Survey methodology

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v t e In statistics, survey methodology is the eld that studies the sampling of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample. Polls about public opinion, such as political beliefs, are reported in the news media in democracies. Other types of survey are used for scientic purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research elds, e.g., marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology.[1] A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), behavior (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern (see also sampling (statistics) and survey sampling). Survey methodology seeks to identify principles about the design, collection, processing, and analysis of surveys in connection to the cost and quality of survey estimates. It focuses on

improving quality within cost constraints, or alternatively, reducing costs for a xed level of quality. Survey methodology is both a scientic eld and a profession. Part of the task of a survey methodologist is making a large set of decisions about thousands of individual features of a survey in order to improve it.[2] The most important methodological challenges of a survey methodologist include making decisions on how to:[2] Identify and select potential sample members. Contact sampled individuals and collect data from those who are hard to reach (or reluctant to respond). Evaluate and test questions. Select the mode for posing questions and collecting responses. Train and supervise interviewers (if they are involved). Check data les for accuracy and internal consistency. Adjust survey estimates to correct for identied errors.

Contents
1 Selecting samples 2 Modes of data collection 3 Response formats 4 Advantages and disadvantages 4.1 Advantages 4.2 Disadvantages 5 Nonresponse reduction 5.1 Other methods to increase response rates 6 Interviewer effects 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Selecting samples
Main article: Survey sampling Survey samples can be broadly divided into two types: probability samples and non-probability samples. Stratied sampling is a method of probability sampling such that sub-populations within an overall population are identied and included in the sample selected in a balanced way.

Modes of data collection

Main article: Survey data collection There are several ways of administering a survey. The choice between administration modes is inuenced by several factors, including 1) costs, 2) coverage of the target population, 3) exibility of asking questions, 4) respondents' willingness to participate and 5) response accuracy. Different methods create mode effects that change how respondents answer, and different methods have different advantages. The most common modes of administration can be summarized as:[3] Telephone Mail (post)

Online surveys Personal in-home surveys Personal mall or street intercept survey Hybrids of the above.

Response formats
Usually, a survey consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. The response options for a closedended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished: Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options (bounded)Continuous, where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale A respondent's answer to an open-ended question can be coded into a response scale afterwards,[3] or analysed using more qualitative methods.

Advantages and disadvantages

This article contains a pro and con list. Please help improve it by integrating both sides into a more neutral presentation. (November 2012)

Advantages
They are relatively easy to administer. Can be developed in less time compared with other data-collection methods. Can be cost-effective. Few 'experts' are required to develop a survey, which may increase the reliability of the survey data. If conducted remotely, can reduce or obviate geographical dependence. Useful in describing the characteristics of a large population assuming the sampling is valid. Can be administered remotely via the Web, mobile devices, mail, e-mail, telephone, etc. Efcient at collecting information from a large number of respondents. Statistical techniques can be applied to the survey data to determine validity, reliability, and statistical signicance even when analyzing multiple variables. Many questions can be asked about a given topic giving considerable exibility to the analysis. Support both between and within-subjects study designs. A wide range of information can be collected (e.g., attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviour). Because they are standardized, they are relatively free from several types of errors.

Disadvantages
The reliability of survey data may depend on the following: Respondents' motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond: Respondents may not be motivated to give accurate answers.

Respondents may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light. Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given action. Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables. Self-selection bias. Although the individuals chosen to participate in surveys are often randomly sampled, errors due to non-response may exist (see also chapter 13 of Adr et al. (2008) for more information on how to deal with non-responders and biased data). That is, people who choose to respond on the survey may be different from those who do not respond, thus biasing the estimates. For example, polls or surveys that are conducted by calling a random sample of publicly available telephone numbers will not include the responses of people with unlisted telephone numbers, mobile (cell) phone numbers, people who are unable to answer the phone (e.g., because they normally sleep during the time of day the survey is conducted, because they are at work, etc.), people who do not answer calls from unknown or unfamiliar telephone numbers. Likewise, such a survey will include a disproportionate number of respondents who have traditional, land-line telephone service with listed phone numbers, and people who stay home much of the day and are much more likely to be available to participate in the survey (e.g., people who are unemployed, disabled, elderly, etc.). Question design. Survey question answer-choices could lead to vague data sets because at times they are relative only to a personal abstract notion concerning "strength of choice". For instance the choice "moderately agree" may mean different things to different subjects, and to anyone interpreting the data for correlation. Even 'yes' or 'no' answers are problematic because subjects may for instance put "no" if the choice "only once" is not available.

Nonresponse reduction
The following ways have been recommended for reducing nonresponse in telephone and face-toface surveys:[4] Advance letter. A short letter is sent in advance to inform the sampled respondents about the upcoming survey. The style of the letter should be personalized but not overdone. First, it announces that a phone call will be made/ or an interviewer wants to make an appointment to do the survey face-to-face. Second, the research topic will be described. Last, it allows both an expression of the surveyor's appreciation of cooperation and an opening to ask questions on the survey. Training. The interviewers are thoroughly trained in how to ask respondents questions, how to work with computers and making schedules for callbacks to respondents who were not reached. Short introduction. The interviewer should always start with a short instruction about him or herself. She/he should give her name, the institute she is working for, the length of the interview and goal of the interview. Also it can be useful to make clear that you are not selling anything: this has been shown to lead led to a slightly higher responding rate.[5] Respondent-friendly survey questionnaire. The questions asked must be clear, non-offensive and easy to respond to for the subjects under study.

Other methods to increase response rates

brevity single page if possible nancial incentives paid in advance paid at completion non-monetary incentives

commodity giveaways (pens, notepads) entry into a lottery, draw or contest discount coupons promise of contribution to charity preliminary notication foot-in-the-door techniques start with a small inconsequential request personalization of the request address specic individuals follow-up requests multiple requests emotional appeals bids for sympathy convince respondent that they can make a difference guarantee anonymity legal compulsion (certain government-run surveys)

Interviewer effects
Survey methodologists have devoted much effort to determine the extent to which interviewee responses are affected by physical characteristics of the interviewer. Main interviewer traits that have been demonstrated to inuence survey responses are race [6] , gender [7] and relative body weight (BMI) .[8] These interviewer effects are particularly operant when questions are related to the interviewer trait. Hence, race of interviewer has been shown to affect responses to measures regarding racial attitudes ,[9] interviewer sex responses to questions involving gender issues ,[10] and interviewer BMI answers to eating and dieting-related questions .[11] While interviewer effects have been investigated mainly for face-to-face surveys, they have also been shown to exist for interview modes with no visual contact, such as telephone surveys and in video-enhanced web surveys. The explanation typically provided for interviewer effects is that of social desirability. Survey participants may attempt to project a positive self-image in an effort to conform to the norms they attribute to the interviewer asking questions.

See also
Statistics portal

Wikiversity has learning materials about Questionnaire Data Documentation Initiative Enterprise feedback management (EFM) Likert Scale Ofcial statistics Paid survey Quantitative marketing research Questionnaire construction Social research This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufcient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (April 2009)

Notes
1. 2. ^ http://whatisasurvey.info/ ^ a b Groves, R.M.; Fowler, F. J.; Couper, M.P.; Lepkowski, J.M.; Singer, E.; Tourangeau, R. (2009). Survey Methodology. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-1-118-21134-2.

3.

^ a b Mellenbergh, G.J. (2008). Chapter 9: Surveys. In H.J. Adr & G.J. Mellenbergh (Eds.) (with contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 183209). Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. 4. ^ Dillman, D.A. (1978) Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-21555-4 5. ^ De Leeuw, E.D. (2001). "I am not selling anything: Experiments in telephone introductions". Kwantitatieve Methoden, 22, 4148. 6. ^ Hill, M.E (2002). "Race of the interviewer and perception of skin color: Evidence from the multi-city study of urban inequality". American Sociological Review 67 (1): 99108. 7. ^ Flores-Macias, F.; Lawson, C. (2008). "Effects of interviewer gender on survey responses: Findings from a household survey in Mexico". International Journal of Public Opinion Research 20 (1): 100110. doi:10.1093/ijpor/edn007. 8. ^ Eisinga, R.; Te Grotenhuis, M.; Larsen, J.K.; Pelzer, B.; Van Strien, T. (2011). "BMI of interviewer effects". International Journal of Public Opinion Research 23 (4): 530543. doi: 10.1093/ijpor/edr026. 9. ^ Anderson, B.A.; Abramson, B.D. (1988). "The effects of the race of the interviewer on race-related attitudes of black respondents in SRC/CPS national election studies". Public Opinion Quarterly 52 (3): 128. doi:10.1086/269108. 10. ^ Kane, E.W.; Macaulay, L.J. (1993). "Interviewer gender and gender attitudes". Public Opinion Quarterly 57 (1): 128. doi:10.1086/269352. 11. ^ Eisinga, R.; Te Grotenhuis, M.; Larsen, J.K.; Pelzer, B.. "Interviewer BMI effects on under- and over-reporting of restrained eating. Evidence from a national Dutch face-to-face survey and a postal follow-up". International Journal of Public Health 57 (3): 643-647. doi: 10.1007/s00038-011-0323-z.

References
Abramson, J.J. and Abramson, Z.H. (1999).Survey Methods in Community Medicine: Epidemiological Research, Programme Evaluation, Clinical Trials (5th edition). London: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier Health Sciences ISBN 0-443-06163-7 Groves, R.M. (1989). Survey Errors and Survey Costs Wiley. ISBN 0-471-61171-9 Ornstein, M.D. (1998). "Survey Research." Current Sociology 46(4): iii-136. Shaughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2006). Research Methods in Psychology (Seventh Edition ed.). McGrawHill Higher Education. ISBN 0-07-111655-9 (pp.143192) Adr, H. J., Mellenbergh, G. J., & Hand, D. J. (2008). Advising on research methods: A consultant's companion. Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing. Dillman, D.A. (1978) Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-21555-4

Further reading
Andres, Lesley (2012). "Designing and Doing Survey Research". London: Sage. Leung, Wai-Ching (2001) "Conducting a Survey", in Student BMJ, (British Medical Journal, Student Edition), May 2001

External links
Surveys at the Open Directory Project OmniPHP(tm) SurveyEngine An open source advanced survey development application that allows creating any type of web-based survey. Nonprot Research Collection on the Use of Surveys in Nonprot Research Published on IssueLab

Survey Question Bank Designing surveys a basic guide