Hardness and Tensile Strength

1Kgf/mm2 = 9.804 N/mm2 Tensile strength and the equivalents In Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers Tensile Brinell Rockwell hardness Vickers Tensile Brinell Rockwell hardness Vickers strength hardness 100 kg 150 kg hardness strength hardness 100 kg 150 kg hardness kg/mm2 Hb Rb Rc Hv kg/mm2 Hb Rb Rc Hv 28 78 38 78 71 197 92 12 197 29 81 41 81 72 200 93 13 202 30 83 43 83 73 203 93 14 204 31 86 45 86 74 206 94 14 207 32 88 47 88 75 209 94 15 210 33 92 49 92 76 211 95 16 212 34 95 51 95 77 214 95 16 214 35 97 53 97 78 216 96 17 217 36 100 55 100 79 219 96 17 220 37 103 57 103 80 222 97 18 223 38 106 59 106 81 225 97 19 225 39 108 61 108 82 228 98 19 229 40 111 63 111 83 230 98 20 231 41 114 64 114 84 233 99 21 234 42 116 65 116 85 236 99 21 237 43 120 67 120 86 239 100 22 239 44 123 69 123 87 243 100 22 243 45 125 70 125 88 246 23 246 46 127 71 127 89 248 23 248 47 130 72 130 90 250 24 250 48 133 73 133 91 253 25 254 49 137 75 137 92 255 25 258 50 139 76 139 93 258 26 262 51 141 77 141 94 261 26 265 52 145 78 145 95 264 27 267 53 147 79 147 96 266 27 269 54 149 80 149 97 268 27 271 55 153 81 153 98 271 28 274 56 156 82 0 155 99 275 28 280 57 159 83 1 158 100 278 28 283 58 161 83 2 160 101 281 29 285 59 164 84 3 165 102 283 29 287 60 167 85 4 167 103 288 29 291 61 170 86 5 170 104 291 30 297

62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

173 175 178 181 184 187 189 191 195

87 87 88 89 89 90 91 91 92

6 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12

174 175 178 181 185 187 189 191 195

105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113

295 297 299 302 306 308 310 312 315

30 31 31 31 32 32 33 33 34

299 302 305 308 311 313 315 317 320

Tensile strength kg/mm2 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142

Rockwell Brinell Vickers hardeness hardness hardness 100 kg Hb Hv Rb 316 34 321 320 34 325 323 35 329 325 35 331 328 35 334 331 35 336 334 36 340 336 36 343 339 36 345 342 37 349 345 37 352 346 37 355 350 38 358 353 38 360 356 38 364 359 39 367 362 39 369 364 39 371 367 39 375 369 40 378 372 40 382 375 40 385 378 40 388 380 41 390 383 41 393 386 41 396 389 42 399 392 42 402 395 42 405

Rockwell Tensile Brinell hardeness Vickers hardness strength hardness 100 kg Hv 2 kg/mm Hb Rb 157 436 46 450 158 439 46 453 159 441 46 456 160 444 47 459 161 447 47 461 162 450 47 465 163 452 48 468 164 456 48 472 165 459 48 475 166 461 48 477 167 464 49 480 168 466 49 483 169 469 49 486 170 472 49 489 172 477 50 494 174 484 50 502 176 489 50 508 178 494 51 512 180 500 51 520 182 506 52 526 184 511 52 532 186 517 53 539 188 522 53 545 190 527 54 551 192 532 54 555 194 539 55 564 196 544 55 569 198 550 56 576 200 556 56 582

143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156

397 400 402 405 407 411 413 416 419 422 424 428 431 433

42 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 46

408 411 413 416 419 423 425 428 430 434 438 440 444 447

205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270

570 583 597 611 625 639 651 668 682 695 709 722 736 750

.57 58 59 60 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

597 613 629 642 661 679 695 718 736 754 771 790 812 839

SHEET METAL GAUGES

Thickness in inches and Millimetres No. 15/0 14/0 13/0 12/0 11/0 10/0 9/0 8/0 7/0 6/0 5/0 4/0 3/0 2/0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Standard wire gauge in. mm 0.500 0.464 0.432 0.400 0.372 0.348 0.324 0.300 0.276 0.252 0.232 0.212 12.700 11.786 10.973 10.160 9.449 8.839 8.230 7.620 7.010 6.401 5.893 5.385 Birmingham gauge in. mm 1.000 0.9583 0.9167 0.8750 0.8333 0.7917 0.750 0.7083 0.6666 0.625 0.5883 0.5416 0.500 0.4452 0.3964 0.3532 0.3147 0.2804 0.250 0.2225 25.4 24.34 23.28 22.22 21.17 20.11 19.05 17.99 16.93 15.88 14.94 13.76 12.70 11.31 10.07 8.971 7.993 7.122 6.350 5.652

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

0.192 0.716 0.160 0.144 0.128 0.116 0.104 0.092 0.080 0.072 0.064 0.056 0.048 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.028 0.024 0.022 0.020 0.018 0.0164 0.0148 0.0136 0.0124 0.0116 0.0108 0.0100 0.0092 0.0084 0.0076 0.0068 0.0060 0.0052 0.0048 0.0044 0.0040 0.0036 0.0032 0.0028 0.0024 0.0020

4.877 4.470 4.064 3.658 3.251 2.946 2.642 2.337 2.032 1.829 1.626 1.422 1.219 1.016 0.914 0.813 0.711 0.610 0.559 0.508 0.457 0.4166 0.3579 0.3454 0.3150 0.2946 0.2743 02540 0.2337 0.2134 0.1930 0.1727 0.1524 0.1321 0.1219 0.1118 0.1016 0.0914 0.0813 0.0711 0.0610 0.0508

0.1981 0.1764 0.1570 0.1398 0.1250 0.1113 0.0991 0.0882 0.0785 0.0699 0.0625 0.0556 0.0495 0.0440 0.0392 0.0349 0.03125 0.02782 0.02476 0.02204 0.01961 0.01745 0.015625 0.0139 0.0123 0.0110 0.0098 0.0087 0.0070 0.0069 0.0061 0.0054 0.0048 0.0043 0.00386 0.00343 0.00306 0.00272 0.00242 0.00215 0.00192 0.00170

5.032 4.481 3.988 3.551 3.175 2.827 2.517 2.250 1.994 1.775 1.588 1.412 1.257 1.118 0.9957 0.08865 0.7938 0.7066 0.6289 0.5599 0.4981 0.4432 0.3969 0.3531 0.3124 0.2794 0.2489 0.2210 0.1956 0.1753 0.1549 0.1372 0.1219 0.1092 0.09804 0.08712 0.07772 0.06909 0.06147 0.05461 0.04877 0.04318

48 49 50 51 52

0.0016 0.0012 0.0010 -

0.0406 0.0305 0.0254

0.00152 0.00135 0.00120 0.00107 0.00095

0.03861 0.03429 0.03048 0.02718 0.02413

Chemical Elements
Element Al Aluminum A powerful deoxidizer and nitride former. In small amounts, can serve as a powerful, inexpensive grain refiner ( i.e., restricts Austenitic grain growth ). Can improve toughness, especially at low temperatures. Influence

Boron

Strongly increases hardenability, by suppressing Ferrite precipitation during transformation from Austenite during heat treatment. Effective in very small amounts ( less than 0.003% B ). Also Boron reduces the brittleness of hardened steel, by having a positive influence on the transformation from Ferrite to Austenite to Martensite Structure. Especially on steels with lower carbon content (e.g. C=0.27%) that tend to transform inert, Boron strongly improves the transformation process.

Carbon

The principal element responsible for hardness in steel, due to formation of Fe 3C upon cooling through the Transformation Temperature, when Gamma Iron ( Austenite ) decomposes into Alpha Iron ( Ferrite ) + Fe3C ( Iron Carbide ). Increases tensile strength in steels. Ductility generally decreases as C increases, but in most cases this effect can be offset with proper heat treatment. Weldability decreases as C increases. Excess oxygen usage may be required to remove excess C ( takes furnace time ). Cr is a strong carbide former, and can improve wear resistance and somewhat increase resistance to softening during tempering. Improves hardenability depth. Promotes the response of steel containing Cr the effects of carburizing heat treatment. In combination with even very low P, Sn, As or Sb contents, Chromium and Ni-Cr alloy steels are particularly susceptible to "temper embrittlement" (loss of ductility when tempering or slow cooling in the range 700-1100 F). When Cr > 4%, corrosion resistance greatly improves ( Responsible for corrosion resistance in Stainless Steels ). Not readily oxidized from

Cr

Chrome

bath; requires high temperatures, increased heat time and slag volume. Cr makes steel oil and air hardenable. Mo Molybdenum Mo is a strong Carbide former and has a high effect on hardenability. Improves control of heat treatment by inhibiting formation of certain microstructures ( e.g., Pearlite ). Can improve high temperature corrosion resistance. Can improve toughness & fatique properties. Expensive. Vanadium V and Molybdenum Mo Both have influence on better toughness and have the same negative influence as Cr they are mostly used as fragility compensatory in High carbon steels like D2 or in extreme cause in 440V steel. Mn Manganese Mn extremely reduces the critical cooling temperature und increases hardenability. Yield strength, tensile strength and durability increase with increasing Mn content. Also Mn has positive impact on forging and weld ability and increases through hardening. Improves harden ability. Reduces distortion in heat treating. Permits use of milder quenching media. Improves weldability, plasticity & fatique properties. Improves toughness, especially at low temperatures. Improves corrosion resistance. Phosphor P and Sulfur S: these elements are necessary intrusions caused by metallurgic process. They are undesirable and their content should be less than 0,025 %. Phosphor P and Sulfur S: these elements are necessary intrusions caused by metallurgic process. They are undesirable and their content should be less than 0,025 %. Si is an element (like Mn) that is contained in every kind of steel since already iron ore has a certain amount. In content up to 0,5% it has positive influence on mechanical properties and helps to perform hot forming of steel. Si deoxidizes and increases durability and strongly increases elasticity. Only steel with more than 0.40% is called silicon steel. Forms extremely hard, stable carbides. Used almost exclusively in High Speed and other tool steels (requiring wear resistance and high hot hardness). Very expensive. Used in the manufacture of High Speed Tool Steel, but otherwise almost never used due to extremely high cost. Vanadium V and Molybdenum Mo Both have influence on better toughness and have the same negative influence as Cr they are mostly

Ni

Nickel

Phosphorus

Sulphur

Si

Silicon

Tungsten W

Vanadium

used as fragility compensatory in High carbon steels like D2 or in extreme cause in 440V steel. V is an effective grain refiner ( i.e., restricts Austenitic grain growth ). Strong carbide and nitride former ( improves abrasion resistance ). Improves yield strength, toughness and hot hardness. Strongly increases resistance to softening during tempering. Expensive.

Microstructure
Austenite This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high temperature. It has a Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure which can contain up to 2% carbon in solution. This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C) which can hold very little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room temperature. It can exist as either: alpha or delta ferrite. Unlike ferrite and austenite, cementite is a very hard intermetallic compound consisting of 6.7% carbon and the remainder iron, its chemical symbol is Fe3C. Cementite is very hard, but when mixed with soft ferrite layers its averidge hardness is reduced considerably. Slow cooling gives course perlite; soft easy to machine but poor toughness. Faster cooling gives very fine layers of ferrite and cementite; harder and tougher A mixture of alternate strips of ferrite and cementite in a single grain. The distance between the plates and their thickness is dependant on the cooling rate of the material; fast cooling creates thin plates that are close together and slow cooling creates a much coarser structure possessing less toughness. The name for this structure is derived from its mother of pearl appearance under a microscope. A fully pearlitic structure occurs at 0.8% Carbon. Further increases in carbon will create cementite at the grain boundaries, which will start to weaken the steel. If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C structure rapidly changes to B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the carbon to form pearlite. This results in a distorted structure that has the appearance of fine needles. There is no partial transformation associated with martensite, it either forms or it doesn't. However, only the parts of a section that cool fast enough will form martensite; in a thick section it will only form to a certain depth, and if the shape is complex it may only form in small pockets. The hardness of martensite is solely dependant on carbon content, it is normally very high, unless the carbon content is exceptionally low.

Ferrite

Cementite

Pearlite

Martensite

Hardness Test

Hardness test: A test of hardness usually by determining the resistance of the material to indentation under standard conditions. The following are established methods of hardness testing :Brinell hardness test: A test to determine hardness by pressing a hard steel ball of known diameter under a standard load into the surface of the material and measuring the diameter of the indentation produced. The Brinell hardness number, BHN = Load in kg / Spherical area of impression in sq. mm. Rockwell hardness test: Determines hardness by indicating on a dial the depth of the impression caused by a loaded indenter in the form of either a diamond cone (Scales A and C) or a hardened steel ball (Scale B). When the load is removed, the dial gauge recordes the depth of impression in terms of Rockwell numbers. Vickers pyramid hardness test: When the Brinell test is used on very hard materials, low values result owing to the spherical shape of the indenter and flatening of the ball. These are eliminated by using a square based diamond pyramid indenter which does not deform easily and gives geometrically similar impressions under various loads. The diamond pyramid with an angle between opposite faces of 136 degree is pressed under a standard load into the surface of the material, and the diagonal of the indentation produced is measured- The load divided by the contact area of impression gives the Vickers Pyramid Number. VPN = Load in kg / Pyramidal area of impression in sq. mm. ooling: Cooling a plate with water immediately following the final rolling operation. Generally the plate is water cooled from about 1400F to approximately 1100F. Ageing: A change in properties that may occur gradually at atmospheric temperatures (natural ageing) and more rapidly at higher at higher temperatures (artificial ageing). Age Hardening: The hardening of steel induced by ageing. Alloy Steel: Steel is considered to be an alloy steel when either (1) the maximum of the range given for the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of the following percentages: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60; or (2) a definite range or definite minimum quantity of those elements considered alloys is specified. For example, chromium, molybdenum and nickel. Annealing: Heating to holding at a suitable temperature, followed by cooling at a suitable rate, for such purposes as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. inducing softness improving machinability improving cold working properties obtaining a desired structure removing stresses

When applicable, the more specific terms, full annealing, isothermal annealing or sub-critical annealing could be used:1. Full annealing. Heating to and holding at some temperature above the transformation range, followed by cooling slowly by the transformation range.

2. Isothermal Annealing. Heating to and holding at some temperature above the transformation range, then cooling to and holding at a suitable temperature until the austenite to pearlite transformation is complete, and finally cooling freely. 3. Sub-Critical Annealing. Heating to and holding at some temperature below the transformation range, followed by cooling at a suitable rate. Austenitizing: The process of forming the austenite phase by heating a ferrous alloy into the transformation range (partial austenitizing above the lower critical temperature) or above this range (complete austenitizing above the upper critical temperature). Bainite: A decomposition product of austenite consisting of an aggregate of ferrite and carbide. In general, it forms at temperatures lower than those where very fine pearlite forms, and higher than those where martensite begins to form on cooling. Blue Annealing: Sub-critical annealing of bright steel during which the surface becomes oxidized to a blue temper colour by the controlled admission of air and/or steam. Blued Edges: Edges of sheet or strip which have become coloured due to slight oxidation during the heat treatment. Carbon Steel: A steel the properties of which are determined mainly by the percentage of carbon present. Chamfering: The removal of sharp edges. The term is practically synonymous with bevelling but has a less a restricted application. Cold Reduction: Reducing the thickness of steel sheet or strip to the finished gauge by heavy cold working between rolls. Cold Rolling: Passing sheet or strip at room temperature between a pair of rotating rolls. The reduction in thickness may be very bright, as in the finishing process applied to hot rolled sheets, or heavy as in the cold rolling of narrow strip. Cold Working: The operation of permanently altering the shape or dimensions of the steel, carried out at atmospheric temperature by, for example, cold rolling or cold reduction. Other methods of applying cold work are by drawing, pressing, forming, bending, swaging,etc. Corrosion Fatigue: Fatigue accelerated by simultaneous corrosion. Creep: Plastic deformation which proceeds slowly and continuously when stress is applied at elevated temperatures. In steel, creep is negligible below about 300 degree centigrade. Critical Grian Growth: A drastic enlargement of the grains when certain steels, particularly low carbon steels, are subjected to a certain small amount of cold work and then annealed at a temperature below the upper critical point. Decarburization: The loss of carbon from the surface of steel as a result of heating in a medium that reacts with the carbon. Deoxidation: A process used during melting and refining of steel to remove and/or chemically combine oxygen from the molten steel to prevent porosity in the steel when it is solidified.

Ductility: Ability to undergo cold plastic deformation usually as a result of tension. Elasticity: The property of the material by which it returns to its original dimensions after the removal of a stress. Elastic Limit: The highest stress that can be applied without producing permanent deformation. Elongation: The increase in length of a tensile test piece when stressed. The elongation at fracture is usually expressed as a percentage of the original gauze length. Etching: Treatment of prepared metal surfaces with acid or other reagents which, by differential attack, reveal the structure. Fatigue: The tendency to fracture by means of a progressive crack under repeated alternating or cyclic stresses considerably below the tensile strength. Ferrite: The room temperature form of alpha iron, one of the two major constituents of steel (cementite) in which it acts as the solvent to form solid solutions with such elements as manganese, nickel, silicon and, to a small degree, carbon. Grain Growth: A coarsening of the crystal structure under certain conditions of heating. This should not be confused with critical grain growth. Hardness: Resistance to deformation, indentation, abrasion, cutting, etc. Hardness Test: A test of hardness usually by determining the resistance of the material to indentation under standard conditions. The following are established methods of hardnesss testing :Brinell hardness test:A test to determine hardness by pressing a hard steel ball of known diameter under a standard load into the surface of the material and measuring the diameter of the indentation produced. The Brinell hardness number, BHN = Load in kg / Spherical area of impression in sq. mm. Rockwell hardness test: Determines hardness by indicating on a dial the depth of the impression caused by a loaded indenter in the form of either a diamond cone (Scales A and C) or a hardened steel ball (Scale B). When the load is removed, the dial gauge recordes the depth of impression in terms of Rockwell numbers. Vickers pyramid hardness test- When the Brinell test is used on very hard materials, low values result owing to the spherical shape of the indenter and flattening of the ball. These are eliminated by using a square based diamond pyramid indenter which does not deform easily and gives geometrically similar impressions under various loads. The diamond pyramid with an angle between opposite faces of 136 degree is pressed under a standard load into the surface of the material, and the diagonal of the indentation produced is measured- The load divided by the contact area of impression gives the Vickers Pyramid Number. VPN = Load in kg / Pyramidal area of impression in sq. mm Inclusions (Non-metallic inclusions): Particles of oxides, silicates, sulphides, refractory materials, slag, etc., embedded in the metal.

Internal Stress: Stress produced within the metal by transformation, by temperature differences on heating or cooling, or by mechanical working. Killing: Applying to finally heat treated narrow strip a small amount of cold work to prevent kinks and stretcher strains on further manipulation. Skin passing is the usual method of killing. Lamination: Separation into two or more layers due to some discontinuity in the steel, usually a layer of non-metallic inclusions. Malleability: Capacity for undergoing deformation in all directions, usually cold deformation by hammering or squeezing. Martensite: A microconstituent or structure in hardened steel, characterized by an acicular or needle-like pattern, and having the maximum hardness of any of the decomposition products of an austenite. Mild Steel: Carbon steel containing approximately 0.12 to 0.25 per cent of carbon. Mill Edge: The natural edge left when sheet or strip is rolled on the flat surfaces only. Mill Shearing: Shearing the edges of a mill pack to approximate size. Pearlite: A microconstituent of iron and steel consisting of a lamellar aggregate of ferrite and cementite (a compound of iron and carbonFe3C). Quenching & Tempering: A thermal process used to increase the hardness and strength of steel. It consists of austenitizing, then cooling at a rate sufficient to achieve partial or complete transformation to martensite. Tempering involves reheating to a temperature below the transformation range and then cooling at any rate desired. Tempering improves ductility and toughness, but reduces the quenched hardness by an amount determined by the tempering temperature and time. Pickling: The removal of scale by treatment with diluted acids or other chemicals. Roll Marks: Periodic surface marks due to some imperfection on the surface of a roll. Seam: A longitudinal surface defect similar to a roak, except that in a cross rolled sheet such a defect would run transversely. Sheared Edges: Edges resulting when a sheet or strip is either sheared or slit in rotary cutters. Sperodized Annealing: A prolonged heating of the steel in a controlled-atmosphere furnace at or near the lower critical point, followed by retarded cooling in the furnaces, to produce a lower hardness than can be obtained by regular annealing. Stress Relieving: A thermal cycle involving heating to a suitable temperature, usually 10001200F, holding long enough to reduce residual stresses from either cold deformation or thermal treatment, and then cooling slowly enough to minimize the development of new residual stresses.

Stress Relieving (Stabilising): Heating to and, if necessary, holding at, some temperature generally below the transformation range, usually followed by slow cooling, for the sole purpose of relieving internal stresses. Note:- Other treatments, eg., annealing, tempering, etc., whilst primarily applied to bring about changes in structure or properties may also relieve internal stresses. Stretcher Strains (Luder lines): A furrowed roughening of the surface of low carbon sheet or strip due to uneven yielding in the first stages of cold deformation after annealing or, in a less degree, after normalising or hot rolling. Temper: The mechanical condition of strip as controlled by heat treatment and cold rolling. For example, a strip in the finally annealed condition is 'soft temper', whilst strip subjected to heavy cold rolling as the final treatment is 'hard temper'. Between these are the intermediate tempers of which the common ones are 'skin passed', 'quarter hard' and 'half hard'. Tempering: The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation can be released by heating the steel below the A1 transformation temperature. This release of carbon from nucleated areas allows the structure to deform plastically and relive some of its internal stresses. This reduces hardness and increases toughness, but it also tends to reduce tensile strength. The degree of tempering is dependant on temperature and time; temperature having the greatest influence. Tensile Strength: The maximum load reached in a tensile test divided by the cross-sectional area of the gauge length portion of the test piece. Also termed maximum stress or ultimate tensile stress. Tolerance: The permitted deviation from a specified dimension or weight, usually expressed as 'plus' or 'minus' on that quantity. Yield Stress: The stress (load divided by original area of cross-section of a test piece) at which, in a tensile test, elongation of the test piece first occurs without increase of load.