VEDIC AGE

EVALUATE THE CHANGE IN POLITY & ECONOMY DURING THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD.
Subsequent to the decline of the Harappan civilization, the Sapta Sindhu Region in the northwestern part of India witnessed the growth of a new culture called the Vedic culture. The name Vedic is derived from Vedas which were the creations of the Indo Aryans who constituted this culture. From 1500 B.C. 500 B.C., the Vedic culture grew, transformed and spread to most parts of North India particularly to the basin of the River Ganga.

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (C. 1500 1000 BC)

In the centuries following 2000 B.C. north-west India was invaded by some tribes known as Aryans who came from the west. Initially the term Arya was especially associated with the people who spoke Vedic and Avestan languages, but gradually speakers of entire IndoEuropean languages came to be recognized as Aryan. The Aryans were immigrants and arrived in India between 2000 and 1500 BC and were considered to be one of the world's most civilized communities. The coming of the Aryans to India was a great event in Indian history. The origin of the Aryans is still an unsettled affair. The Early Vedic Aryans lived in the area known as sapta-sindhu meaning area of seven rivers. This area largely covers the north-western part of South Asia up to river Yamuna. The seven rivers included Sindhu, Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipash (Beas), Shutudri (Sutlej) and the Sarasvati. In this area the Rigvedic people lived, fought battles, grazed their herds of cattle and other domesticated animals. The horse, its domestication and diffusion, the war chariot (spoked wheels) pit dwelling, birch, cremation, the fire cult, animal sacrifice (especially horse sacrifice), the cult of soma, the swastika, language and inscriptional evidence and fauna and flora have been investigated as markers of the Aryan culture and its geographical distribution. Archaeologists have attempted to relate the various post-Harappan cultures with the Aryans. The PGW Pottery which has been dated between 900 B.C. to approximately 500 B.C., has been repeatedly connected with Aryan craftsmanship. Archaeological excavations at various sites suggests that earlier scholars believed that the Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of the Harappan civilization by destroying the Harappan towns and cities. They quoted Rigvedic hymns which invoke Indra to destory the dwellers of the forts. But archaeological evidence has shown that the decline of the Harappan civilization was not caused by any large-scale destruction brought about by an alien invading group. Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do not receive

strong support from archaeological evidence. If the PGW cultures related to the Aryans, then keeping the theory of invasion in mind, we should have found this pottery type in the areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the route taken by the so-called Aryan migrants. However, we find these pottery types confined to a particular geographical region comprising Haryana, Upper Ganga basin and eastern Rajasthan. Literary sources include the four Vedas Rigveda, which is a collection of 1,028 hymns. It is the only indigenous source for reconstructing the history of Rig Vedic Aryans. The Rigveda comprises 10 books or mandals of which book II to VII are considered to be the earliest and belong specifically to the Early Vedic phase. Yajurveda elaborates the rituals which accompany the recitation of hymns. The rituals and the hymns in this samhita document the social and political milieu of this period. Samaveda samhita is a book of prayers and chants which are from the Rigveda, modified and set to tune for the explicit purpose of singing them during rituals. Atharvaveda contains the folk tradition of this period and represents popular religion. It is a good source for understanding the socio-religious conditions of the common people. The Samhitas explain the social and religious aspects of the rituals and throw light on the Vedic society.

ECONOMY
The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. Their main occupation was cattle rearing which was considered the most important economic activity. They reared cattle, sheep, goats, and horses for purposes of milk, meat and hides. It is suggested that the Rigvedic cattle-rearing society was dominated by the horse-riding cheiftancy. The wild animals are differentiated from the domesticated animals, mainly cattle which were evidently valued for food as well as for dairy products. The cow is a parexcellence amongst all the cattle by which the early Aryans every sphere of life is overshadowed. The terms gavisti, gosu, gavyat, gavyu, gavesana, gavyuti, gojat and gotra etc., which cover several aspects of cattle rearing and social organization of the Rigvedic people are frequently mentioned in the original portions of the Rig Veda. Agriculture formed the chief occupation of the Rigvedic Aryans. Ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing were the main parts of agriculture operations as described in the Satapatha Brahamana. The only grain referred to in Rigveda is yava (barley or grain). With limited agriculture, there was little value attached to land and therefore individual ownership of land was not an issue in the Early Vedic period. Evidence of trade and commerce in Early Vedic society is meagre. There was no concept of private property based on land-ownership. Craft specialisation was extremely limited in the Early Vedic period. Only leather workers, wheelwrights, smiths and potters are mentioned. Markets didnt exist in the Early Vedic period. Exchange of goods took place through the customary practice of gifts. Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the society. Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e. bali, to the victorious chiefs by the defeated or the subordinate groups. Women in their households were engaged in weaving, particularly wool.

POLITY
The early Aryans did not develop any political structure which could measure upto a state in either the ancient or modern sense. Polity in the Early Vedic period was organised along ties of kinship. Thus, the raja or king of the Rigvedic times was the king of his kinsmen and not a territory. The king essentially was the first among the equals and his primary role was to lead the tribe in warfare. The tribes were organised as patriarchal groups and in the early stages the chief of the tribe was merely the tribal leader. The tribal chief or the Rajan and the priest or the Purohita had important positions. Among several tribal assemblies the Sabha and the Samiti played very important roles. Though there was no well-defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic set up, the tribal polity was not completely egalitarian. The Early Vedic kings were chosen by the people of the vish or the jana.

SOCIETY
The Early Vedic society was tribal, in which social relations based on kinship ties were predominant and basically egalitarian. Clan and kinship relations formed the basis of the society and family was the basic social unit. Social divisions based on occupations had started but there was no caste division. Education was imparted orally, but the tradition of education was not very well developed in this period. When the Aryans first came into India, they were divided into 3 social classes the warriors or the aristocracy, the priests, and the common people. Professions were not hereditary nor were there any rules limiting marriages within these classes. The 3 divisions merely facilitated social and economic organisation. Society was patriarchal though women had an important position in it. They were educated and they had access to the assemblies. There are also instances of women who composed hymns. They had a right to choose their partners, and could marry late. However, women were always thought to be dependent on their fathers, brothers or husbands. The birth of a son was the common desire of the people. The importance given to the male members is reflected in the hymns, where the desire for a son is a constant prayer. Various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, priests etc. are also mentioned. The chariot makers occupied a special social status. There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rigveda. The Rigvedic society had a tribal system of government in which the military element was dominant feature. The lack of civil system or territorial administration was due to constant migratory or nomadic nature of the Rigvedic people. The Rigvedic society which was predominantly a pastoral and tribal in nature and which could not to produce surplus did not create conditions for class differentiation. There could be differentiation of rank, as can be inferred from the titles of tribal chiefs such as vishpati, vishampati, jansya gopa, ganashya

raja, gananam ganpati etc. Tribal traits in society were predominant and stronger. Social stratification based on collection of taxes or accumulation of landed properly were completely absent.

RELIGION
The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda. They venerated the natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, etc.) which they could not control, and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms, which were mostly masculine. Very few female deities were venerated. The religion thus reflected the patriarchal society and was that of primitive animism. In the Early Vedic society rituals were performed to bring about the welfare of the entire tribe. The Vedic religion was sacrificial. Sacrifices were performed to invoke the gods, in order to grant boons-either victory in battles, or for acquisition of cattle, sons etc. The ritual of sacrifice also led to the growth and development in the knowledge of mathematics and animal anatomy. For the Vedic people, the world grew out of a vast cosmic sacrifice and was not maintained by the proper performance of sacrifice. In terms of the number of references in the Rigveda, Indra appears to be the most important god in the Early Vedic period, followed by Agni and Varuna. Indra was the god of strength, who was invoked to destroy the enemies. The concept of a tribal chief, who was a war-lord, is found represented in the character of Indra. Agni was symbolic of the sacrificial fire which served as a medium between goods and men. Varuna was associated by with water and the maintenance of ritu (meaning order or course of things), comprising the entire moral, natural and physical order. Overall, therefore, the Early Vedic people worshipped the natural forces as deities.

CHANGE FROM EARLY VEDIC TO LATER VEDIC

On the basis of the study of various Vedic literatures along with excavated sites many changes could be observed from Rigvedic to later Vedic period. Important changes have been highlighted by historians during the later Vedic period - beginning of territorial kingdoms; emergence of agricultural society in place of the pastoral society; emergence of chief kings at the expense of tribal peasantry; breaking up of tribal society into a varna divided society; and failure in emergence of full - fledged state system because of the absence of a regular system of taxes, and a professional army.

LATER VEDIC PHASE (1000 500 B.C.)

The Aryans, during the Later Vedic period, moved eastwards and occupied eastern U.P. (Kosala) and north Bihar (Videha) where they came into contact with the people who spoke languages different from their own and were living in this area for long.

The Later Vedic period seems to have witnessed widening and shifting of geographical horizons towards the east along the fertile Gangetic plains. The Ganga Yamuna Doab constituted the core regions during the Later Vedic period. Later Vedic literature includes the Samhitas of the Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The hymns contained in these Vedas were orally recited while performing the Vedic rituals.

ECONOMY
The later Vedic economy is characterised by mark shift from pastoralism to agriculture. The transition from a predominantly pastoral to a mixed farming economy had a great impact on the character of the Later Vedic society and polity. The main trends of changes were: Tribal identity of the Early Vedic society gradually gave way to territorial identity and consequently the nature of chiefship changed. The social structure which was based on relations within a clan and was largely egalitarian in the Early Vedic period became much more complex. This type of society is marked by inequality. Even the same clan was divided into groups, some of which could have high status in society and some low status. The growth of agriculture in the Later Vedic period was made possible by the availability of vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the middle Ganga valleyan area which was slowly settled throughout the first millennium B.C. The Later Vedic texts refer to many grains like vrihi (rice), godhuma (wheat), mudga (moong), masa (urad), etc. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) settlements show an increase in number and remarkably stability which is suggestive of a fairly strong agriculture base during the period. With the growing importance of agriculture, the land acquired value and by the end of the Later Vedic phase, the grihapati had emerged as the de facto owner of land which he cultivated with the assistance of members of his family and some shudras and dasas. During this period cow-worship increased and slaughter of cow was prohibited. Both internal and foreign trade had progressed. The Vedic texts refer to sea and sea voyages. This shows that now sea-borne trade was carried on by the Aryans. Money lending was a flourishing business. The references to the word Sreshthin indicates that there were rich traders and probably they were organized into guilds. Aryans did not use coins but specific weights of gold were used for purposes of a gold currency- Satamana, Nishka, Kosambhi, Hastinapur, Kashi and Videha were regarded as renowned trade centres. Bullock carts were used to carry goods on land. For foreign trade boats and ships were used. As for crafts, use of iron became important during this period which is evident from references to krshnayas or shyamayas which meant black or dark metal. Resultantly, this period registers significant increase in the number of weapons produced. Metallurgy, leather work, pottery, carpentry, construction and manufacture of jewellery were practiced.

SOCIETY
The major social change evident in the Later Vedic period seems to have been the growing importance assigned to the varna hierarchy. There was an increase in powers of the father

over the family members and the beginning of the practice of primogeniture (the eldest son succeeding the father) in princely families. In the later Vedic period joint family system was prevalent. The families were patriarchal. Father was the head of the family and was very powerful. He could even disinherit his son. People worshipped their male ancestors. Another chief feature of the later Vedic period was the van ashram system. During this period life span of 100 years of a man was divided into four equal parts of 25 years each and different duties were assigned to him in different parts of life. These ashrams were: Brahmacharya, Grahastha, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa In the later Vedic period position of women declined. They were given a lower position in the society. They were considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women could not participate in the political assemblies. They no longer accompanied their husbands in religious yajnas. Marriage was considered a sacred bond. Woman was the mistress of the house and enjoyed respectable position in the household. Polygamy also prevailed. Education was provided independently by teachers in the ashrams maintained by them. The rich people and king gave large donations to the learned teachers. The main aim of education was to shape their character and prepare them for the future. Besides religion and philosophy other important subjects of study were arithmetic, logic, astrology, grammar, medicine and language. The art of writing had become known to the Aryans. Women were free to get education. There were women scholars also. Dress was similar to the early Vedic period. They wore cotton, woollen and silken clothes. Shoes were also used by the people. Both men and women wore ornaments. Aryans started wearing silver ornaments. The principal means of entertainment of this culture were music, dancing, dicing, hunting and chariot racing. The Aryans had built up cities during this period. Indraprastha, Hastinapur, Koshambi and Benaras had grown up as principal cities. They still led a moral and virtuous life.

POLITY
The transition from a predominantly pastoral to a mixed farming economy had a great impact on the character of the Later Vedic society and polity. Tribal identity of the Early Vedic society gradually gave way to territorial identity and consequently the nature of chiefship changed. The social structure which was based on relations within a clan and was largely egalitarian in the Early Vedic period became much more complex. This type of society is marked by inequality. In the later Vedic period, the concept of janapada emerged. Kingship was a normal feature of the society. There are few references to elected kings otherwise most of the times the office was hereditary. There are references in the Atharva Veda regarding the election of the king by the people. The Brahmanas and the later Samhitas state that the king had divine origins. The kings started adopting various titles like Adhiraj, Rajadhiraj, Samrat, Ekarat, Virat and Savarat. The king was the head of the state and was above law but he was not a despotic ruler. He was dependent upon his ministers who were referred to as Ratnins. They performed Rajasuya and Asvamedha Yajnas to show the extent of their powers. The Rajsuya Yajna was performed at the time of the coronation of the king. It conferred supreme power on him. The most important Yajna was Ashvamedha Yajna. It meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. After the completion of this Yajna the king assumed the title of Chakravartin. It enhanced the power, prestige and prosperity of king. The king

performed various duties such as administration, justice, extention of his territory, welfare of his subjects; fighting battles. In lieu of his duties he received Bali, Sulk and Bhag as taxes. These taxes were roughly 1/6th of the income of his subjects. With the increase in power and income of the king the number of ministers also increased. The ministers were called Ratnins or the receiver of jewels offered by the king at the time of the ceremony. With the increase in royal power the sabha and samiti lost importance. They came under the influence of chiefs and rich nobles. With the expansion of the territories ordinary people could not travel long distance to attend the meetings. They could not remove the king from the power. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabhas.King was the fountain head of judiciary. Criminals were given more severe punishments as compared to the Vedic period. Capital punishments became prevalent. King appointed various ministers to dispense justice.Theft, robbery, adultery, abduction, killing of man, treachery and drinking intoxicating liquor were offences punishable with death.

RELIGION
Some significant transformations or changes took place in the religious spheres during this period. The later Vedic times witnesses the inventions and practices of complicated series of sacrifices involving a large number of rituals associated with them. In the changed socioeconomic scenario two outstanding Rigvedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former glory and were relegated to the background. Now, the Prajapati the creator came to occupy the unchallenged supreme position in the later Vedic religious horizon. Some of the insignificant gods of the Rig Vedic period now became powerful. Rudra, the god of animals, become important during this period. The nomadic god Vishnu was now transformed into a prominent preserver, protector and sedentary god in the later Vedic times. Some gods were even categorized on the basis of varna, hierarchy. For instance, the Maruts were referred to as the gods of peasantry and the Pusan was associated with the sudras. The mode of worship changed considerably during this period. Sacrifices occupied the epicenter of religion. They assumed public as well as private character. Sacrifices involved the killings of animals on a large scale and, especially the destruction of cattle wealth. Gods were worshipped for ensuring victory over other tribes, granting cattle and sons. It was also an occasion for the chiefs to distribute wealth. Sacrifices were performed to ensure control over rest of the tribe. Gifts were no longer given to the entire tribe rather the chief gave gifts to the Brahmans who performed sacrifices for him. Thus, the rituals became a mechanism for ensuring the material and spiritual superiority of the chiefs and the Brahmans. The elaborate sacrifices of this period, e.g. the rajasuya, include offerings of grain along with milk, ghee and animals. The twelve sacrifices prescribed in the Atharvaveda for acquiring material benefits recommend the gifts of cows, calves, oxen, gold, cooked rice, thatched houses and well cultivated fields to the Brahmans. The items of the offerings are a clear indication of the growing importance of sedentary settlements and agriculture. Significant changes took place in religion and philosophy during this period. Many of the old gods lost their importance and new so called gods and goddesses rose in popularity. Rudra or Shiva, Vishnu or Narayan and Brahma or Prajapati became the most respected names in Godliness. Prajapati the creator or Brahma occupied the supreme position in the religion.

Durga, Kali and Parvati were also worshipped. The Aryans started worshipping certain objects as symbols of divinity. Idol worship also began in this period. Rituals became more complex. Emphasis was laid on 40 samskaras. Sacrifices became more important and now they were being performed by priests only. This was done to maintain the supremacy of the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas in the society. No ceremony was considered complete in the absence of a purohita. Therefore they got a special status in the society. The chief priests who were engaged in performing sacrifices were - Horti the invoker, Adhvaryu-the executor, Udgatri-the singer. The chief priest received voluntary offerings from the people called Bali. New beliefs were born among the Aryans who started believing in the attainment of Nirvana through Gyan or the knowledge. The Upanishads criticized the rituals and laid stress on the value of right belief and knowledge. The conception of the material world as Maya or illusion also gained currency during this later Vedic age. Thus the tenets of Hinduism - Moksha, Karma and Maya were enunciated by the seers of the later Vedic period.