 I2 C1 C2
58
Self-Inductance We define the SELF-INDUCTANCE of loop C1 as the magnetic flux linkage per unit current in the loop itself:
L11 =
11
I1
SELF-INDUCTANCE of loop C1
Mutual-Inductance The MUTUAL INDUCTANCE between 2 circuits is the magnetic flux linkage with one circuit per unit current in the other:
M 12 =
12
I2
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE between 1 and 2 12 : flux linkage between C1 and C2, due to C2.
We show that;
M12 = M21
Wm = W1 + W2 + W12 = W1 + W2 + W21 =
with: +1 a= -1 if their magnetic fields oppose each other if I1 and I2 flow such that the magnetic fields of the two circuits strengthen each other
1 1 2 2 L1 I 1 + L2 I 2 + a.M 12 .I 1 I 2 2 2
59
VI.
Magnetic energy
z Conducting sheet y x I
r B
y
Conducting sheet
Consider a volume covered with conducting sheets at the top and bottom surfaces. We have Since
L =
B.S .H .x.z = = I I I
Wm =
1 2 LI , hence: 2
W m = 1 L.I 2 2 1 = .H .x.z.I 2 1 = .H 2 .x.y.z 2 1 = .H 2 .v 2
W m v
m = lim v 0
1 1 B2 2 m = H = BH = 2 2 2
W m = m .dv
Remark (electrostatic): We =
60
r r Current I = J .dS
Field intensity E Current density J =
I = .E S
Flux density B =
r B.dS
= .H
r F = NI = H .dl
Reluctance =
l S
l: the mean length of the magnetic core S: the cross-sectional area Permeance = 1/ Ohms law = Kirchoffs law:
Kirchoffs law:
V l = I .S V = E.l = I .R R=
l .S
I =0 V R.I = 0
= 0 F = 0
I V R N turns F = NI
61
62
Chapter 9
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
We examine situations where electric and magnetic fields are dynamic (time-varying). In static: Electric and magnetic fields are independent of each other. Electric fields are due to static electric charges. Magnetic fields are due to: Motion of electric charges (uniform velocity) Magnetic poles (north and south) Electric and magnetic fields are interdependent. Electromagnetic (EM) fields are due to accelerated charges/time-varying currents. EM fields are represented by :
In dynamic:
r E ( x, y , z , t ) r H ( x, y , z , t )
I.
Faradays Law
FARADAYS LAW
A time-varying field produces an induced voltage electromotive force (emf) in a closed circuit, which causes a flow of current. The induced emf, Vemf, in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit,
Vemf =
d d = N dt dt
(Volt)
LENZS LAW
The negative sign in Vemf = N
the closed loop in such a direction as to oppose the change in the linking magnetic flux.
63
Vemf =
d dt
We have
Hence,
E.dl = ( E )dS
r r r
L S
r r B E= t
MAXWELLS EQUATION (for time-varying EM field) Remark: the time-varying E is not conservative, E 0 .
r r Fm = q.v B
(the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity v in a magnetic field B ) We define the motional electric field as:
Em =
Fm r r =v B q
64
We define the motional emf (or flux-cutting emf) induced in a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity v in static B field,
r r Vemf = E m .dl = v B dl
L L
Stokes:
r r r r Em = v B
r r r r B r E= + v B t
II.
Displacement current
For static EM fields, we recall that,
r r r H = J ..(1)
r r
But . H = 0 = .J ..(2) (the divergence of the curl of any vector field is zero) And the continuity of current equation imposes that,
r r
r r .J = v 0 (3) t
This shows the incompatibility of the equation (2) and (3) for TIME-VARYING EM field. We must modify equation (1) to agree with (3)
65
Consider H = J + J d
( J d : to be determined)
r r r r r r . H = 0 = .J + .J d r r r .J d = .J = v t r r = .D t r r D = . t
Jd r J
r D Jd = t
( )
Where,
r r r r D H =J + t
MAXWELLS EQUATION (for time-varying field H ).
Displacement current
r r D I d = J .dS = .dS S S t
III.
Maxwells equation
DIFFERENTIAL FORM INTEGRAL FORM
r r .D = v
r D.dS = v .dv
s v
r r .B = 0
r r r B E= t
B.dS = 0
s
r r r r D H =J + t
E.dl = t B.dS
L S
r r r D L H .dl = S J + t .dS
66
IV.
Time-varying potentials
For static EM fields: Electric scalar potentials: Magnetic vector potentials: We start from: Faradays law:
V =
v .dv v 4R r r .J .dv A = v 4R
r r r B= A
r r r B E= t r r = A t r r A = t r r r A r =0 E + t r r A r E+ = V t
Where, Remark:
r r r A E = V t
we can define B and E for time-varying if A and V given.
r r D , E=
r r r r r . A .E = v = 2V t r r r 2V + . A = v t
( )
( )
Using
r r r B= A r r r r D H =J + t r r r A E = V t
r r B = H r r D = E
67
We can write:
r r r r r r r A = B = H r r D = J + t r r E = J + t r r r A = J + V t t r 2 r r V A = J 2 t t
r r r r r r r r A = . A 2 A
( )
r r2r r r r r r V 2 A A . A = J + + 2 t t
( )
r r V . A = t
r2 2V V 2 = v t r 2 r r r A 2 A 2 = J t
NONHOMEGENEOUS WAVE EQUATION
Remark:
r r . A = 0 for static
V =
[ v ].dv
4R r r J .dv A = v 4R
v
[]
68
Remark: Notation of
r v ( x, y , z , t ), J ( x, y , z , t ) is replaced by:
[ v ]
and
[Jr ]
t' = t
v=
1
R v
: retarded time
with
and
r R = r r'
V. Time-harmonic fields
Time-harmonic quantities: quantities that vary periodically or sinusoidally with time. Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors.
Recall (phasors)
= tan 1
z1 = x1 + jy1 = r1 1 z 2 = x 2 + jy 2 = r2 2
z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x 2 ) + j ( y1 + y 2 ) z1 z 2 = ( x1 x 2 ) + j ( y1 y 2 ) z1 .z 2 = r1 .r2 (1 + 2 ) z1 r1 = (1 2 ) z 2 r2
69
We let:
= t + , hence,
e( z ) = e r.e j = e r.e jt .e j = r cos(t + ) m( z ) = m r.e j = r sin (t + )
Exe:
I (t ) = I 0 cos(t + ) = e I 0 e j e jt
I ' (t ) = I 0 sin (t + ) = m I 0 e j e jt
We define the phasor current (form),
I S = I 0 e j = I 0 , hence:
I (t ) = e I S e jt
= I 0 cos(t + )
(Instantaneous form)
Notice that
ejt :
DIFFERENTIAL FORM
INTEGRAL FORM
r .DS = vS r .B S = 0 r E S = j B S r H S = J S + j D S
D
s
.dS = vS .dv
v
s S
B E
L S
.dS = 0
.dl = j BS .dS
S
H
L
.dl = J S + j DS .dS
S
70
Chapter 10
r r D = E r r B = H J = E
= 0 .. r = 0 . r
r r r r E = jB = jH r r r r H = J + jD = ( + j )E r r .D = v r r .B = 0
Taking the curl of the curl of E , we have: In the other hand, we have a vector identity:
r r r E = j H r r r r r r r r E = .E 2 E
( )
r r r r r j H = .E 2 E
) ( )
71
In propagation problems, electromagnetic fields are studied under the assumption the space of propagation is source free. Another way of looking at it is to assume that the sources are sufficiently far away from the propagation region of interest. Assume now that the region containing the wave is source-free, where there is no charge distribution to give birth to any field, or v = 0 . From the application of Gausss law, this situation leads to the fact that the divergence of E is also zero: .D = v = 0 = .E (for a linear, homogeneous and isotropic region) The previous equation hence yields:
r r
r r
Defining
r r j H = 2 E r r j ( + j ) = 2 E
r r r 2 E = j ( + j )E
: constant of propagation (complex number) : attenuation constant (Nepers/m) : phase constant (rad/m)
where
= + j 2 = j ( + j )
r r r 2 E = 2 E r r r 2 H = 2 H
ELECTRIC WAVE EQUATION MAGNETIC WAVE EQUATION
r r r r 2 E = 2 E = j ( + j )E r r 2 = jE + ( j ) E r r E E = + j t t r r 2 E E + 2 = t t
The time-domain wave equations can be written as :
r r r2 r E 2E E = + 2 t t r r r2 r H 2H H = + t t 2
72
r r r ( z, t ) = E H
POYNTING VECTOR (Power density vector) which is directed along the direction of the electromagnetic energy flow.
Poynting Theorem
Poynting theorem is an expression of the electromagnetic power balance that includes the relationship between the generated, transmitted, stored and dissipated electromagnetic powers. We start with a vector identity that involves the divergence of the Poynting Vector;
r r r r r r r r r . E H = H . E E. H r r r B r r D = H . t E. J + t r r r B r D r r E.J E = H . t t
where J is the conduction current. We know that,
r r r r H .B 1 r B 1 H r = H + B t 2 2 t 2 t
r r r E.D r D =E t t 2
73
Substituting equations ;
r r r r r r r H .B E . D r r E.J . E H = t 2 t 2
Integrating the equation over a closed volume in which we would like to examine the power balance equation ;
r r r r r r r r r H .B E .D dv + dv + E.J .dv . E H dv = V V t 2 V t 2 V
r r E H dS = t
r r H .B V 2 dv + t
r r r r E .D dv + E.J .dv V 2 V
r r E H dS :
S
the power density ( z, t ) = E H entering the surface S enclosing the volume of interest V.
r r E .D V 2 dv
and
r r r r H .B E.D dv + dv V 2 V 2
: the rate of increase of the electric and magnetic energies stored within the volume V.
r r E.J .dv
V
ave ( z ) =
1 T
r ( z, t ).dt
74
III.
E E H H =0 = = = y x y x
Under these conditions (where the wave is plane, uniform and directed along z), other consequences resulted: 1. EZ = HZ = 0 There are no electric and magnetic field components along z-direction (or along the direction of the wave movement). 2.
The directions of E , H and direction of wave follow the right hand rule. Without losing the generality, the case is simplified further by fixing the direction of E to be along x, and, or automatically, H will be along y. In this case, the laplacian of vector E in Cartesian is written as:
r2 2 2 2 2 + 2 + 2 E = y z x 2 2 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 x y z
.(E x + E y + E z ) .(E x + 0 + 0 ) 2 2 2 Ex Ex Ex + + = z 2 y 2 x 2 2 Ex z 2
2 Ex E x 2 Ex = + t z 2 t 2 to: 2H y H y 2H y = + t z 2 t 2
75
2 Ex = 0 0 z 2 2 H y = 0 0 2 z
2 Ex t 2 2H y t 2
With no loss in generality, the first differential equation gives a solution in the form of:
E x ( z , t ) = E0 e = E0 e
j t 0 0 z
) )
where 0 = 0 0
j t 0 0 z
= E0 e j (t 0 z )
Remark to be made is that, E x ( z , t ) given above is the complex notation of the electric field magnitude. The real time notation is:
E x ( z , t ) = E 0 cos(t 0 z )
where E0 is the amplitude of the field and is the angular frequency. The plot of electric field magnitude against coordinate z at several fixed times shows that the wave is moving towards positive z, or we say that the wave is propagating along z.
From the first Maxwells equation, E = j0 H and we know that the only component of the electric field in this case is along x which depends only on coordinate z. The equation is then reduced to:
E = j 0 H E x = j 0 H y z j 0 E0 e j (t 0 z ) = j 0 H y
76
Hy = = =
j 0
j 0
E0 e j (t 0 z )
0
0 0 E0 e j (t z ) 0 0 E0 e j (t z ) 0
0
Thus:
Hy =
0 E 0 x
Basic Properties uniform plane wave in free space: The phase constant in free space: The attenuation constant in free space:
To find the phase velocity of the wave, we analyse the movement of a point of the curve of the field magnitude defined by a constant value of the cosine:
cos(t 0 z ) = K
t 0 z = K t K z= 0 0
The phase velocity is the variation in time of the position of the point represented by z, thus:
vp =
Remark:
dz = dt 0
vp =
0 0
c is called the velocity of light in vacuum/air. The phase constant in free space can also be written in term of c, where:
0 =
77
0 =
Remark:
E=
0 H = 0 H 0
j z
As the wave propagates along z, the phase e 0 changes by the amount of 0 z . The distance z that the wave must travel so that the phase changes by 2 radians is called the wavelength:
0 = 2
=
2
0 0
vp f
c meters f
=0
: attenuation constant
= = 0 0 r r =
= 0 r r = = 0 r 0 r
r r
: phase constant
vp =
c 1 = = r r
: phase velocity
vp f
: wavelength
78
r r r r 2 E = j ( + j )E = 2 E r r r r 2 H = j ( + j )H = 2 H
2 Ex = j ( + j )E x = 2 E x 2 z 2H y = j ( + j )H y = 2 H y 2 z
E x ( z , t ) = E0 e z e jt = E0 e z jz e jt
H y ( z , t ) = H 0 e z e j (t z )
= E0 e z e j (t z )
E x ( z, t ) = E0e z cos( j z )
H y ( z , t ) = H 0 e z cos( j z )
Low Loss Dielectric The Loss Tangent of the material is defined as:
tan =
For very small conductivity, << (or when tan is smaller than 0.1), an approximation can be done, resulting simplified expressions of the following quantities:
tan = 2 =
=
vp =
1 1 + j = 1 + j tan 2 2 1
vp
79
Good Conductors Good conductors have very high conductivity, >> , allowing the following approximation to be made:
j ( + j )
j j j j
= j 1 j 1 1 j j 2 2 (1 + j ) f
Hence,
= = f
The Skin Depth is the length a given wave travels in a given conductor so that the magnitude of the field is reduced by the factor of e 1 (around 0.368), which means at z = 1/ = : the skin depth. Thus,
And by approximation,
j + j
45
= (1 + j ) = (1 + j )
2
1
= (1 + j )R S
where RS is the Skin Effect (or the Surface Resistance of the conductor),
RS =
80
T U T O R I A L S
r r r r r r r r r r r r A = 3i + 5 j and B = 4i + 2 j , find the values of A + B , A B , B A r r and sketch the results. ( i is a unit vector along x-axis and j is a unit vector along y-axis in
Given 2 vectors the positive direction)
II) III)
Show that
Give the cylindrical and spherical coordinates of the point whose cartesian coordinates are x = 3, y = 4, z = 5 and show it on a sketch. Given A = 2u x + 4u y and B = 6u y + 4u z . Find the smaller angle between A and B . Write points M, N and vectors A , B and C in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems.
IV) V)
VI)
( ) ( )
r
) ( ) ( )
VII)
r u R of R .
r R
P (,,0)
Tutorial 1
VIII)
on the spherical shell of radius a (see figure). What results when = 0 and = ?
Use the spherical system to find the area of the strip of
IX) X)
Develop the equation for the volume of a sphere of radius a from the differential volume. Use the cylindrical coordinate system to find the area of the curved surface of a right circular 0 0 cylinder where radius = 2 m, height = 5 m and 30 120 (see figure). z 2m
5m
= 2/3 x 30 y
Tutorial 1
TUTORIAL 2
I) A total charge of 15 x 10-6 coulombs is uniformly distributed on a line of 5 cm length. Find the line charge density. Find the total charge contained in a cylinder (of length 30 cm and of radius 10 cm) if the volume charge density is III)
II)
= 100 e z
1 2
IV)
State Coulombs Law of force between any two point charges. Point charges of 3 x 103 C are situated at each of the three corners of a square whose side is 0.2 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the vacant corner-point of the square. Determine the resultant force on charge q3 shown below. Given: q1 = - 4 x 10-6 C q2 = 3 x 10-6 C q3 = - 2 x 10-6 C d13 = 0.08 m d23 = 0.12 m
V)
q3 d13 q1 45
d23
q2 x
VI)
The force on a point charge situated 10 cm away from another point charge of the same magnitude is 1 Newton. Determine the magnitude of the charge. Charge is distributed uniformly along a circular line with density L. Develop the expression of E at point P, h meters from the origin.
VII)
P h
L
a
VIII)
Find the electric field E and the force on a point charge of 50 C at (0,0,5) due to a charge of 500 C that is uniformly distributed over the circular disk 5 m, at z = 0.
(0,0,5)
5m
Tutorial 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY KJE442 IX) Given a uniform distribution of electric surface charge S on the surface of a disk, at a<<b as shown in figure.
P H
H a P b
X)
Given surface S as shown in figure, find the surface area if the radius of the sphere is R, in terms of 1, 2, 1 and 2. A surface charge density of
2
S =
1 sin R
Surface S
is found to be distributed on surface S. Given that 2 sin A = 1 cos(2 A) , determine the total charge Q carried by surface S. What would be the total charge QT if surface S was the total surface of the sphere in question? 2 1
1 2
XI)
Shaded surface S in shown in figure. Find the total surface area of surface S. Electric surface charge of density S = . cos is found distributed over surface S. Determine the total charge Q carried by surface S. What would be the total charge QT if surface S was the total surface of the cylinder in question?
Surface S
2 1
Tutorial 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY KJE442 XII) Two point charges q1 and q2 are placed at points A and B respectively, in a free space, as shown in Figure 1. Given the distance between A and B is d, answer the following questions: a) Determine the Coulombs force exerted on charge q1 at point A, as a function of q1, q2, d and
ux .
Another charge Q is now placed at the origin of the system as shown in Figure 1. c) If q1 = q2 = q, determine the expression of Q as a function of q, so that the system is in equilibrium (so that the total force at every charge is zero). d) Determine the total absolute electric potential at point C due to all the charges at equilibrium.
XIII)
a)
If dl is a vector differential length of the line charge, write dl in Cartesian coordinate system.
b) c)
Write vector R in Cartesian coordinate system. Show that the electric field intensity at point P due to the line charge is as below:
E=
a. l 2 0 k 2 2a 2 + h 2
(h.u
a.u y
where k2 = a2 + h2 Given:
(u (u
du
2
+m u.du
2 3/ 2
= m =
u
2
+ m2
u 2 + m2 1
Figure 1
3/ 2
u 2 + m2
Tutorial 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY KJE442 Referring to Figure 2, a square loop of charge of sides 2a is centered at the origin with the same line density l . d) From the results found in c), deduce the electric field intensity at point P due to the square loop. What would be the electric field at the origin?
e)
Figure 2
Tutorial 2
I)
Consider an infinite line source of strength L Coulombs per meter. Find the electric field intensity at a distance from the line. Find the potential at that point. Consider a sphere of radius R carrying a constant surface charge density on its surface. Find the expression of the electric flux density inside and out side the sphere. Suppose that a charged sphere of charge Q and of radius a is placed concentric with and insulated from a larger conducting sphere of radius b, which is uncharged. Find the for : a) r < a b) r > b c) a < r < b
II)
III)
r D field
IV)
Suppose that we have 2 concentric spheres of radii a and b, where b > a, and that the inner sphere has a positive charge of Q. a) Sketch the flux pattern and calculate D for r < a, a < r < b, r > b for a charge of Q on the outer sphere. b) Repeat for a charge of +Q on the outer sphere.
V)
A positive charge of 100 x 10-6 C is uniformly distributed throughout a spherical surface 30 cm in diameter. Calculate and plot the variation of the electric field intensity E and the absolute potential V as a function of the radius r from the center of the sphere to a distance of 1 meter.
VI)
The electric field from a charged sphere of 10 cm radius is 20 kV m-1 at a distance of 20 cm from the center of the sphere. Assuming uniform charge distribution on the surface of the sphere, find: a) the D field. b) The total charge on the sphere.
VII)
Find the potential difference between 2 parallel line charges of L and - L separated a distance d. [Assume a radius a from each line, and integrate only from a to d-a] The voltage difference between two parallel wires is 1000 V. The radius of each wire is 1 mm, and the separation is 1 m. a) Find L (Cm-1) on each wire. b) Find the
VIII)
IX)
v =
two concentric spheres of radius a and b as shown in figure, where k is a constant. a) Determine the total charge in the region. b) Using gausss law, determine the electric flux density for r < a, a < r < b and r >b.
Tutorial 3
X)
A surface charge distribution S is carried by a plane disk of radius R centred at the origin, in xy-plane, as shown in Figure. The non-uniform surface charge density is given by:
S =
K R
2 2
A closed surface S encloses the total charge (i) (ii) State and explain Gausss law. What is the unit of the constant K?
z
Electric Flux Lines
Surface S
(iii)
d M 2 x2 Given: dx
1 2
(M
1 2 2
(iv)
charge carried by the disk. What is the total electric flux passing through the closed surface S?
XI)
0rb r >b
Tutorial 3
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY - KJE442 TUTORIAL 4 I) The difference of potential at 20 m from a point charge and the potential at 30 m from the same charge is 50 V. Find the value of the point charge, and at what r is the potential equal to 25 V? Find E , D , and v for the following potential difference: a) V = 10 x2 b) V = 2 sin c) V = (5/r ) cos The ratio b/a for a particular coaxial cable is 3. Find the potential between conductors if the radial electric field is 3000 Vm-1 at the surface of the inner conductor of 1 cm radius. The electric field between two coaxial cylinders is 500 V/m at the inside surface of the outer conductor. Find the potential difference between conductors if the radii are 2 cm and 5 cm.
II)
III)
IV)
V)
Find the potential function for the region between the parallel circular disks (see figure). Neglect fringing.
V1
V2
VI) Find the potential function and the electric field intensity for the region between two concentric right circular cylinders, where V = 0 at = 1 mm and V = 150 Volts at = 20 mm. Neglect fringing.
V=0
V = 150 Volts
VII)
Solve Laplaces equation for region between coaxial cones, as shown in figure. A potential V1 is assumed at 1, and V = 0 at 2.
2 V1 1
V=0
Tutorial 4
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY - KJE442 TUTORIAL 5 I) Find the relative permittivity of the dielectric material used in a parallel-plate capacitor if : a) C = 40 nF, d = 0.1 mm, and S = 0.15 m2 b) d = 0.2 mm, E = 500 kV/m, and S = 10 C/m2 Find the capacitance of : a) 20 cm of coaxial cables having an inner conductor 1 mm in diameter, an outer conductor having an inside diameter of 2.5 mm, and a polyethylene dielectric. b) A conducting sphere 1 cm in diameter, covered with a layer of polyethylene 1 cm thick, in free space. c) A conducting sphere 1 cm in diameter, covered with a layer of polyethylene 1 cm thick, and surrounded by a concentric conducting sphere in 3 cm radius. A parallel-plate capacitor contains three dielectric layers.Let R1 = 1, d1 = 0.2 mm, R1 = 2, d2 = 0.3 mm, R3 = 3, d3 = 0.4 mm, and S = 20 cm2. Find C. Figure shows two conductors, conductor 1 and 2, carrying a total charge of +Q and Q respectively. Use Gausss law to find the expression of electric field intensity anywhere between the conductors. Deduce the potential difference between the conductors. Find the capacitance of the combination of the conductors. z Conductor 1 +Q =0
II)
III)
IV)
h z Conductor 1 V = V1 =0 0 =a =b Conductor 2 -Q
V)
=a =b
Two conductors are maintained at V1 and V2 as shown in Figure. Using Laplaces equation, determine the potential function anywhere in between the conductors. Deduce the electric flux density anywhere between the conductors. Find the capacitance of the combination of the conductors.
Conductor 2 V = V2
Tutorial 5
VI)
Figure a shows two (2) identical parallel conducting plates 1 and 2, separated by a dielectric of permittivity , and maintained at the potential level V1 and V2 respectively. S is the surface area of the plates, and d is the distance between the plates. (i) Using Laplaces equation, find the potential function in the dielectric, as a function of V1, V2, and d. (Neglect the fringing effect). v (ii) What is the electric flux density D in the dielectric? (iii) Deduce the total charge found on one of the surface of the plate. (iv) Find the expression of the capacitance between the plates. z
Plate 1
S
dielectric
V2 V1
Plate 2
Figure a
A parallel plate capacitor is shown in Figure b, where two (2) dielectric layers of permittivity 1 and 2 separate the parallel plates. (i) Show that the total capacitance CT of a two parallel-connected capacitors of capacitance C1 and C2 is CT = C1 + C2. (ii) Determine the capacitance of the capacitor in Figure b if a = 1 cm, b = 2 cm, c = 1 cm, d = 1 cm, r1 = 2 and r2 = 4.
Conducting plate
Figure b 1 2
Conducting plate a b
Tutorial 5
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY - KJE442 TUTORIAL 6 I) Find H at point P, due to a finite straight-line constant current I (see figure). Discuss for the case of an infinitely long straight-line current. I
II) III)
Find
r H due to an infinitely long straight-line current using Amperes law. r Find H on the axis of a circular loop of radius a.
h
z
IV) A circular loop constant current I of radius a is shown in Figure. Using Biot-Savarts law, determine the magnetic field intensity at point P as a function of the angle . What must be the value of so that |H| can be maximum? What would be |H| if tends to infinity? P
a I
V) A thin cylindrical hollow conductor of radius a, infinite in length carries a current I. Find all points.
r H at
Tutorial 6
VI)
A solid cylindrical cable of radius a carries a constant current I as shown in Figure 3Alpha. The current distribution over the cross sectional surface is not uniform and the surface current density is J = K .e
n
and is the radial coordinate. Using Amperes law, determine the magnetic field intensity inside and outside the conductor.
VII)
a b c
VIII)
Determine the magnetic flux density inside a closely wound toroidal coil with an air core having N turns and carrying a current I. The toroid has a mean radius b, and the radius of each turn is a.
I a
b z
Tutorial 6
z
IX) Two narrow circular coils A and B have a common axis and are placed 10 cm apart as shown in Figure. Coil A has 2 turns of radius 2 cm, with a current of 0.5 A passing through it. Coil B is of radius 5 cm, and has 10 turn. If the magnetic field at the center of the coil A is to be zero, what should be the current passing through coil B?
Coil A
2 turns 2 cm
10 cm Coil B 10 turns
5 cm
Tutorial 6
TUTORIAL 7 I) Evaluate the inductance of an infinitely long solenoid with air-core having n closely wound turns per unit length and carrying a current I. (Using approximations, show that the magnetic field can be considered zero outside the solenoid to simplify the calculations). Based on question 1, evaluate the inductance of a solenoid of 2500 turns wound uniformly over a length of 0.5 m on a cylindrical tube 4 cm in diameter. The medium is air inside the solenoid is air. Assume that N turns of wire are tightly wound on a toroidal frame of rectangular cross-section with dimensions as shown in figure. The medium is air. Find its self inductance. h
II)
III)
a z
Develop expressions for flux density and inductance of a toroid of circular cross section. (Assume the mean radius R of the toroid is much bigger than the radius r of each turn of wire. Hence, by approximation, the magnetic flux density can be assumed constant along radial coordinate inside the toroid) IV) A solenoid (air-core) has 2000 turns of copper wire wound on a former of 1 meter length and 4 cm diameter. It is placed coaxially within another solenoid with the same length and number of turns but with a diameter of 7 cm. Determine the mutual inductance between the two solenoids. Two (2) coaxial loops 1 and 2 lie in parallel planes separated by a distance h, having radii a and b, with a<<b and a<<h (see Figure b). (i) Using the approximations a<<b and a<<h, find the flux through the loop 1 due to a current I in the loop 2. (ii) Determine the mutual inductance of the loops.
V)
Loop 1 (radius a)
Loop 2 (radius b)
h Figure b
Tutorial 7
VI)
Figure shows a coaxial cable of infinite length with inner conductor having a radius a and outer conductor of internal radius b. The relative permeability of the dielectric in between the conductors is assume equal to 1. Each conductor carries a current I in opposite direction. (a) Using Amperes law show that the magnetic field intensity H is zero at any point outside the coaxial cable. Using Amperes law, determine the expression of the magnetic field intensity H at a point in between the inner and outer conductor of the coaxial cable. Find the magnetic flux between the conductors in a length d (the flux crossing the radial surface S). Hence, or otherwise, derive the self-inductance per unit length of the coaxial cable (not including the internal inductance of the inner conductor).
(b)
(c)
(d)
Dielectric r = 1
Outer conductor
S d
Tutorial 7
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY - KJE442 TUTORIAL 8 I) Given a magnetic induction, B = 10 velocity a) in the x-direction b) in the y-direction c) in the z-direction d) in the xy-plane at 450 to the axis. II) The force experienced by a test charge q for three different velocities at a point in a region characterized by electric and magnetic fields are given by:
F1 = q E 0 u x + (E 0 v 0 B0 )u y F2 F3
0 0 0 x 0
[ ] = q[(E + v B )u + E u ] = q[E u + E u ]
y 0 x 0 y
v1 = v 0 u x v2 = v0 u y v3 = v0 u z
where, v0, E0, B0, are constants. Find E and B at the point. III) A test charge q, moving with a velocity v = u x + u y , experiences no force in a region of electric and magnetic fields. If the magnetic flux density is B = u x 2u z Weber/m2, find E . IV)
r B
x R w
V)
Two metal bars slide over a pair of conducting rails in a uniform magnetic field
v2
O
r B
v1
Tutorial 8
z b
r B
y
VII)
A rectangular loop of wire three (3) sides fixed and the fourth side movable is situated in a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B = 1.5 u y + u z , refer to Figure 4b. The movable side consists of a conducting bar moving with a velocity 10 m/s in the y-direction. Find the emf induced in the loop. z
r B
(0,0,0)
y
r v
(0,0,2)
x Movable side VIII) A time varying magnetic field intensity is given by:
Tutorial 8
IX)
Consider the metal bar and slider arrangement shown in Figure. The slide starts at the top and fall under the influence of gravity. The length b of the bars is equal to 1 meter and the spacing a between bars is equal to 0.2 meter. A uniform magnetic field with a magnetic flux density vector B equal to 20 Wb/m2 is passing between the bars. i) The acceleration due to the gravitational force is Determine the velocity v(t ) of the slide. ii) Calculate the voltage V(t) generated as the slide falls from the top until it leaves the bars and breaks contact. Assuming the initial position of the slide is at z0 = 0 and time t0 = 0, determine the time when the slide breaks contact with the bars. Plot the voltage V versus time t.
g (t ) = 9.8.u z
m/s2.
iii)
iv)
V(t)
y
Slider
x
B
z0 = 0
bar
a z0 = -b
Tutorial 8
TUTORIAL 9 I) Given a magnetic field in free space where there is neither charge nor current density (v = J = 0),
with a, n, and are constants. a) Use a Maxwell equation to derive the time-dependent electric field E . b) Determine the Poynting vector. II) An electromagnetic wave propagates through a lossless insulator with a velocity 1.8 x 1010 cm/s. Calculate the electric and magnetic properties of the insulator if its intrinsic impedance is 260 . The wavelength of a 600 MHz wave propagating through a non-magnetic dielectrics is 20 cm. What is the dielectric constant of the material? A 3 GHz uniform plane wave propagates through rexolite in the positive z direction. The E field at z = 0 is 1000 V/m. a) Calculate the rms value and phase of E at z = 4 cm. b) Determine the total wave attenuation (in dB) over a distance of 6 wavelengths. (Given, for rexolite, r = 2.54 and tan = 0.005) V) A sinusoidal electric intensity of amplitude 250 V/m and frequency 1 GHz exists in a lossy dielectric medium that has a relative permittivity of 2.5 and a loss tangent of 0.001. Find the average power dissipated in the medium per cubic meter. Determine the skin depth at 1 GHz of a conductor if the conductivity is 5 x 105 mho/m. Assume its relative permittivity equal to 1. The differential form of Maxwells Equations for harmonic electromagnetic field are given by:
III)
IV)
VI) VII)
E = j B .D = v
H = E + j D .B = 0
a) Starting from the Maxwells Equations for harmonic fields and using a vector identity:
E = E + .E , show that the electric wave equation for the sourcefree case (charge density, v = 0) can be written as:
( )
2
E = j ( + j )E
Deduce the electric wave equation for the case where the propagating medium is free space.
Tutorial 9
b)
Assuming wave propagation along +x, and fixing the electric field along +y, the solution of the wave equation is given by
E = E 0 .e x e jx e jt u y
A uniform plane wave is propagating in +x-direction in free space as shown in Figure Q5b. At interface A (at x = 0), the wave enters a lossy dielectric medium of r = 81 and r = 1. The wave phase constant in the free space is found to be 20 rad/m. The magnitude of the wave at Interface A is measured to be 10 mV/m. i) ii) iii) Determine the frequency of the plane wave. Determine the phase velocity and wavelength of the plane wave in the lossy dielectric. If the magnitude of the electric field at 10 m from the Interface A is 9.5 mV/m, determine the attenuation constant in the lossy dielectric and the conductivity of the lossy dielectric. Interface A
Free space
Lossy dielectric r = 81 r = 1
Ey
Plane wave x
x=0 |E|(x=0) = 10 mV/m VIII) Given an electromagnetic wave of magnetic field intensity:
H = H 0 . exp ( z ). exp j 2 10 6 t .u y
(a) (b) (c) Determine the expression of the electric field intensity of the wave. Determine the Poynting Vector. If the wave is propagating in a lossless material with = 20 and = 0, (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (d) determine the attenuation constant . find the phase constant . find the phase velocity vp. find the wavelength . determine the intrinsic wave impedance of the material, .
If the wave is propagating in a lossy dielectric with conductivity = 10-15 S/m, permittivity = 2.20 and permeability = 0, (i) (ii) (iii) determine the loss tangent of the material. determine the attenuation constant of the material. find the distance the wave travels in the material such that the magnitude of the electric field intensity is reduced by half.
Tutorial 9
APPENDIX 1 (2)
Maxwells Equations: DIFFERENTIAL FORM INTEGRAL FORM
r .D = v
D.dS = .dv
s v v
r .B = 0
r B E= t
r D H =J + t
B.dS = 0
s
E.dl =
Cartesian:
r V V V V = u x + y u y + z u z x r r A Ay Az + A = x + y z x r r A A y A y Ax Ax Az uy + A= z u z u x + y x z z x y r 2V 2V 2V 2V = 2 + 2 + 2 x y z
dl = dx.u x + dy.u y + dz.u z
APPENDIX 2 (2)
Cylindrical:
r 1 V V V V = u + u + z u z rr 1 (.A ) + 1 A + Az A = z r r 1 Az A 1 (A ) 1 A A Az A= u + u + z z 2 2 r 1 V 1 V V + + 2V = 2 2 z 2
u z
dl = d .u + .d .u + dz.u z
dS = .d .dz.u d .dz.u
.d .d .u z dv = .d .d .dz
Spherical :
r 1 V V 1 V V = u r + u + r sin u r r r 1 2 r A 1 ( A sin ) + 1 A = 2 r . Ar + r sin r sin r r r r 1 ( A sin ) A 1 1 Ar (rA ) 1 (rA ) Ar A= u r + u + r sin r r r r sin 2 r 1 2 V 1 1 V V 2V = 2 sin + 2 r + 2 2 r sin 2 r r r r sin
dv = r 2 . sin .dr.d .d