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van Engelen, FSU Department of Computer Science, 2000-2003 Background Information and Glossary Instructions: click on the Define this term-buttons provided in the notes to obt ain a detailed description of a term.

Programming languages: Programming languages are central to Compute Science. They reflect many aspects of Computer Science in a nutshell, such as language syntax, programming lanugage semantics (meaning), applicatin of theorem proving (for type checking and infer ence), abstract and virtual machinesDefine this term, data structures, software engineering, computer architecture and hardware issues, etc. Programming languages follow simple syntactic conventions (as opposed to natural languages), see also BNFDefine this term syntax. Programming languages are comp iled into machine codeDefine this term (also known as object code) by a compiler Define this term and linkerDefine this term, or interpreted by an interpreterDef ine this term, or executed by a hybrid compiler/interpreter. Programming languages can be classified as imperativeDefine this term or declara tiveDefine this term. This classification is further subdivided as follows: declarativeDefine this term: implicit solution "what the computer should do" functionalDefine this term (e.g. LispDefine this term, SchemeDefine this term, MLDefine this term, HaskellDefine this term) logicDefine this term (e.g. PrologDefine this term) dataflowDefine this term imperativeDefine this term: explicit solution "how the computer should do it" proceduralDefine this term ("von Neumann ", e.g. FortranDefine this term, PascalDefine this term, BasicDefine this term, CDefine this term) object-orientedDefine this term (SmalltalkDefine this term, EiffelDefine this te rm, C++Define this term, C#Define this term, JavaDefine this term) Imperative programming languages: Programs written in imperative programming languages describe exactly the comput ational steps necessary for the computer to obtain a result. In contrast, declar ative languagesDefine this term allow a programming problem to be stated without certain explicit details by which the calculation should proceed. Imperative la nguages are proceduralDefine this term languages (e.g. FortranDefine this term, PascalDefine this term, BasicDefine this term, CDefine this term) and (most) ob ject-orientedDefine this term languages (SmalltalkDefine this term, EiffelDefine this term, C++Define this term, C#Define this term, JavaDefine this term). Declarative programming languages: Programs written in a declarative programming lack explicit details by which the calculation should proceed. Rather, a program is written in a style that assume s a more implicit execution ordering. Typically, recursionDefine this term is us ed in declarative programming, possibly in combination with higher-order functio nsDefine this term. Declarative languages are the functionalDefine this term lan guages (e.g. LispDefine this term, SchemeDefine this term, MLDefine this term, H askellDefine this term), logicDefine this term languages (e.g. PrologDefine thi

s term), and dataflowDefine this term languages. Functional programming languages: The underlying machinery of functional programming languages is based on Church' s lambda calculusDefine this term. The computational model is based on recursive functions and a program is considered a function thats maps inputs to outputs. Through the process of top-down refinement, a program is defined in terms of sim pler functions. Example languages in this category are LispDefine this term, SchemeDefine this t erm, MLDefine this term, and HaskellDefine this term. Functional program example (Haskell): gcd | | | a a a a b == b = a > b = gcd (a-b) b < b = gcd a (b-a)

Dataflow programming languages: Dataflow programming languages model computation as the flow of information amon g primitive functional nodes. An example of this model of computation is a sprea d-sheet program. The cells can be viewed as primitive computational units that c ommunicate with other cells to obtain values used to calculate the value display ed in the cell from a formula. Logic programming languages: Logic programming languages are declarative languages that derive results by log ical inference. PrologDefine this termfor example, is based on propositional log ic. The computational model consists of an inference process on a database to fi nd values that satisfy certain constraints and relationships. Logic program example (Prolog): gcd(A, A, A). % note: if the first two arguments are the same, the third argume nt (GCD) is A gcd(A, B, G) :- A > B, N is A-B, gcd(N, B, G). gcd(A, B, G) :- A < B, N is B-A, gcd(A, N, G). Procedural ("von Neumann") programming languages: Although object-oriented programmingDefine this term is gaining more popularity, the procedural languages are still the most familiar and successful languages. The basic mode of operation is the modification of variables which is sometimes referred to as computing via side effectsDefine this term: procedural languages are based on statements that influence subsequent computation by chaning the val ue of memory. The success of these languages can be mainly contributed to the ef ficiency of the language implementation in our current computer architectures, c alled the von Neumann computer architectures. This common architecture exhibits a central processing unit (CPU) and memory which are connected by a bus. Example procedural languages are Fortran 77Define this term, BasicDefine this te rm, PascalDefine this term, AdaDefine this term, and CDefine this term. Procedural program example (C): int gcd(int a, int b) { while (a != b) if (a > b) a = a-b; else b = b-a; return a; }

Object-oriented programming languages: Most object-oriented programming languages are closely related to the procedural languages. The fundamental difference in programming style, which is known as o bject-oriented programming OOPDefine this term), is that object-oriented languag es put objects and their interactions on the forefront rather than computation a s the operation of a processor on a monolithic memory. Each object has an intern al state and executable functions to manage that state. Example object-oriented languages are SmalltalkDefine this term, EiffelDefine th is term, C++Define this term, C#Define this term, JavaDefine this term. Safe programming languages: Strong typingDefine this term is considered the most important safety issue of a programming language as typing errors are always detected. Among other things a re the safety issues dealing with the use of a progamming language on the Inter net, such as in Java and C# which have elaborate authentication schemes. Languag es such as C and C++ are not safe, because the compiler and runtime environment cannot guarantee type safety. For example, pointer casts can be used to change t he type of the data pointed to without actually converting the data. Here is an example of a safe cast to convert an integer to a float: int n = 5; float f = (float)n; This is an example of an unsafe cast, which is prohibited in type-safe languages : int n = 5; float *fp = (float*)&n; Such casts, whether explicit as above or implicit, can lead to disaster. Type-sa fe languages usually do not support pointer arithmetic to prevent accessing data of the ''wrong'' type. Strong typing: In a strongly typed programming language typing errors are always detected. The detection can be at compile time or at run time. A strongly typed language is co nsidered more safe, because it prevents operations from being applied to the wro ng type of object which can cause unintended modifications to the state of the p rogram. For example, AdaDefine this term, JavaDefine this term, and HaskellDefin e this term are strongly typed languages. CDefine this term and C++Define this t erm are not, e.g. because void pointers can point to any type of object that can be manipulated, see the example inDefine this term. PascalDefine this term is " almost" strongly typed. The exception is the use of a variant record (union) wit hout discriminator. The variant record can hold alternative types of objects dur ing the execution of a program. Relocatable: When machine code is relocatable in memory it means that the code can be moved f rom one location to another to make room for new or modified routines in memory. Relative addressing is used in the code and/or the absolute addresses in the co de are converted before the code is executed. This conversion can take place dur ing the loading of an executable program in memory by a loaderDefine this term. Machine code or object code: Machine code (also known as object code) consists of machine-specific operations

expressed in binary code. A central processing unit (CPU) of a computer execute s the binary machine code which is typically fetched from the main memory of a m achine. An executable program consists of object code which contains a sequence of machine instructions. An executable program is loaded (sometimes with a loade rDefine this term and/or by an operating system (OS)) into main memory for execu tion. See also assembly languageDefine this term Assembly is translated into mac hine code (object code) by an assemblerDefine this term. Assembler: Translator of assemblyDefine this term programs (mnemonic instructions) to machi ne code (or object code). Assembly language and machine/object code: An assembly language is a processor-specific language that uses mnemonic abbrevi ations to define low-level machine instructions. The mnemonic abbreviations are translated into machine code (also called object code) by an assemblerDefine thi s term. The abbreviations usually consist of the name for the instruction followed by op erands which are register names such as 'sp' (stack pointer) and 'a0' (address r egister 0), memory references such as 'A' (local label) and 'putint' (function l abel), and memory offsets such as '20(sp)' (20 bytes/words from the location poi nted to be the stack pointer ). Example MIPS assembly program to compute GCD (from textbook page 1): addiu sw jal nop jal sw lw move beq slt beq nop b subu subu bne slt jal nop lw addiu jr move sp,sp,-32 ra,20(sp) getint getint v0,28(sp) a0,28(sp) v1,v0 a0,v0,D at,v1,a0 at,zero,B C a0,a0,v1 v1,v1,a0 a0,v1,A at,v1,a0 putint ra,20(sp) sp,sp,32 ra v0,zero

A:

B: C: D:

Example MIPS R4000 machine code of the above assembly program (from textbook pag e 1): 27bdffd0 00401825 00641823 03e00008 afbf0014 0c1002a8 00000000 0c1002a8 afa2001c 8fa4001c 10820008 0064082a 10200003 00000000 10000002 00832023 1483fffa 0064082a 0c1002b2 00000000 8fbf0014 27bd0020 00001025

Structured programming: Considered a revolution in programming in the 70s (much like object-oriented pro gramming in the late 80s and early 90s). A programming technique that emphasizes top-down design, modularization of code (large routines are broken down into sm aller, modular, routines), structured types (eg. records, sets, pointers, and mu lti-dimensional arrays), descriptive variable and constant names, and extensive commenting conventions. The use of the GOTO statement is discouraged to avoid sp aghetti code (code that exhibits a criss-cross control flow behavior at run-time ). Certain programming statements are indented in order to make loops and other program logic easier to follow. Structured languages, such as PascalDefine this term and AdaDefine this term, fo rce the programmer to write a structured program. However, unstructured language s such as Fortran 77Define this term, CobolDefine this term, and BasicDefine thi s term require discipline on the part of the programmer to follow. Here is an example of a non-structured program in CDefine this term that counts the number of goto's in a file whose filename is given as an argument on the com mand line. This program can be used to measure the "spaghettiness" of a C progra m: #include <stdio.h> #include <malloc.h> main(togo,toog) int togo; char *toog[]; {char *ogto, tgoo[80];FILE *ogot; int oogt=0, ootg, otog=79, ottg=1;if ( togo== ottg) goto gogo; goto goog; ggot: if ( fgets( tgoo, otog, ogot)) goto gtgo; goto gott; gtot: exit(); ogtg: ++oogt; goto ogoo; togg: if ( ootg > 0) goto oggt; goto ggot; ogog: if ( !ogot) goto gogo; goto ggto; gtto: printf( "%d goto \'s\n", oogt); goto gtot; oggt: if ( !memcmp( ogto, "goto", 4)) goto otgg; goto gooo; gogo: exit( ottg); tggo: ootg= strlen(tgoo); goto tgog; oogo: --ootg; goto togg; gooo: ++ogto; goto oogo; gott: fclose( ogot); goto gtto; otgg: ogto= ogto +3; goto ogtg; tgog: ootg-=4;goto togg; gtgo: ogto= tgoo; goto tggo; ogoo: ootg-=3;goto gooo; goog: ogot= fopen( toog[ ottg], "r"); goto ogog; ggto: ogto= tgoo; goto ggot;} Fortran and Basic programs developed in the early days of computing were difficu lt to read and understand, somewhat similar to this example in terms of the choi ce in variable names (limit 6 characters in Fortran and 2 in Basic) and the freq uent use of goto. Block structured language: A language that supports the local declaration of variables with a limited scope Define this term in a block or compound statement. For example, the following C fragment declares a temporary integer variable n to be used in the loop to copy a file from standard input to standard output: { } Variable n has a local scopeDefine this term limited to the block and it's value is only accessible within the block. In C, C++, Java, and C#, a block is opened with { and closed with }. Pascal and int n; while ((n = getchar()) != EOF) putchar(n);

Ada use begin and end keywords to delimit a block. The use of blocks is so common today that we don't tend to think of it as someth ing special. Object-oriented programming (OOP): Object-oriented programming OOP is a programming style that puts objects and the ir interactions on the forefront rather than computation as the operation of a p rocessor on a monolithic memory. Each object has an internal state and executabl e functions to manage that state. This programming style is naturally adopted in object-oriented programmingDefine this term languages but can also be adopted i n proceduralDefine this term or functionalDefine this term languages. In fact, m ost object oriented languages were designed as an extension of a procedural lang uage (e.g. C++ and object-oriented Pascal dialects) and the concept of a class i s largely based on the concept of an abstract data typeDefine this term. Abstract data type (ADT): The concept of an ADT is based on encapsulating data and a set of operations on the data. An ADT declaration is in some respect similar to a class declaration i n an object-oriented programming language, except that the abstract data type is typically declared in a module. Like a class, an abstract data type has an inte rnal state and a set of operations on its state. However, the state is global, i .e. only one "instance" exists at any one time. InheritanceDefine this term is n ot supported. The following Modula-2 example stack abstraction is from the textbook page 124: CONST stack_size = ... TYPE element = ... ... MODULE stack; IMPORT element, stack_size; EXPORT push, pop; TYPE stack_index = [1..stack_size]; VAR s : ARRAY stack_index OF element; top : stack_index; PROCEDURE error; ... PROCEDURE push (elem : element); BEGIN IF top = stack_size THEN error; ELSE s[top] := elem; top := top + 1; END; END push; PROCEDURE pop () : element BEGIN IF top = 1 THEN error; ELSE top := top - 1; RETURN s[top]; END; END pop;

BEGIN top := 1; END stack; Class: The concept of a class extends the notion of abstract data typesDefine this term (ADTs) with inheritanceDefine this term. ADTs are limited to packages that enca psulate a data type declaration with a set of operations. The following is an example stack template class in C++: template <class element> class stack { private: int top; element[] s; public: stack(int size) { s = new element[size]; top = 0; }; ~stack() { delete[] s; }; void push(element elem) { s[top++] = elem; }; void pop(void) { top--; }; element top(void) { return s[top-1]; }; }; Inheritance: A classDefine this term inherits structure and properties from a base class. Som e object oriented languages support multiple inheritance. Single inheritance is simpler to implement and avoids possible ambiguity problems caused by multiple i nheritance. Therefore, newer languages such as Java and C# support single inheri tance. Ada (Ada 83): History's largest design effort is the development of the Ada language, primarel y based on the design of PascalDefine this term. Over 40 organizations outside D oD with over 200 participants collaborated (and competed with different designs) in the final design of Ada. Originally intended to be the standard language for all software commissioned by the US Department of Defense. Prototypes designed by teams at several sites; final '83 language developed by a team at Honeywell's Systems and Research Center in Minneapolis and Alsys Corp. in France, led by Je an Ichbiah. Example program in Ada: with TEXT_IO; use TEXT_IO; procedure AVEX is package INT_IO is new INTEGER_IO (INTEGER); use INT_IO; type INT_LIST_TYPE is array (1..99) of INTEGER; INT_LIST : INT_LIST_TYPE; LIST_LEN, SUM, AVERAGE : INTEGER; begin SUM := 0;

-- read the length of the input list GET (LIST_LEN); if (LIST_LEN > 0) and (LIST_LEN < 100) then -- read the input into an array for COUNTER := 1 .. LIST_LEN loop GET (INT_LIST(COUNTER)); SUM := SUM + INT_LIST(COUNTER); end loop; -- compute the average AVERAGE := SUM / LIST_LEN; -- write the input values > average for counter := 1 .. LIST_LEN loop if (INT_LIST(COUNTER) > AVERAGE) then PUT (INT_LIST(COUNTER)); NEW_LINE; end if end loop; else PUT_LINE ("Error in input list length"); end if; end AVEX; Ada 95: Ada 95 is a revision developed under government contract by a team at Intermetri cs, Inc. It fixes several subtle problems in the earlier language, and adds obje cts, shared-memory synchronization, and several other features. Algol 60: The original block-structuredDefine this term language. The design of Algol 60 i s a landmark of clarity and conciseness and made a first use of Backus-Naur form (BNF)Define this term for formally defining the grammar. All subsequent imperat ive programming languages are based on Algol 60, and these languages are sometim es referred to as "Algol-like" languages. Strangely, it lacks input/output state ments and has no character set. Algol 60 never gained wide acceptance in the US, partly because of the intrenchment of Fortran and lack of support by IBM. Besid es block-structures, Algol 60 has recursionDefine this term and stack-dynamic ar raysDefine this term. Example Algol 60 program: comment avex program begin integer array intlist [1:99]; integer listlen, counter, sum, average; sum := 0; comment read the length of the input list readint (listlen); if (listlen > 0) L (listlen < 100) then begin comment read the input into an array for counter := 1 step 1 until listlen do begin readint (intlist[counter]); sum := sum + intlist[counter] end; comment compute the average average := sum / listlen; comment write the input values > average for counter := 1 step 1 until listlen do if intlist[counter] > average then printint (intlist[counter])

end else printstring ("Error in input list length") end Algol 68: Introduced user defined types with an attempt to design a language that is ortho gonal: a few primitive types and structures can be combined to form new types an d structures. The languages also added new programming constructs to Algol 60 wh ich were already available in other languages. Unfortunately, the Algol 68 docum entation was unreadable and Algol 68 never gained widespread acceptance. Include s (among other things) structures and unions, expression-based syntax, reference parameters, a reference model of variables, and concurrency. Algol W: A smaller, simpler alternative to Algol 68Define this term, proposed by Niklaus Wirth and C. A. R. Hoare. The precursor to PascalDefine this term. Introduced th e case statement. APL: A functional language designed by Kenneth Iverson in the late 1950's and early 1 960's, primarily for the manipulation of numeric arrays. Extremely concise langu age with a powerful set of operators. It employs an extended character set to ex press operators with special symbols. Intended for interactive use ``throw away programming'' (quick programming of a solution that is not intended to be kept: hard to understand the programming solution later!). Example APL program: (2=(+/[2]0=(iN.|(iN)))/iN This program computes prime numbers in the range 1 to N. BASIC: BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Set) is a simple imperative l anguage that gained popularity because of its ease of use and its interpreted ex ecution, despite the fact that the early versions lacked many language features found in modern languages (e.g. procedures). Many dialects exists. The most wide ly used version of BASIC today is Microsoft's Visual Basic. The structure of pro grams written in early Basic dialects resemble the structure of Fortran programs with similar limitations. Example QuickBasic program: REM avex program DIM intlist(99) sum = 0 REM read the length of the input list INPUT listlen IF listlen > 0 AND listlen < 100 THEN REM read the input into an array FOR counter = 1 TO listlen INPUT intlist(counter) sum = sum + intlist(counter) NEXT counter REM compute the average average = sum / listlen REM write the input values > average FOR counter = 1 TO listlen IF intlist(counter) > average THEN PRINT intlist(counter); NEXT counter

ELSE PRINT "Error in input list length" END IF END C: C is one of the most successful imperative languages that was originally defined as part of the development of the UNIX operating system. It is still considered a system's programming language for which certain features such as pointers and the absence of dynamic semantic checks (e.g. array bound checking) are very use ful to manipulate memory. Two notably different version of C exist: the original K&R (Kernighan and Ritchie) version and ANSI C. Example program in C: main() { int intlist[99], listlen, counter, sum, average; sum = 0; /* read the length of the list */ scanf("%d", &listlen); if (listlen > 0 && listlen < 100) { /* read the input into an array */ for (counter = 0; counter < listlen; counter++) { scanf("%d", &intlist[counter]); sum += intlist[counter]; } /* compute the average */ average = sum / listlen; /* write the input values > average */ for (counter = 0; counter < listlen; counter++) if (intlist[counter] > average) printf("%d\n", intlist[counter]); } else printf("Error in input list length\n"); } C++: The most successful of several object-oriented successors of C. It is a large an fairly complex language, in part because it supports both procedural and object -oriented programming. The Standard Template Library (STL) is an important libra ry with common compound data types and operations. main() { std::vector<int> intlist; int listlen; /* read the length of the list */ std::cin >> listlen; if (listlen > 0 && listlen < 100) { int sum = 0; /* read the input into an STL vector */ for (int counter = 0; counter < listlen; counter++) { int value; std::cin >> value; intlist.push_back(value); sum += value; } /* compute the average */ int average = sum / listlen; /* write the input values > average */

for (std::vector<int>::const_iterator it = intlist.begin(); it != intlis t.end(); ++it) if ((*it) > average) std::cout << (*it) << std::endl; } else std::cerr << "Error in input list length" << std::endl; } C#: Pronounced ``C sharp''. A language developed by Microsoft that is very similar t o JavaDefine this term. C# is part of Microsoft's VisualStudio.NET, a developmen t environmentDefine this term for Internet-based computing. C# uses the Common L anuage Runtime (CLR) to manage objects that can be shared among different langu ages (C#, VisualBasic, C++, Haskell). Objects can be exchanged over the Web and remote methods can be invoked using SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol). COBOL: COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) was for long the most widely used prog ramming language in the world. COBOL is intended primarely for business data pro cessing with elaborate input/output facilities. It supports extensive numerical formatting features and decimal number storage format. COBOL introduced the conc ept of records and nested selection statements. Still the most widely used progr amming language for business applications on mainframes and minis. Originally de veloped by the Department of Defense. The language is very wordy and adopts Engl ish names for arithmetic operators. A COBOL program is structured into the follo wing divisions: Division name IDENTIFICATION ENVIRONMENT DATA PROCEDURE Contains Program identification. Types of computers used. Buffers, constants, work areas. The processing parts (program logic).

Example COBOL program to convert Fahrenheit to Celcius: IDENTIFICATION DIVISION. PROGRAM-ID. EXAMPLE. ENVIRONMENT DIVISION. CONFIGURATION SECTION. SOURCE-COMPUTER. IBM-370. OBJECT-COMPUTER. IBM-370. DATA DIVISION. WORKING-STORAGE SECTION. 77 FAHR PICTURE 999. 77 CENT PICTURE 999. PROCEDURE DIVISION. DISPLAY 'Enter Fahrenheit ' UPON CONSOLE. ACCEPT FAHR FROM CONSOLE. COMPUTE CENT = (FAHR- 32) * 5 / 9. DISPLAY 'Celsius is ' CENT UPON CONSOLE. GOBACK. CLOS: The Common Lisp Object System is a set of object-oriented extensions to Common L isp, now incorporated into the ANSI standard language (see Common LispDefine thi

s term). The leading notation for object-oriented functional programming. Eiffel: An object-oriented language developed by Bertrand Meyer and associates at the So ciete des Outils du Logiciela Paris. Includes (among other things) multiple inhe ritanceDefine this term, automatic garbage collectionDefine this term, and power ful mechanisms for re-naming of data members and methods in derived classes. Euclid: Imperative language developed by Butler Lampson and associates at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in the mid 1970's. Designed to eliminate many of the sourc es of common programming errors in PascalDefine this term, and to facilitate for mal verification of programs. Has closed scopes and module types. Fortran (I, II, IV, 77): The first high-level programming language was Fortran (I) (FORmula TRANslator), developed in the mid-50s. It had a dramatic impact on computing in early days wh en most of the programming took place in machine code or assembly code for an as semblerDefine this term. It was originally designed to express mathematical form ulas. Fortran 77 is still widely used for scientific, engineering, and numerical problems, mainly because very good compilers exist. These compilers are very ef fective in optimizing code, because of the maturity of the compilers and due to the lack of pointers and recursionDefine this term in Fortran 77. Fortran 77 has limited type checking and lacks records, unions, dynamic allocation, case-state ments, and while-loops. Variable names are upper case and the name length is lim ited to 6 characters. Fortran 77 is not structuredDefine this term and not objec t-orientedDefine this term. More recent Fortran dialects such as Fortran 90Defin e this term are better structured and support modern programming constructs. Example Fortran 77 program: PROGRAM AVEX INTEGER INTLST(99) variable names that start with I,J,K,L,N,M are integers ISUM = 0 read the length of the list READ (*, *) LSTLEN IF ((LSTLEN .GT. 0) .AND. (LSTLEN .LT. 100)) THEN read the input in an array DO 100 ICTR = 1, LSTLEN READ (*, *) INTLST(ICTR) ISUM = ISUM + INTLST(ICTR) CONTINUE compute the average IAVE = ISUM / LSTLEN write the input values > average DO 110 ICTR = 1, LSTLEN IF (INTLST(ICTR) .GT. IAVE) THEN WRITE (*, *) INTLST(ICTR) END IF CONTINUE ELSE WRITE (*, *) 'ERROR IN LIST LENGTH' END IF END

C C C

100 C C

110

Fortran (90, 95, HPF): Fortran 90 is a major revision of the language. RecursionDefine this term, point ers, records, dynamic allocation, a module facility, and new control flow constr ucts are added. Also array operations are added that operate on arrays and array slices. Array operations on distributed arrays in HPF can be parallelized.

Example Fortran 90 program: PROGRAM AVEX INTEGER INT_LIST(1:99) INTEGER LIST_LEN, COUNTER, AVERAGE read the length of the list READ (*, *) LISTLEN IF ((LIST_LEN > 0) .AND. (LIST_LEN < 100)) THEN read the input in an array DO COUNTER = 1, LIST_LEN READ (*, *) INT_LIST(COUNTER) END DO compute the average AVERAGE = SUM(INT_LIST(1:LIST_LEN)) / LIST_LEN write the input values > average DO COUNTER = 1, LIST_LEN IF (INT_LIST(COUNTER) > AVERAGE) THEN WRITE (*, *) INT_LIST(1:LIST_LEN) END IF END DO ELSE WRITE (*, *) 'ERROR IN LIST LENGTH' END IF END

C C

C C

Haskell: Haskell is the currently leading functional programming language. Descended from MirandaDefine this term. Designed by a committee of researchers beginning in 19 87. Includes curried functions, higher-order functionsDefine this term, non-stri ct semantics, static polymorphic typing, pattern matching, list comprehensions, modules, monadic I/O, and layout (indentation)-based syntactic grouping. Example Haskell program: sum [] = 0 sum (a:x) = a + sum x avex [] = [] avex (a:x) = [n | n <- a:x, n > sum (a:x) / length (a:x)] Java: Java is an object-oriented language based largely on C++, developed at SUN Micro systems. The language is intended for the construction of highly portable, machi ne-independent programs. Includes (among other things) a reference model of (cla ss-typed) variables, mix-in inheritanceDefine this term, threads, and extensive pre-defined libraries for graphics, communication, etc. Heavily used for transmi ssion of program fragments, called applets, over the Internet. The language is d esigned to be translated into intermediate Java byte code that can be transmitte d over the Internet. Java byte code is executed by the Java virtual machine (JVM )Define this term or compiled into native machine code by a just-in-time (JIT) c ompilerDefine this term. Java is a safe languageDefine this term. Example Java program: import java.io; class Avex { public static void main(String args[]) throws IOException { DataInputStream in = new DataInputStream(System.in); int listlen, counter, sum = 0, average;

int [] intlist = int[100]; // read the length of the list listlen = Integer.parseInt(in.readLine()); if (listlen > 0 && listlen < 100) { // read the input into an array for (counter = 0; counter < listlen; counter++) { intlist[counter] = Integer.valueOf(in.readline()).intValue(); sum += intlist[counter]; } // compute the average average = sum / listlen; // write the input values > average for (counter = 0; counter < listlen; counter++) { if (intlist[counter] > average) System.out.println(intlist[counter] + "\n"); } } else System.out.println("Error in input length\n"); } } Lisp: Lisp (LISt Processing language) was developed by McCarthy as a realization of Ch urch's lambda calculusDefine this term. Many dialects exists, among which Common Lisp and SchemeDefine this term are the most popular. Lisp is the dominant lang uage used in Artificial Intelligence. The emphasis is on symbolic computation ra ther than numeric. Lisp is very powerful for symbolic computation with lists and Lisp often used in artificial intelligence. As a functional languageDefine this term, all control is performed by recursionDefine this term and conditional exp ressions. Lisp was the first language with implicit memory management (automatic allocate and deallocate) by "garbage collection"Define this term. Lisp heavily influenced functional programming languages (e.g. MLDefine this term, MirandaDef ine this term, HaskellDefine this term) Miranda: A purely functional language designed by David Turner in the mid 1980's. Resembl es MLDefine this term in several respects; has type inference and automatic curr ying. Unlike ML, provides list comprehensions, and uses lazy evaluation for all arguments. Like HaskellDefine this term, it uses indentation and line breaks for syntactic grouping. ML: A functional language with "Pascal-like" syntax. Originally designed in the mid to late 1970's by Robin Milner and associates at the University of Edinburgh as the meta-language for a program verification system. Pioneered aggressive compil e-time type inference and polymorphism. ML has a few imperative features. Modula-2: The immediate successors to Pascal, developed by Niklaus Wirth. The original Mod ula was an explicitly concurrent monitor-based language. Modula-2 was originally designed with coroutinesDefine this term, but no real concurrency. Both languag es provide mechanisms for module-as-manager style data abstractions. Modula-3: A major extension to Modula-2Define this term developed by Luca Cardelli, Jim Do nahue, Mick Jordan, Bill Kalsow, and Greg Nelson at the Digital Systems Research Center and the Olivetti Research Center in the late 1980's. Intended to provide a level of support for large, reliable, and maintainable systems comparable to

that of AdaDefine this term, but in a simpler and more elegant form. Oberon: A deliberately minimal language designed by Niklaus Wirth. Essentially a subset of Modula-2Define this term, augmented with a mechanism for type extension. Pascal: A high-level programming language designed by Swiss professor Niklaus Wirth (Wir th is pronounced "Virt") in the late 60s and named after the French mathematicia n, Blaise Pascal. It was designed largely in reaction to Algol 68Define this te rm, which was widely perceived as bloated. It is noted for its structured progra mmingDefine this term and was heavily used in the 70s and 80s, particularly for teaching. Pascal has had strong influence on subsequent high-level languages, su ch as AdaDefine this term, MLDefine this term, Modula-2Define this term and Modu la-3Define this term. Example Pascal program: program avex(input, output); type intlisttype = array [1..99] of integer; var intlist : intlisttype; listlen, counter, sum, average : integer; begin sum := 0; (* read the length of the input list *) readln(listlen); if ((listlen > 0) and (listlen < 100)) then begin (* read the input into an array *) for counter := 1 to listlen do begin readln(intlist[counter]); sum := sum + intlist[counter] end; (* compute the average *) average := sum / listlen; (* write the input values > average *) for counter := 1 to listlen do if (intlist[counter] > average) then writeln(intlist[counter]) end else writeln('Error in input list length') end. PL/I: Developed by IBM and intended to displace FortranDefine this term, COBOLDefine t his term, and AlgolDefine this term. Very complicated and poorly designed langua ge that is kept alive by IBM. The first language that adopted exception handling Define this term and pointer types. Example PL/I program: AVEX: PROCEDURE OPTIONS (MAIN); DECLARE INTLIST (1:99) FIXED; DECLARE (LISTLEN, COUNTER, SUM, AVERAGE) FIXED; SUM = 0;

/* read the input list length */ GET LIST (LISTLEN); IF (LISTLEN > 0) & (LISTLEN < 100) THEN DO; /* read the input into an array */ DO COUNTER = 1 TO LISTLEN; GET LIST (INTLIST(COUNTER)); SUM = SUM + INTLIST(COUNTER); END; /* compute the average */ AVERAGE = SUM / LISTLEN; /* write the input values > average */ DO COUNTER = 1 TO LISTLEN; IF INTLIST(COUNTER) > AVERAGE THEN PUT LIST (INTLIST(COUNTER)); END; ELSE PUT SKIP LIST ('ERROR IN INPUT LIST LENGTH'); END AVEX; Prolog: Prolog is the most polular logic programming language. Most Prolog systems are c onforming to the ISO Prolog standard, but deviations make it hard to write Prolo g programs that are portable between different Prolog systems. The language is b ased on formal logic and it can be summarized as an intelligent database system that uses an inferencing process to infer the truth of given queries. Example Prolog program: avex(IntList, GreaterThanAveList) :sum(IntList, Sum), length(IntList, ListLen), Average is Sum / ListLen, filtergreater(IntList, Average, GreaterThanAveList). % sum(+IntList, -Sum) % recursively sums integers of IntList sum([Int | IntList], Sum) :sum(IntList, ListSum), Sum is Int + ListSum. sum([], 0). % filtergreater(+IntList, +Int, -GreaterThanIntList) % recursively remove integers smaller or equal to Int from IntList filtergreater([AnInt | IntList], Int, [AnInt | GreaterThanIntList]) :AnInt > Int, !, filtergreater(IntList, Int, GreaterThanIntList). filtergreater([AnInt | IntList], Int, GreaterThanIntList) :filtergreater(IntList, Int, GreaterThanIntList). filtergreater([], Int, []). The following example illustrates a more "traditional" use of Prolog to infer in formation from a database of facts: rainy(rochester). rainy(seattle). cold(rochester). snowy(X) :- rainy(X), cold(X). % % % % fact: fact: fact: rule: rochester is rainy seattle is rainy rochester is cold X is snowy if X is rainy and cold

With this program loaded, we can query the system interactively:

?- rainy(X). X = rochester X = seattle ?- snowy(X). X = rochester

% user question % system answer(s)

Scheme: Scheme is one of the most popular dialects of LispDefine this term. Developed in the mid 1970's by Guy Steele and Gerald Sussman. Standardized by the IEEE and A NSI. Has static scoping and true first-class functions. Scheme is widely used fo r teaching. Example Scheme program: (DEFINE (avex lis) (filtergreater lis (/ (sum lis) (length lis))) ) (DEFINE (sum lis) (COND ((NULL? lis) 0) (ELSE (+ (CAR lis) (sum (CDR lis)))) ) ) (DEFINE (filtergreater (COND ((NULL? lis) ((> (CAR lis) num) (ELSE ) ) lis num) '()) (CONS (CAR lis) (filtergreater (CDR lis) num))) (filtergreater (CDR lis) num)

Simula 67: Designed at the Norwegian Computing Centre, Oslo, in the mid 1960's by Ole-Johan Dahl, Bjorn Myhrhaug, and Kristen Nygaard. Extends Algol 60Define this term wit h classes and coroutinesDefine this term. The name of the language reflects its suitability for discrete-event simulation Smalltalk-80: The first full implementation of an object-oriented language is still considered the quintessential object-oriented language. Developed at Xerox PARC pioneered the use of graphical user interfaces. Example Smalltalk-80 program: class name superclass instance variable names "Class methods" "Create an instance" new ^ super new "Instance methods" "Initialize" initialize intlist <- Array new: 0 Avex Object intlist

"Add int to list" add: n | oldintlist | oldintlist <- intlist. intlist <- Array new: intlist size + 1. intlist <- replaceFrom: 1 to: intlist size with: oldintlist. ^ intlist at: intlist size put: n "Calculate average" average | sum | sum <- 0. 1 to: intlist size do: [:index | sum <- sum + intlist at: index]. ^ sum // intlist size "Filter greater than average" filtergreater: n | oldintlist i | oldintlist <- intlist. i <- 1. 1 to: oldintlist size do: [:index | (oldintlist at: index) > n ifTrue: [oldintlist at: i put: (oldintlist at: index)]] intlist <- Array new: oldintlist size. intlist replaceFrom: 1 to: oldintlist size with: oldintlist Example Smalltalk-80 session: av av av 1 av 2 av 3 av av 3 <- Avex new initialize add: 1 add: 2 add: 3 filtergreater: av average at: 1

Lambda calculus: A very simple algebraic model of computation designed byAlonzo Church in the 60s . In its pure form, everything is a function (even primitive types such as numbe rs and compound data structures such as lists). While the syntax and the rewrite rules of lambda calculus are very primitive, it has been shown that lambda calc ulus provides a theoretical model of computation. This model is actually easier to program than a Turing machine, the other well-known model of computation. Lis pDefine this term is a direct realization of lambda calculus as a programming la nguage. A lambda expression is recursively defined as * a name which is treated as a symbolic constant or function name * a variable * a lambda abstraction which is essentially a nameless function written as l var . lambda-expression, where var is a variable denoting the formal argument ( input value) and lambda-expression is the body of the function (the return value ) * a function application written as adjacent lambda expressions * a parenthesized lambda expression

Only two rewrite rules on lambda expressions are necessary to model universal co mputation: alpha reduction and beta reduction. The difference between a name and a variable becomes clear in the context in which they are used. A variable is u sed in a lambda abstraction to represent the input parameter, while a name is `` inert'', i.e. it has no value other than the name itself. Some examples: f a denotes the application of a function symbol f to an argument a. l v . v is a lambda abstraction that denotes the identity function: argument v t akes a value and the function returns the (unchanged) value. The application of this function to an expression a, for example, is written (l v . v) a and this e valuates to a (argument v takes a and the function returns the value of v). l v. f v is a lambda abstraction that, when applied to a value, applies f to it. For example, (lv. f v) a results in f a. l f. f a is a lambda abstraction that, when applied to a function name, applies this function to a. For example, (l f. f a) g results in g a. Coroutines: A routine that runs concurrently with other coroutines. Coroutines do not necess arily run in parallel. A coroutine can temporarily relinguish control to another coroutine without involving the subroutine calling mechanism. That is, control in a coroutine can jump to another coroutine and back, possibly multiple times d uring the lifetime of a coroutine. Therefore, it appears as if the coroutines ar e operating concurrently. Garbage collection: A routine that searches memory for program segments or data that are no longer a ctive or used in order to reclaim that space. It tries to make as much memory av ailable on the heapDefine this term as possible. Implicit garbage collection ope rates on the background of a running program to clean up unused heap space. Heap: An area in memory for the dynamic creation of data during the lifetime of a prog ram. The heap contains application data that is not static or stack-allocatedDef ine this term. Stack: A lifo (last in first out) structure to hold temporary data. The implementation of a programming language requires at least one stack data structure for subrout ine calling (and object oriented method invocation) in languages that support re cursion. The stack holds the return address of the caller of a subroutine and th e parameters passed to the subroutine. Local stack-allocated data for the subrou tine is also pushed on the stack. Regular expression: Regular expressions describe the tokensDefine this term of a programming languag e. A regular expression is one of * * * * s * repetition: a regular expression followed by a star * means that the regul ar expression is repeated zero, one, or more times a character empty (denoted e) concatenation: sequence of regular expressions denoting a concatenation alternation: regular expressions separated by a bar | are alternative form

For example, the regular expression describing an identifier in C/C++ is: identifier -> letter (letter | digit)* digit -> 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 letter -> | s | t | | | S | T | | a u A U _ | | | | b v B V | | | | c w C W | | | | d x D X | | | | e y E Y | | | | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r z F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R Z

For compiler design, tools exist that generate efficient scannersDefine this ter m automatically from regular expressions (e.g. flex). BNF: Backus-Naur Form (BNF) is a form of context-free grammar frequently used to desc ribe a programming language syntax. * BNF grammar productions are of the form <nonterminal> -> sequence of (non)terminals * and give a description of the syntax for the nonterminal A terminalDefine this termof a grammar is a tokenDefine this term e.g. specific programming langu age keyword or identifier * A <nonterminal>Define this termdenotes a syntactic category, e.g. a colle ction of program statements. For example, an assignment statement * <stmt> -> <id> := <expr> The symbol | (bar) denotes alternative forms in a production, e.g. different program statements are catagorized. For example: * <stmt> -> return | break | <id> := <expression> The special symbol e denot es empty, and is often used in optional constructs. For example: <optional_static> -> static | e * Extended BNF includes an explicit form for optional constructs with [ and ]. For example: * <stmt> -> for <id> := <expr> to <expr> [ step <expr> ] do <stmt> Extended BNF includes a repetition construct * (star). For example: <decl> -> int <id> (, <id>)* LL grammar: An LL grammar is a grammar suitable for top-down parsing. If it is not possible to write a recursive descent parser for a grammar, it is not LL(1). An LL(n) gra mmar is a grammar suitable for top-down parsing using n lookahead tokens. An LL grammar cannot have left-recursive productionsDefine this term, because a recursive descent parser would recursively call itself forever without consuming any input characters. The following grammar is not LL(1) <A> -> <B> <C>

<A> -> a <B> -> a b <B> -> b <C> -> c It is not LL(1) because the subroutine for nonterminal A cannot decide which pro duction to use when it sees an a on the input: proc A if next_token="a" ?? cannot decide whether the first or second production for <A> applies here ?? The grammar is LL(2), because the token after next token can be used to determin e which production should be applied: proc A if next_token="a" and token_after_next_token="b" B() C() else if next_token="b" B() C() else match("a"); LR grammar: A LR grammar is a grammar suitable for bottom-up parsing. A LR(n) grammar is a g rammar suitable for bottom-up parsing using n lookeahead tokens. The class of LR grammars includes the class of LL grammars. Ambiguous grammar: A grammar is ambiguous if a string exists that has more than one distinct deriva tion resulting in distinct parse trees. See also ambiguous if-then-elseDefine th is term. The grammar for simple expressions below is ambiguous: <expression> -> | | | | identifier unsigned_integer - <expression> ( <expression> ) <expression> <operator> <expression>

<operator> -> + | - | * | / because we find two distinct (left-most) derivations for the string a-b+1: <expression> => <expression> <operator> <expression> => <expression> <operator> <expression> <operator> <expression> => identifier <operator> <expression> <operator> <expression> => identifier - <expression> <operator> <expression> => identifier - identifier <operator> <expression> => identifier - identifier + <expression> => identifier - identifier + unsigned_integer (a) (b) + (1)

and <expression> => <expression> <operator> <expression> => identifier <operator> <expression> => identifier - <expression> => identifier - <expression> <operator> <expression> => identifier - identifier <operator> <expression> => identifier - identifier + <expression> => identifier - identifier + unsigned_integer (a) (b) + (1) The simple expression grammar below is unambiguous: <expression> -> <term> | <expression> <add_op> <term> <term> -> <factor> | <term> <mult_op> <factor> <factor> -> identifier | unsigned_integer | - <factor> | ( <expression> ) <add_op> -> + | <mult_op> -> * | / We find only one derivation for all strings in the language defined by the gramm ar. For example, the left-most derivation of a-b+1 is: <expression> => <expression> <add_op> <term> => <expression> <add_op> <term> <add_op> <term> => <term> <add_op> <term> <add_op> <term> => <factor> <add_op> <term> <add_op> <term> => identifier <add_op> <term> <add_op> <term> => identifier - <term> <add_op> <term> => identifier - <factor> <add_op> <term> => identifier - identifier <add_op> <term> => identifier - identifier + <term> => identifier - identifier + <factor> => identifier - identifier + unsigned_integer (a) (b) + (1) Ambiguous if-then-else: A problem with the if-then-else grammar for Pascal and C is the formulation of u nambiguous grammar productions for if-then-else. The grammar below is ambiguous <stmt> -> if <expr> then <stmt> | if <expr> then <stmt> else <stmt> because we find two distinct derivations of the string if C1 then if C2 then S1 else S2 (where C1 and C2 are some expressions, S1 and S2 are some statements): <stmt> => if <expr> then <stmt> => if <expr> then if <expr> then <stmt> else <stmt>

and another derivation <stmt> => if <expr> then <stmt> else <stmt> => if <expr> then if <expr> then <stmt> else <stmt> An anuambiguous grammar for if-then-else is (you don't need to memorize this): <stmt> -> <balanced_stmt> | <unbalanced_stmt> <balanced_stmt> -> if <expr> then <balanced_stmt> else <balanced_stmt> | <other_stmt> <unbalanced_stmt> -> if <expr> then | if <expr> then <balanced_stmt> else <unbalanced_stmt> which is an LR grammarDefine this term, but not an LL grammarDefine this term an d no pure top-down parserDefine this term can be used to parse program fragments with the unambiguous if-then-else grammar. Attribute grammar: A grammar augmented with attributes for terminals and nonterminals and semantic rulesDefine this term that operate on the attribute values. Semantic rule: A rule with a grammar production that is used to operate on the values of the at tributes of terminals and nonterminals in the grammar. Example grammar production <number1> -> <number2> <digit> <number> -> <digit> <digit> -> 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 semantic rule number1.value := 10*number2.value + digit.value number.value := digit.value digit.value := 0 digit.value := 1 digit.value := 2 digit.value := 3 digit.value := 4 digit.value := 5 digit.value := 6 digit.value := 7 digit.value := 8 digit.value := 9

In this example, the nonterminals <number> and <digit> have an attribute 'value' that holds the value of the numeric representation defined by the grammar. When the semantic rules are applied on the syntactic representation of the input, th e rules compute the value of the input. When the values computed are used to che ck the validity of the input, then the semantic rules are used to enforce semant ic checksDefine this term. Note: the nonterminal <number> has subscripts in the first production to distinguish the nonterminal on the left hand side and right hand side of the production. Semantic checks:Show slide Static semantic checksDefine this term are performed by the compiler at compile time. Dynamic semantic checksDefine this termare performed at run time. A compil er cannot always ensure that certain constraints on programming constructs are m

et at compile time, for example, whether the index value of an array is out of b ounds. A compiler may generate run time checks in the target code to enforce the se constraints at run time. Static semantic checks: Static semantic checks performed by a compiler at compile time is applied to ens ure that variables are declared before used, variables are typed correctly in ex pressions, labels have targets, etc. Dynamic semantic checks: A compiler may generate run time checks in the target code to enforce programmin g language specific onstraints on programming constructs at run time. An interpr eter or virtual machine may enforce constraints immediately while executing an i ntruction. Exceptions are raised when an error is detected. Tokens: Tokens are the indivisible units a scannerDefine this term of a compiler produce s for further analysis by the parser. Example tokens are programming language ke ywords, operators, identifiers, numbers, and punctuation. Tokens are also called terminalsDefine this term in the context of grammarsDefine this term. Terminals: A terminal of a grammar of a programming language is a tokenDefine this term, e. g. a keyword or operator. Nonterminals: A nonterminal of a grammar denotes a syntactic category of a language. For examp le, a programming language statement as a syntactic category can be one of many alternative statements. Production: BNFDefine this term grammar productions are of the form <nonterminal> -> sequence of (non)terminals Productions provide descriptions of the syntax for a syntactic category denoted by a nonterminal. A production is immediately left recursive if it is of the form <A> -> <A> ... and a production is immediately right recursive if it is of the form <A> -> ... <A> where <A> is some nonterminal. Productions can be left or right recursive through other productions. For exampl e <A> -> <B> ... <B> -> <A> ... Derivation: Parse tree: A parse tree depicts a derivationDefine this term as a tree: the nodes are the n

onterminalsDefine this term, the children of a node are the symbols (terminals a nd nonterminals) of a right-hand side of a productionDefine this term for the no nterminal at the node, and the leaves are the terminalsDefine this term. Given the grammar <id_list> -> identifier <id_list_tail> <id_list_tail> -> , identifier <id_list_tail> | ; The parse tree of "A,B,C;" is Parser tree example Abstract syntax tree (AST): Associative: An operator is left associative if the operations are performed from the left to the right in an expression. Similarly, an operator is right associative if the operations are performed from the right to the left in an expression. For exampl e, addition is left associative and in the expression 1 + 2 + 3 the numbers 1 an d 2 are added first, after which 3 is added. Note that for the addition of numbe rs the associativity of + does not matter as the terms can be reordered in a for mal system. However, limited numeric precision in a computer restricts this reor dering and an overflow may occur when the terms are reordered. Also, if the term s are functions with side effectsDefine this term the result would be different after reordering. Arithmetic operators in a programming language are typically l eft associative with the notable exception of exponentiation (^) which is right associative. However, this rule of thumb is not universal. Associativity can be captured in a grammar. For a left associative binary operat or op we have a production of the form <expr> -> <term> | <expr> op <term> and for a right associative operator <op> we have a production of the form <expr> -> <term> | <term> op <expr> Note that the production for a left associative operator is left recursiveDefine this term and therefore has to be rewritten for a recursive descent parser: <expr> -> <term> <more_terms> <more_terms> -> op <term> <more_terms> | e Precedence: The precedence of an operator indicates the priority of applying the operator re lative to other operators. For example, multiplication has a higher precedence t han addition, so a+b*c is evaluated by multiplying b and c first, after which a is added. That is, multiplication groups more tightly compared to addition. The rules of operator precedence vary from one programming language to another. The relative precedences between operators can be captured in a grammar. A nonte rminal is introduced for every group of operators with identical precedence. The nonterminal of the group of operators with lowest precedence is the nonterminal for the expression as a whole. Productions for (left associative) binary operat ors with lowest to highest precedences are written of the form

<expr> -> <expr1> | <expr> <lowest_op> <expr1> <expr1> -> <expr2> | <expr1> <one_but_lowest_op> <expr2> ... <expr9> -> <term> | <expr9> <highest_op> <term> <term> -> identifier | number | - <term> | ( <expr> ) where <lowest_op> is a nonterminal denoting all operators with the same lowest p recedence, etc. Scanner: A scanner of a compilerDefine this term breaks up the character stream of a sour ce program into tokensDefine this term. The process of scanning comprises the le xical analysis phase of a compiler. The purpose of scanning is to simplify the t ask of the parser of the compiler. Comments and white space are removed, keyword s are recognized and represented as tokensDefine this term, identifers for names of variables and functions are stored in a symbol table and tagged with source file and line numbers. Example scanner written in Java: import java.io.*; public class Scanner { public static void main(String argv[]) throws IOException { FileInputStream stream = new FileInputStream(argv[0]); InputStreamReader reader = new InputStreamReader(stream); StreamTokenizer tokens = new StreamTokenizer(reader); int next = 0; while ((next = tokens.nextToken()) != tokens.TT_EOF) { switch (next) { case tokens.TT_WORD: System.out.println("WORD: " + tokens.sval); break; case tokens.TT_NUMBER: System.out.println("NUMBER: " + tokens.nval); break; default: switch ((char)next) { case '"': System.out.println("STRING: " + tokens.sval); break; case '\'': System.out.println("CHAR: " + tokens.sval); break; default: System.out.println("PUNCT: " + (char)next); } } } stream.close(); } } Get Java source. Save it with file name "Scanner.java", compile it with "javac S canner.java", and run it with "Scanner Scanner.java", where the scanner is appli ed to itself.

Parser: A parser of a compiler builds a parse treeDefine this term representation of a s tream of tokensDefine this term. The grammar of a programming language defines t he parse tree structure produced by a parser given a syntactically valid program fragment. Top-down parser: Also called a predictive parser. This type of parser proceeds building a parse t ree from the root down. An example top-down parser is a recursive descent parser Define this term. Bottom-up parser: This type of parser proceeds building a parse tree from the bottom up. Recursive descent parser: A top-down parserDefine this term based on recursive functions. Consider for example, the following LL(1) grammar <expr> -> <term> <term_tail> <term_tail> -> <add_op> <term> <term_tail> | e <term> -> <factor> <factor_tail> <factor_tail> -> <mult_op> <factor> <factor_tail> | e <factor> -> ( <expr> ) | - <factor> | identifier | unsigned_integer <add_op> -> + | <mult_op> -> * | / For this LL(1) grammar a recursive descent parser in Java is: import java.io.*; public class CalcParser { private static StreamTokenizer tokens; private static int ahead; public static void main(String argv[]) throws IOException { InputStreamReader reader = new InputStreamReader(System.in); tokens = new StreamTokenizer(reader); tokens.ordinaryChar('.'); tokens.ordinaryChar('-'); tokens.ordinaryChar('/'); get(); expr(); if (ahead == (int)'$') System.out.println("Syntax ok"); else System.out.println("Syntax error"); } private static void get() throws IOException { ahead = tokens.nextToken(); } private static void expr() throws IOException { term(); term_tail(); } private static void term_tail() throws IOException

{ if (ahead == (int)'+' || ahead == (int)'-') { add_op(); term(); term_tail(); } } private static void term() throws IOException { factor(); factor_tail(); } private static void factor_tail() throws IOException { if (ahead == (int)'*' || ahead == (int)'/') { mult_op(); factor(); factor_tail(); } } private static void factor() throws IOException { if (ahead == (int)'(') { get(); expr(); if (ahead == (int)')') get(); else System.out.println("closing ) expected"); } else if (ahead == (int)'-') { get(); factor(); } else if (ahead == tokens.TT_WORD) get(); else if (ahead == tokens.TT_NUMBER) get(); else System.out.println("factor expected"); } private static void add_op() throws IOException { if (ahead == (int)'+' || ahead == (int)'-') get(); } private static void mult_op() throws IOException { if (ahead == (int)'*' || ahead == (int)'/') get(); } } Get Java source.This parser does not construct a parse tree but verifies if a st ring terminated with a $ is an expression. A recursive descent parser to evaluate simple expressions: Get Java source To run the example, save the source with file name "Calc.java", compile it with "javac Calc.java" and run it with "java Calc". A recursive descent parser to translate simple expressions into Lisp expressions : Get Java source of the CalcAST class Get Java source of the AST class To run the example, save the CalcAST class source with file name "Calc.java", sa ve the AST class source with file name "AST.java", compile it with "javac AST.ja

va CalcAST.java" and run it with "java CalcAST". Compiler: A compiler translates source programs into assembly codeDefine this term, machin e code, or code for a virtual machineDefine this term. Just-in-time compiler: A translator of intermediate code (e.g. for a virtual machineDefine this term) i nto machine code for a particular platform. The translation is done just before the program is executed. Just-in-time compilers are available for many types of machines to translate Java byte code into native machine code. Virtual machine: A virtual machine (VM) executes machine instructions in softwar e. The Java Virtual Machine is an abstract computing machine. Like a real comput ing machine, it has an instruction set and uses various memory areas. It is reas onably common to implement a programming language using a virtual machine; the b est-known virtual machine may be the P-Code machine of UCSD Pascal. For more information about the Java Virtual Machine, see the Java Virtual Machin e Specification. Interpreter: An interpreter is a virtual machine for a high-level language. Loader: Because the memory addressing in older systems was typically flat, a loader was required to place a binary executable program in memory. The loader modified the absolute addresses used for jumps and static data within a program to reflect t he change in addressing by the placement of the code at a particular address in memory. Linker: A linker merges object codesDefine this term and static library routines togethe r to produce a binary executable program. Preprocessor: A preprocessor applies macro expansionDefine this term to a source program. In C and C++ for example, #define macros are expanded and header files are incuded i n the source for the first phase of compiler analysis (lexical analysis by the s canner). Macro: A definition of a name for a text fragment. Macro expansion is a repeated proves s that replaces the occurrences of macro names in a text with the textual conten t of the macro. Exception: Function: Procedure: Formal parameter: A formal parameter is an parameter declared with a subroutine definition. It is an identifier refering to the value of an actual parameterDefine this term when the subroutine is called. For example, in the C program fragment main(int argc, char argv[])

{ ... } both argc and argv are formal parameters in main's definition. Also known as dummy arguments in Fortran. Actual parameter: A value or reference to an object which is passed to a function or procedure. Scope: Static scope: Dynamic Scope: Exceptions and exception handling: Inheritance: Software development environment: An integrated software development environment (IDE) offers a source code editor , compiler, linker, and debugger. Side effect: A side effect is an intentional y to affect the global state of r of a function across multiple at solely depends on the values fect free.

modification of the value of a location in memor the machine. Side effects can change the behavio function calls. Functions that return a value th of the parameters passed to it is called side-ef

Example of a function with a side effect: sum = 0; int accumulate(int value) { sum += value; return sum; }

Referentially transparent: A referentially transparent expression is composed of side-effect free function s and operators. No side-effects may occur in the evaluation of the expression. As a result, the expression evaluates to a value that is solely depending on the values of the variables used in the expression. Example of a non-referentially transparent expression (where 'accumulate' and 's um' are defined inDefine this term) is: accumulate(2) + sum This expression uses a function with a side effect. The value of this expression is undetermined in C and C++, because these languages allow different operator evaluation orders, which means that the value of 'sum' may or may not have been updated through the 'accumulate' call. Recursion:

Higher-order function: Functions that take other functions as input parameters or return newly construc ted functions.