Mechanics of Materials

Submitted by Muhammad Talha Syed 11MT34 Submitted to Sir Nisar Ahmed Memon

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Introduction In day-to-day work an engineer comes across certain materials i.e. steel girders, angle iron, circular bars, different machine parts which are used in his project. While selecting a suitable material for his project an engineer is always interested to know its strength. The strength of a material may be defined as ability to resist its failure and behavior under action of external forces and stresses. It has been observed that under the action of these forces, the material is first deformed and then its failure takes place. In this regard the engineer should made a detail study of forces and their effects along with some suitable protective measures for the safe working condition, this safe condition is known as mechanic of materials or strength of materials. As a matter of fact such knowledge is very essential for engineers to enable him in designing his all types of structures and machines. Controlling the mechanical properties of Materials In this we examine several methods used to control the structure and mechanical properties of materials. Before examine the strengthen mechanism we first briefly examine the mechanical properties with testing of material and understand the results of these test which are the mechanical properties of a material. What is Property? The term property of material provides a basis for describing its behavior or mechanics under various conditions. The mechanics of solid material involve their response to all sort of condition imposed on them. These conditions may be mechanical, thermal, and chemical. For instance, if a material subjected to pulling type forces, the ability of material to resist this force without any fracture or failure. MECHANICAL PROPERTY Introduction We select the material for many components and application by matching the properties of the material to the service conditions required of the different parts. In this regard the first step in selection process requires that that we analyze the applications to determine the most important characteristics that the material must possess. i. Should be material strong or stuff or ductile. ii. Will it be subjected to repeated application of a high force, sudden instant force, a high stress and elevated temperature or abrasive condition? Once we have determined the required properties we can select appropriate material. In this regard we will study several tests that are used to measure how a material withstands an applied force. The results of these tests are known as the Mechanical Properties of Materials. Importance of mechanical Test Structures, machines of various kinds are usually subjected to load and deformation. Therefore the properties of material under the action of load and their deformation produced under environments become an important engineering consideration. The measure of the strength and characteristics of the materials in service are of great important particularly to the design engineer. The following important mechanical destructive tests give valuable information about metals and alloys: 1. Tensile test 2. Fatigue test 3. Creep test 4. Hardness test 5. Impact test

STRESS AND STRAIN In our daily life we see that whenever a load attached to a thin hanging wire, it elongates due to the load moves down wards in some times through a negligible distance. Stress is input & Strain in output The amount by which the wire elongates depends upon the amount of load and the nature as well as cross sectional area of wire material. It has been experimentally found that the cohesive force between molecules of the hanging wire offers resistance against the deformation and the force of resistance increases with the deformation. It has been observe that the process of deformation stops when the force of resistance is equal to the external force. In such a case the deformation continuous until failure takes place. LOADS AND ITS TYPES It is define as any external force acting upon machine parts that is called the load. In engineering practice, machine parts are subjected to various forces/loads which may be due to either one or more of the following causes. 1. Energy transmitted 2. Weight of machine 3. Friction 4. Change of temperature 5. Inertia of reciprocating Basically there are three types of loads 1. Dead or steady load. 2. Live load. 3. Sudden load or shock load. 1. DEAD OR STEADY LOAD: When a load is applied, it does not change in magnitude and direction it is known as dead or steady load. 2. LIVE OR VARYING LOAD: When a load is applied on any body continuously, some changes has been occurred in called live load. 3. SUDDENLY APPLIED OR SHOCK LOAD: When a load is suddenly applied or removed, the mode change may occur in called shock or sudden load. NOTE: A machine or machine part resists a dead load more easily than live load, which can resist more easily than shock or sudden load. What is stress? Every material is elastic in nature. That is why when ever some external force or external system of forces acts on a body it under goes some deformation. As the body under goes deformation due to external force, this external force per unit area at any section of the body is known as stress. Mathematically stress may be defined as the force per unit area. e

Where, F is load or force acting on body and A is cross-sectional area of the body

In MKS system the unit of stress is Kg/cm2 and in SI unit system it is expressed mega Pascal and Gig Pascal which is equal to N/mm2 or KN/mm2. Strain When a force or load acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation per unit longth is known as Strain. Mathematically The deformation per unit length igi e gh

Strain is dimension less quantity since both l and l are expressed in unit of length. Types of Stress & Strain There are so many types of stresses yet the following types are most important from subject point of view. 1. Tensile stress & strain When a section or component is subjected two opposite Load pulls and body tends to increase its length as shown in fig f (1), the stress introduced is called Tensile Stress and the corresponding change in length due to stress is called L l Tensile strain. 2. Compressive stress & strain Fig (1) When a section/component is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes and body tends to shorten its length the stress induces is called compressive stress. The corresponding strain is called compressive strain. As a result of the compressive stress, the cross-sectional area of the body gets increase. 3. Shear stress & strain When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces P acting tangentially across the resisting section as a result of which a body tends to shear off the section then the stress induced is called shear stress. The corresponding strain is known P as shear strain. Consider a body consisting of two plates connected by a rivet as shown in fig (2). In this case the tin junction force tends to shear off the rivet. Therefore the shear stress on the rivet cross-section is s=P/A. Hooks Law It stated as P HOOKS LAW It states when a material is loaded with in elastic limit the stress is proportional to the strain. Mathematically: = constant,

We have already discussed that whenever a material is loaded within its elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain. Mathematically = E. Where, = strain. = stress, E= proportionality constant The value of E (i. e Modulus of elasticity)of material in everyday use are given below:

S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Material Steel Wrought Iron Cast Iron Copper Brass Aluminum Timber

Modulus of Elasticity (E) in kN 200-220 190-200 100-160 90-110 80-90 60-80 10

Working Stress\Design Stress When designing machine parts it is desire able to keep the stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is called as the working stress or design stress. By failure it is not meant actual breaking of material or some machine parts are said to fail when they have plastic deformation set into the parts and they no more perform their function satisfactory. Factor of Safety It is defined in general as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress. Mathematically, Factor of safety = In case of ductile material e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases, Factor of safety = In case of brittle material i.e. the cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile materials. The factor of safety for brittle material is based upon ultimate stress. Factor of safety = Selection of Factor Safety The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component depends upon a number of considerations, such as the material, mode of manufacturing, type of stresses, general service condition and shape of the parts. Before selecting a proper factor safety, a design of Engineering should consider the following points: 1. The reliability of properties of metals and change of these properties during service. 2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual machine parts. 3. The reliability of applied load.

4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure. 5. The extent of localized stresses. 6. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacturing process. Each of the above factors must be carefully consider and evaluate. The higher factor of safety results in heavy sections and wastage of materials, where as low factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of failure.

Deformation of Metals & Its Types

When metals or alloys are stressed (either subjected to load) they get deformation. Deformation is defines as the change in dimensions under the action of applied forces. Deformation is caused by the mechanical action of external forces either tensile, compressive, impact, shear and thermal or various physical processes e.g. change in volume of separate crystalline phase transformation as a result of temperature gradient. The deformation is divided into two main types 1. Elastic Deformation 2. Plastic Deformation 1. Elastic Deformation It is defined as if a metal or alloy is loaded (within certain limit), a temporary deformation of the crystal takes place through displacement of atoms. As the deforming load is removed, the atoms returns to their original stable position and the crystal structure recovers or regain its original shape is called Elastic Deformation. Elastic deformation occurs which comprisable smaller deformation loads, which can keep working stresses within the elastic range. Under a tensile deforming load the metal piece becomes slightly longer as a result of slight elongation of the unit cell in the direction of the load. This elongation in the metallic piece component disappears as the deforming load is removed. When elastic deformation occurs the strain in component is nearly proportional to the stress either the conditions in the elastically deform region is expressed by Hooks law. Load

Before load

under load

load removed

2. Plastic Deformation It is defined as when the stress in component cross the elastic limit the specimen gets permanent deformation (not recoverable or regain its original position) is called plastic deformation.

Before Load

under load

load removed

From the above figure it shows that when the load is removed after crossing the elastic limit, the plastic deformation remains in the specimen. Permanent deformation is many times intentionally carried out as in working and shaping processes such as bending, drawing, milling, forging and extrusion etc. For this rolling for boiler plates, drawing of wire, extrusion of telephone cables, forging of crane shafts, these all operation involves plastic deformation of metals and alloys. Plastic deformation is also carried out in order to improve some mechanical properties of metals and alloys.

FRACTURE
It is defined as the end result of plastic deformation process or it is defined as the separation of a body under stress into two or more than two parts is called Fracture. It occurs due to high stresses from small crack initiation to crack propagation. Types of fracture: There are two general categories. 1. Ductile fracture Ductile fracture is characterized by slow rate of crack propagation with maximum energy (load) absorption. In ductile fracture, there is high gross deformation or there is a very high mass deformation. In ductile fracture movement starts (atoms) of crack involves very little plasticity. The phenomenon of ductile fracture is important because it may occur at high temperature in formation of different component and parts by rolling, bending, etc. Mostly ductile fractures are usually caused by simple overloads or by applying too high stress to the material. Note:- Ductile fracture normally occur in a trance-granular manner through grains in metal that have ductility and toughness often a considerable amount of deformation including necking is observed in the failed component. The deformation occurs before the final fracture. 2. Brittle fracture Brittle fracture occurs low strength metals and alloys with poor ductility and toughness. Furthermore even metals that normally low ductile may fail in brittle manner at high strain rate such as under the impact load. Brittle fracture are frequently observed that impact load rather than over loaded causes failure that is why the brittle fracture is characterized by rapid rate of crack propagation with maximum energy absorption. It may occur by separation normally in tensile, compressive and impact stress. In this type of fracture, the movement start of crack involve very little plastics deformation of the metal adjacent the cracks. The phenomenon of brittle fracture is important, because it may occur at high pressure in pressure vessels, bridges and pipelines etc. Failure Of Materials Failures of metals are simply defined as unacceptable deformation or fracture is called failure of metals. It is defined as a material can fail in following ways, when under in applied mechanical force as in case of an over load, improper (unmatched) material selection, processing and adequate design of the failure of the components or its misuse are also the causes of failure of the materials. In this regard it is the

responsibility of the design engineer in the event that the failure does occur and then take appropriate prevent measures against future incidence. Failure Analysis Even though the number of failure of a particular component but they are most important because they may affect the manufactures reputation for reliability. In some cases particularly when the failure results in personal injury death, it will lead to expensive lawsuits .Therefore once component starts failing, its analysis is very essential, in any failure analysis it is important to get as much information as possible from the failed part itself along with an investigations of the conditions at the time of failure .In this regard some of the questions to be ask which are give. 1. How long was part component in service? 2. What was the nature of the stresses at the time of failure? 3. Was the part subjected to an overload? 4. Was the part properly installed? 5. Were there any changes in environment? 6. Was the part properly maintained? The fracture surface (after failure) should be examined in order to find. 1. Was the fracture ductile, brittle or combination of both? 2. Did the failure starts at or below the surface. 3. Did the failure start at one point or did it originate at several points. 4. Did the crack starts recently or had it been growing for a long time. Methods TO Investigate To Failure The stress involved in investigating the failure or fracture. a) Initial observations Make a detail visual study of the actual component that failed. 1. Record all details by photograph. 2. Interpretation must be made of deformation marking, fracture appearances, deterioration. b) Background Collect all data concern with specification & drawing, component design, fabrication, repair maintenance and service use. c) Laboratory Studies a) Verify that the chemical check composition of the material within the specified limit. b) Check dimensions and properties of the component. c) Supplementary test may be made needed as e.g.: hardness, determination of microstructure to check heat treatment, non-destructive test, to check for processing defects or existing cracks, compositions of corrosion production etc. d) Synthesis Of Failure

Study all the facts and evidence both positive & negative and insert to the typical technical questions. This combine (compare) theoretical and practical analysis should indicate a solution to the problem of failure. Note: It has been found that nearly 50% of all failures can be distributes faulty design, the rest being distributes between production /fabrication and service problem. Microscopic Examination Microscopic or Metallography consists of the microscopic study of the structural characteristics of metals or alloys. The metallurgical microscope is the most important tool of a metallurgist .It is possible to determine grain size, shape & distribution of various phases and non-metallic impurities which have the greater effect on mechanical properties of a metal. The microstructure will also reveal the mechanical and thermal treatment of the metal. From the information, gather from microscopy, it is possible to predict its expected behavior under given service conditions. Selection Of Specimen/Sample The important use of metallography is the examination of defects that appear in the finished or semi finished products and studies of parts/components that have failed in service. Investigation for these purpose usually required that specimen must be taken from a large mass of material. Many metallographic studies required more than one specimen e.g. a study of deformation in wrought metals usually required two sections: 1. Perpendicular to another and parallel to the major axis of the directions of deformation. 2. If the failure is to be investigated the sample should be chosen as close as possible to the area of failure. Depending upon the type of failure, it may be necessary to take several specimens from the area of failure. Specimen Preparation The success in microscopic study depends largely upon the care taken in preparation of the specimen .The most expensive that has been poorly prepared. The specimen must be & the chemically etched so as to remove the deform surface layer & reveal the microstructure preparation of the metallography specimen generally required fine major operations. 1. Sectioning/Sampling 2. Mounting 3. Grinding 4. Polishing 5. Etching Selection/Sampling The the material is soft such as non-ferrous metals or alloys & non-heat treated steel the section or sample may be obtained by manual hack-sawing. If the material is hard, the sample may be obtain by use of an abrasive cut-off wheel. Sawing is perhaps the oldest method of sampling in metallography & it still used as manual sawing. Saw blades are usually made of harden steel and are used to cut only those materials softer then the saw blades. Oils or water soluble coolants are used to avoid a permanent wear of the saw blades and to minimize the friction that may alter the microstructure of the specimen below the cut surface.

Sampling by means of an abrasive cut-off wheel is by far the most widely used method. This wheel is a thin disk of suitable cutting abrasive, rotating high speed. A hard wheel made with hard bonding materials. A good general purpose cut of wheel is a medium hard silicon carbonate abrasive wheel. Abrasive wheel cutting may produce deformation damage to a depth up to 0.04, deformation damage can be minimized by using thin cut-off wheel. Also the abrasive wheel cutting should be done wet. An ample flow of water soluble oil should be directed on to the cut. Wet cutting will minimize the surface damage caused by overheating and will produced a smooth surface. Mounting The primary purpose of mounting metallography specimen is to facilitate in handling the specimen of difficult shape and the sizes during the subsequent steps of preparation & metallography examination .The secondary purpose is to protect and preserve extreme edges of surface defects during specimen preparation. Mounting also facilitates the placement of the specimen on microscope. An added benefit of mounting is the ease with which a mounted specimen can be identified by name, alloy number or laboratory code number without damage to the specimen. Compression mounting the most common mounting method involves molding around metallographic specimen such molding material as thermosetting. back light by the heat & pressure. Mounts of a uniform & convenient size usually 1, 1.25 or 1.5 in diameter are obtained. The mounts when properly made are resistant to the attack of ordinary used etching region. Mounting praise is necessary for compressing molding. Molding tools consist of a hallow cylinder of harden steel a base plug and plunger (shaft).The specimen is mounted is placed on plug which is inserted in one end of the cylinder. The cylinder is nearly filled with molding material in powder form and the plunger is inserted into the open end of the cylinder. A cylindrical heater is placed around the mould assembly. The temperature is gradually raised to 150C and a molding pressure of about 4000 psi is applied simultaneously. Since the molding material is said and query when the temperature is raised, the specimen mount may be affected from the molding die. Grinding Grinding is an important operation in metallographic specimen. The purpose of grinding is to loosen the depth of deform metal to the point where it is further removed by a series of polishing steps. To established a initial flat surface & remove the effects of sectioning (sampling).Grinding is accomplished by abrading the specimen surface through a sequence of operations using progressively final abrasive grid size of 150 to 180 mesh. A satisfactory grinding sequence might involve grid size of 180,240,400 & 600 meshes. The grinding abrasive commonly used in the preparation of metallography specimen or silicon carbides which are generally bonded on the paper in the forms of sheets & disks. Success in grinding depends on the pressure applied to the specimen. A very light/low pressure removes insufficient material when very high pressure results in non-uniform scratch size and embedded abrasive particles. Generally medium to moderately heavy pressure applied formally gives the best result. All grinding should be done wet provided that water has no advantage effect or any constituent of microstructure. Water flushes away of the surface removal products otherwise they will become imbedded between adjacent abrasive particle to produce scratches on the specimen surface. Another advantage of wet grinding is the cooling effect of water. During grinding frictional heat can developed at the surface of the specimen & can cause the alteration of true microstructure. Polishing Polishing is the final state in producing a surface that at flat, scratch free & minor like in appearances. The success of polishing operation depends largely upon the care taken during the grinding operation.

The polished surface is obtained by the use of wet rotating wheel covered with a special cloth that is charged with carefully sized abrasive particle. The specimen is held with one or both hands & is continuously moves back & froth between the center and the edge of the wheel ,ensuring even distribution of abrasive and uniform wear of the polishing cloth. The correct amount of applied pressure must be determine by experience in general firm and pressure is applied in general firm is applied in initial polishing step and is successively decreased in fine polishing step. A wide range of abrasive is available for final polishing including alumina oxide, magnesium oxide, chromic oxide, iron oxide & diamond compound. These abrasive except diamond compounds are normally used in distilled water suspension, but if a metal to be polished is not compatible with other suspension like alcohol, kerosene, glycerin may be required. Etching The purpose of etching is to make visible the many structural characteristics of the metal & alloy. The process must be such that the various parts of the microstructures may be clearly differentiated. This is accomplished by used of an appropriated agent which subjects the polished surface to chemical action. The selection of the appropriate etching regent is determined by the metal or alloy and the specific structure design for viewing. The common etching regents are nital & picral. Nital contained 1 to 5ml of nitric acid and 100ml of ethyl alcohol and is used for carbon steels to darken and give contrast between pearlite to ferrite boundaries and to differentiate ferrite from martensite. Picral contains 4gms picric acid and 100ml of ethyl or methyl alcohol and is used for all grades of carbons steels in annealed, normalized, hardening and tempered conditions for copper, Brass, bronze and nickel 10gms ammonium per sulfate with 90ml water is used as etching regent. Etching is as important as all other operations of sample preparations in this regard the following rules for etching should be observed. 1. Etch for a time just sufficient is bring the significant micro structural details, excessive etching will destroy the fine structural details. 2. If a specimen has not been sufficiently etched it should be re-polished to remove the etched surface and then again re-etched. 3. After etching the specimen should not be touched by anything and should be immediately examine before oxidation or other contaminations occurs. Tensile Test

The tensile strength is defined as it is the ability of the material to with stand at the highest applied force/stress. This type of strength is checked by universal tensile machine during testing of specimen there are many variations of this materials are reported through stress/strain curve. The tensile test is one of the most widely used of the mechanical test. The tensile test on a mild steel specimen is described below: The tensile test is carried out on a bar of uniform cross-section throughout the gauge length. The specimen is mounted in the jaws of a testing machine with which a gradually increasing load can

P=Proportional limit, YU=Upper yield S= Ultimate stress

E = Elastic Limit YL= Lower Yield B= Breaking poing

be applied. The extension or elongation of the gauge length is recorded between continuously & finally a graph is drawn between a load and extension or between the stress & strain. That is why this graph called stress/strain curve. Calculation Reduction Area in percentage Elongation in percentage

Hardness Test It is defined as the ability of a metal surface to resist being scratched by another hard body is called hardness or in other words resistance of the metal to indentation or penetration is called hardness and is an indication of the wear resistance of a material. As defined above this test provides a measure of the resistance of a metal to indentation wear. It is a useful and rapid mechanical test it can serve as a check on the effect of heat treatment before & after which is given to the metal as alloy. A variety of hardness test have been devised which are given below but the most commonly used are the Brinell and Rockwell hardness testers. Types of Hardness Testers 1. Brinell Hardness Test This test was twice by Swedish engineer J.A Brinell in 1900.In the brinell test a harden steel ball indenter (penetrator) which is used as indentation tool, and this ball is regard as being infinity hard compare with any of the material whos hardness is to tested there by eliminating any consideration of permanent deformation of indenter. The brinell hardness number is the equation of the applied load divided by the spherical area of the impression. P=Loading D=Diameter of indenter in mm (i.e. 10mm) d=Diameter of the indentation (impression) in mm. Brinell hardness testing machine consist of a hard operated vertical hydraulic press design to force a ball indenter into the test specimen. The standard procedure of testing requires that the test be carried out with a ball of 10mm diameter under the load of 3000kg for ferrous metals are 500kg for non-ferrous metals. For ferrous metals the steel ball is pressed into the specimen for at least 10seconds and for nonferrous metals the time is 30 seconds. The pressure is indicated by the dial which is mounted to the pressure cylinder of the machine. After completion of the required time released knob and take the jaw from the machine and measure the impression with the help of the microscope. Similarly take 3to4 readings simultaneously and put all the values and calculate the brinell hardness number by using equation e.g. BHN=300/10/10/65 for ferrous Merits & Demerits The Brinell test is subjected to several limitations these are: 1. It cannot be used on very soft metals. 2. It should not be used on materials less than 1. A good rule is that the thickness of the material should be at least more than 1 and less than 2.

3. The test should be carried out on a location for enough removed from the edge of the material so no bulging results. It leaves a noticeable indentation which is objectionable finish product in many circumstances. Precautions During Brinell hardness tester the specimen should be well prepared like mirror means it should be free from scratches, rust, dust and also free from all the greasy and oily materials. 2. Rockwell hardness Test The Rockwell hardness test is probably the most widely used method of hardness testing. Rockwell hardness testers use much smaller penetrates /indenters and loads than does the brinell tester. Different sizes of hard ball in diameter are available as well as a diamond cone shape. For metallic material testing the 1/16 inch ball and diamond penetrator are used most commonly. Working principle: The penetrator chuck is mechanically connected to dial indicator which responds to vertical motion of the penetrator. Since the penetrators are small the specimen should be ground smoothly and well cleaned. The specimen is placed on the anvil of the machine and the penetrator seated by mean of minor 10Kg load. The dial indicator is zeroed and then a major load of 100 or 150Kg applied, forcing the penetrator in to the specimen. Upon removal of a major load, the indented specimen recovers slightly and the final depth of penetration is registered directly on the dial indicator as a hardness number. In this way get at least 3-4 reading at the different area of specimen and find mean. In this test the two commonest scales are the HRB and the HRC scales respectively standing for the steel ball with 100kg load and diamond cone indenter with 150 as a major load. In general very hard materials are tested with diamond cone indenter. For example mild steel might have a reading of 90 on B scale; hardened alloy steel might have 55 on C scale. These are stated as HRB 90 and HRC 55. Precautions: Successive impressions should not be superimposed on one another nor be made too close together when making hardness determination. Nor should a measurement be make too close to the edges of specimen or on a specimen so thin the impression comes through the other side. The care required in preparing the surface is greater for Rockwell than Brinell test because of smaller impressions. The surface of specimen should flat and free from rust and dust also from un even. Since impression is small it is desirable to take several readings in order to get a representative value of hardness. Advantages: It is more flexible than the Brinell a large number of combinations of indenters and load make it more use full to test a wider range of materials. Rockwell hardness measurement can be made quickly as because they are read directly from the instrument scale. The test considered to be non destructive for most applications because of small size of the impression. Limitations. The Rockwell test is limited by greater care required in preparation of sample.

Impact Test Significance of impact test An impact test signifies toughness of material that is the ability of material to absorb energy during plastic deformation. This important factor is determined by impact test. Toughness takes in to account both strength and ductility of a material. Several engineering materials have to with stand impact or suddenly applied load while in service. Impact strength are generally lower as compared to strength achieved under slowly applied load. All types of impact tests the notched bar tests are extensively used. Therefore the impact test measures the energy necessary to fracture of a standard notch bar by applying the load. Still it is important to note that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or toughness of same material under different conditions. Procedure of Impact Test It is a pendulum type impact testing machine is generally used for conducting notched bar impact. The following types of impact test are performed on the following machines: 1. Charpy Impact test 2. Izod Impact Test 1. Charpy Impact Test This test is more common than IZod test and it uses simply supported test piece of 10x10mm2 in section with the 5mm notch in that at the center with 45o angle. The specimen is placed on anvil and the pendulum may be raised with the help of handle at approximately 1800 angle. This angle is called lifting angle or lift angle. After that we drop this pendulum with the help of releasing handle and hit the opposite direction of specimen, at this movement we note the angle that angle is called fall angle. The energy used in rupturing/fracture the specimen in both charpy and Izod test is calculated as follows: E = PDL (Cos Cos ) Where P is weight of pendulum, D is distance from striker to specimen, L is a length of pendulum, is angle of fall and is angle of rise respectively. Actually the values of PDL are constant which are 26.72Kg, 0.684m and 0.75m respectively. FATIGUE TEST What is Fatigue? It is defined as the behavior of materials or metals under repeated load condition is called fatigue. If the material becomes fail under such type of a load is called fatigue failure. The maximum load that a material can withstand without failure during a large number of cycles or rotation is called fatigue strength. For example:- A rotating shaft which support a weight has tensile force on the top and the load is lying as compressive force on the bottom portion as the shaft is rotated there is a repeated change in tensile and compressive stresses. This property is desired in the design of components which are subjected to rapidly fluctuating loads. Fatigue Mechanism:A fatigue fracture always start as a small crack which under repeated loading of the stress, grows in sides, as the cracks expends the load carrying cross section of the metal component is reduce with the

result that the stress of this section rises. Ultimately a point is reached where the remaining component is not longer enough to carry the load and finally the result is the fracture. Most cracks that are responsible for fatigue failure starts at visible discontinuous such as fabrication design and other details such as holes, shrinkage, influence, below holes etc. Characteristics of Fatigue Failure Fracture caused by fatigue is brittle in nature even ductile materials there is no observable plastic deformation of the part or the whole of the material region corresponding to the progressive & final fracture can be easily identify in freshly broken sections. One region is smooth like polished while the other is jagged or rough one. Since fatigue is essentially a surface initiated phenomenon the condition of r the surface is particularly important. In this order prcised control of the surface finish or avoiding damaged to surface by rough machining. Fatigue Limit or Endurance The shape of the curve is of much significance to engineering results for metal such as steels or alloy steels; the curve becomes horizontal at certain stress. This stress is called fatigue limit or endurance, below this stress the specimen doesnt fail or fracture either the material will not fail even after infinite number of cycles. This employs that if the material is loaded to stress below the fatigue limit it will not fail, no matter how many times the stress is applied. Non-ferrous metals like Magnesium, Aluminum and copper alloys doesnt have fatigue limit because the curve become horizontal. The curve stops downward with increasing number of cycles. For such non ferrous metals the term fatigue is used to specially the fatigue properties. Fatigue Strength It is the stress that will cause fracture after certain specified numbers of cycles, say 106, 107, 108. The fatigue strength of material may be determined by the S-N curve. In fatigue test the value of stress at which the metal fail is called the fatigue strength, but in practice the components are never design to develop that value of that stress which is equal to fatigue strain by employing factor of safety in design. A limiting stress calculate from the endurance limit is always taken into account. The endurance is determined for particular number of cycle of stress. For this a suitable basis for design involving static loads is the yield strength of the material but if it is a fatigue loading in which load is repeatedly applied and removed, the design criterion is the endurance strength. The endurance strength is the stress, as that will cause a metal to fail, a large number of application of that stress, in this regard the fatigue test helps to estimating endurance strength or endurance limit. As we know that the maximum value of tensile, compressive stress is usually lower than the yield strength of the material. The test is continued either the cycles of stress are applied until the specimen fails or until limiting number of cycles has been reached. For example: if a soft steel specimen is able to bear five lakhs (5x105) cycles without failure the test may be stopped because it has been proved experimentally that the specimen will be able to withstand under same stress for very large number of cycles. A number of specimen of the same material are fatigue tested under a different stress levels and the results are plotted on a graph paper with the stress S on the y-axis and the number of cycles N to cause failure of specimen on X- axis. The result is a S-N curve.

CREEP Creep may be defined as the process by which plastic flow occurs when a constant stress is applied to a metal for a prolong period of time. A viscous flow in metal involving applied stress, time and temperature is called creep. Creep takes place and lead to fracture at static stress much smaller than those, which will break the specimen when loaded quickly. Probably the first reorganization given to industrial importance of creep was by Dickinson in 1922 when published his researches on the creep resistance of structural steels and alloys steel members in furnace. Under many service conditions, material are required to sustain steady load for long periods of time under different temperature conditions. For example: Furnace parts, blade of turbine rotors and filament in vacuum tubes. Under these conditions material may continue to deform until its usefulness is seriously impaired. Such time dependent deformations may grow large and result in fracture of the member without any increasing the load. This time dependent strain occurring under stress is known as creep. Note:- Creep is specially taking care of wild designing, IC engines, boilers and turbines. Creep Test Equipment A common type of creep test equipment is shown in figure. In this equipment the specimen is loaded in tension head. The specimen used d as similar to the standard tensile specimen. The surface of the test specimen gauge length should be free from tool marks, scratches or other tools perfection that might cause stress concentration. The specimen held vertically in long shackles of heat resistant metal which are attached at the bottom to the furnace and at top is the short end of lever are for determine the elongation under test. Rocks of heat resistivity materials are attached each end of the gauge length is the outside of the furnace. The weights are suspended from the long area of the lever. A cylindrical furnace is mounted on the furnace f Control of temperature The control of the furnace temperature is very important. The maximum variation of temperature over 0 the gauge length should not exceed C from the average test temperature for temperature up to 0 0 1000 C, 3 C from the average test temperature for high temperature approximately more than 10000C the variation should be 10C if the temperature is less than 4500C and 20Cif the temperature is 4500C to 10000C.

Creep Test A creep test determines continuous change in the deformation of material at elevated temperature when stress below the yield point. The objective of creep is to determine the creep limit or creep life defined as the stress that will just not break the specimen when applied for an infinite time at a constant temperature and load. This value of stress may be obtained from strain/time observation. This test is simply light tension test run at constant load and required to measure and record stress, strain, temperature and time for entire duration of test and result is a creep curve. A creep curve is difference between the total creep or percentage elongation and time for the entire duration of test. The curve shows a creep and marks at various stages of creep. For determine the creep curve of a material a constant load is applied to a tensile specimen maintained at constant temperature and the extension of the specimen is the result of the time duration. Basically this curve has three stages: 1. Primary Creep Stage: The primary creep is a decreasing creep rate because the work hardening process resulting from deformation. The primary creep is essentially similar in its mechanism to beyond the elasticity or the elastic limit. 2. Secondary Creep Stage: During the secondary stage creeps the deformation continuous at an approximately constant rate. During this stage, a balance exists between the rate of work hardening and rate of softening because of recovery of crystallization. The creep may be increase by the long time essentially viscous of plastic in character depending upon the stress level and temperature. 3. Tertiary Stage Creep: If the stress is sufficiently high and temp: is also high, there is tertiary stage in which the creep rate accelerates until fracture occurs. Tertiary creep is more probably the result of structural changes occurring in the metal. Evidence has been found for void formation and extensive crack formation during this stage.

Derivation
Drive from the fundamental the relation for deformation of a body, when it is subjected to a tensile force. Let P= Load/Force acting = length A = Cross-sectional area = Stress induced in a body = Strain defo m io You gs Modu us of e s ici y We know that:
P

According to youngs modulus of elasticity whenever a material in loaded with in elastic limit the stress is proportional to strain. or or or

= E.

Problem
A steel rod of 25mm diameter and 6m long, I extends .06mm under pull of 100 103 N. Calculate stress and strain. Data Diameter of rod = d = 25mm Length of rod = =6m=6 X 103mm Change in length = l= 0.6mm Load = P = 100 103 N Stress = = ?? Strain = = ?? Solution: For StressWe know that:

For Strain: We know that:

Problem
A steel rod 1m long and 20mm X 20 mm in cross-section is subjected to tensile force of 40kN. Determine the elongation of the rod, if modulus of elasticity for rod material is 200kN. Data = 1m= 1 x103 mm A = 400mm2 P = 40kN=40 X 103N E = 200kN = 200 X 103N l= ?? Solution We know that

Problem A load of 5kN is to be raised with the help of a steel wire. Find the maximum diameter of steel wire, if the stress is not exceeds 100kN. Data P= 5kN = 5 X 103 = 100N d=?? A=?? Solution For Area We know that:

For Diameter We know that d

A rod of 100mm long and elasticity of the material is Data = 100mm A= P = 1000N E= l= ??

Problem crossection is subjected to a pull of 1000N. If the modulus of . Determine the elongation of rod.

Solution

Problem In a experiment, a steel specimen of 13mm diameter was found to elongate 0.2mm in a 200mm gauge length, when it was subjected to a tensile force of 26.8N. If the specimen was tested within its elastic range, what is the value of young modulus of elasticity for the steel specimen?

Data d= 13mm = 0.2mm = 200mm P= 26.8N E = ?? Solution For Area d

mm We know that:

Problem A hollow steel tube 3.5m long has external diameter of 120mm. in order to determine the internal diameter, the tube was subjected to a tensile load of 400kN and extension was measured to be 2mm. If the modulus of elasticity for the material is 200kN, determine the internal diameter. Data = 3.5m = P= 400kN= D= 120mm = 2mm E = 200kN= d=??

Solution For hollow tube d We know that

----------(1) From equation (1) d or

or

Problem A hollow cylinder 2m long has an outside diameter 50mm and inside diameter 30mm. If the cylinder carrying a load of 25kN, find the deformation of the cylinder. If the value of modulus is 100kN. Data Length = 2m = Outside diameter D =50mm Inside diameter d= 30mm Load P= 25kN= E = 100kN= l= ??

Solution We know that

But Area of Hollow tube is d

mm Now stress

mm

Problem A medium carbon steel rod of 12mm diameter is tested for tensile strength with the gauge length of 60mm. following observations were recorded Final length=80mm, final diameter = 7mm, yield load = 3.4kN and ultimate load is 6.1kN. Calculate yield stress, ultimate stress, percentage of reduction in area and percentage of elongation. Data D=12mm d=7mm = 60mm = 80mm Yield Load = 3.4kN= Ultimate load = 6.1kN= Solution First of all find the initial area A0 of the rod. We know that

mm Final Area Af d

mm Yield load

Ultimate load

Area reduce in percentage We know that:

Elongation in percentage We know that:

Problem The following observations were made during tensile test on high carbon steel specimen 40mm in diameter and 200mm long elongation with 40kN (within limit of proportion elasticity) l= 0.0304mm, yield load =161kN, maximum load = 242kN, length of specimen at fracture=249mm. Determine: i. Young Modulus of elasticity ii. Yield point stress iii. Ultimate point stress iv. Percentage elongation Data l= 0.0304mm ( at 40kN) = 200mm d=40mm = 60mm = 249mm Yield Load = 161kN= Maximum Load = 242kN= Solution Young Modulus of Elasticity We know that:

 Strain

Youngs Modulus

Problem In order to evaluate various mechanical properties of steel specimen of 12.5mm in diameter and 62.5mm in gauge length was tested in a standard tension test. Following results were made during the test: yield load=40kN, maximum load=71.5kN, fracture load=50.5kN, gauge length at fracture 79.5mm, strain at load of 20kN=7.75 X 10-4. (i). yield point stress. (ii). Ultimate tensile strength. (iii). Percentage of elongation. (iv). Modulus of elasticity. (v). Modulus of toughness. (v). Fracture stress. Hint: Modulus of toughness for ductile material like steel, Alloy steel, etc. is given by: Data d=12.5mm d l=62.5mm Yield load=40kN Maximum load=71.5kN Fracture load=50.5kN Gauge length at fracture= 79.5mm at 20kN=7.75 X 10-4=7.75 X 10-4

Solution i. Yield point stress We know that

ii. Ultimate tensile stress

iii. Percentage elongation We know that:

iv. Modulus of elasticity We know that

v.

Modulus of toughness

Problem A tensile bar obtain from Ni-alloy, has a 40mmgauge length, was tested under 28200N, after applying the load, the specimen is increased to 40.80mm. Calculate the Engineering stress and engineering 250 strain, also plot the stress-strain curve. 200 Data 150 A 100 = 40mm 50 = 40.80mm P=28200N 0 =?? 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 =?? Strain Solution As we know that
Stress

Problem A tensile bar obtained from Mg super has a 40mm gauge length. The result of tensile tests are as following. Convert the load, gauge length data given below to engineering stress and engineering strain, also plot the stress-strain curve.

S. No. Load (N) 1 43100 2 86200 3 102000 4 109600 5 113800 6 121300 7 126900 8 127600 9 113800 Solution A = 100mm2 Engineering stress

Gauge length (in mm) 40.10 40.20 40.40 40.80 41.60 42.40 44.00 46.00 48.00

Engineering strain

Problem A 20mm diameter alloy steel tensile specimen has 50mm gauge length. The following results are obtained from a tensile test. Calculate engineering stress and strain. Also plot the stress-strain curve. S. No. Load (N) Gauge length (in mm) 1 14100 50.05 2 28200 50.10 3 42100 50.15 4 54700 50.20 5 65600 50.25 6 74100 50.30 7 84500 50.40 8 91700 (maximum) 50.50 9 95300 (fracture) 50.57 Solution d mm Engineering stress

Engineering strain

Offset Yield Strength In some materials stress at which the material changes from elastic to plastic behavior is not clearly detected. In this case we determine offset yield strength. We decide that a small amount of permanent deformation such as 0.2% (=0.002), might be allowable without damaging the performance of our component, we construct a line parallel to the initial portion of the stress and strain curve but offset by 0.002 from origin. The 0.2% offset yield strength in the stress at which our constructed line intersects the stress-strain curve shown in figure.

Example: determine 0.2% offset yield strength of grey cast iron. Answer: By constructing a line starting at 0.002 strain which is parallel to the elastic portion of stressstrain curve yield point at 0.2% in this way we find that the 0.2% offset yield strength is 150 Problem#14 A 12.6mm diameter tensile bar machine from a titanium alloy is inscribed with gauge length marks 50mm apart. The results of tensile test are shown below: S. No. Load (N) Gauge length (in mm) 1 6400 50.004 2 12800 50.008 3 19200 50.012 4 25600 50.016 5 27200 50.020 6 28200 50.040 7 29000 50.080 8 29400 50.120 Plot the stress-strain curve and calculate (a) Modulus of Elasticity. (b) 0.2% offset yield strength. Solution d mm

Engineering stress

Engineering strain

Problem#15 The following results were obtained in a tensile test on a high carbon steel specimen of original diameter 20mm and gauge length 40mm, loaded at limit of proportionality 80kN: extension at 80kN=0.048mm, load at yield point=85kN and maximum load=150kN. When two parts were fitted together after being broken, the length between gauge length was found to be 55.6mm and the diameter at neck was 15.8mm Calculate E, yield stress, ultimate stress, percentage elongation and percentage of area reduction. Data Diameter d=20mm Gauge length =40mm Load P (at limit of proportionality)=80kN=80 X 103N l= 0.048mm ( at 80kN) Load at yield point Py=85kN=85 X 103N Maximum load Pm=150kN=150 X 103N Length at fracture lf=55.6 Diameter at neck =15.8mm

Solution Modulus of elasticity (E) We know that

Yield stress We know that Ultimate stress

Percentage of elongation

Percentage area reduction

Problems on hardness
1. A Brinell hardness test is performed on high carbon steel specimen, using a 10mm diameter ball indenter with a load of 3000kg. A 6.4mm diameter impression was measured on ther surface of the specimen. Calculate BHN of a solid specimen. Data Load =P=3000kg Diameter of indenter D=10mm Impression of indenter d = 6.4mm BHN =? Solution

Problem A Brinell hardness test was performed on a tool steel specimen for 15sec and was found 4.9mmimpression on the surface of the specimen. Determine the hardness number of given specimen. Data P= 4000kg D=10mm d=4.9mm BHN=? Solution ( )

2. An aluminum specimen was tested on the Brinell hardness tester for 30sec, the following observations were found: Load=500kh, impression=2.7mm & diameter of indenter=5mm. Find hardness number of specimen. Data P=500kg D=5mm d=2.7mm BHN=? Solution

3. A brinell hardness test was performed on the copper specimen, the impression was found 7.2mm. Calculate hardness number of specimen Data P=500kg D=5mm d=3.2mm BHN=? Solution ( ( ) )

4. Define Brinell Hardness number and from definition show that Brinell Number BHN is given by Where diameter of steel ball is 10mm, load 3000kg and diameter of impression is d. What would be the corresponding formula for 10mm indenter and 500kg? Solution Brinell hardness number in the quotation of the load P, in kg divided by the area of the impression , if D is the Diameter of ball and d is diameter of impression respectively: For case 1 P=3000kg D=10mm

For case 2 P=500kg D=10mm (

Derivation of bearing stress/compressive stress/shear stress: A localize compressive stress at the surface of contact between two member of a machine parts, that are relatively at res, is known as bearing/crushing stress. The bearing stress is taken into account in design of rivets joints, nut bolt, and welding, etc. Example like steel structures, bridges and mobile poles/tower etc. Now let us consider a riveted joint subjected to a load P as shown figure. In such case bearing stress or crushing stress (stress at surface of contact between the rivets and plates) is Mathematically Where d=diameter of rivets t= thickness of plates n= number of rivets =Crushing stress =Shear stress Problem Two plates 16mm thick are joined by double riveted lap joint as shown figure. The rivets are 25mm in diameter. Find crushing stress induced between the plates and rivets, if maximum compressive load on joint is 48kN. Data Pc=48kN=48 X 103N t=16mm d=25mm

n=2 Solution According to formula

Problem Two plates 30mm thick joint by a double riveted lap joint, the rivets are 50mm in diameter. Find the crushing stress induced between two plates and rivets if maximum compressive load on joint is 84kN. Data Pc=84kN=84 X 103N t=30mm d=50mm n=2 Solution According to formula

Problem A wrought iron rod is under compressive load 350kN. If the permissible crushing stress for material is 52.5N/mm2. Calculate the diameter of the rod. Data Pc=350kN=350 X 103N =52.5N/mm2 d=? Solution We know that the compressive stress

Problem A straight bar of alloy steel 50mm long has its cross-sectional area is50mm2. Find magnitude of compressive load under which it decreases its length by 0.2mm. Take E for bar material 200N/mm2. Data Solution l=500mm A=500mm2 l=0.2mm E=200N/mm2 P=?

Problem Two circular rod of 50mm diameter 120kN connected by a pin of 40mm in diameter, if pull of 120kN acts at each end, find the tensile stress in the rod and shear stress in the pin. Data Diameter of rod/bar (Db)=50mm Diameter of Pin (DP)=40mm Load (P)=120kN=120 X 103N Tensile Stress (t) =? Shear stress in pin s=?

120kN

Solution Tensile stress in rod

Shear stress in pin

 Problem A pull of 80kN is transmitted bar x to bar y through a pin. If a maximum permissible tensile stress in the pin is 80N/mm2. Find diameter of bar and of pin. Data P=80kN=80 X 103N Tensile stresss= 100N/mm2 Shear stress = 80N/mm2 Diameter of pin=Dp=? Diameter of bar =Db=? Solution we know that

Diameter of Bar

Diameter of Pin Ap= Resisting area of the pin

Since load P tends to shear off the pin at two section i.e. AB and CD, therefore the pin is in double shear using the relation.

Problem A piston rod of steam engine is 50mm in diameter and 600mm long, the diameter of piston is400mm and maximum steam pressure is 0.9N/mm2. Find the compression of the piston rod, if the young modulus of elasticity for mater of piston is 210kN/mm2. Data Diameter of piston rod=d=50mm Diameter of piston = D=400mm Length of rod=l=600mm Steam pressure (stress)=0.9N/mm2 E=210kN/mm2=210 X 103N/mm2 l=? Solution First of all find the area of piston We know that

Now total load acting on piston due to steam pressure, we know that

Now also find the area of piston rod, we know that

Problem A reciprocal steam engine connecting rod is subjected to a maximum load of 65kN. Find the diameter of connection rod at is thinnest part, if permissible tensile stress is 35N/mm2. Data Load = P=65kN=65 X 103N Maximum tensile stress=35N/mm2 Diameter of rod =D=? Solution We know that

Stress and strain in bar of various sections In the last chapters, we have discussed the procedure of obtaining stresses and strains in the bar of uniform cross-sectional area, but sometimes we come across bars of varying sections in which we are required to find out the stresses and strains. The procedure for finding out the stress and strains in some sections is slightly different. Types of bars varying sections through there are so many types of bars of varying sections in the field of metallurgy and materials engineering. Let the following are important from the subject point of view; i. Bars of different sections. ii. Bars of composite materials. Now we shall study the prodedure for the stresses and strains in the above mentioned bars in the following i. Stresses in the basis of different sections: Sometimes the bars are made up of different lengths having different cross-sectional as shown in the following figure In such cases, the stress and strain and hence change in the length for each section in warred out separately as usual. The total change in length is equal to sum of the changes of all the individual length. It may be noted that each section is subjected to the same external axial pull. Let P=force acting on the body, E= youngs Modulus of elasticity for the body, 1 = length of section 1, A1= cross-sectional area of section 1, 2 & A2 are corresponding value for section 2 and so on. We know that the change length of section 1

, Similarly

and so on.

The total deformation of the bar. = 1 2 3

Note:- Sometimes the modulus of elasticity is different for different sections, in such cases the total deformation is: ( )

Problem An automobile component is subjected to a tensile load of 60kN. Determine the total elongation of the component, if its modulus of elasticity is 200kN/mm2. Refer the following figure. Data Tensile load P =160kN Length of section 1 =1=120mm Length of section 2 =2=90mm Area of section 1 = A1=100mm2 Area of section 2= A2=50mm2 E=200kN=200 X 103N =? Solution We know that the total elongation of component is ( ( ) )

Problem A rod is made from gun metal is subjected to a tensile load of 120kN. Determine the elongation of the bar, take E as 200kN. Refer the following figure. Data P=120kN 1=500mm 2=500mm A1=60mm2 A2=600mm2

Solution Problem A copper bar is subjected to tensile load of 30kN. determine elongation of bar if E is 100kN respectively. Refer the following figure Data P=30kN 1=150mm 2=200mm 3=150mm d1=35mm d2=20mm d3=35mm =? Solution We know that ( ) ( ) ( )

But we dont know about area Now area

Now elongation ( ( ) )