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PREFACE
Aqua Designs was started with the mission of providing eco friendly solutions which will be useful for individuals, industries and also to nature. Since its inception, Aqua Designs has offered successful solutions on environmental perspective which has created a unique place in the industrial sector. The vision of MD Mr. Suthakar is to spread the message of harvesting water, reducing its usage, recycling and reuse. This vision transformed into collection of data on water and its uses and sharing this knowledge with one and all in order to make this world a lively place to live. .......... and hence this book. With best compliments from S. Suthakar Managing Director Aqua Designs
ABOUT US
Aqua Designs Offers A to Z solutions for water and waste water treatment. A one Stop Shop for all types of consultancies in water and waste water management. Aqua Designs commitment to the environment, keeps it in the forefront of product innovations, purification and recycling technologies. Aqua Designs provides water solutions for Institutions, Industry, Municipal Authorities, and Commercial and Public properties. The Company boasts of the widest range of specialty water-related products and services that are ISO 9001:2000 certified by RINA of Italy. Aqua Designs was the proud recipient of the prestigious Award for The Best Upcoming Water Company 2006 2007given by the magazine Water Digest in association with UNESCO, NDTV Profit & WES-Net India in order to acknowledge those persons and Organizations, who have contributed toward water and its industry. Aqua Designs was also the proud winner of the Awards for Best Water Treatment Project Industrial 2007-2008 & Best Water R&D and Technological Breakthrough 2007-2008 instituted by Water Digest. For the year 2008-2009, Aqua Designs added one more feather in its cap. It bagged two more Awards instituted by the Water Digest for the categories Best Consultancy & Best Water Conservation IT Park showing its strength in IT Sector using MBR Technology. A proven track record of offering A Z solutions was appreciated and the Best Consultancy Award is the proof for that. The Company has excellent marketing and sales team with a cumulative experience beyond 100 years. It is one of the major reason for Aqua Designs entering big corporate and Multi National Companies. Due to its expertise the Company is able to offer competitive Designs and proposals, which keeps the competitors at bay .This proven technology has made the company one of the front runners in this field.
Aqua Designs success depends on its human resources. From Designs, Proposals, Projects, Erection and commissioning to operation and maintenance, it has proved its capability in the market which gives them a clear edge over others in the market. Aqua Designs is supported by its own State-of-the-Art Laboratory for testing water, waste water, air & stack samples both for physiochemical and microbiological parameters as per PCB norms and IS standards. We have the facility to monitor stack emissions and ambient air quality...The facility is certified under ISO 9001:2000. The Laboratory handles and supports all in house requirements; specific client needs and also offers Pilot Plant studies. Aqua Designs provides services starting from EIA to Designs to implementation of Projects to Operation & Maintenance to Supply of Specialty Chemicals to run the operations and finally to analyze the various products of the treatment using its Laboratory facility. Aqua Designs also has its own chemical manufacturing and fabrication facilities to support its growing needs in business. Aqua Designs was formed with the sole intention of suggesting eco friendly solutions for Industries and Municipalities. The vision was to provide solutions to varied sectors in par with the developed nations. Aqua Designs not only offers the concepts and design to their customers, but also stay with the customer and successfully operate the scheme for years. The customer satisfaction has lead Aqua Designs to be successful in various types of Industries ranging from Petrochemicals, Automobile, Food and Beverages, Breweries and Distilleries, Chemicals, Electronics, Power Industries etc. Aqua Designs believes only in continual improvement. It keeps offering innovative solutions to its customers. One such is the concept of Membrane Bio Reactors technology for treating the Sewage. Aqua Designs has now set a trend such that big IT Parks have started using MBR Technology. Aqua Designs is leaping forward like a giant and nothing can stop it. In the near future it aspires to be a Global leader. Aqua designs believes in Better the Best and this has made everything possible.
CHAPTER 1 Impurities in Water................................ ................................................................ ...................... CHAPTER 2 Filters ................................................................ ................................ ........................................... CHAPTER 3 Iron Removal Filters ................................ ................................................................ ..................... CHAPTER 4 Ion Exchange ................................ ................................................................ ................................ CHAPTER 5 Softener ................................................................ ................................ ....................................... CHAPTER 6 Membrane System................................ ................................................................ ....................... CHAPTER 7 Steam Boiler ................................ ................................................................ ................................ CHAPTER 8 Cooling Water Treatment................................ ................................ ................................ ............. CHAPTER 9 Pumps ................................................................ ................................ .......................................... CHAPTER 10 Raw Water Treatment ................................ ................................................................ ................. CHAPTER 11 Industrial Waste Water Treatment ................................................................ .............................. CHAPTER 12 Chemical Cleaning................................ ................................................................ ........................
13
17
36
40
49
62
79
84
92
97
WATER SAMPLE TEST PROCEDURES ................................................................ ........................ 107 Phenolphthalein (P) Alkalinity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ........ 109 Total (M) Alkalinity Test Procedures ................................................................ ....................... 110 Conductivity Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................... 112 pH-Electrometric Method Test Procedures ................................................................ ............. 113 Total hardness Test Procedures ................................................................ .............................. 114 Sulphite testing procedure ................................ ................................ ...................................... 115 Chloride Test Procedure ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 116 Checking Acid Solution Strength for Cleaning ................................ ................................ .......... 117
CHAPTER 1
01
Impurities in Water
Water impurities
Impurity in water technology is a relative term. For example Hardness is not considered as an impurity in drinking water but in industrial water treatment it leads to scaling of equipment and hence considered as an impurity. Common impurities in water, their effect and method of removal are as follows: Impurities Turbidity Suspended silica Effect Can clog pipelines and equipment can choke Ion exchange resin and RO membranes Indication of organic, iron etc. and can be harmful to the unit operation ahead. Can foul Ion exchange resins membranes and may be detrimental to process. Will depend upon the type of bacteria, can induce corrosion and also harmful to RO membrane. Red water, corrosion, deposit, interferes with dyeing, bleaching etc. Method of removal Coagulation, and filtration setting
Color
Coagulation, settling filtration, followed by activated carbon filter. Coagulation, setting, filtration, followed by activated carbon filtration. Coagulation, filtration, setting and super chlorination, UV, ozonation Aeration, coagulation, filtration, filtration through Manganese Zeolite Ion exchange, addition of acid or alkali. Ion exchange Lime Soda
Organic matter
Bacteria
Iron
pH
High pH or low pH can both induce corrosion. Scaling, cruds with soap interfere with dyeing and also harmful to other process.
02
Impurities Sodium
Effect Unharmful when low in concentration, increase TDS, high concentration can induce corrosion. Corrosion, foaming and carry over
Acid addition Ion Exchange by WAC Resin Split stream by hydrogen cation resin Degassification after step 2 and 3 Ion Exchange Reverse Osmosis Evaporation Electrolysis. Ion Exchange Reverse Osmosis Evaporation Electrodylasis. Ion Exchange Reverse Osmosis
Sulphate
Chloride
Nitrate
Normally not found in raw water. Harmful in food processes (especially baby food). Scaling and deposition on equipment. Corrosion
Silica
Ion Exchange
Carbon Dioxide
Open aeration, Degasification, and Vacuum deaeration. Aeration, filtration through Manganese Zeolite, aeration plus chlorination. Deaeration Addition of chemicals likes sodium sulphite or hydrazine.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Corrosion
Oxygen
Corrosion
03
Impurities Ammonia
Method of removal Aeration Hydrogenations exchange if ammonia is present in Ionic form. By adding chemicals Activated carbon
Free chlorine
Corrosion
Definition of Terms
Total Cations= TC= Ca++ + Na+ all as CaCO3 Total Anions=TA=T Alkalinity + Cl + SO4-- + NO3 all as CaCO3 Total Hardness=TH= Ca++ + Mg++ as CaCO3 Total Alkalinity=T.Alk= HCO3 - + CO3-- + OH- all as CACO3 EMA= Cl- + SO4-- + NO3- all as CaCO3 Total Acid Ions=EMA + CO2 + SiO2 all as CaCO3 Total electrolyte=TE=TC=TA Total dissolved solids=TDS=TE + SiO2 Total electrolyte: Electrolytes are strongly ionized compounds. TE is numerically equal to either TC or TA (not some of both). SiO2 and CO2 being weekly ionized are not included in total electrolyte. Leakage: Electrolyte or silica passing through the demineralizing unit due to incomplete ion exchange. Conductivity: The ability of a solution to carry current. Conductivity measurement is used to indicate the purity of water. It is measured as micro mhos or micro siemens/cm. Resistivity: Resistivity is a measurement used for ultra pure water. Its unit is megohm. Resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity
04
Substance
Symbol
Example
Substance
Symbol
Example
Calcium Magnesium
Ca++ Mg++
125 105
HCO3CO3-OHClSO4-No3-
150 0 0 100 80 0
Sodium Potassium
Na+ K+
100 0
Total Cation
TC
330
Total Anions
TA
330
Total Hardness
Ca + Mg
230
Alkalinity
150
Equivalent Mineral Acidity All the above are expressed as ppm CaCO3 Iron Fe express ed in mg/liter as Fe 0.5 Silica Carbon Dioxide
180
SiO2 Co2
20 15
Substance Turbidity Colour Total Dissolved Solids Suspend Solids Acidity/Alkalinity NTU Hazen Ppm Ppm pH
Unit
05
Ions
Symbol
Ionic weight
Equivalent weight
CATIONS Aluminum Ammonium Barium Calcium Copper Hydrogen Iron (Ferrous) Iron (Ferric) Magnesium Manganese Potassium Sodium Al+++ Nh4 + Ba ++ Ca+ Cu++ H+ Fe++ 27.0 18.0 137.4 40.1 63.6 1.0 55.85 9.0 18.0 68.7 20.0 31.8 1.0 27.8 5.56 2.78 .728 2.49 1.57 50.0 1.80
06
Ions
Symbol
Ionic weight
Equivalent weight
ANIONS Bicarbonate Bisulphate Bisulphite Carbonate Chloride Fluoride Hydroxide Nitrate Phosphate (monovalent) Phosphate (divalent) Phosphate (trivalent) Sulphate Sulphide Hc03HSO4HSO3 Co3 ClFOHNo3H2PO461.0 97.1 81.1 60.0 35.5 19.0 17.0 62.0 97.0 61.0 97.1 81.1 30.0 35.5 19.0 17.0 62.0 97.0 0.82 0.515 0.617 1.67 1.41 2.63 2.94 0.807 0.516
HOP4
96.0
48.0
1.04
Po4
95.0
31.7
1.58
So4 S
96.1 32.1
48.0 16.0
1.04 3.12
Sulphite
So3
80.1
40.0
1.25
07
CHAPTER 2
08
Filters
Basic Operation of Filter
The basic operation of Pressure Filter, Dual Media Filter and Activated Carbon and iron removal filters is same. All Units operate in down flow mode, where the water enters from the top, percolates through the media and treated water is collected from the bottom.
Sequence of Operation
u Service: The water to be filtered enters from the top of the shell, percolates downward through the media and is drawn off from the bottom. u Backwash: The water enters from the bottom of the vessel, passes through the media and is drained from the top. This is called BACKWASH and it is done to carry the dirt accumulated on the top. Generally back washing is done once in every 24 hrs or when the pressure drop exceeds 8 psi. (0.5 kg/cm2). Rinse : The water enters from the top passed through the media and is drained off from the bottom.
Dirty Water
Raw Water
Note
When activated carbon is installed in a vessel, it should be soaked for 12 to 24 hours to remove trapped air and back washed to remove fines and stratify the bed. A necessary maintenance item, periodic back washing removes solids trapped in the carbon bed, as well as fine carbon particles. Since the dechlorination reaction oxidizes the carbon surface, which slowly breaks down the carbon structure, back washing is especially important in de-chlorination applications. Frequency is determined by the solids content of the feed water. Tests on activated carbon dechlorination systems indicate that regular back washing of carbon beds helps preserve the dechlorination and filtering efficiency. By back washing regularly and expanding the carbon by at least 30 percent, fouling or binding of the carbon bed does not occur.
09
CAUTION
Wet activated carbon removes oxygen from air. In closed or partially closed containers and vessels, oxygen depletion may reach hazardous levels. If workers must enter a vessel containing activated carbon, appropriate sampling and work procedures for potentially low-oxygen spaces should be followed as required by salutatory requirements.
Sand Filters 7.5 12 0.45 - 0.6 (fine sand) 1.6 max 2650
Velocity (m3/m2/hr) Effective size of Media (mm) Uniform coefficient Density (kg/m3)
<2(115 typical)
Other requirements
Parameters Loss of head Length of run between cleaning Method of cleaning Amount of wash water Time for back washing Time for air scouring 0.03 M for clean bed to .2 to 3 M final 12 to 24 hours or when the pressure drop across the bed reaches 0.5 Kg/cm2 Back washing at rate of 36 M/Hr or 24 m/hr with air scouring at 36 M/hr at 0.35 to 0.5 kg/Cm2 pressure 1 to 4 % 10 to 20 minutes 2 to 5 minutes
10
Quantity of Media
Quantity of media is Calculated in Cubic Meters (M3) and then converted to Kgs The depth for various media is Sand/ Anthracite 540 mm Crushed Gravels 100 mm Pebbles (1/2 to1/4) 100 mm Media Height Pebbles (1 to1/2) 100 mm Pebbles (11/2 to 1/4) 160 mm Volume = Area* (depth/1000)
Media Dirty
11
Filter Details
u velocity is at 36 M / Hr at pressure is 0.5 Kg / cm2 Blower u minimum service Velocity is 7.5 M/ Hr u service Velocity is 9.0 M/Hr Normal u Maximum service Velocity is 7.5 M/ Hr u Backwash velocity For Air scour type 24 M/Hr u Backwash velocity For Non Air scour type 24 M/Hr u of Media is 2600gm/cc Density Model Diameter in mm Bed Area in M2 Height on straight (HOS)in M HVT Height on straight (HOS) in M for Air scour type Bed Depth in Meters Service Flow (mini) M3/Hr Service Flow Normal) M3/Hr Service Flow (Maxi) M3/Hr BW Flow M3/Hr For Air Scouring type 500 0.20 600 0.28 800 0.51 1000 1200 1400 1600 0.79 1.13 1.54 2.01 1800 2000 2200 2.54 3.14 3.80
1.5
2.1
3.83
5.93 8.48
1.8
2.52
4.59
7.11
10. 17
13. 86
18. 09
22. 86
28. 26
34. 20
2.0
2.8
5.1
7.9
11.3
15.4
20.1
31.4
25.4 38.0
4.8
6.72
12. 24
18. 96
27. 12
36. 96
48. 24
60. 96
75. 36
91. 2
12
CHAPTER 3
13
3 4
Parameter Colour Density Effective size Uniformity coefficient Mesh size Attrition loss per annum % Bed Depth (minimum) Freeboard Service flow rate Backwash flow rate
Black 1360Kg/M3 0.30- 0.35 mm 1.6 1660 24 % 700 mm of greensand and 300mm of anthracite 50% of bed depth 5 12 M3/hr/M2 2025 M3/hr/M2
14
Removal process
Manganese zeolite process is used in conjunction with above process when the concentration is more or as a standalone process if the concentrations of Fe & Mn are low. There are two methods, which is normally employed for removal of Fe & Mn by Manganese zeolite. u Batch process (intermediate Regeneration) u Continuous KMnO4 feed system
Reaction times
Permanganate is fed as 1-2 % solution directly to the inlet line. Contact time for oxidation is about 2060 seconds; hence it is fed 20 '(50-60 mm) upstream from the zeolite bed Alkali is added to low pH water for optimum removal but utmost care should be taken during alkali addition due to precipitation problem KMnO4 is used either in conjunction with chlorine or alone. KMnO4 dosage differs depending on whether it is used alone or with chlorine.
15
Dosage of KMnO4
With chlorine
1 mg/liter ofCl2 / 1ppm of Fe KMnO4 mg/liter = (0.2mg/literKMnO4 for 1ppm of Fe) + (2 mg/liter of KMnO4 for 1ppm Of Mn) + (5mg/liter of KMnO4 for1ppm of H2S)
Without Chlorine
KMnO4 mg/liter = (1.mg/literKMnO4 for 1ppm of Fe) + (2 mg/liter of KMnO4 for 1ppm Of Mn) + (5mg/liter of KMnO4 for 1ppm ofH2S)
Birm
Birm is another type of manganese dioxide. It is a silicon dioxide core that has been coated with manganese dioxide. This makes Birm much lighter than its ore counterpart, less than 400gms/liter. The benefit of this type of product is that it can be backwashed at a flowrate of 0.8Kg. / Liter. Birm does require dissolved oxygen in the water for the precipitation of iron, where the manganese dioxide ore does not. Birm relies on its ability to act as a catalyst between iron and oxygen. It has a limited amount of MnO2 available, so it does not have the ability to supply oxygen through a redox reaction. The oxygen content should be, at least, equivalent to 15% of the total iron content. If the oxygen content is less than 15%, aeration is required. Birm is recommended on levels of iron less than 10 ppm. It can be utilized on higher concentrations, but the frequency of regeneration (backwashing) becomes excessive. Birm has a capacity of approximately 900 -1100 grams/Cu meter. It can treat up to 3 cubic meters of water containing 10 ppm Fe as CaCO3. Birm should not be used on waters that have oil or hydrogen sulfide, and the organic matter should not exceed 5 ppm. As with any product, consult the manufacturer for operational guidelines. (Sybron Chemicals).
16
CHAPTER 4
17
Ion Exchange
Ion Exchange Load Calculation
Let us take the following examples Feed water analysis as ppm CaCO3 Cations Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Iron Total Unit as ppm CaCO3 210 40 120 5 0 375 Total 375 Anions Bicarbonate Chloride Sulphate Nitrate 200 70 85 20
Free CO2 - 15, Silica 5 Ion Exchange load w.r.t different unit operation
Unit Operation Softening Dealkaization Strongly acid Cation(TC) Weakly Basic Anion Strongly acid Cation after dealkalization Strongly Basic Anion after WBA Strongly Basic Anion Strongly Basic Anion after Degassing Strongly basic Anion after degassing and WBA
Ion Exchange Load Total Hardness (Ca +Mg) HCO3 Total Cations (Ca+Mg+Na+K) EMA (SO4+Cl+NO3) Total Cations Carbonate Hardness Total Anions EMA Total Anions (Cl+SO4+NO3+SiO2) (Alkalinity + CO2) Total Anion (T.Alk + EMA ) +SiO2
Concentration (as ppm CaCO3) 250 200 375 175 175 225 375 185 (assuming 5 ppm leakage of CO2) 10 ppm (assuming 5 ppm leakage )
18
Ion Exchange Resin Quantity (liters) = [Flow (m3/hr)* Ion Exchange load(ppm)* Time] / Ex.capacity of Resin (gms/liter)
900-2000 mm 900-2000mm
Free Board * 60-100% 60-100% Type of Hub/radial Hub/radial Hub/radial Rasching rings Internal Strain on plate Strain on plate Strain on plate Pall rings
Design parameters
Parameters Regenerant flowrate Total rinse Unit M3/Hr/M3 BV WAC 4 5 1.5 6 16 SAC 4.8 5 1.5 9 16 WBA SBA Type 1 SBA Type 2 2.1 5 1.5 6 8 4 5 1.5 6 8 4 5 1.5 6 8
19
4 % NaOH contains 41.75 gms NaOH per liter 50 % NaOH contains 763 gms NaOH per liter 99% NaOH contains 803 gms NaOH per liter 4 % HCl contains 40.72 gms HCl per liter 32 % HCl contains 479.2 gms HCl per liter
1
SA WB
2
SA SB
Conductivity < 30 micro mhos, silica < 0.5 ppm Conductivity < 30 micro mhos, silica < 0.5 ppm
3
SA D SB
4
SA D WB SB
EMA and alkalinity Conductivity < high in raw water 30 micro mhos, silica < 0.5 ppm
20
5
WC SA D WB SB
High EMA and high alkalinity in raw water Hardness > =1 Alkalinity Softening, where only hardness to be removed
6
SA*
7
WC D
Dealkalization when only temporary hardness is present Dealkalization alkalinity with permanent hardness
8
SA* SA D
9
MB1
10
MB1 MB2
Low conductivity water required MB is installed after SBA When ultrapure water is required for pharmaceutical or electronic industries
10 % of the influent alkalinity TDS reduction upto alkalinity removal 10 % of the influent alkalinity TDS reduction alkalinity removal Conductivity < 1 micro mhos, silica < 0.002 ppm Conductivity < 0.02 micro mhos, resistivity 14-18 mega ohms silica < 0.002 ppm
Service
Raw Water is passed through ion exchange unit till the required quality of water is being produced. This is known as service cycle. When the resin stops producing desired quality water, the Resin is said to be exhausted and will have to be regenerated. Service flow can be down flow (top to bottom) or upflow (bottom to top).
Regeneration
The restoration of resin back to its original form is called Regeneration. Depending upon the resin, regeneration is usually done by using acid, alkali or common salt. These chemicals are known as regenerant. Sequence of Regeneration for down flow unit is :1. Backwash 2. Chemical injection 3. Displacement (slow rinse) 4. Fast rinse or Final rinse In the up flow unit upward wash is only done for a minute or so.
21
1 2 3 4 5
Raw water Backwash outlet Chemical Injection inlet Power water for ejector Drain for chemical and final rinse
Regeneration Tank 1 5
Slow Rinse 3
Fast Rinse
1 4
22
Chemical Injection
Slow Rinse
Regenerant Flow 4
Final Rinse
Final Rinse
23
Weak Acid Cation Weak Acid Cation + Strong Acid Cation Strong Base Anion Type 1 Strong Base Anion Type 2 Weak Base Anion
24
5-60M/hr 1-10 M/hr 5-20M/hr 2-6 3-6 3-6 2-4 Bed Bed Bed Bed Volumes Volume Volume Volume
Degasser
The forced-draft degasifier blows an air stream countercurrent to the water flow. The undesirable gas escapes through the vent on the top of the aerator. A disadvantage to this process is that the water is saturated with oxygen after aeration.
25
Packing Data
Ring Size mm Number of rings in 1 M3 of random packing Free Volume M3/M3 Packing Surface Area M2/M3 Hydraulic radius of passage Equivalent Diameter of Packing D=4r Mass of 1 M3 of rings Kg
25 X 25 X 3 35 X 35 X4 50 X 50 X4
53200
0.74
204
0.00363
0.01452
532
20200
0.74
140
0.00555
0.02220
505
6000
0.785
87.5
0.00900
0.0360
530
Ceramic Raschig ring There are 145 pieces of raschig ring per liter. The ring size is 38 mm X 38 mm and weighs about 6 kg.
26
200
150
100
50
35
27
Faulty regeneration
High Backwash in Downflow system Chemical attack by Oxidizing agent like chlorine Excessive high pressure flow rate Broken Strainers in Upflow system/ Upset supporting bed or damaged underdrain. Air sucking through ejector in Pack bed system
28
1 Air, chlorine or other oxidizing agent can oxidize iron and manganese Pretreatment with any of the above Cleaning by Hcl for cation or by Brine for Anion
Excessive turbidity in raw water Excessive Resin fines Resin degraded Excessive high flow rates or operating pressure Cross Contamination of Resin in Mix bed See fouling of resins Short circuiting for possible cause Resin Dirty
See fouling of resins Short circuiting for possible cause Resin Dirty
See in Fouling of Resin Use Clean regenerant chemical, Use DM water for dilution Inspect pipeline clean and remove obstruction. Replace pipe with good rubber lining or rectify Open valve fully (except control valve) Clean strainers (For removal of resin) 1. See Pump Trouble Shooting for solution
Restricted flow
Obstructions in pipelines p u m p Ve s s e l s e t c ., Damaged Rubber lining Valves not properly opened Strainer clogged due to dirt and resin fines
Excessive Rinsing
Brine Treatment. For extreme Condition Sodium hypochlorite dosing, Should be done under supervision
29
Improper Regeneration
Increased Concen-tration of sulphuric acid in cation regeneration Regen-erant dosage too low or too weak Inadequate backwash Damage underdrain or internal distributor
See method of Regeneration Use correct method of regeneration Give extended backwash (30 minutes or more) to clean the resin bed. Replace or Rectify Have storage system and operate at higher flow or use recycle system.Minimum linear velocity should not fall below 2 M3/Hr /M2 Replace Note :- Valve Leakage can give wrong reading in instruments & water analysis
Very slow service rate increases leakage from unit (will reflect on anion unit )
Valve leakage
Defective Valve
Attrition Loss
1 Top up resin lost Water should not be totally drained after rinsing. The level of water should always be above resin bed Air mixing should be done for minimum of ten minutes Check air requirement & blower capacity
Improper Drain down Air Mixing time too short Not Enough air
Can be caused by leakage of cation Resin Improper dilution of regenerant Broken collector
Add Cation Resin to make up Loss or add inert resin Check Change
30
31
32
Flow Rate
To convert from U.S. gpm/ft3 U.S. gpm/ft2 U.S. gpm BV/min To BV/hr M/hr M3/hr U.S. gpm/ft3 Multiply by 8.02 2.45 0.227 7.446
Other Parameters
Parameter Pressure drop Regenerant concentration Density Rinse requirement To convert from PSI/ft PSI/ft Ibs/ft3 Ibs/ft3 U.S. gal/ft3 To MH2O/M of Resin G/cm2/M g/litre g/litre BV Multiply by 2.30 230 16.0 16.0 0.134
33
1 gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds 1 Cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds 1 cubic centimeter of water weighs 1 gram 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram 1 cubic meter of water weighs 1 metric ton 1 metric ton = 2240 lb.
Anions
Substance Bicarbonate Carbonate Chloride Sulphate Nitrate Phosphate Sulphide Co2 Silica Atomic / molecular weight 61.0 60.0 35.5 95.1 62.0 95.0 32.1 44.0 60.1 Equivalent Weight 61.0 60.0 35.5 48.0 62.0 31.7 16.0 44 60.1 To CaCO3 0.82 0.83 1.41 1.04 0.81 1.58 3.13 1.14 0.83
34
Parameter
Units
Gm/liter
3.5
15
Grams /liter
912
745.6
640
Volume of Regenerant
Liter/liter of resin
0.9246
0.6968
0.6432
M3/Hr/M3 of resin
2.8
1.6
1.92
Minutes
20
25
20
M3/Hr/M3 of resin
1.6
1.6
Minutes
10
15
10
35
CHAPTER 5
36
Softener
(Basic ion exchange process)
Thumb rules of designing a Softener STEP 1 To select resin quantity (liters) for a particular hardness (ppm) for a particular output (m3) per regeneration per hour based on regeneration level 160 gm/liter, ion exchange capacity = 55, TDS limit = 1500 ppm, refer TABLE 1 Resin Quantity = Load (ppm as CaCO3) * Flow * time Ex. Capacity For example Load = Hardness = 100 ppm as CaCO3 Flow = 5M3 /hr Time = (Service cycle) = 12 hrs. Ex. Capacity = 60 gm as CaCO3 = 100 liters Resin Quantity = 100 * 5 * 12 60 Note: Na / TC and TDS and correction factor should be applied. Actual Resin Quantity = 60 * correction due Na/TC factor * Correction due to TH factor = 60 * 0.96 * 0.97 = 56 (approximately) Hence Ion Exchange load for designing a softener is 56. These calculations are based on Ion Exchange resin and will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer resin. STEP 2 To select vessel model for a selected resin quantity, approx. flow rates based on linear velocity- min (8 M3/M2/hr) and max (25 M3/M2/hr), and free board 5-100 %, refer TABLE 2
37
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
39.0 52.5 66.0 79.5 91.5 105.0 118.5 132.0 144.0 157.2 171.0 184.5 198.0 210.0 223.0 237.0 250.5 262.5
65.0 87.5 110.0 132.5 152.5 175.0 197.5 220.0 240.0 262.0 285.0 307.5 330.0 350.0 372.0 395.0 417.5 437.5
91.0 122.5 154.0 111.3 213.5 245.0 276.5 308.0 336.0 366.8 399.0 430.5 462.0 490.0 521.0 553.0 584.5 612.5
135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765 810 855 900
175.5 234.0 292.5 351.0 409.5 468.0 526.5 585.0 643.5 702.0 760.5 819.0 877.5 936.0 994.5 1053.0 1111.5 1170.5
216.0 288.0 360.0 432.0 504.0 576.0 648.0 720.0 792.0 864.0 936.0 1008.0 1080.0 1152.0 1224.0 1296.0 1368.0 1440.0
270.0 360.0 450.0 540.0 630.0 720.0 810.0 900.0 990.0 1080.0 1170.0 1260.0 13500 1440.0 1530.0 1620.0 1710.0 1800.0
TABLE 2: STEP 2 To select vessel model for a selected resin quantity, approx. flow rates based on linear velocity min=8 m3/m2/hr and max=25 m3/m2/hr, and free board 5-30 % Vessel Resin Approx. Free Resin Flow Rate Board Model Qty Qty Capacity Min-max (%) (liters) (liters) (liters) LPH 6 x 32 160-500 8% (14.6 liters) 13.5 160-500 20 % 6 x 35 (16. l liters) 6 x 35 33 % (18.0) 9% 7 x 40 (24.5 ltrs) 7 x 44 (27.1 ltrs) 70 704-2,200 50 % 80 704-2,200 33 % 60 584-1,825 30 % 160-500 584-1,825 12 % Approx. Flow Rate Min-max LPH Vessel Free Board Model Capacity (%) (liters) 10x54 (63.8 ltrs) 12x48 (78.5 ltrs) 12x48 (78.5 ltrs) 13x54 (106 ltrs) 13x54 (106 ltrs) 13x54 (106 ltrs) 13x54 (106 ltrs) 14x65 (150 ltrs)
415-1,295 6 %
20 %
276-865 27.0
90 100
276-865
38
31.5 350-1,093
8%
9x35 (33.9 ltrs) 10x35 (40.1 ltrs) 10x40 (46.5 ltrs) 10x35 (40.1 ltrs) 10x40 (46.5 ltrs) 10x44 (51.7 ltrs) 10x40 (46.5 ltrs) 10x44 (51.7 ltrs) 10x47 (55.0 ltrs) 10x54 (63.8 ltrs)
415-1,295
27 %
415-1,295
48 %
39
415-1,295
3%
>240 <300 >300 <430 >430 <650 >650 <950 >950 <1250
~ ~
21x62 (310 ltrs) 24x62 (450 ltrs) 30x72 (710 ltr) 36x72 (1020 ltr) 48x72 (1840 ltr) 63x64 (2500 ltr)
415-1,295
19 %
415-1,295
33 %
45
415-1,295
3%
415-1,295
15 %
415-1,295 415-1,295
22 % 42 %
39
CHAPTER 6
40
Membrane System
Conventional and membrane process solutions to common water problems Constituent of concern Conventional process Membrane process
Coagulation/flocculation Turbidity Suspended solids Media filtration Microfiltration Biological contamination Disinfection Color Activated carbon Ultrafiltration Odor Cl, + media filtration Volatile organics aeration Hardness Sulfates Manganese Iron Heavy metals Total dissolved solids Nitrate Lime softening ion exchange Nanofiltration Oxidation, filtration Ion exchange Coagulation/flocculation Distillation Ion exchange Reverse osmosis Electrodialysis
ND 12-18 4-10
ND As required As required
40 Note
45 +2.45-+2.8
43 2.1
41
Note:- Type of Membrane PA = polyamide, CA = Cellulose Acetate and EDR = Electrodialysis Reversal CA membranes work in Narrow pH range 5.5-6.0 and require acidification to prevent hydrolysis. Therefore, the Langelier Saturation Index of the existing concentrate tends to be low enough and scale inhibitor for calcium carbonate scale is not required.
Troubleshooting Guide
CHECK Pressure drop between feed and reject. Pressure drop between feed and permeate Permeate conductivity VERIFY Has not increased by more than 15%. EFFECT More than 15% indicates fouling of feed path and membrane surface. Requires cleaning More indicates fouling of membrane surface. Requires cleaning. More indicates fouling of membrane surface. Requires cleaning. More can cause membrane damage or sulfate scaling. Less can cause carbonate scaling or metal oxide fouling.
Acid dosing
Instruments Reading
Verify by calibration and carry out of lab check of the parameters the instrument is monitoring. The pH controller generally controls acid dosing pumps. The pH controller should be calibrated periodically and tripping of dosing pump to the set point should be checked.
More or less acid dosing than required.Effect of this has already been mentioned earlier.
42
O ring
Probing with 'plastic tube and by measuring how far it has been inserted.
Failure can lead to increase salt passage, increase permeate flow. Decrease pressure drop. If fully closed, 100% recovery will result and cause membrane damage due to precipitation of inorganic salt.
Brine valve
Decreased Decreased
All stages
43
Cleaning of RO Membrane RO membranes get fouled with suspended solids contained in the feedwater or with sparingly soluble salts, as minerals are concentrated. Pretreatment is done to reduce the fouling potential of feedwater but inspite of that fouling occurs over a period of time. Symptom of fouling 1. Decrease in Product flow. 2. Increase in salt passage. 3. Increase in differential pressure 4. Deterioration in permeate quality 5. Increase in the differential pressure across the RO stage. Indications that the system requires cleaning 1. A 10 to 15 % decline in normalized Product flow. 2. A 10 % increase in salt passage. 3. 15 % increase in differential pressure. Types of Foulants 1. Inorganic fouling Like Calcium Scales or Metal Oxides 2. Organic Fouling Example Humic Acid 3. Particulate Deposition or colloidal fouling Particulate matter 4. Biofouling Types of Membrane Cleaning Solutions The number of formulation for cleaning solutions is varied but we are mentioning only the common type of cleaners used for most common fouling problems. Foulant Inorganic Salts Metal Oxides (Iron) Inorganic Colloids (silt) Biofilms Cleaning Chemicals 0.2 % HCl 0.5 % Phosphoric Acid 2.0 % Citric Acid 0.5 % Phosphoric Acid 1.0 % Sodium Hydrosulphite 0.1%Sodium Hydroxide,30 oC 0.025 % Sodium Dodecylsulphate 0.1 % NaOH, 30 oC 0.1 % NaOH, 30 oC 1 % Sodium salt of ETDA and 0.1 % NaOH 0.025 % Sodium Dodecylsulphate 0.1 % NaOH 30 oC 0.1% sodium triphosphate 1.0 % Sodium salt of ETDA Remarks
Organics
44
Flux
The throughput of a pressure-driven membrane filtration system expressed as flow per unit of membrane area (e.g., gallons per square foot per day (gfd) or liters per hour per square meter (Lmh). Type of Water Municipal wastewater (sewerage) Treated River or Canal water Surface Water (lakes/Reservoir) Deep Wells (low turbidity) RO Permeate Water Surface seawater Beach well seawater System Operating Water Flux (gpd/ft2) & (M3/M2.d) 8-12 - or 8-14 or 8-14 or 14-18- or 20-30 or 7-10 - or 7-10 - or 0.33-0.49 0.33-0.57 0.33-0.57 0.33-0.73 0.81-1.22 0.29 0.40 0.29 0.40
If the water quality is better, higher flux that can be used without causing excessive fouling. Number of Elements: When the flux has been set and the element area (a function of the specific membrane selected) is known, the required number of elements can be calculated: Number of elements =Permeate Flow (LPD)/(LMH)*Active Membrane area (M2) Recovery Rate = (Permeate Flow rate / Feed flow rate)*100 Osmotic pressure Osmotic pressure can be defined as the pressure and potential energy difference that exists between two solutions on either side of a semipermeable membrane. A rule of thumb for osmosis is that 1 psi of osmotic pressure is caused by every 100 ppm (mg/l) difference in total dissolved solids concentration (TDS). Selection of Feed pumps Feed pumps should be selected on the basis of high efficiency. Variable frequency drives now are commonplace in brackish water RO Plants. These frequency drives should also be selected on similar basis. Typical feed pump energy requirements for brackish water RO plants range from 0.5 to 2 kWh/M3 and for seawater it is less than 3 kWh/M3 with the use of energy recovery device. Scaling of Membrane Process Scaling is predicted by Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) or at a higher ionic strength the Stiff & Davis Index predicts the scaling tendency more accurately.
45
u If pH >pHs (or pHsd) then water is saturated with calcium carbonate. u If pH <pHs (or pHsd) then water is unsaturated. u A positive value of index indicates tendency towards scaling. u With the scale inhibitors available nowadays an LSI <+2.4 can be easily controlled. u Circulating a muriatic acid solution can easily redissolve carbonate scale. Lowering the pH during operation can also dissolve it. u In predicting the solubility limits of sulphate two points are important.u a) Modern RO membranes reject divalent ions very well. Therefore it is reasonable to assume a zero percent salt passage when calculating the concentrating factor CF. u b) Compounds are more soluble in the concentrate than in feed water. The solubility product constant Ksp of each compound increases with ionic strength. u As a rule of thumb, the scale inhibitor dosages for RO systems are calculated as concentrations in the concentrate of 12 18 Mg/liter. This value is then converted to a feed water dosage using the CF for design recovery and assuming zero percent salt passage.
46
u Feed water-dissolved solids concentration, C, in mg/L. u delivery water concentration after blending, C, in mg/L. Target u Accurate product and concentrate concentration prediction calculations that take concentration polarization into consideration can get quite complex, but do no provide that much more accuracy in a first pass cost estimate. Product concentration, Cp in mg/L: Cp= Cf (1-Rejection) / Recovery Concentrate concentration Cc in mg/L Cc =Cf* Rejection / (1-Recovery) The maximum amount of blend water that can be mixed with the membrane product and still achieve the target water quality is calculated as follows, assuming filtered feed water is used for the blend water: Qb = Qt (Ct- Cp) / (Cf-Cp) Where Qb is the maximum blend volume in m3/day, Q, is the target volume in m3/day, and Ct is the target dissolved solids concentration in mg/L. If there is a component of the blend water that is more limiting than the total dissolved solids, there are two options. Either plan to remove that component from the blend water or use the concentration of that component in the blend water for Cf and the estimated remaining concentration of it in the membrane product water for Cp. As an example, consider the following situation: Cf = 900 mg/L with 0.5 mg/L manganese Rejection = 0.95 Recovery = 0.85 Ct = 300 mg/L with less than 0.05 mg/L manganese Cp = 900*(l-0.95)/0.85 = 56 mg/L Cb = (300-56)/ (900-56) = 0.29 or 29 percent blending with feed water. When the manganese concentration is considered as the limiting component: Cf = 0.5 mg/L manganese Rejection = 0.95 Recovery = 0.85
Ct = Less than 0.05 mg/L manganese Cp = 0.05*(l-0.95) / 0.85 = 0.03 mg/L Cb = (0.05-0.03) / (0.5-0.03) = 0.04 or 4 percent blending with feed water.
47
If the blend water is filtered with greensand or the manganese is removed in some other way, the higher level of blending is possible, otherwise not. However it is decided, once the blend volume has been established, the membrane process feed, product, and concentrate flows are set (all in m3/day): Qp = Qt- Qb Qf = Qp / Recovery Qc = Qp (1-Recovery) / (Recovery)
48
CHAPTER 7
49
Steam Boiler
Steam Boiler System
The principal components of a steam boiler system include a steam boiler, condensate return tank, condensate pump, deaerator, feedwater pump, steam traps, low water flame cut-off controller, chemical feeder, and make-up water treatment equipment. However, depending on the size of the system and the end use of the steam, other components may include a converter or heating coils, unit heater, steam sparger, jacketed steam cooker, and/or steam sterilizer
Oxygen (O2)
pH
50
Deaerator malfunction. Feedwater pump sucking air at the seal. Insufficient sodium sulfite residual. Testing reagent shelf life expired. Chemical feed pump inoperative or out of adjustment. Restriction in the chemical feedline. Mistake in chemical identification. Inadequate amount of treatment chemical. Makeup water increase due to lead in the system (boiler section or condensate).
51
Chemicals feed pump inoperative. An increase of oxygen content in feedwater. Improper sampling or testing technique.
Check sulfite feed system and make necessary adjustment/repair. Check deaerator operation and make necessary adjustment/repair. Increase sodium sulfite feed rate. Collecting Water Samples. Test for sulfite first. Stir sample smoothly. Increase blowdown rate. Adjust the surface blow down valve. Analyze boiler water to determine treatment chemical residual and make adjustments. Reduce the total dissolved solids in the boiler by blowdown. Make sure water level is not too high. Reduce amine injection, but maintain the recommended pH. Take condensate samples at all steam converters and test for hardness and TDS to find the point of infiltration. Make necessary repair. Analyze the condensate for iron/copper content. Ensure amine treatment is reaching all points in the condensate system.
Boiler water carryover with the steam. Too much amine injected. Infiltration of raw water at converters. Active corrosion occurring in the system.
Boilers
Boilers use varying amounts of water to produce steam or hot water, depending on their size. They require make up water to compensate for uncollected condensate or to replace blow down water. These units have a tendency to develop leaks as they age.
52
2. 3. 4.
5. Install automatic controls to treat boiler make up water. Eliminate systems that mix condensate with cool fresh water for blow down to the sewer.
53
1. If the boiler water total alkalinity concentration is greater than 700 ppmCaCO3, then the blowdown rate must be increased and the caustic or trisodium phosphate addition must be decreased. 2. The boiler water total alkalinity concentration must be less than 700 ppm CaCO3; 1. If the boiler water hydroxide alkalinity concentration is less than 150 ppm CaCO3, caustic or tri-sodium phosphate must be added to the boiler water. 2. Alternately, if the boiler water hydroxide alkalinity concentration is greater than 300 ppm CaCO3, the blowdown rate must be increased and the caustic or tri-sodium phosphate addition must be decreasedthe boiler water hydroxide alkalinity must be 150-300 ppm CaCO3 1. If the phosphate is added upstream of the boiler feed pumps, hexameta phosphate must be used since tri-sodium phosphate would precipitate hardness salts, thus increasing the wear on pump seals. Hexameta phosphate on the other hand keeps hardness in solution until it reaches the boiler, at which point the alkalinity and increased temperature there converts it to trisodium phosphate; 2. If the phosphate is added directly to the boiler water, either hexameta or tri-sodium phosphate may be used; 3. If the phosphate is being consumed more rapidly than trisodium phosphate is being added (i.e.,hardness in leakage into the system), hexameta phosphate should be used at least temporarily because it has a higher phosphate concentration and thus a higher capacity for hardness than tri-sodium phosphate; 4. When hexameta phosphate is used, its conversion to trisodium phosphate in the boiler effectively reduces the OH alkalinity concentration and the pH level of the boiler water; 1. If the pH level of the condensate return is less than 8.5, a neutralizing amine such as morpholine must be added to the feedwater after the make-up location. 2. If the pH level of the condensate return is greater than 9.5, the amine addition must be decreased the condensate return pH level must be 8.5-9.5. 3. If problems persist in achieving proper pH levels in the condensate return system, seek the advice of the water treatment consultant. If there is no condensate return, amine must not be added In conjunction with the above controls and regulation of boiler blowdown, the boiler water neutralized total dissolved solids must be controlled within the limits of 1500-3000 ppm (or 2000-4000 micromhos/cm).
54
Note
Hydrazine Sulphate oxygen scavenging should only be used with drum type boilers. Drum boilers have blowdown facilities. TDS levels should be monitored more rigorously when using hydrazine sulphate as an oxygen scavenger, since TDS levels may increase with the formation of ferrous sulphate.
The venting is not sufficient. Increase venting by opening the manually operating vent valve. Excessive oxygen content in deaerator effluent The steam pressure reducing valve not working properly. Check valve for free operation. Check water and, if possible, steam flow rates vs. design. Trays or scrubber and inlet valves are designed for specific flow ranges.
Temperature in storage tank does not correspond within 5 F of saturation temperature of the steam
Spray nozzle not working. There could be deposit or sediment on the nozzle on the spring broken or seat. Leaking stuffing boxes of pump upstream of deaerator can be the cause Repair stuffing box or seal with deaerated water.
Trays collapsed-possibly from interrupted steam supply or sudden supply of cold water causing a vacuum. Condensate may be too hot. Water entering the deaerating heater must usually be cooled if the temperature.
55
Chemical dosage
Oxygen scavenger
Sodium sulphite 7.88 ppm of sodium sulphite is required to remove 1ppm of dissolved oxygen. This requirement is for pure sodium sulphite. 93 % pure sodium sulphite will require 10 ppm of sodium sulphite per ppm of oxygen. The amount of catalyst required is 0.25 %
Hydrazine
Theoretically 1 ppm of Hydrazine reacts with 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen. In practice of 1.5 to 2 ppm is used for 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen Amine Requirement Amount of amine required for maintaining pH of 8.0 in water containing 10 ppm CO2 Morpholine 37 ppm: - It has a specific gravity of 1.002 and has a pH of 9.7 for 100-ppm solution Cyclohexylamine 15 ppm: - It has a specific gravity of 0.86 and has a pH of 10.7 for 100-ppm solution Suggested dosage of Sodium sulphite & Hydrazine
56
Amount needed 0.2 ppm to give pH 9.0 1 ppm to give pH 9.0 2.3 parts per part of CO2 to give pH 8.1 (corresponds to bicarbonate) 2.0 parts per part of CO2 to give pH 7.4 1.4 ppm per ppm of Co2 to give pH of 7.0
Notes
Cyclohexylamine is not for use in systems having a feedwater alkalinity more than 75 ppm These system lengths are for classification only and are not absolute. For example a medium length system may have more of the characteristics of a long system if lines are poorly insulated or because of bad design.
Amine Limits
Amine Cyclohexylamine DEAE Hydrazine Morpholine Octadecylamine Limitation Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam. Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam. Zero in steam Not to exceed 10 ppm in steam. Not to exceed 3 ppm in steam.
Note:- These should not come in contact with food products and hence any steam in contact with milk and other such products should not have amine.
57
NOTE Ortho-Phosphate Hydroxyl Alkalinity (Causticity) Sodium Lignosulfonate (as tannic acid) Range BIS Standard for Feed water and Boiler Water 1st Standard (10392-1982)
Chemical requirements for feed water and boiler for low and medium pressure boilers: Feed Water:
Parameters Total Hardness pH Value Dissolved Oxygen Silica Upto20Kg /cm2 <10 21 Kg/cm2 - 39Kg/cm2 <1.0 40Kg/cm2 - 59Kg/cm2 <0.5 Unit ppm as CaCO3
8.5-9.5 0.1
8.5-9.5 0.02 5
58
Boiler water
Upto20 Kg/cm2 Not Detectable 700 21 Kg/cm2to 39 Kg/cm2 Not Detectable 500 40Kg/cm2 59Kg/cm2 Not Detectable 300 As ppm CaCO3 As ppm CaCO3
Parameters Total Hardness Total Alkalinity Caustic alkalinity pH Value Residual Sodium Sulphite Residual Hydrazine Ratio Na2SO4 /Caustic Al kalinity (NaOH) Ratio Na2SO4/ Totallkalinity (as NaOH) Phosphate Total Dissolved Solids
Unit
350 11.0 to 12.0 30 to 50 0.1 to 1.0 Above 2.5 Above 0.4 20 to 40 3500 <0.4 of Caustic Alkalinity
200 11.0 to 12.0 20 to 30 0.1 to 0.5 Above 2.5 Above 0.4 15 to 30 2500 <0.4 of Caustic Alkalinity
60 10.5 to 11.0 --
Silica
15
As ppm SiO2
59
ASME Guidelines for Water Quality in Modern Industrial Water Tube Boilers for Reliable Continuous Operation
Boiler Feed Water Drum Pressure (psi) (kg/cm2) 0-300 (0-20) 301-450 (21-30) 451-600 (31-42) 601-750 (43 52) 751-900 (53-63) 901-1000 (64-70) Iron (ppm Fe) Copper (ppm Cu) Total Hardness (ppm CaCO3) 0.300 0.300 0.200 0.200 0.100 0.050 0.0 0.0 Silica (ppm SiO2) Boiler Water Specific Total Conductance Alkalin (micro mh ity**(ppm os/cm)(unn CaCO3) eutralized) 700* 600* 500* 400* 300* 200* 0*** 0*** 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 150 100
150 90 40 30 20 8 2 1
This value will limit the silica content of the steam to 0.25 ppm as a function of selective.
60
Boiler Pressure psig 0 to 300 301 to 450 451 to 600 601 to 750 751 to 900 901 to 1000 1001 to 1500 1501 to 2000 Over 2000
TDS 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1250 1000 750 500
Alkalinity 700 600 500 400 300 250 200 150 100
61
CHAPTER 8
62
4. Choosing monitoring and maintenance requirement Create a plan to change chemistry or flow rates, if problem occurs.
63
Material of construction Wood, Plastic, Metal and fiber glass Mild steel (MS), PVC, Stainless steel (SS) and fiber glass Copper, copper alloy, SS, & galvanized steel tubes Mild steel Water lines may be of copper
Heat exchangers(Chillers, Jacketed vessel, etc) Covers of Heat exchangers & Support plates
Effect of impurity Corrosion (white rust) at High TDS and pH above 8.5 or less than 6.5 Corrosion due to chloride, Chloride above 200 ppm can create problem in Ss304 when deposit forming conditions exist but if no deposit forming surface can withstand around 1000 ppm Cl. 316 SS can withstand about 5000 ppm Cl even with deposit forming surface Highly corrosive due to solids and also due to acidic or basic conditions Oxygen also corrosive to mild steel Corrosion to ammonia Natural decay. Can get chemically attacked. Corrosion resistant. Biomass can get built up on plastic film
Stainless steel
Mild steel
Plastic
64
Daily/Weekly 1.Test water sample for proper concentration of dissolved solids. Adjust bleed water flow as needed. 2.Measure the water treat-ment chemical residual in the circulating water. Maintain the residual recommended by your water treatment specialist. 3.Check the strainer on the bottom of the collection basin and clean it if necessary. 4.Operate the make-up water float switch manually to ensure proper operation. 5.Inspect all moving parts such as drive shafts,pulleys, and belts. 6.Check for excessive vibration in motors, fans, and pumps. 7.Manually test the vibration limit switch by jarring it. 8.Look for oil leaks in gearboxes. 9.Check for structural deterioration, loose connectors, water leaks, and openings in the casing. 10.During periods of cold weather, check winterization equipment. Make sure any ice accumulation is within acceptable limits.
Periodic 1.Check the distribution spray nozzles to ensure even distribution over the fill. 2.Check the distribution basin for corrosion,leaks, and sediment. 3.Operate flow control valves through their range of travel and re-set for even water flow through the fill. 4.Remove any sludge from the collection basin and check for corrosion that could develop into leaks. 5.Check the drift elimina tors, air intake louvers, and fill for scale build-up. Clean as needed. 6.Look for damaged or out- of-place fill elements. 7.Inspect motor supports, fan lades, and other mechanical parts for excessive wear or cracks. 8.Lubricate bearings and bushings. Check the level of oil in the gearbox. Add oil as needed. 9.Adjust belts and pulleys. 10.Make sure there is proper clearance between the fan blades and the shroud. 11.Check for excessive vertical or rotational replay in the gearbox output shaft to the fan.
Annual 1.Check the casing basin,and piping for corrosion and decay.Without proper mainte -nance,cooling towers may suffer from corrosion and wood decay. Welded repairs are especially susceptible to corrosion. The protective zinc coating on galva -nized steel towers is burned off during the welding process. Prime and paint any welded repairs with a corrosion resistant coating. 2.Leaks in the cooling tower casing may allow air to bypass the fill. All cracks, holes, gaps, and door access panels should be properly sealed.Remove dust, scale, and algae from the fill, basin, and distribution spray nozzles to maintain proper water flow.
65
66
u Heat exchangers can also be monitored for heat transfer performance to give an early warning of water treatment deficiencies. Small side stream test heat exchangers are available commercially for monitoring cooling water site fouling. Biological growth can rapidly cause systems to get fouled. Slime appearing on a submerged coupon is a good indicator that there is a problem. Submerged coupons, which are found in the cooling tower reservoir, indicate growth in less accessible areas of the cooling tower.
Treatment Chlorination Filtration Sulphuric acid Inhibitors Antiscalant Antifoulant Fouling in cooling system Reasons of Fouling If fouling is not controlled, it will result in heavy deposits inside Silt introduced by the makeup water cooling water tubes, resulting in Dirt from air reduced tube diameter. Reaction of residues from chemical treatment Fouling is controlled by filtration and by chemicals and oxidation by Microbiological debris chlorine and or ozone Products produced by corrosion such as hydroxides and insoluble salts Selection of capacity of side stream filter % reduction of undissolved solids Select 80 % Time desired for reduction in hours = t= 48 hours maximum select maximum in 48 hours Blowdown = b in M3/hrs b=100 M3/Hrs V= total volume of cooling system M3 6000 Filtration rate F= v/t Loge[(100)/(100-%reduction)]-b Microorganism Bacteria, algae and fungi present in cooling water decreases the efficiency of heat transfer in cooling tower and condensers. Chlorine is the most widely used chemical in industry as oxidizing agent for destruction and dissolution of microorganism Chlorine is only effective when pH is between 6 to 7 Cooling water pH %of HOCl for effective oxidation 6 97 7 76 8 24 9 3 At pH 7 in CW system every 1 ppm Cl2 dosed only 0.76 ppm is used as oxidizing agent for control of microorganism General guidelines for chlorine dosing of reasonably good water Cooling Water System Estimated Chlorine dosage
67
Cooling Water System Once Through inland Lake /river/seawater Recirculation cooling water system Makeup water for CW circulation water
Estimated Chlorine dosage Continuous dosing of 1-2 ppm + shock dosing of 3-5 ppm for 15 minutes after every 8 hour cycle Continuous 1-2 ppm. Shock dose of 3-5 ppm Continuous 1-2 ppm.
Dosage Quantity at 30oC H2SO4 % Sp.Gr Dosing D=AH/ Sp.Gr =88.4/ 1.826 =48.4 lph
Q=[(A*C)-M]=[(140*2) -150]=130
98
1.826
68
Softening by external treatment Antiscalant Descaling if scaling has taken place Dealkalization
Ammonia
Bromine better disinfectant in presence of Ammonia Air stripping Close monitoring of Blowdown. Proper use of dispersant
Phosphate
Chloride
Iron
Oxidizing Biocide
69
SS
10
25
50
1/wk
C5H10 N2S2
Sol
24
30
60
1/wk
6.5
14
C3H6NS2 Na
Sol
30
20
40
1/wk
14
C3H2N2 OBr
Sol
20
15
1/wk
Sol
1.15
25
50
1/wk
9.5
Sol
45
25
100
1/wk
14
AlkylBenzylRC6H5 7 Dimethyl Ammonium (CH3)3 NCl Chloride Dioctyl(C6H17)2 Dimethyl (CH3)2 8 Ammonium NCl Chlorite
Sol
9.4
30
120
1/wk
14
Sol
50
30
120
1/wk
14
70
Oxidizing Biocides:
Material Formula Form % FAC Residual Requirements Min Dose ppm Chlorine Dioxide ClO2 sol Max Dose ppm 0.5 C 5 9 Feed Type Min pH Max pH
0.2
Chlorine Calcium Hypochlorite Sodium Hypochlorite (I) Sodium Hypochlorite(D) Lithium Hypochl orite Trichloro Isocyanuric acid Sodium Dichloro Isocyanuric acid Bromo, Chloro, Dimethyl Hydantion Sodium BromideChlorine
Cl2 Ca (OCl)2
gas
100
0.5
1.0
7.5
solid
65
0.5
1.0
7.5
NaOCl
solution
12
0.5
1.0
7.5
NaOCl
solution
0.5
1.0
7.5
LiOCl
solid
35
0.5
1.0
7.5
(CON Cl)3
solid
89
0.5
1.0
7.5
(CON)3 Cl2 Na
solid
56
0.5
1.0
7.5
C5H6N2 O2ClBr
solid
38% as NaBr
0.2
0.5
10
NaBr
varies
2.0
4.0
10
71
Water velocity: > 3 feet/sec @ >150F > 5 feet/sec @ 120F > 8 feet/sec @ <90F
Leaks or system failure High rate of corrosion of copper piping;could cause leaks or system failure
System operation not optimized Possible misuse of additives Improper blowdown rate The heat load to the system has greatly increased. Possible massive system leak.
Check if additional heat load has been added on the system today. Check the system for leaks. Inspect sanitary sewer and storm sewer manholes on site for unusually high flows.
72
Cooling water distribution headers in all plants are generally of carbon steel without any protective lining. In some places Hume pipe are also used to severe corrosion.
Table1
SHMP + Zn Characteristics 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 pH MO Alkalinity Ca Hardness Total hardness Chloride as Cl Sulphate as SO4 Silica as SiO2 TSS Unit Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L 200-300 300-500 200-300 800-1000 75-100 20-30 (30-50) SHMP+CrO4+Zn Normal Maximum Normal Maximum 6.3 6.8
*1
6.5-7.0
7.0
*1
Organo Phosphate Mg/L (HEDP) as PO4 10 Total Inorganic Phosphate as PO4 Mg/L 11 Chromate as CrO4 Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L
25*4 5*4 10
12
14
1200-1500 1500
1500-2000 2000
*1-MO Alkalinity will find its own level based on pH to be maintained. *2- In case of stainless steel exchangers, chloride levels will be low depending on design. *3- With polymeric dispersant *4 Actual inhibitors levels depend on operating conditions
73
Table2
Zn+O-PO4+ Polymer Characte ristics 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 pH MO Alkalinity Ca Hardness Total hardness Chloride as Cl Sulphate as SO4 Silica as SiO2 TSS Organo Phos phate(HEDP) as PO4 Unit Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L Mg/L 300400 600800 200-300 8001000 75-100 30-50 Normal 7.58.0 Maxi mum 8.0 Zn +HEDP Normal Maxi mum Zn +HEDP + SHMP (max) Nor Maxi mal mum
*1
*1
*1
Mg/L
8-10*4
10*4
4-6*4
4-6*4
Total Inorga 10 nic Phosp-hate as PO4 Orthophos 11 phate as PO4 12 Zinc Sulphate as Zn Polymeric 13 dispersant 14 TDS
Mg/L
6-8*4
8*4
3 10 2000
2 20
*1-MO Alkalinity will find its own level based on pH to be maintained. *2- In case of stainless steel exchangers, chloride levels will be low depending on design. *3- With polymeric dispersant *4 Actual inhibitors levels depend on operating conditions
74
Factor "B" FOR Temperature F 32-34 36-42 44-48 50-56 58-62 64-70 72-80 82-88 90-98 100-110 112-122 124-132 134-146 148-160 162-178
o
C 0-1 2-6 7-9 10-13 14-17 18-21 2.1 28-31 32-37 38-43 44-50 51-55 56-64 65-71 72-81
Value of B 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2
75
Factors "C" for Calcium Hardness (as ppm CaCO3)* Zero to 1000 ppm
Calcium Hardness Value of C As CaCO3 10-11 12-13 14-17 18-22 23-27 28-34 35-43 44-55 56-69 70-87 88-110 111-138 139-174 175-220 221-270 271-340 341-430 440-550 551-690 691-870 871-1000 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Calcium Hardness Value of C As CaCO3 10-11 12-13 14-17 18-22 23-27 28-34 35-43 44-55 56-69 70-87 88-110 111-138 139-174 175-220 221-270 271-340 341-430 440-550 551-690 691-870 871-1000 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.+ 3.0
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7.14 7.24 7.77 7.81 8.08 8.10 8.29 8.30 8.44 8.46 8.57 8.58 8.67 8.67 8.76 8.77 8.84 8.85 8.91 8.92
7.47 7.53 7.59 7.64 7.68 7.73 7.91 7.94 7.97 8.00 8.03 8.05 8.17 8.19 8.21 8.23 8.25 8.27 8.35 8.37 8.38 8.40 8.41 8.43 8.49 8.51 8.52 8.53 8.54 8.56 8.61 8.62 8.63 8.64 8.65 8.66 8.71 8.72 8.73 8.74 8.74 8.75 8.79 8.80 8.81 8.82 8.82 8.83 8.87 8.88 8.89 8.89 8.90 8.90
Example 1
Water from a cooling tower has a TDS of 1,000 ppm, calcium hardness of 500 ppm (as CaCO3), total alkalinity of 100 ppm (as CaCO3) and measured pH of 8.2. The hottest temperature on the waterside of the heat exchanger is 120oF. pHs = 9.30 + A + B - (C + D) pHs = 9.30 + 0.20 + 1.57 - (2.30+2.00) = 6.77
Example 2
Water from a cooling tower has a total alkalinity of 100 ppm (as CaCO3) and a measured pH of 8.2 (same as example 1). From table 5, the pHeq is 7.47. PSI = (2pHs) - (pHeq) = 2 (6.77) - 7.47 = 13.54 - 7.47 = 6.07 RSI = (2pHs) - (measured pH) = 13.54 8.2 = 5.34 LSI = (measured pH) - (pHs) = 8.2 6.77 = +1.43 The pHeq may also be calculated as follows: pH eq = 1.485 log TA + 4.54 where TA denotes total alkalinity.
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CHAPTER 9
79
Pumps
Introduction
Pumps play a vital role in any water treatment system. Pump moves liquid from one place to another. Hence selection of pump is very critical in all water treatment system. Here we are giving general guideline, which will help, in discussing with the pump manufacturer or supplier.
Types of Pump
The three types of pump most commonly employed are Centrifugal, Rotary and Reciprocating. Each class of pump is further divided into. Pump Class Type Volute Diffuser Regenerative turbine Vertical Turbine Mixed Axial Flow Axial flow (Propeller) Gear Vane Cam & Piston Screw Lobe Shuttle Block Direct acting Power(including Crank & Flywheel) Diaphragm Piston Simplex Duplex Triplex Single stage and Multistage. See manual on pumps
Centrifugal
Rotary
Reciprocating
Liquid handled
Medium
Low to high
80
Usual capacity range How increased head affects capacity Power input How decreased head affects capacity Power input
Relatively small Decrease and None for duplex and triplex Increase Increases marginally
None
Decrease
Decrease
Liter/sec Average efficiency Total head in meters 5 7 10 20 30 50 70 100 200 300 500
1 34
2 44
3 50
5 58
10 66
20 72
30 75
50 78
100 81
200 83
0.15 0.20 0.29 0.58 0.87 1.44 2.02 2.88 5.77 8.65 14.4
1.23 0.31 0.45 0.89 1.34 2.23 3.12 4.46 8.92 13.4 22.3
0.30 0.41 0.59 1.18 1.77 2.94 4.12 5.88 11.8 17.7 29.4
0.43 0.59 0.85 1.69 2.54 4.23 5.92 8.45 16.9 25.4 42.3
0.75 1.04 1.49 2.97 4.46 7.43 10.4 14.9 29.7 44.6 74.3
1.47 1.91 2.73 5.45 8.18 13.6 19.1 27.3 54.5 81.8 136
1.96 2.75 3.92 7.84 11.8 19.6 27.5 39.2 78.4 118 196
3.15 4.4 6.3 12.6 18.9 31.5 44.0 63.0 126 189 315
6.05 8.48 12.1 24.2 36.3 60.5 84.8 121 242 363 605
11.8 16.6 23.6 47.3 71.0 118 166 236 473 710 1180
81
3. 4. 5. 6.
82
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CHAPTER 10
84
85
Coagulation
The first step destabilizes the particle's charges. Coagulants with charges opposite those of the suspended solids are added to the water to neutralize the negative charges on dispersed non-settlable solids such as clay and colorproducing organic substances. Once the charge is neutralized, the small-suspended particles are capable of sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process and called microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye. The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the particles' charges have not been neutralized, and coagulation has not been carried to completion. More coagulant may need to be added.
Flocculation
Following the first step of coagulation, a second process called flocculation occurs. Flocculation, a gentle mixing stage, increases the particle size from submicroscopic microfloc to visible suspended particles. The microflocs are brought into contact with each other through the process of slow mixing. Collisions of the microfloc particles cause them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs called pinflocs. The floc size continues to build through additional collisions and interaction with inorganic polymers formed by the coagulant or with organic polymers added. Macroflocs are formed. High molecular weight polymers, called coagulant aids, may be added during this step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen the floc, add weight, and increase settling rate. Once the floc has reached it optimum size and strength, the water is ready for the sedimentation process.
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Sedimentation
Sedimentation basins are used to settle out the floc before going to the filters. Some type of sludge collection device should be used to remove sludge from the bottom of the basin.
Filtration
Removal of suspended solids by filtration plays an important role in the natural treatment of groundwater as it percolates through the soil. It is also a major part of most water treatment. Groundwater that has been softened or treated through iron and manganese removal will require filtration to remove floc created by coagulation or oxidation processes. Since surface water sources are subject to run-off and do not undergo natural particles and impurities. Iron and manganese in water also promote the growth of iron bacteria, a group of organisms that obtains its energy for growth from the chemical reaction that occurs when iron and manganese mix with dissolved oxygen. These bacteria form thick slime growths on the walls of the piping system and on well screens. Such shines are rust-colored from the iron and black-colored from the manganese. Variations in flow can cause these slime growths to come loose, resulting in dirty water in the system.
Disinfection
The object of disinfection is to kill disease-causing organisms present in the water. With regard to water treatment, disinfection refers to the destruction of most intestinal or fecal bacteria. Sometimes disinfection is not complete. Some viruses and especially some protozoa, such as Giardia or cryptosporidium, could survive the disinfection process. The only method of complete protection is to sterilize the water by boiling it for a period of 15 to 20 minutes The methods of disinfection practical in public water supplies are chlorination, ozonation, use of ultra-violet light, and over-liming. Potassium permanganate, iodine, bromine, and silver are also used, but less frequently. Chlorination is so widely used that the term disinfection and chlorination are almost the same in waterworks practice. Coarse Screen Coarse screens, often termed bar screens or racks, and must be provided to intercept large, suspended or floating material. Such screens or racks are made of l/2-inch to 3/4-inch metal bars spaced to provide 1- to 3-inch openings. Fine Screen Surface waters require screens or strainers for removal of material too small to be intercepted by the coarse rack, These may be basket-type, in-line strainers, manually or hydraulically cleaned by back washing or of the traveling type, which are cleaned by water jets. Fine screen, clear openings should be approximately 3/8 inch.
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88
Design Data
Typical Design Values
Equipment
Design Parameter
Unit
Remarks Design should have provision for disposing Debris removed by screens
Coarse Screen
Coarse Screen
0.050.08
Meter /sec
Velocity Tray type Water velocity Air requirement Tray spacing Area required Cascade Type Head Area Flow velocity Spray Type Head Nozzle diameter Nozzle spacing Nozzle discharge Basin are Spray pressure
0.4 0.8 0.8-1.5 7.5 30-75 50-160 1.0-3.0 85-105 0.3 1.2-9 2.5-4.0 0.6-3.6 5-10 105-320 about 70
Meter /sec m3/m2/min m3/m3 water cm m2/m3.s meter m2/m3.s m/s meter cm meter liter/sec m2/m3.s kPa
Coagulation
Rapid Mix Detention time Velocity gradient Gt Slow Mix Detention time Velocity gradient Gt
Min S-1
Flocculation
89
Sedime-ntation
Rectangular Tanks Surface overflow rate: Detention time: Water depth: Width/Length Weir loading: Upflow Clarifiers Surface overflow rate: Detention(settling) time: Water depth: Weir loading: Upflow velocity Sludge Blanket Clarifiers Surface overflow rate: Detention (settling) time: Weir loading: Upflow velocity: Flocculation time
0.8 2.5 1.5 3 35 > 1/5 < 11 1.3 1.9 13 35 7 <3 1 3 12 7 - 15 < 0.6 20
Meter/Hr Hour Meter M3/Hr.M Meter/Hr Hour Meter M3/Hr.M m/h Meter/Hr Hour M3/Hr.M m/h minutes
Rapid sand filter Filtration Rate Backwash rate Air scour Filtration system Minimum filtration cycle Filter media depths Dual Media Silica Anthracite Pressure Filters Filtration rate
Aeration as described before. KMnO 4 Dosage PAC dosage Chlorine Dose Chlorine residual Ozone dose Fluoride Dose
0.5-2.5 0.5-5
Mg/liter Mg/liter
PAC is Powdered activated carbon. The dosage of PAC can at times go upto 50 mg/L
Disinfe-ction
Fluoride
90
Membrane Processes
Microfiltration (MF) Pore size Pressure Ultrafiltration (UF) Pore size Pressure Nanofiltration (NF) Pore size Pressure Reverse osmosis (RO) Pore size Pressure
0.1 0.2 0.7 1.4 (10 20) 0.003 0.01 0.7 7.8 (10-40) 0.001 0.005 5.3 10.6 (150)
1-2 138-1000
M/sec kPa
for
various
28-45
4-8
200-275
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CHAPTER 11
92
Physical
Chemical
Biological
Physical
u Screening is removal of coarse solids by use of a straining device. u Sedimentation is gravity settling of pollutants out of the wastewater. u Flotation is the use of small gas bubbles injected into the wastewater,
which causes pollutant particles in the wastewater to rise to the surface for subsequent removal. Air stripping is removal of volatile and semi-volatile organic u compounds from wastewater by use of airflow.
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Chemical
Neutralization is adjustment of alkalinity and acidity to the same u concentration (pH 7). Precipitation is addition of chemicals to wastewater to change the u chemical composition of pollutants so that the newly formed compounds settle out during sedimentation. Coagulation is use of chemicals to cause pollutants to agglomerate u and subsequently settle out during sedimentation. Adsorption is use of a chemical, which causes certain pollutants to u adhere to the surface of that chemical. Disinfection is use of a chemical (or other method such as ultraviolet u radiation) to selectively destroy disease-causing organisms. (Sterilization is the destruction of all organisms.) Breakpoint chlorination is the addition of chlorine to the level that u chloramines will be oxidized to nitrous oxide and nitrogen, and chlorine will be reduced to chloride ions.
Biological
Air activated sludge is an aerobic process in which bacteria consume u organic matter, nitrogen and oxygen from the wastewater and grow new bacteria. The bacteria are suspended in the aeration tank by the mixing action of the air blown into the wastewater. This is shown schematically in Figure 1. There are many derivations of the activated sludge process, several of which are described in this section. High purity oxygen activated sludge is an aerobic process very similar u to air activated sludge except that pure oxygen rather than air is injected into the wastewater. Aerated u pond/lagoon is an aerobic process very similar to air activated sludge. Mechanical aerators are generally used to either inject air into the wastewater or to cause violent agitation of the wastewater and air in order to achieve oxygen transfer to the wastewater. As in air activated sludge, the bacteria grow while suspended in the wastewater. Trickling u filter is a fixed film aerobic process. A tank containing media with a high surface to volume ratio is constructed. Wastewater is discharged at the top of the tank and percolates (trickles) down the media. Bacteria grow on the media utilizing organic matter and nitrogen from the wastewater. Rotating u biological contactor (RBC) is a fixed film aerobic process similar to the trickling filter process except that the media is supported horizontally across a tank of wastewater. The media upon whom the bacteria grow is continuously rotated so that it is alternately in the wastewater and the air. Oxidation ditch is an aerobic process similar to the activated sludge u process. Physically, however, an oxidation ditch is ring-shaped and is equipped with mechanical aeration devices.
94
Pretreatment Processes Activated Sludge Trickling filter or RBC Aerated lagoon Oxidation ditch Sedimentation Screening Flotation Chemical precipitation Nitrification/denitrification Air stripping Breakpoint chlorination Chemical precipitation Biological treatment Air stripping Biological treatment Chemical precipitation Evaporation Membrane process Coagulation Flotation Biological treatment Membrane process Air stripping Biological treatment Carbon adsorption Chemical disinfection UV radiation ozonation
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Heavy metals
Pathogens
95
Pretreatment Process Physical Screening Sedimentation Centrifugation Air stripping Chemical Neutralization Precipitation Coagulation Adsorption
No blinding or clogging of screens, no excessive build-up of material on the screen Low flow rate, no short circuiting of flow, no floating sludge, scum removal if appropriate
pH monitoring, automated chemical feed, adequate mixing Automated chemical feed system, adequate mixing & contact timer Automated chemical feed system, adequate mixing & contact timer Efficient means of regeneration is key to performance Automated chemical feed system, adequate mixing & contact timer
Disinfection Biological
Activated sludge
Fine bubble aeration, even distribution of air and mixing, dissolved oxygen concentration monitoring, air flow turndown capability, no bulking/floating sludge Method for positive air circulation, even & periodic dousing of filter media Steady shaft rotation
96
CHAPTER 12
97
Chemical Cleaning
General Guidance
Chemical cleaning of water systems can be divided into two classifications: preoperational and remedial. Pre-operational cleaning is performed to prepare the water-contacted metal surfaces to receive chemical treatment, which provides protection from scale, corrosion, and microbiological growth. Remedial cleaning is performed to restore water systems that have been fouled with scale, corrosion products, and microbiological growth due to inadequate or ineffective water treatment. Cleaning, particularly remedial cleaning is often performed by outside contractors familiar with cleaning procedures, techniques, and safety. It should be noted that if the water system is significantly scaled, the chemical treatment program was obviously inadequate and was not properly designed, set-up, controlled, or applied. After cleaning has been completed, the chemical treatment program and QC program must be improved so the same problem does not recur. Use of a well-designed QA program would have produced identification and notification of potential and developing problems before they became serious. Pre-operational cleaning is often performed by contractors responsible for the fabrication of the water system before turning it over to the military installation. Water system operations personnel must assess the effectiveness of any cleaning process that has been performed.
Pre-Operational Cleaning
Pre-operational cleaning can be performed on all new systems or pieces of equipment installed in any existing system, including new boiler tubes or new chiller copper tube bundles. New piping and coils will usually be contaminated with materials such as mill scale, rust, oil, and grease resulting from the fabrication, storage, and installation of the equipment. Pre-operational cleaning is performed to remove these materials and prepare metal surfaces to receive corrosion protection from chemical treatment. Pre-operational cleaning agents that are used include detergents, wetting agents, rust removers, and dispersants. These cleaning agents have a pH in the range of 9 to 11. Water systems containing piping or components constructed of galvanized steel and aluminum should not be subjected to procedures that require high pH (greater than 8.5) because this would contribute to initiating corrosion of these surfaces. The requirement for performing a pre-operational cleaning process is usually written into the specification for new construction of a water system that must be performed by a mechanical contractor. The mechanical contractor is required to perform the work as directed in the specifications. However, if the specifications are not appropriate for the specific system, including consideration of all system metallurgy, the cleaning process may contribute to corrosion to mild steel, galvanized steel, copper, or aluminum, or it may result in incomplete cleaning of dirty and corroded metal surfaces. A qualified inspector should review the specifications or qualified independent consultant to ensure that cleaning agents and procedures have been specified appropriately.
98
Remedial Cleaning
Remedial cleaning is performed to restore a water system that is fouled with scale, corrosion products, or microbiological biomass due to inadequate or ineffective waters treatment. The problem could have resulted from using improper chemical technology, failure to maintain treatment levels within control parameters or the failure of pre- treatment equipment. The cleaning agents used for remedial cleaning usually include acids, chelants, neutralizing agents, and specialty cleaning chemicals.
Types of Deposits
The deposits that occur in water systems can be inorganic mineral salts and corrosion products or organic (oily) or biological in nature. Deposits range in composition from very dense crystalline structures, to very porous and loosely bound materials, to gelatinous slimes. Most of the deposits formed from water constituents consist of corrosion products such as iron and copper oxides, mineral scales, or mixtures of these materials.
99
Boiler Deposits
Boiler deposits may take various forms. In low-pressure boilers using a relatively hard feedwater, deposits are essentially calcium and magnesium, silicates, sulfates, carbonates, phosphates and hydroxides, plus some organics. Deposits may also contain considerable amounts of silica, iron, and copper. These deposits can be spongy or porous or relatively hard and glasslike. Deposits of the latter characteristic occur where silica is present in appreciable quantities in the boiler water. Deposits in medium-pressure to high-pressure boiler systems usually are mixtures of iron and copper oxides and phosphates. Dense deposits may tend to form in high-heat transfer areas. Considerable quantities of sludge-type accumulations may be found in downcomers, mud drums, waterwall headers, crossover tubes, and areas of low water circulation in the boiler.
Cleaning Methods
There are two methods generally adopted for cleaning 1. Mechanical 2. Chemical
Mechanical Methods
Mechanical methods are the oldest techniques used for removing deposits. To perform an adequate mechanical-type cleaning, the equipment to be cleaned may need to be partially or entirely dismantled. Even when equipment is dismantled, some areas may be extremely difficult to reach and clean. Chemical cleaning has largely replaced mechanical process equipment cleaning as the most satisfactory method of removing deposits; however, mechanical methods such as wire brushing, tumbling, scraping, and abrasive blasting with sand and grit are still employed in special applications.
Chemical Methods
In this method acid or alkali is generally used for cleaning. At times there are other chemicals which are also used for cleaning.
100
Cleaning Agents Cleaning agents may be broadly classified as being acid, alkaline, organic, or solvent cleaners. There is no general or universal cleaner that removes all deposits. The selection of a solvent or cleaning agent is based on the material's ability to remove or dissolve the deposit, as well as on cost considerations, safety hazards, and the effect of the cleaning material on the metals involved. General Guidance and Procedures for Preparing Cleaning Solutions General guidance and procedures for preparing cleaning solutions of inhibited hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and inhibited sulfamic acids are provided in paragraphs below. Inhibited acid contains special chemical inhibitors that prevent the acid cleaner from attacking the base metal while allowing the acid to remove the unwanted corrosion product or scale deposit. Hydrochloric (Muriatic) Acid Inhibited hydrochloric (muriatic) acid in strengths of 5 to 20% is very effective for removing calcium scale and iron oxide; however, for most applications, a 10% solution is adequate. The following formulation is for a 10% hydrochloric acid solution. It can be used for removing scale consisting primarily of carbonates with lesser amounts of phosphates, sulfates, and silicates. This type of scale is typically found in a steam boiler system containing copper alloys that has been treated with a phosphate-based program. Depending on the specific descaling application, some of these ingredients can be omitted from the formulation. Example Procedure for 10% Solution The following is an example procedure that can be used to make 3785 liters (1000 gallons) of a 10% solution: 1. Add 1079 liters (285 gallons) concentrated (36% strength) hydrochloric acid, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 1146, Specification for Muriatic Acid (Technical Grade Hydrochloric Acid), to approximately 2271 liters (600 gallons) of water. 2. Add the proper amount of a corrosion inhibitor, Military Specification MIL-I17433, Inhibitor, Hydrochloric Acid, Descaling and Pickling, recommended by the manufacturer to the diluted acid solution. The inhibitor must be compatible with hydrochloric acid and must not precipitate under any condition during the cleaning operation. 3. In a separate tank containing about 284 liters (75 gallons) of water: 4. Add 39 kilograms (85 pounds) of the chemical (1,3) diethylthiourea to complex any copper and keep it from depositing. Do not use the diethylthiourea as the corrosion inhibitor required in paragraph 92.2.1(step 2) above. 5. Add 55 kilograms (120 pounds) of ammonium bifluoride, technical grade, to help dissolve certain iron and silica scales. 6. Add 3.79 liters (1 gallon) of wetting agent, Add the dissolved diethylthiourea, ammonium bifluoride, and wetting agent to the diluted acid solution. Add sufficient water to obtain 3785 liters (1000 gallons).
101
Carbonate Deposits.
Carbonate deposits dissolve rapidly in hydrochloric acid, with evolution of free carbon dioxide. The escaping carbon dioxide tends to create some circulation or agitation of the acid, which ensures the continual contact of fresh acid with the scale. Once the carbonate has been dissolved from a mixed deposit, a loose, porous structure may be left behind. This residual material can be effectively removed from the equipment either mechanically or by washing with highpressure water.
Phosphate Deposits
The removal of phosphate deposits can usually be accomplished by using hydrochloric acid; however, phosphate deposits have a tendency to dissolve rather slowly. To minimize the total cleaning time, a temperature of 49 to 60 C (120 to 140 F) is usually necessary to remove a predominantly phosphate scale.
Metallic Oxides
Most metallic oxides found in deposits can be removed with hydrochloric acid. The rate of dissolution is a function of temperature and solution velocity. If copper oxides are present on steel surfaces, special precautions are needed to prevent copper metal plate-out on the steel.
Sulfamic Acid
Sulfamic acid is an odorless, white, crystalline solid organic acid that is readily soluble in water. An inhibited sulfamic acid compound, in a dry powder form, is available. A 5 to 20% solution (2 to 9 kilograms to approximately 38 liters of water [5 to 20 pounds to approximately 10 gallons of water]) is used for removing scale from metal surfaces. The following information pertaining to sulfamic acid should be considered. u ?Carbonate deposits are dissolved in sulfamic acid in a similar manner as in hydrochloric acid. All the common sulfamate salts (including calcium) are very soluble in water. u powder form of sulfamic acid is safer to handle than a liquid The dry solution of hydrochloric acid; however, aqueous solutions of sulfamic acid are much slower in action and require heating to remove scale. The sulfamic acid solution is heated to a temperature in the range of 54 to 71 oC (130 to 160 oF) to obtain the same fast cleaning time that is achieved by using hydrochloric acid at room temperature. Sulfamic acid is more effective on sulfate scale than hydrochloric acid.
102
u Inhibited sulfamic acid, used at temperatures up to 43 oC (110 oF), will not corrode galvanized steel. Its use is recommended for removing scale in cooling towers, evaporative condensers, and other equipment containing galvanized steel. In general, sulfamic acid can be applied to equipment while it is operating but should be drained from the system after a few hours, and the concentration of the normally used corrosion inhibitor should be increased several-fold to protect the metal surfaces. u ?Commercially prepared descaling compounds consisting of concentrated or diluted inhibited acid (containing 7 to 28% of the acid and inhibitor) may be purchased under various trade names at prices 4 to 30 times the cost of the ingredients themselves if purchased as generic chemicals. u ?Advertisements of some of these products may contain claims that the acid does not attack cotton clothing and skin. These claims are usually based on a very dilute solution of the acid that causes a minimal attack on clothes and skin; however, the cost of the cleaning process may be increased because a higher quantity of dilute product may be needed. Be aware that handling acid in any strength must be performed with considerable care, caution, and adherence to safety procedures. u of diluted acid is expensive; therefore, concentrated acid of The cost government specifications should be purchased and diluted to usable strengths. The necessary corrosion inhibitors can be added to the dilute acid solution. Users of small quantities of acid cleaners (possibly less than 38 liters [10 gallons] of diluted acid per year) may not be able to justify purchasing undiluted acid and spending the time, cost, and effort to prepare the cleaning solution. Cleaning Preparation u to be cleaned must be isolated from other parts of the system. The unit For systems that cannot be isolated by the closing of valves, isolation may be accomplished using rubber blankets, wooden bulkheads with seals, inflatable nylon or rubber bags, rubber sponge-covered plugs, or blind flanges and steel plates with rubber seals. u whether to clean using a soaking process or by circulating the Decide cleaning solution. In either case, temporary piping or hose lines will be required to connect the cleaning solution mixing tanks or trucks to the unit, with return lines to tanks or drains. Proper precautions and adequate provisions must be made to protect equipment, isolate control lines, replace liquid level sight glasses with expendable materials, and provide suitable points for checking temperatures. u The entire cleaning procedure/process must be developed in detail before starting chemical cleaning operations. Factors to be considered include: the methods for controlling temperatures; the means of mixing, heating, and circulating the chemical solution; proper venting of dangerous gases from equipment to a safe area.
103
104
105
Apparatus:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Burette, 25 milliliters (0.8 ounce) automatic (for sodium hydroxide solution) Bottle, with dropper, 50 milliliters (2 ounces) (for phenolphthalein indicator solution) Graduated cylinder, 10 milliliters (0.3 ounce) Casserole, porcelain, heavy duty, 210-milliliter (7.1-ounce) capacity Stirring rod Sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 normality (N) Phenolphthalein indicator solution, 0.5% Measure 10 milliliters of acid solution accurately in the graduated cylinder. Pour into the casserole. Add 2 to 4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to the casserole and stir. Fill the automatic burette with the 1.0 N sodium hydroxide solution; allow the excess to drain back into the bottle. While stirring the acid solution constantly, add sodium hydroxide solution from the burette to the casserole until color changes to a permanent faint pink. This is the endpoint. Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-milliliter (0.003-ounce).
Reagents:
Method:
Results:
For hydrochloric acid: Percent hydrochloric acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.36. For sulfamic acid: Percent sulfamic acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.97
106
107
Testing Techniques
Accurate test results depend on following good basic laboratory procedures and techniques. 1. Water analyses require certain chemical apparatus. These are scientific instruments and are to be treated as such. The apparatus should be HANDLED WITH CARE! It is necessary to keep everything in GOOD ORDER at all times. Have a place for everything and everything in its place! Be sure all bottles are properly labeled and avoid mixing bottles! All bottles should be tightly closed. Keep any reserve stock of solutions and reagents in cool, dark place. All equipment and apparatus should be kept CLEAN! Unless this is done, the tests will not be reliable and errors will be introduced. Thoroughly rinse and dry all glassware immediately after use. If color apparatus are employed, do not expose to heat or to direct sunlight. If any liquid is spilled on any of the equipment or apparatus, wipe off at once and dry. MEASURE CAREFULLY! The apparatus are precision instruments that are capable of very fine measurements. The results will be off if improper amounts of samples are taken, if incorrect volumes of solution are added, if the burette is not read correctly, of if the methods prescribed on the following pages are not performed exactly as written. The SUSPENDED MATTER OR SLUDGE will generally settle to the bottom if the sample is allowed to stand before testing. The clear water can then be used for the tests, making it unnecessary to filter (except for specific tests). Theoretically, all water analyses should be made at 77oF (25oC); however, no appreciable error will be introduced if the test is made between 68 and 86oF (20 to 30oC). In general, the shorter the time between the collection and the analysis of the sample, the more reliable will be the results.
2.
3.
4.
5.
When the water sample color interferes with the analysis, it may be necessary to filter the sample through activated charcoal, except for the sulfite and nitrite tests.
108
Factor 20 50
EXAMPLE: 4.3 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid were required to change the color of a 50 ml sample of water from red to colorless: P alkalinity = 4.3 x 20 = 86 ppm as CaC
109
Factor 20 50
RESULTS: The M alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) is calculated as follows: M alkalinity (ppm as CaCO3) = (ml acid) x (factor)
110
EXAMPLE:
5.9 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid were required to change the color of a 50 ml sample of water from green to light pink: M alkalinity = 5.9 x 20 = 118 ppm as CaCO3 NOTES: uend point color is difficult to see, repeat the entire test using 15 If the drops of Mixed Indicator Solution. u Just before the end point is reached, the green or blue color fades to a light blue color and then becomes light pink. The end point is the first appearance of a permanent pink color. Value of P & M Alkalinity P= Zero Bicarbonate Alkalinity M Carbonate Alkalinity Nil Hydroxide Alkalinity Nil Total Alkalinity M
P< 1/2M
M-2P
2P
Nil
P=1/2M
Nil
2P
Nil
P>1/2M
Nil
2(M-P)
2P M
111
Procedure
Determine the cell constant if necessary, either directly with a standard potassium chloride solution (say 0.002N) or by comparison with a cell the constant of which is known accurately. (In the later case, the concentration and nature of the electrolytes in the liquid which is used for the comparison should be the same and should be similar respectively to those of the liquids with which the cell is likely to be used in practice. Use some of the samples to washout the conductivity cell thoroughly. Fill the conductivity cell with the sample. Measure the conductivity in accordance with the instruction of the instrument manufacturer.
Results
Depending upon the type of meter used, the results are read as either conductivity in micromhos or TDS in ppm. The relationship between these measurements when these procedures are used is as follows: TDS, ppm = 0.66 x Conductivity, micromhos Conductivity, micromhos = 1.5 x TDS, ppm.
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113
Reagent required
Hardness Reagent 0.01 M Hardness Buffer Hardness Indicator Powder
Procedure
u Rinse the graduated cylinder and beaker or a test tube with the sample to be tested. Fill the graduated cylinder to 50 mL and add this water to the beaker or a test tube u If hardness is expected to be greater than 100 take a 50 ml sample and if less than 100 then the sample can be of 20 ml u Add 5 drops of Hardness Buffer to the beaker using the plastic pipette. Swirl to mix. u spoon of Hardness Indicator Powder. Swirl to dissolve Add 1 completely. The sample will turn red if hardness is present. If the sample is blue, the hardness level is completed to be zero. u If the sample colour is purple or red, add standard hardness titrating solution slowly from the burette to the beaker until the purple or red colour changes to blue. This is the end point. Read to nearest 0.1 ml
Calculation
u50 mL sample, ppm Hardness as CaCO3 = mL of Hardness For a Reagent X 20. u20 mL sample, ppm Hardness as CaCO3 = mL of Hardness For a Reagent X 50.
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Reagents required
Iodide-Iodate Reagent N/40 Acid Starch Indicator Powder Phenolphthalein Indicator
Procedure
u Rinse the graduated cylinder and beaker or a test tube with the sample to be tested. Fill the graduated cylinder to 50 mL and add this water to the beaker or a test tube u If sulphite is expected to be greater than 100ppm take a 50-ml sample and if less than 100 ppm then the sample can be of 20 ml u drops of Phenolphthalein Indicator to the beaker using the Add 1 plastic pipette. Swirl to mix. usample remains colourless proceed with step 5. If the sample If the turns pink add Acid Starch indicator Powder one, 1gram at a time until the sample becomes colorless. Swirl to mix between each addition of indicator. u Titration Burette to the zero mark with Iodide-Iodate Reagent Fill the N/40. Add the reagent slowly to the Erlenmeyer flask with constant stirring. Continue to titrate until a permanent blue color develops in the sample. Read the titrated volume from the burette.
Calculation
For a 50 mL sample, Ppm sulphite as CaCO3 = mL of Iodide-Iodate Reagent X 20. For a 20 mL sample, Ppm sulphite as CaCO3 = mL of Iodide-Iodate Reagent X 50.
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Reagents
Standard Mercuric Nitrate Solution, 0.0141 N Chloride Indicator Solution Standard Sulfuric Acid Solution, N/50
Procedure
u the amount of water to be tested in the graduated cylinder. Measure The amount should be based on the expected results of the tests according to the following: u the casserole. Pour into u ml of Chloride Indicator Solution to the water in the casserole Add 1.0 and stir for 10 seconds. The color of the water should be a green-blue color at this point. u standard Sulfuric Acid Solution a drop at a time until the water Add the turns from greenblue to yellow. u Squeeze the rubber bulb to force the Standard Mercuric Nitrate Solution from the bottle to fill the burette just above the zero mark; then allow the excess to drain back automatically into the bottle. While stirring the sample constantly, add Standard Mercuric Nitrite Solution slowly from the burette to the casserole until a definite purple color appears. This is the end point.(The solution will turn from green-blue to blue a few drops from the end point.) Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-ml.
Results
The Chloride, in ppm C1, is calculated as follows: Chloride, ppm C1 = (ml of Mercuric Nitrate 0.2) x factor.
Example
11.2 ml of 0.0141 N Mercuric Nitrate Solution was required to change the color of a 50-ml sample of water from a green-blue to purple. Chloride = (11.2 0.2) x 20 = 220 ppm) Chloride Expected as Cl Less than 20 ppm More than 20 ppm Sample Size 50ml 20ml Factor 10 20
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Apparatus:
Burette, 25 milliliters (0.8 ounce) automatic (for sodium hydroxide solution) Bottle, with dropper, 50 milliliters (2 ounces) (for phenolphthalein indicator solution) Graduated cylinder, 10 milliliters (0.3 ounce) Casserole, porcelain, heavy duty, 210-milliliter (7.1-ounce) capacity Stirring rod
Reagents:
Sodium hydroxide solution, 1.0 normality (N) Phenolphthalein indicator solution, 0.5%
Method:
u 10 milliliters of acid solution accurately in the graduated Measure cylinder. u the casserole. Pour into uto 4 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution to the casserole Add 2 and stir. u automatic burette with the 1.0 N sodium hydroxide solution; Fill the allow the excess to drain back into the bottle. u stirring the acid solution constantly, add sodium hydroxide While solution from the burette to the casserole until color changes to a permanent faint pink. This is the endpoint. Read the burette to the nearest 0.1-milliliter (0.003-ounce).
Results:
For hydrochloric acid: Percent hydrochloric acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.36 For sulfamic acid: Percent sulfamic acid = milliliter of 1.0 N sodium hydroxide x 0.97
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BASICS
Length 1 m = 39. 37 " | in = 3,281 ' | feet 1 in | " = 25.40 mm = 2,54010-2 m 1 ft | ' = 304. 8 mm = 0.3048 m Area 1 m = 10.76 ft = 1550 in 1 ft = 9,29010-2 m 1 in = 6,45210-4 m Volume 1 m = 6,102104 in 1 m = 35.31 cf | ft = 264.2 US Gallon 1 cf | ft = 2,83210-2 m = 28.32 Liter | dm 1 in = 1,639105m = 1,63910-2 Liter | dm 1 US Gallon = 3,78510-3 m = 3,785 Liter | dm 1 UK Gallon = 4,54610-3 m = 4,546 Liter | dm 1 mn3 Air=38.04 SCF Air=1.292 kg Air 1 SCF Air =2,62910-2 mn 3 Air=3,39710-2 kg Air Density 1 kg/m = 6.24310-2 lb/ft 1 lb/ft = 16.02 kg/m Mass 1 kg = 2.205 lb | lbs 1 lb | lbs = 0.4536 kg Velocity 1 m/s = 3.281 ft/s 1 m/s = 196.9 ft/min | FPM 1 FPM = 5.08010-3 m/s 1 ft/sec. = 0.3048 m/s Volume Flow 1 m/h = 0.5885 CFM | ft/min 1 CFM = 1.699 m/h 1 SCFM = 1.577 mn 3/h Air (only) Mass Flow 1 kg/h = 2.205 lb/h 1 lb/h = 0.4536 kg/h
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Pressure 1 bar = 14.50 psi 1 bar = 100.0 kPa 1 bar = 0.9869 Atm. 1 mbar = 0.7501 mm Hg | Torr 1 mbar = 10.20 mm WG 1 mbar = 100.0 Pa 1 psi | lbf/in = 6,89510-2 bar 1 psi | lbf/in = 6,80410-2 Atm. 1 psi | lbf/in = 6,895 kPa Kinematic Viscosity 1 Pas = 1.000 cP 1 Pas = 0. 6720 lb/ (fts) 1 cP = 1,00010-3 Pas | Ns/m 1 cP = 1,00010-3 kg/ (ms) 1 lb/ (fts) = 1.488 Pas 1 lb/ (fts) = 1488 cP | mPas Temperature C | Celsius = 5 (F 32) / 9 F | Fahrenheit = 32 + 9 C / 5 Heat Content & Energy 1 kJ | KNm = 0.9478 Btu 1 kJ | KNm = 0.2388 Kcal 1 Btu = 1.055 kJ 1 Btu = 0.2520 Kcal 1 kcal = 4,187 kJ 1 kcal = 3.968 Btu 1 kWh = 859.8 Kcal Heat Load | Power 1 kW = 3412 Btu/h 1 kW = 859.8 Kcal/h 1 Btu/h = 2,93110-4 kW 1 Btu/h = 0.2520 Kcal/h 1 kcal/h = 1,16310-3 kW 1 kcal/h = 3.968 Btu/h 1 Boiler HP = 9.81 kW Specific Heat 1 kJ/ (kgK) = 0.2388 Btu/ (lbF) 1 kJ/ (kgK) = 0.2388 kcal/ (kgC) 1 Btu/ (lbF) = 4,187 kJ/ (kgK) 1 kcal/ (kgC) = 4,187 kJ/ (kgK)
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Flow Rate
To Convert U.S.gpm/ft3 U.S.gpm/ft2 U.S gpm BV/min To BV/hr M/hr M3/hr U.S. gpm/ft3 Multiply by 8.02 2.45 0.227 7.46
Pressure drop
To Convert PSI/ft To MH2O/M of Resin G/cm/M Multiply by 2.30 230
Density
To Convert Lbs/ft3 To gm/litre Multiply by 16.0
Rinse requirement
To Convert U.S. gal/ft3 To BV Multiply by 0.134
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Water Equivalents One U.S. gallon One U.S. gallon One U.S. gallon One U.S. gallon One U.S. gallon One U.S. gallon water One cubic foot One cubic foot of water One litre/second One cubic meter per hour One kgr / sq. cm One Pound/1000 gel One inch/minute rise rate One cubic meter One cubic meter One cubic meter
0.1337 cubic foot 231 cubic inches 0.833 British Imp gallons 3.785 Liters 3785 cubic cm (Milliliters) 8.33 Pounds (Lb) 7.48 U.S. gallons 62.43 Pounds 15.9 (US) gal/Min 4.4 (US) gal/min 14.2 pounds/sq. inch 120 parts per million 0.625 gpm/sq.ft 1000 liter 264.2 U.S gallons 220 British Imp gallons
Parts per hund-red thous and pts/ 100000 Grains per U.S. gallons grs/U.S gal Grains per British Imp gallon grs/Im gal Kilogr ains per cubic foot Kgr/ cu.ft
1 Part per million (1 ppm) 1 milli gram per litre (1mg /litre) 1 gram per litre(1m /litre) 1 Parts per hundred thousand 1pt /100 0000)
.001
.1
.0583
.07
.0004
.001
.1
.0583
.07
.0004
1000
1000
100
58.3
70
.435
10
10
.01
.583
.7
.00436
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Water Analysis Conversion Table for Units Employed: Equivalents Water Analysis Conver-sion table Parts per million (ppm) Milli-grams per liter mg/L Grams per Liter gms/L Parts per hund-red thous and pts/ 100000 Grains per U.S. gallons grs/U.S gal Grains per British Imp gallon grs/Im gal Kilogr ains per cubic foot Kgr/ cu.ft
1 Grain per U.S gallon(1 gr/U.S gal) 1 Grain per British Imp gal-lon (1 gr /Imp gal) 1 Kilograin per cubic foot (1 kgr /cu.ft) 1 Parts per million (1 ppm) 1 Part per hundred thousand (1 pt /100000) 1 Grain per US gallon (1 gpg) 1 English or Clark degree 1 French Degrees (1.French) 1 German Degrees (1 German)
17.1
17.1
.017
1.71
1.2
.0075
14.3
14.3
.014
1.43
.833
.0052
2294
2294
2.294
229.4
134
161
0.1
.0583
.07
.1
.0560
.020
10
0.583
0.7
0.560
.20
17.1
1.71
1.2
1.71
0.958
.343
14.3
1.43
.833
1.43
0.800
.286
10
.583
.7
0.560
.20
17.9
1.79
1.04
1.24
1.79
.357
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Regeneration Chemicals Hydrochloric Acid Sulphuric Acid Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Carbonate Sodium Sulphite Sodium chloride Alum IS 265 IS 266
IS Number
IS 252 (Tech/Rayon Grade 46% lyes) IS1021 (Pure Grade - Flakes) Is251 (Tech Grade) Is251 (Tech Grade) IS 297 (Tech Grade) Is260 (Tech Grade)
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