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Control Valves
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By H. L. Miller
T he definition of a heavy duty control valve is examined and cavitation damage occur. These solutions only marginally
through the undesirable effects of the process medium prolong the time at which failure will take place.
on a valve improperly applied to the service. A solution for The cause of the undesirable effects is excessive fluid velocity
these undesirable effects is to control the velocity of the that occurs as the pressure reduction takes place in the control
fluid as its pressure is reduced across the valve. A means valve. The velocity must be controlled for all valve settings.
of velocity control is presented and typical applications and One of the first methods of controlling velocity was to place
examples are discussed. a cage around the plug. This transferred the higher velocites
from the plug/seat interface to multiple orifices in the cage.
As higher pressure drop was encountered multiple, concentric
Introduction
cages were added. The principle of operation is still to achieve
The use of the label “heavy duty control valves” results in pressure reduction in steps by contraction through an orifice
many different visions and definitons for the valves to be without smooth downstream recovery. A superior method is
discussed. Each of these visions is generally dictated by an to continously control the velocity by dividing the fluid stream
experience with a troublesome valve application. into multiple but discrete flow passages and to dissipate the
energy continously via turbulence.
An understanding of why the valve selected is not
performing satisfactorily is not always known and, in many A multiple discrete passage method is shown by Figure 1. Each
cases, is accepted as the norm. Although each industry disk has many parallel flow paths and many disks are stacked
may have a different definition of a heavy and severe duty to form the valve trim. Each disk’s flow passages are opened as
valve, there are some generaliztions that can be made. These a plug moves across the opening in the center of the disk stack.
are valves that are characterized by erratic control, noise, Each path is made tortuous by forcing the fluid to make right-
mechanical vibration, cavitiation, erosion, and short life. angle turns. The pressure drop thus is achieved by a reduction
of a velocity head, ρv2/2g, for each right-angle turn. Test results
When the above conditions exist, the pressure ratio across
indicate a higher multiple than one velocity head is achieved for
the valve is usally greater than three, that is, the absolute
each turn. The fluid velocity through each of the flow paths is
inlet pressure exeeds three times the downstream pressure.
controlled by the number of paths selected. Additional velocity
The pressure level is frequently greater than 70 Kg/cm 2
control can be achieved by varying the flow area within each
(1,000 psi), although there are many cases in which valve
flow path. This is illustrated in Figure 2, where the outlet
life is shortened due to internal damage at lower pressures.
area, A2, is greater than the inlet area, A1, with a continually
Temperature of the flowing fluid is also an important variable increasing flow area between inlet and outlet.
in the valve’s duty. If the flowing fluid is liquid, it is important
to consider the fluid’s temperature and whether the pressure
drop within the valve passes through the vapor pressure of the
fluid. When there is sufficient heat in the fluid, a vapor change
can take place leading to internal valve damage via cavitation
and/or erosion. In additon to the fluid phase change problem,
absolute temperature level can have signficant influence on
the design. The influence is associated with material strength
and expansion characteristics with temperature. Materials
and design must be such that expansion does not over-stress
components and particular attention must be paid to
expansion of parts during thermal transients. As a rule,
temperature above 300C (600F) require accomodations in the
design to minimize thermal expansion effects.
Figure 1—Punched Disk Stack
2 Heavy Duty Control Valves | 229 ©2000 CCI. All rights reserved.
Any valve using multiple orifice trim will cause this problem, due
to the uncontrolled velocities in the area of each vena contracta.
As the fluid moves out of the throat of the valve, pressure recovery
begins as kinetic energy is converted back to potential. Full
recovery to downstream pressure is indicated at P3 and velocity at
V3. When the recovery pressure exceeds the fluid’s vapor pressure,
Pv, collapse or implosion of the just-formed bubbles takes place,
resulting in cavitation damage. The energy released here causes
local surface stresses greater than 700 MPa (100,000 psi) which
can consume even stellited valve trim rapidly.
Figure 2
VALVE
The damaging effects of velocity are thus controlled in two ways. Inlet Outlet
Inlet P1
The first, by dividng the flow into many small streams of low
Pressure Pressure VVC vc = Vena Contracta
mass flow rate and secondly, by forcing the fluid through a series
of right-angle turns to effect the pressure drop steps.
©2000 CCI. All rights reserved. 229 | Heavy Duty Control Valves 3
Because of the ability to completely control the velocity, it is of excessive fluid velocities acting either perpendicularly or axially on
practical to let the velocity increase by using a constant area the plug. By controlling these velocities to acceptable levels during the
passage when the pressure is considerably above the vapor pressure reduction and throttling function, the vibrations and erratic
pressure. Then, as the pressure reduces, convert to an expanding control that may result are eliminated.
passage so that the velocity will drop and the local pressure be
From the above discussion, it is seen that, if needed, almost
maintained comfortably above the vapor formation pressure.
any velocity can be achieved with the multi-path turns concept.
Another example of the need to control velocity is for cases Variables that can be varied are:
in which erosion damage occurs as a result of liquid droplets
1. Number of passages per disk.
entrained in the fluid vapor. The formation of the liquid can
be avoided by maintaining the expansion of the fluid above the 2. Number of disks.
saturation curve as shown in Figure 6. The low pressure and high 3. Flow area of each passage.
velocity inherent in flow through a conventional or multi-orificed
trim, allows the fluid to expand polytropically from P1 to P3. At P3, 4. Amount of expansion of the flow passage.
with velocity at its peak, droplets are formed which will rapidly 5. Number of turns per flow passage.
erode valve trim and cause impingement damage to the valve
6. The resistance, flow impedance, across each disk may change
body. Pressure recovery is completed in the valve outlet at P2
with stroke so as to characterize the flow versus stroke
with the fluid in a superheated phase. In contrast, velocity control
performance of the valve.
elements operating at a low velocity allow the fluid to expand
in an isenthalpic manner. Thus the moisture droplets are not With such a side range of variability, designs could be made that
formed during the throttling across the velocity controlling trim. would achieve velocities that exactly follow the specific volume
expansion of a fluid as the pressure decreased.
Control Sensitivity
Most of the above discussion has dealt with the problems that result
in physical damage to the valve hardware. There are cases in which
the control valve performs without noise and vibration, but still has
a significant impact on the processs. This would occur where the
process requires a very fine control of the flow rate, or pressure,
and small deviations are magnified. One solution is to solve the
problem with multiple valves in which one valve, the smallest, acts
as a trimming control in parallel with larger valves which carry the
major load changes. The principle of operation in this case is that a
relatively large change in the position of the small valve plug results
in only a small change in the combined affect of all the parallel
valves. As control systems improve in their ability to provide an
accurate and discrete signal, the possibility exists that the multi-valve
approach may not be required. Much depends upon the ability of
the valve actuation and position system. Even though these systems
have improved over the years, special care must be exercised to
achieve a 1% resolution of the valve stem position. In most cases a
2% resolution of position results, which is many times larger than
the accuracy of the control signal.
Figure 6
With the velocity control valve concept it is still possible to be
In some valve applications, it is necessary to maintain very low able to do the job with one valve for many applications. Thus the
velocities. Such an example would be a pump test loop application, process control system would not need the extra control logic nor
where it is very important that the control valve not impose extra valves to utilize a multi-parallel valve system. The approach
vibration and control instability prints upon the pump characteristics is achieved with a highly characterized trim whereby, at certain
being measured. Vibrations/transitions are caused and maintained by positions of the valve stroke, a 1% change in stroke would result
unbalanced forces acting on the valve plug. These forces are the result in less than a 1% change in the flow rate.
4 Heavy Duty Control Valves | 229 ©2000 CCI. All rights reserved.
To illustrate the above principle of characterization, consider
a valve in which control of the process pressure upstream of
the valve is required. Downstream of the valve the pressure is
essentially constant because a large receiver, tank or atmosphere,
is used for discharge. Then any change in valve position will
change the upstream pressure and flow rate throughout the
valve. Such an application is quite common, especially in process
start-up systems.
1
Figure 7
©2000 CCI. All rights reserved. 229 | Heavy Duty Control Valves 5
The aerodynamic noise generated in a gas or steam valve is the The most logical and economical way of dealing with control valve
noise associated with moving of turbulent compressible fluid and noise is to treat it at the source. This is accomplished through
interaction of the moving compressible fluids with solid boundaries. two mechanisms: frequency shift and velocity control. Small passage
design greatly increases the frequency of the noise over that found in
At subsonic flow speeds, noise is created by one or more of
conventional or large passage designs. It has been found through testing
three basic types of aerodynamic sources: monopole, dipole
that the greatest portion of the noise energy generated in a disk stack
and quadrupole. The aerodynamic monopole is like a pulsating
is well above the frequency range sensitive to human hearing. This
sphere where the acoustic pressure waves are always in phase.
high-frequency noise is easily attenuated by the pipe wall and does not
Typical monopole sources are pulse jets, sirens, or propellers at
contribute to the “A” weighted total sound level. Velocity is another
zero pitch. The dimensional relation of radiated sound power
major contributing factor to noise generation in a valve as is clearly
and the parameters that product it are:
seen in the sound power and velocity relationships disccussed earlier.
For aerodynamic dipole and quadrupole, which are the major noise
4 generating mechanisms in control valves, the sound power increases as
the sixth to eight power of velocity. Therefore, in dealing with control
Note from the above relationship that the radiated sound power valve noise the most effective way is velocity control. The velocity
varies as the fourth power of velocity. control trims can be custom designed to meet the noise requirement
The aerodynamic dipole is two monpoles pulsing 180 degrees at virtually any pressure ratio and flow capacity. And, since the fluid
out of phase with each other. This type of radiation occurs when velocity is maintained well below sonic at all points in the trim, there is
a fluid interacts with a solid body to produce unsteady forces. no need for any downstream diffusers, insulations, or silencers.
Typical of dipole sources are compressors, fluid flowing past grids
or rods, flow through valves, and flow in pipes or ducts. The TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
dimensional dependence on radiated sound power is:
As discussed at the beginning of the paper, a definition of heavy
duty control valves is best recognized from the problems encountered.
5
Parameters to be considered for predicting that a special valve is
needed were absolute pressure level, pressure ratio, noise requirements,
Note from the above relationship that the radiated sound power temperature level and control. These parameters are present in one form
varies as the sixth power of velocity. or another in the many applications that are listed in Table 1. New
The aerodynamic quadrupole is two dipoles pulsing in opposing applications arise as designers increase pressures and temperatures in
pairs. This type of radiation is typical of high speed jets mixing their processes to increase efficiency or to commercialize new processes.
with still media in the absence of obstacles. The dimensional In the latter case there will be much activity in the future in coal
dependence on radiated sound power is: gasification/liquification and heavy crude refining processes, as we learn
to expand our known energy resources.
6
NOMENCLATURE
Note from the above relationship that the radiated sound power ρ Density of Fluid
varies as the eighth power of velocity. V Velocity of Fluid
At sonic speed flow, or choked flow, the noise generation is based g Gravitational Contact
on two noise producing mechanisms. The first mechanism is
A Flow Area
the turbulent mixing process downstream from the device. The
P Pressure
mechanism is associated with quadrupole radiation. The second
mechanism results from the interaction between the turbulence W Flow
and the complex flow field that forms downstream from the Wam Radiated Sound Power, Monopole
device. This mechanism is called “shock noise” and is not
Wad Radiated Sound Power, Dipole
associated with the three basic source types. For pressure ratios
less than three across the conventional valves, both mechanisms Waq Radiated Sound Power Quadrupole
must be considered. With pressure ratios greater than three, the Cv Valve Sizing Coefficient
shock noise mechanism predominates and the turbulent mixing
dPPressure drop
mechanism may be neglected. In valves with velocity control trim,
δ Change
sonic conditions and their related noise mechanisms are avoided.
C Speed of Sound in Fluid
6 Heavy Duty Control Valves | 229 ©2000 CCI. All rights reserved.
TABLE 1
Velocity Control Applications
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Process Applications
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©2000 CCI. All rights reserved. 229 | Heavy Duty Control Valves 7