JAPANESE GARDEN DESIGN PRINCIPLES

On the path toward a successful garden Design Principles There are certain intrinsic principles that one needs to grasp to successfully capture the spirit of the Japanese garden. Most importantly, nature is the ideal that you must strive for. You can idealize it, even symbolize it, but you must never create something that nature itself cannot. For example, you would never find a square pond in the wild, so do not put one in your garden. You may certainly use a waterfall, but not a fountain. Another key point to remember is balance, or sumi. You are always trying to create a large landscape even in the smallest of spaces. While that nine-ton boulder looks right at home in the six-acre stroll garden, what effect does it have on a ten by ten courtyard? It would have all the grace and subtlety of a horse in a closet. Choose your components carefully. Rocks can represent whole mountains, pools become lakes. A small stretch of raked sand can become an entire ocean. The phrase Less is more was surely first spoken by a garden master. The elements of time and space One of the first things that occur to western eyes viewing a Japanese garden is the emptiness of portions of the garden. This is unsettling to gardeners accustomed to filling every space in the garden for a riot of color, but it is a key element in the design of Japanese gardens. This space, or ma, defines the elements around it, and is also defined by the elements surrounding it. It is the true spirit of in and yo, that which many of us know by the Chinese words yin and yang. Without nothing, you cannot have something. This is a difficult point to grasp, but it is a central tenet of Japanese gardening. Another key point to ponder is the concept of wabi and sabi. Like so many Japanese words, there is no single translation. Wabi can denote something one-of-a-kind, or the spirit of something; the closest we can come to a literal translation is solitary. Sabi defines time or the ideal image of something; the closest definition might be patina. While a cement lantern may be one of a kind, it lacks that ideal image. A rock can be old and covered with lichens, but if it is just a round boulder it has no wabi. We must strive to find that balance. Both the concepts of ma and wabi/sabi deal with time and space. Where the garden is our space, time is ably presented by the changing seasons. Unlike the western gardener (who deserts the garden in fall, not to be seen again in spring) the Japanese garden devotee visits and appreciates the garden in all the seasons. In spring one revels in the bright green of new buds and the blossoms of the azaleas. In summer you appreciate the contrasts of the lush foliage painted against the cool shadows and the splash of koi in the pond. Fall wrests the brilliant colors from dying leaves as they slip into the deathly hush of winter, the garden buried under a shroud of snow. Winters is as much a garden season in Japan as spring. The Japanese refer to snow piled on the branches of trees as sekku, or snow blossoms, and there is a lantern
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known as yukimi that is named the snow viewing lantern. Even this season that represents the death of the garden is a vital one for our Japanese gardener, while our western gardener sulks until spring. Perhaps it is the eastern acceptance of death as a necessary component of the life cycle (or is it the western fear of dying?) that separates the two gardeners. Garden Enclosures Another concept inherent in every Japanese garden is enclosure. As we noted, the garden is to become a microcosm of nature. For the garden to be a true retreat, we must first seal it away from the outside world. Once it is enclosed, we must create a method (and a mindset) to enter and leave our microcosm. Fences and gates are as important to the Japanese garden as lanterns and maples. As with most things associated with the garden the fence and gates have deep symbolic meaning as well as specific function. We are encouraged to view the garden as a separate world in which we have no worries or concerns. The fence insulates us from the outside world and the gate is the threshold where we both discard our worldly cares and then prepare ourselves to once again face the world. The fence is also a tool to enhance yet another concept, miegakure, or hide and reveal. Many of the fence styles offer only the merest of visual screens, and will be supplemented with a screen planting, offering just the ghostly hints of the garden behind. Sometimes a designer will cut a small window in a solid wall to present the passerby with a tantalizing glimpse of what lies beyond. You can be certain that you will only see a sliver of what lies beyond. Even if we enter the house to view the garden we may well encounter sode-gaki, or sleeve fences. This is a fence that attaches to an architectural structure, be it a house or another fence, to screen a specific view. To view the garden as a whole one must enter it and become one with the garden. This is the final step in the true appreciation of the garden, to lose oneself in it until time and self have no meaning. The Basic Designs The Japanese garden is not truly a singular type despite the fact that certain rules apply to every garden. The gardens differ by setting and by use. There are three basic styles. Hill and Pond (Chisen-Kaiyu-skiki) The hill and pond garden is the basic style brought over from China. A pond fronts a hill (or hills). The pond can be an actual pond or represented by raked gravel. This style always denotes a mountain area and usually uses plants indigenous to the mountains. Stroll gardens are always hill and pond. Flat Garden (Hiraniwa) The flat style stems from the use of open, flat spaces in front of temples and palaces for ceremonies. These are often done in the karesansui style. This is a very Zen style (good for contemplation) and is representative of a seashore area (using the appropriate plants) Courtyards are always flat style gardens. Tea Gardens (Rojiniwa) The design of the tea garden is the only time that function overrides form. The Roji (dewy path) is the focus of the garden along with the water basin and the gates. This
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is the exception to the rule. Plantings should be simple to the point of sparse. Always strive for a rustic feeling. Formality is also a design consideration Another consideration is the formality of the garden. Hill and pond and flat styles can be shin (formal), gyo (intermediate) or so (informal). Formal styles were most often found at temples or palaces, the intermediate styles were appropriate for most residences, and the informal style was relegated to peasant huts and mountain retreats. The tea garden is always in the informal style. Garden Components Rock (Ishi) Rocks are the bones of the Japanese garden. If you have properly placed your stones in the garden, the rest of the garden will lay itself out for you. The Sakuteiki laid out hundreds of specific stone groupings, each with a specific meaning. These hold little importance today. It is more important for our purposes to know the basic stones and some of the general rules for stone setting. The basic stones are the tall vertical stone, the low vertical stone, the arched stone, the reclining stone, and the horizontal stone. These stones are usually set in triads but this not always the case. Two similar stones (e.g., two tall verticals or two reclining stones), one just slightly smaller than the other, can be set together as male and female, but we usually use threes, fives, and sevens. We must avoid the Three Bad Stones. These are the Diseased stone (withered or misshapen top), the Dead stone (a stone that is obviously a vertical used as a horizontal, or vice versa, like propping up a dead body), and the Pauper Stone (one which has no relation to the other stones in the garden). Use only one stone of each of the basic types in any group (the remainder to be smaller, insignificant stones known as throwaway stones). Stones can be used as sculpture, set against a background in a two-dimensional manner, or given a function, such as a stepping stone or a bridge. When setting stepping stones they should be between one and three inches above the soil, yet solid underfoot, as if rooted into the ground. They can be set in straight lines, offset for left foot, right foot (known as chidori or plover, after the tracks the shore bird leaves), or set in groups of twos, threes, fours, or fives (and any combination thereof). The pathway is symbolic of the journey through life, and even specific stones in the path may have meaning. A much wider stone set across the path tells us to put two feet here, stopping to take in the view. There are many other stones for specific places too numerous to mention. If we simply observe the basic design principles, we can capture the true spirit of the Japanese garden, and the garden will reveal itself to us. Water (Mizu): Japan is an island nation blessed with abundant rainfall. It is therefore not suprising that water is an intrinsic part of every garden. Even in the karesansui garden, the raked gravel represents water. Flat river stones, laid tightly together, symbolize a rushing stream. In the tea garden, void of stream or pond, water plays the most important role as one stops to perform the ritual cleansing at the chozubachi, or
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water basin. As the water fills and empties from the shishi-odoki, or deer scare, the clack of bamboo on rock helps mark the passage of time. This is the deeper meaning of water in the Japanese garden. The sight and sound of its inexorable flow are there to remind us of the relentless passage of time. A bridge often crosses the water. Like the pathway, bridges denote a journey. The word for bridge, hashi, is also the word for edge. Bridges are symbolic of moving from one world into another, a theme found throughout Japanese art. Plantings (Shokobutsu) While plants play a secondary role to the stones in the garden, they are still a primary concern in the design. While the stones represent unchanging permanence, the trees, shrubs, and perennials help to display the passing of each season. The earlier garden styles actually used plants to conjure up poetic connotations or to correct geomantic inadequacies, but these have little meaning today. As the Zen influence obscured the Heian style, perennials and grass fell out of use. Tradition has limited the palette to a short list of plants, but in modern Japan, designers are again broadening the spectrum of materials used. It is important to note that native plants are used in the garden; it is in bad taste to use showy exotic plants. While certain trees and shrubs immediately conjure up the Japanese garden for us (pines, bamboo, cherries, maples, etc.), we should allow ourselves the latitude to use plants that we find pleasing. If we lean towards the evergreens as the main plant theme and accent it with deciduous material that provides seasonal blooms or foliage color we can gain the look of the Japanese garden. Ornaments (Tenkebutsu) When the average westerner thinks of the Japanese garden, the first thing to spring to mind is a stone lantern. While this can be a wonderful sculptural element it is not truly a necessary garden element. It is very important to remember that the ornament is subservient to the garden and not the other way around. Lanterns, stupas, and basins should be used as architectural accents and then only when a point of visual interest is necessary to the overall design. That said, there is no better way to announce your design as a Japanese garden then a well-placed lantern. There are three basic styles (with many variations). The Kasuga style lantern is a very formal upright lantern with a stone base. The base is the feature that distinguishes it from the Oribe style, where the pedestal is sunk in the ground. The final style of lantern is the Yukimi or Snow-Viewing lantern that is set on short legs instead of a pedestal. Consider the formality of your garden setting. The less formal the garden, the less formal the lanterns or ornaments should be. Borrowed Scenery (Shakkei) It is not always possible, but outside elements can sometimes be included in the garden. It was considered very tasteful to work a distant mountain into your design, framing it with the stones and plants in the garden proper. There are four types of borrowed scenery.
Far - the distant mountain Near - a tree just outside the fence 4

High - above the fence Low - seen below a fence or through a window in the fence

While this may seem to contradict our sense of enclosure, it is yet another reminder of the interconnectedness of all things. The feel of your garden The Japanese garden is a place of subtlety, a place of contradictions and imperatives. Rules are laid down as absolutes and then broken with another rule. If viewed in a Zen manner this makes perfect sense; the koan If you meet the Buddha on the road, you must kill him tells us that we must not cling blindly to rules. If we have done our best to present the spirit of the Japanese garden, then adherence to thousand year old traditions will have little meaning one way or another. It would be foolish as modern westerners to try and create a Buddhist saints garden. We may memorize the proper stone placements, but this style is no longer practiced in Japan, let alone in the United States, because it lacks meaning for us in the modern world. Let us instead select a few garden features that do hold meaning for us and incorporate them into a garden. If we follow the Three Laws of Garden we will not go far wrong. First Law The design must suit the site, not vice versa. Second Law Correctly place the stones, then the trees, then the shrubs. Third Law Be aquainted with the rules of shin, gyo, and so. This helps set the correct mood. If the garden is in Japan it is a Japanese garden. All we can do is make an American garden in the Japanese style. When Rikyu was asked what constituted the perfect Roji, he replied, Thick green moss, all pure and sunny warm. In other words it is not the nuts and bolts but the feel that is the important feature Related Links
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JAPANESE GARDEN DESIGN An introduction to gardening with a light touch

The garden, like any art form, has evolved over most of the world. As with other art forms, the garden has developed in many different directions. In England, where much of the American gardening heritage hails from, clipped lawns and formal rose gardens rule the day. Across the channel, France has given us the parterre and the allee, sure marks of mans hand on the land. Even the Italian villa lays out its paths and beds in formal, straight lines. The Western view, indeed the scope of civilizations progress in the Western Hemisphere, has been the story of mans domination over nature, bending it to suit his own needs and desires. It is therefore natural that our gardening traditions reflect this paradigm. The Eastern philosophies see nature in an entirely different light. Nature was viewed as an ally in putting food on the table, and revered as the ideal of beauty. It was not something to be subjugated. Instead of imposing a man-made ideal of beauty on the landscape, nature was synthesized in miniature in the garden. This philosophy of gardening reached its height in ancient Japan. Borrowing heavily from the Chinese model, the Japanese distilled a form of gardening that reflected (and defined) their own culture. What had simply been a place to enjoy a sunny day now became not only a place for deep reflection, but also the seat of cultural refinement for thousands of years.In the Japanese garden, one can find the key to the soul of its people. From the carefully washed and swept path of the tea garden, to the veiled view of a pine tree glimpsed through the opening in a sleeve fence, the psyche of this ancient culture reveals itself. Koko, the veneration of timeless age, shizen, or the avoidance of the artificial, and yugen, or darkness (implying the mysterious or subtle), best revealed by miegakure, or the avoidance of full expression; all these are to be found in the lowliest Japanese garden. Perhaps in coming to understand the art of gardening, we can gain understanding of its people and a deeper appreciation of the world around us. From China to Japan As previously noted, the garden as we know it came to Japan from China. During the Han Dynasty, the emperor Wu Di (140-87 BC) established a garden containing three small islands, mimicking the Isles of the Immortals, who were the principle Taoist deities. These gardens of lakes and mountains became the standard of the day, always representing (in abstract) the fabled lands of legend. There was no effort made to approximate nature; it was stylized into something otherworldly. In 607AD, the emperor Yang Di opened relations with Japan, and received the first envoy, Ono no Imoko, at his lavish park. Imoko returned to Japan with many ideas (including Buddhism), and four years after his return, the first hill and pond garden was established in Japan. Asuka era- The Shinto tradition This is not to say that gardens were unheard of in Japan up to this point. The Shinto religion followed a deification of nature, down to the worship of particularly beautiful rocks or trees. The area around them was cleared, and the rock or tree was bound with a rice straw rope, or shimenawa, announcing the area as a holy site where man and nature could commune. This area was known as a niwa, a word that can also denote a cultivated field, which shows the close ties the Japanese people hold with
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the land. These niwa were the gardens of the first half of the Asuka period (552646AD). The Chinese model dominated the latter half. Nara era - Blending of traditions During the Nara era (646-794AD) there was a blending of Chinese and Japanese thought. We find the first use of the word niwa to denote the more formalized Chinese style garden in a work of this period. The architecture of the period, a style known as shinden, used walkways between buildings. These walkways were accompanied by simple gardens of stones and plants that complimented the buildings (usually temple complexes or royal palaces). This period also saw the introduction of the shumisen, a Buddhist representation of the center of the universe with a large central mountain stone as the dwelling place of the Buddha, surrounded by lesser stones for his disciples. Heian era - The rise of opulence The Heian era (794-1185AD) was a period of luxury and elegance in Japan. The gardens became more opulent and complex, and served as playgrounds for the rich and famous. Any well-cultured aristocrat was expected to be versed in the design of gardens, and garden viewing or boating in the garden pond was the preferred pastime of the day. It is in this period that we find the Sakuteiki, or Book of Garden. Written by Tachibana no Toshitsuna, this work is the true starting point of Japanese gardening. Chinese gardening, indeed much of Chinese life, was ruled by the laws of feng shui, or geomancy. These rules only allowed for gardens in specific places (a river to the east, a mountain to the north, etc.). The Sakuteiki gave remedies to some of these problems (e.g., three willows could be planted to the east in place of the river). In effect, this gardening manual freed the designers of the period from the last constraints of Chinese thinking. The Sakuteiki also stressed stone placement as the primary concern of the designer, a further change from the previous model. Kamakura era - The garden as a place for reflection As we enter the Kamakura era (1185-1392), we see another profound change to garden design. As the new shogun and his samurai began to embrace Zen as their religion, the garden transformed from a place of recreation to one of contemplation. In keeping with the more religious tones of the garden, the new garden designers were not aristocracy, but priests. Muso Soseki (1275-1351) was the leading designer of the time. His gardens were the first to incorporate some of the major design changes of the day. Instead of being viewed from a building or boat, Soseki brought the viewer out into the garden to contemplate the changing views as one moved through the landscape. Some of the integral concepts of Japanese garden design (borrowed scenery and hide and reveal) are directly attributable to Soseki. Rise of the Zen influence The Muromachi era (1393-1558) was a time of great unrest in Japan, marred by civil war. Suprisingly, it is also noted as period of great culture with the development of Noh theater, landscape painting, and the cha no yu, or tea ceremony. The birth of a merchant, or middle class, also led to tsuboniwa, or courtyard gardens that fit inside
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the smaller, less ornate homes. The increasing influence of Zen is clearly seen in the arrival of the karesansui, or dry landscape style. The Momoyama era (1569-1603) is sometimes referred to as the rococo era of Japanese history. Gardens became even more elaborate, with cut stone beginning to appear in pathways and bridges. This led to a backlash at the end of this era. As the tea ceremony became more important to Japanese culture, Sen no Rikyu (the leading tea master in Japan) started a movement towards a more rustic style of ceremony, decrying lavish ornamentation in favor of implements that might be found in the meanest peasant hut. His tea garden followed this line of thinking, and simple, unpretentious gardens became the new hallmark of good taste. Another famous tea master of the period, Kobori Enshu, began to design gardens professionally breaking the tradition of the stone setting priests. Gardening goes mainstream As Japan moved into the Edo period (1603-1867), professional gardeners became more prevalent, catering to a burgeoning middle class. Many of these designers were of lower classes and the social fabric began to change as former peasants rubbed elbows with the high and mighty. This period is not really known for any particular style, as the gardens became products of a clients whim rather than any prevailing design. Most of the styles previously discussed can be found in the gardens constructed in this period. Towards the end of the era the isolation that had shielded Japan for centuries came to an end, and outside influences began to find their way into the Japanese society marking the close of the traditional garden. Related Links

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STONE IN THE JAPANESE ROCK GARDEN Let the garden be your guide There is a certain calmness that comes to you as you view a well laid-out Japanese garden. While it is hard to define any one particular element as the source of this peaceful influence, I would suggest that it is the solid, anchored look that the stone features bring to the garden that do the most to impart that feeling of peace. This should come as no surprise as the Japanese gardener utilizes rock as the bones of the garden, with plants and ornaments as trimmings. The most visited garden in Japan, the Ryoan-ji, is entirely comprised of stone; the only living thing in the garden is the moss that has sprung up between the set stones. This is the epitome of stone in the Japanese garden. But when we try recreate that look in our own gardens we are often disappointed with the result. We find ourselves unable to duplicate that peaceful, serene feeling; our stone groups feel disjointed and jumbled. The spirit of the Japanese garden seems elusive. The basic rules The rules for setting stone in the garden are ancient and many. It is no great surprise that we as modern Americans are not in touch with the subtleties of a two thousand8

year-old art form. But that doesnt mean we cant learn these skills. The true spirit of the Japanese garden, like so many facets of the Zen arts, lies in the rules and observances of ritual that permeate Japanese life. By simply learning a few of the rules that apply to stone setting, and a few of the more common forms, we can attain gardens that give us that feeling of serenity. Lets look at some of the basics Nara era The first stone grouping to show up in the Japanese garden was the shumisen. This grouping was (as so many things in Japanese gardening are) a symbolic representation, in this case of the legendary mountain at the center of the Universe. The Buddha dwells in the main stone and his disciples in the stones around him. This is a very old grouping that was in use during the Nara period (645-781 AD) and is no longer in use. Heian era During the Heian period (781-1185 AD) the old Chinese legend of the Isles of Eternal Youth began to find its way into the ponds of rich. This group is comprised of a main island (Horai) and three smaller islands (Hojo, Eishu, and Koryo). All are tall, vertical stones, as they represent the unattainable dwelling places of the Immortals. This group has a very Chinese look to it, and shows the strong influence still exerted by that country. While the shumisen is still evident, we see a new representation of the Buddha in the Stones of Three Gods. This is a much more Japanese expression of the Deity, with many different names for the grouping depending on the specific use. Classic Japanese stone grouping For our purposes we can break it down like this:

Buddha stone (Mida buhtsu), the male stone Goddess stone (Kwannon), the female stone Childs stone (Seishi).

This is the most classical stone grouping in Japanese gardening, and one I lean on heavily in design. This is generally the stone group that the others are centered on, often in the Guardian stone position. Temple rock gardens As we move into the Kamakura and Muromachi periods (1186-1573 AD) we reach what was truly the height of natural stone in the garden. The Three Gods become much more important as temple gardens were the most prevalent type of garden in these periods. There was a movement towards imitating the Sung style monochrome paintings popular at the time, and the hill and pond style of garden became more formalized to accommodate this change. Another development of this period was the Crane and Tortoise islands. These beasts had garnered a mythical focus as symbols of longevity and the two together symbolize long and happy existence. These groups must be placed in water (or a reasonable facsimile). Another feature of the temple gardens were the Buddhist Saints stones (butsubosatsu). This is a very complex grouping that is best left to the temple garden
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(as it is in Japan), but I have included it here to show just how complicated stone setting could get. Only the highest levels of Buddhist clergy were qualified to build and interpret these gardens. Beyond the temple garden The later periods did little to add to the palette of stone groups. The Momoyama period actually ushered in the use of cut stone for bridges and paths and an increased use of ornamentation and a move away from the natural look of the preceding periods. While the following Edo period brought back some of the older styles there was still a tendency to move towards ornamentation as the central focus of the garden. These groupings are more formalized ones and are not representative of most stones placed in the garden, but they are often the central features of a garden that ties the rest together. Lets now look at the more basic stone forms and their placement in the garden. Five basic stone types There are five basic stone types used in Japanese rock gardening. These are used in a thousand different combinations, but with the understanding of these basic types and some common usage, we can find the right ones for our garden. One: Soul Stone The first we will look at is the Low Vertical stone, also known as the Soul Stone (Reishoseki). This is a vertically oriented stone with a wide base and a tapered top. This is a very prevalent stone in the landscape; the Guardian stone (Shu go seki) is usually a low vertical. Two: Body Stone The next stone well discuss is the Tall Vertical, or Body stone (Taidoseki). This is another upright stone that often symbolic of a person or god. The base is only slightly larger than the top. This is a stone that must be most carefully placed; as it is the tallest stone in the group it is principal in determining the flow of the garden. Generally, this stone is placed to rear and NEVER in front. Three: Heart Stone The Flat stone, or Heart stone (Shintaiseki), is a most useful stone. It is as the name implies a flat stone in the manner of a stepping stone. In a complex arrangement it is generally used as the central harmonizing element and in simpler arrangements serves a valuable purpose in harmonizing the vertical stones with the horizontal lines of the earth or water. The Worshiping stone or (Rei hai seki) is always a flat stone. Four: Branching Stone The Arching stone is often called the Branching Stone (Shigyoseki) and corresponds to the arms. This stone is the exception to the rule with a flat top wider than the base. This is a most difficult stone to select correctly; if the top is too large the rock looks unsteady and the arch imparts a sweeping energy that must be carefully balanced to work in the garden. That said this is an extremely useful stone as it is used to tie the two horizontal stones to the two vertical ones as well as drawing together the stone group with the branches of trees. Five: Ox Stone
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Our final stone is the Reclining stone or Ox stone (Kikyakuseki). In height, these vary between the flat stone and the arching stone but never as low as the former or tall as the latter. One end of the stone is higher than the other. This is a fine-tuning stone, placed in the foreground to unify the other stones and should be placed with great care. These basic stones are used in any number of combinations and are often combined with Helping or Throwaway stones, smaller nondescript rocks that need not fit any of our formal definitions. Two and three stone groups are the norm and can be combined together to create larger focal points. There are five stone groups that are usually the main focus of a garden, often in the guardian stone position; this is a very powerful grouping and needs careful balancing. Keep an eye on this We have seen the stones and combinations that we must use to develop the true spirit of the Japanese garden. Now lets look at the things we must avoid to maintain an authentic look. We must avoid the Three Bad Stones. These are

The Diseased stone (withered or misshapen top) The Dead stone (a stone that is obviously a vertical used as a horizontal, or vice versa, like propping up a dead body), and The Pauper Stone (one which has no relation to the other stones in the garden).

We should never place a stone so its axial line is at right angles to any nearby buildings. This is known as cutting the ridgepole and is the worst scenario in a feng shui vein. You must never set a stone higher than the eaves of the house for much the same reason. You must never place stones that have obviously been cut or broken. Again, the guardian stone must be a vertical and the worshiping stone must be flat. You must never use stones with larger tops than bases; the arching stone is the obvious exception to the rule. Do not set large stones near a verandah or porch (another "bad vibes" arrangement). I have included some of the ancient stone setting laws that I feel have some merit as design rules; many of the rules have little or no bearing unless you believe in animism or evil spirits. If these rules do hold some meaning for you I would suggest obtaining a copy of the Sakuteiki, known as the Book of Garden. In short, simply be as refined as possible when setting stones. Use the minimum of rock to get the effect you are looking for, keeping in mind the flow of the garden. I generally like to determine stone placement before plants, but if I know I will be using a tree or trees in a garden I will take that into account when setting stones. I feel the most important rule of stone setting is the Rule of Separation. Stones from cliffs should be set as cliffs and stones from water should be set near water. This rule defines using a rock with a suited spirit for its intended locale. Follow this and youll do well.
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Stepping stones in a Japanese rock garden When setting stepping stones they should be between one and three inches above the soil, yet solid underfoot, as if rooted into the ground. They can be set in straight lines, offset for left foot, right foot (known as chidori or plover, after the tracks the shore bird leaves), or set in groups of twos, threes, fours, or fives. The most common combinations are the two-three arrangement, useful in smaller spaces and the three-four. Any combinations are possible; keep in mind the flow of the garden.

The pathway is symbolic of the journey through life, and even specific stones in the path may have meaning. A much wider stone set across the path tells us to put two feet here, stopping to take in the view. Two foot stones are always found at entrances and junctures in pathways. Formal mat stones are one of the exceptions to the rule on cut stone. Long sections of path can be set entirely in rectangular cut stone. I personally like two, offset side by side, comprising by themselves a section of path. These are called Poem Card stones as they resemble the folded poems hung in the cherry trees in spring. (Very effective near trees for that reason).

Simply remember the flow of the garden and your other stone placements will fall into place. We have taken in a lot of information here. Expecting to retain all this is probably unrealistic, and even if we should manage, the resultant landscape would probably be staid or stilted. I started this by stating that in following the rules we could attain a Japanese look in the garden, and this is true. But the truly successful garden will be the one where the designer has followed the flow of the space and searched for the right stones to fit that garden. As a closing I now give you my first rule of gardening: Let the garden be your guide. Related Links

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Zen In the Garden

There have been other philosophies that have found their way into the garden. Persia had its paradise gardens. Descartes theories of a mathematical ordering of the universe were clearly defined by Versailless geometric layout. But rarely has any one philosophy had such a clear and defined impact on a garden style as the indelible mark left by Zen on the Japanese garden. While many of the stylings now thought of as Zen had their roots in earlier forms, it was the discipline of Zen thought that helped give them the ageless quality we associate with the Japanese garden. A (very) Brief History of Zen in Japan Zen is thought of as a very Japanese philosophy, yet its roots go back all the way to India. A monk from India by the name of Bohdidharma came to China around 500 A.D. to spread the Dharma (word of Buddha). Along the way he had obviously become acquainted with Taoism, and this colored his brand of Buddhism, called Chaan by the Chinese, Son by the Koreans and eventually Zen in Japan. Bohdi married the strict self reliance of the Tao to the meditative practices of Buddhism, creating a more disciplinary form of practice (He also started a monastery at Shao-Li, and is credited with inventing Shao-lin Kung-Fu; obviously a very tough character). While Buddhism had already made its way to Japan around 600 A.D., Zen took nearly another 300 years to make the trip. Heian Period Japanese temples were a retirement home for high officials and a seat of political power. Not surprisingly, retired emperors, princes, and dukes were slow to embrace austerity as a way of life. Not until the rise of the warrior caste did Zen become a staple of religious thought in the island kingdom. The Sengoku Jidai, or period of great unrest, brought the rise of the samurai and bushido, the way of the warrior. The samurai was a kind of knight, expected not to just hone the skills of war, but to appreciate poetry, painting and all the fine things in life. Yet he was a warrior first, and discipline is the soldiers way. Zen could not have found a more fertile ground to plant its seeds. The reliance on ones self to achieve enlightenment through stern practice meshed well with the practice disciplines of bushido, and as the samurai and their retainers adopted the new religion, Zen flourished throughout Japan. Temple Construction and it's byproduct: The Zen Garden As new temples were constructed (in some cases with funds from further Chinese trade), the priests put in gardens. Some priests actually began wandering the country trading their services as garden builders. These ishi-tate so, or stone-setting priests, were the first professional gardeners of Japan. They were influenced by the Sung painting style of the period, an ink on paper style that was more influenced by capturing the spirit of something than photographical representation. The subtlety of black, white, and shades of grey found its way into the garden in the karesansui (dry water) style most associated with Zen (While the raked gravel had existed before Zen, it was always a side note. The ishi-tate-so made it the main theme of the garden). Enduring Principles of Zen upon the Japanese Garden As Japan settled down and new intrinsically Japanese forms of Buddhism sprang up, Zen began to fade in importance and the Meiji Edicts suborned it entirely. But the
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principles it embraces are what set Japanese gardens apart. Lets look at these principles The Zen Aesthetic There are six basic aesthetic principles embraced by Zen
Fukinsei Asymmetry is intrinsic to Buddhist thought. There is no perfection in the world; imbalance is what creates all movement and energy. The exact center is never occupied, not in gardens or paintings or even when you pot a bonsai. This does not jibe with our western traditions of symmetry in all things, balanced, if so on the left then also on the right, so it is a difficult idea for westerners to embrace Kanso Simplicity is a key tenet of Zen. Embracing the everyday, unadorned things in life is to embrace truth. The cleanliness of simple form is a repeated motif in Japanese art, be it painting, flower arranging, or gardening. It is often expressed as wabi-sabi, which we will discuss later. Wabisabi also relates to Koko Venerability. Maturity with an edge of austerity is a hallmark for Zen thought. The patina on an old stone lantern, the feeling that a stone has always been in the garden, or the bleaching of weathered wood are all examples of this principle. It also implies resraint and selection; this is the stern discipline of Zen practice appearing in the garden Yugen Subtlety and mystery is found throughout Zen thought, in the puzzling koans or teaching questions, or in the constant search for personal enlightenment, certainly the most elusive mystery of all times. Probably the most prevalent element of yugen in the garden is the use of miegakure, or hide and reveal, where the whole garden is not shown through a window, just a small piece. Or a bend in the path offers just the barest of hints of what waits around the corner. The play of shadows on the garden is another display of yugen (darkness). Datsoku A single word translation is poor here, but otherworldliness comes close. It is the sense of a fantasy realm, a transcendence of this plane of existence that is so much part of the Japanese garden. There should be a sense of surprise, of wonder at the garden, what Shunryu Suzuki, the founder of American Zen, called beginners mind or what we often call child-like wonder. As Zen maintains that everything is illusion, this is a very important concept Seijaku Stillness is probably the most central tenet of Zen. From silent meditation to arrival at the still point or enlightenment, this principle the peace and calm that a well done Japanese garden engenders. Bringing different landscape features (that also display Fukinsei, or imbalance) into harmony to achieve equilibrium is the true secret to this art.

Shibui All these different elements combine to create shibui. While the literal translation might be elegant, this only begins to scratch the surface of the words true meaning. It also denotes an almost hidden beauty, a simple restrained use of materials, color or elements to best express the craftsmans or artists intent. It often incorporates wabisabi as an element of design. These are usually linked ideas in Japanese thought. Wabi Wabi can refer to a way of life, the introspective, philosophical side of things. It is the crack in the old teapot that sets it apart from a thousand others of that same design,
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the everyday wear marks on the handle of your grandfather shovel. Wabi is most concerned with space Sabi Sabi is the artistic way of looking at things, a more light-hearted, aesthetic view. It is the moss grown over the roots and stones, the gnarled plum bough abloom with flower before anything else. Sabi is the element of time showing itself Wabi-Sabi & the Japanese Tea Garden The first tea master, Sen no Rikyu, proposed a different aesthetic as a replacement for the ostentatious stylings of the Momoyama Period (sometimes referred to as the Japanese Rococo). Simple, even rustic peasant-like settings replaced the redlacquered bridges and cut stone hardscapes as the tea garden or Roji (literally Dewy path) became the new garden of choice. While tea had become a pastime of the rich (despite the fact that it too had been introduced by Zen monks), Rikyu adopted the wabi-sabi style to his vision of the tea garden and the ceremony. Rather than a chance to show off expensive antique teapots (as had become the rage among the newly affluent merchant class), Rikyu saw teaism as a wabi-sabi affair, a purifying ritual. As his most famous poem suggests Since the Dewy Path Is that way that lies outside This most impure world Shall we not on entering it Cleanse our hearts of earthly mire? Rikyu was most focused on the wabi side of tea; it was his student Kobori Enshu that began to introduce the sabi to the tea ceremony. As the times relaxed and war became a distant memory, Enshu began to use more elegant vessels and tools and display some variance in Rikyus original ceremony. When he was told by one noble that he surpassed Rikyu as everyone liked his pots and tools while Rikyus tattered and worn tools made some uncomfortable Enshu replied Rikyu decided that certain vessels were interesting and beautiful and satisfying on his own initiative and authority and used them for Cha-no-yu and gave names to them, and his judgment was not only accepted in his day but is still praised as a criterion. This is because of Rikyus great merit as a Tea Master, and not because of the age or value of the vessels. Articles so transformed by virtue of the masters praise are famous and precious indeed. But as for me I dont possess the capacity for giving real value to anything on the authority of my own taste. When noblemen bring things to me and ask for an opinion I dont care to offend them and so am inclined to say what they want to hear. But this kind of consideration is not in accordance with the best traditions of tea. There is a difference of Heaven and Earth between Rikyus lofty principles and mine. Zen Symbology in the Garden There are myriad displays of Zen thought in the Japanese garden. Nearly every design element in the repertoire has some tie-in to the ancient philosophy. While this is not
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intended as a complete listing (best left to more scholarly types) I will try to touch on some key features as examples Stones Ishi (Stones) Shumisen (also known as Horai) was the immovable mountain at the center of the universe in early Buddhist thought and was one of the first stones incorporated in Japanese gardens. The three stone arrangement known as the Sanzon-ishi-gumi is an often used arrangement depicting the Buddha and nyorai, or lesser buddhas. There is often a large flat stone set in the forefront of a garden known as the Rei-hai-seki, or Worshiping Stone (it is always set facing the Sanzon-ishi-gumi). The mizu wake, or water dividing stone, set in the water at the bottom of a waterfall was symbolic of the mythical carp that, through steadfast unwavering effort, climbed to the top of the waterfall to become a dragon, a regular teaching parable in the Soto Zen monastery. And the repeated symbology of mountains as represented by set stones (deep mountains, mysterious valleys) is very reminiscent of Dogen's Mountains and Waters sermon, where he likens all the goings on in the universe to walking mountains (the Sakuteiki, or Book of Garden, allows that if some stones flee others should chase). Design suggested by philosophy Water Mizu (Water) Buddhism always considered water the most apt metaphor for human existence, springing up, gathering strength in its downhill race to disappear calmly into the sea (reborn again as rain). In ponds in the garden it creates negative space in the garden where nothing else resides. This reflects the teaching of mu, or nothingness, that sought after goal of Zen meditation (mu is the counter-balance to everything). White gravel (Shirakawa suna) areas, as seen in karesansui gardens, are also representative of this ocean space. All waterfalls over two feet tall symbolize the Fudo, a fierce guardian of Buddhist thought, especially meditation. The dripping of water in the shishi-odoki (deer scare) is a measure of time in the garden, each clack a reminder of the moment. And as found almost everywhere in the world, water is a symbol for cleansing and purification, as seen in the Western tradition of baptism or the hand washing in the Roji, among other traditions. Shokubutsu (Plantings) Zen actually pared down the plant palette when it arrived (there was use of annuals, perennials, and grasses before the arrival of Zen stylings). Still there are a few Zen ideas in the plantings. Large bamboo are often found in temple gardens as the canes are a perfect example of the principle of mushin or empty heart (the empty heart provides strength through flexibility). Plums are a recurrent Zen theme, flowering without leaf, often while snow is still on the ground (symbolizing resilience and rebirth). Pine is known as mutsu, a sound-alike for the word for waiting, so it is set in the garden as a symbol of strength and patience (key tenets of the Soto-shu school of Zen, who taught gradual enlightenment through meditation). All three are often found together, especially at New Year, and are called Three Friends of Winter. Hashi (Bridges) In earlier gardens these often led to the nakajima (central island) representing the Pure Land of Amida Buddha. Passing over the bridge was analogous to passing from one world to the next. As Zen influence came into the forefront, bridges took on the more Taoist meaning of passing from the world of man into the world of nature, a
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move from this plane to a higher one. As suggested by the Roji, the journey is representative of life in general, and the bridge is just a symbol of transition on many levels. Tenkeibutsu (Ornaments) Most of the ornamentation in the garden springs directly from religious tradition. While Buddhas are not common garden features outside of temples, lanterns have become symbolic of the gardens themselves, despite the fact that these were not found outside a temple garden until Rikyu adopted their use in the Roji (many of the lantern styles are named after tea masters). Parts of the lantern are purely Buddhist; the hoju (jewel) on top of the lantern is a direct symbol of enlightenment (as are lanterns in general); many use a lotus motif at that base or just under the firebox (the lotus is a symbology actually used by Buddha himself in teaching). Stupas are also found in gardens and point to heaven to show the way to dead souls. The tea basin is the repository for purifying water, again a symbol of life. Occasionally you may see a Frog figurine in gardens. This is Bashos frog from the famous poem on his own enlightenment,
Old pond Frog jumps in Splash!

The splash was Bashos sudden burst of realization and representative of sudden enlightenment, as espoused by the Rinzai sect of Zen. Kakis to hei (Fences) While not a totally Zen concept, fences are the best chance to actually inject some artistry into the garden without resorting to overt ornamentation. A well chosen fence sets off the plants well, marries the garden to the architecture and most importantly, encloses the space, creating another world. This fits seamlessly with the Zen concept of perception; how entire worlds can be contained in motes of dust or dew drops. Enlightenment comes from discerning reality as ones own perception and balancing that against ones place in the grand scheme Dogen says, Enlightenment is like the moon reflected on water. The moon does not get wet, nor is the water broken. Although its light is wide and great, the moon is reflected even in a puddle an inch wide. The whole moon and entire sky are reflected in dewdrops on the grass, or even in one drop of water. The message here is that every divided area remains representative of the whole of nature; the fence helps us to recognize the division and the garden should remind us of the whole. The gates in fences are very much like the bridge in deep meaning; the phrase to go through the gate is a metaphor for becoming a monk. Transition between one state of existence and the next is a recurrent theme in both Zen and the Japanese gardens, further evidence of the immutable ties between them. There are those who, attracted by grass, flowers, mountains, and waters, flow into the Buddha Way. Eihei Dogen

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