Backdraught Response Strategies The task of opening up an under-ventilated compartment is one of the most potentially dangerous situations faced

d by firefighters. Traditional thinking has been to ventilate high before opening up the compartment. While this can be an effective method in some situations it can also be a hazardous in some situations. For it to be successful the fire compartment must be in communication with the section of the roof opened up, or it will have no impact on the fire compartment. Working on a roof can be hazardous even in the best of conditions. When combined with poor weather or visibility, and a roof structure that has sustained unknown fire damage, the risks become even higher. Firefighters are also placed very close to the exit path of the hot buoyant smoke gases. Some general principles to be observed. Hose lines should be in place before opening up the compartment. Random ventilation should not be allowed. The process of ventilation must be planned, coordination and communicated. Removal of accumulated smoke from adjacent voids help to lessen the impact if the compartment does backdraught. If possible this smoke should be removed or inerted by the application of fog. Firefighters should be aware that not only will the gases rise due to the high temperature, but if they do ignite, the flame will propagate downwards seeking air. The task of opening up will depend to weather or not the opening being created is in the open or if it is from within the structure. If the crew had worked its way thorough a smoke filled environment to reach the compartment in which the under ventilated fire is, then it is essential to deal with the accumulated smoke before opening up. This may be by the removal of the smoke of by inerting it with fog. The first step is to stabilise the immediate environment around the entryway. This involves: 1. Gas Cooling any accumulated overhead gases. 1.1.Look for blistering, crazing or other heat indicators 1.2.Temperature checks - listen for heat indicators eg sizzling sounds 1.3.Observe the quantity of water coming back down 2. Painting the linings around the door to cool and provide a buffer for the heated gases. This helps to prevent the linings or the gases from igniting after the door is opened. 2.1.Look for signs of heat such as blistering 2.2.If the door area is very hot it may be possible to see the height of the neutral plane as the water evaporates off the super heated upper area. 2.3. Feel the door for signs of heat. Opening up. If the risk assessment has indicated that it is safe to open up the door, then it should be opened by one of the team just enough to allow the nozzle operator to place 3 to 5 short to medium pulsations into the overpressure region. The door is then closed to allow for the cooling and dilution of the gases to take effect. When the door is open

additional information can be gained for our ongoing dynamic risk assessment. In particular you should observe: 1. The height of the neutral plane 2. What colour is the smoke? 3. How dense is the over pressure zone? 4. The direction and velocity of the air track 4.1.Is it flat or pulsing? 5. Listen for heat indicators 6. Is there any flame visible? 6.1.If so what colour is it? This process can be repeated several times to allow for improvements in conditions. Once the environment has been stabilised a cautious entry can be maid. Swedish firefighters are taught to control the airflow to the fire. By minimising the opening they can limit the supply of oxygen to the fire. It must be remembered that gas cooling is a technique to assist in stabilising the smoke layer and the linings. If the fire has a good air supply it will continue to grow and reheat the atmosphere and contents. The decision to open up (ventilate) or to restrict airflow (anti ventilate) is complex. There are a large number of considerations to take into account. Once the fire has been located the decision is made a lot easier. The first step upon making entry is to read the indicators such as the height of the neutral plane, Colour and density of smoke, colour of any visible flame. Temperature checks can be conducted by placing short narrow bursts of water onto the ceiling. The firefighter should listen for the sound of water turning to steam and watch for the amount of water that come back down. If a sizzling sound can be heard and little or no water comes back down we know that the temperature is over 100 C. A longer burst of water can be added and some indication of the temperature can be gauged. The firefighter can also place a gloved hand into the over pressure area to feel for the heat. If this is not too uncomfortable then he can expose a small amount of the wrist area by peeling up the glove. The hand can then be cautiously raised again to fell for heat. It is important to cool as much of the fire gas in the room as possible. Small quantities of water should be placed onto the linings to cool them down. If they are combustible this will also stop or reduce pyrolysation. Once again the firefighter should listen and observe the effects of the application of this water. The objective is to leave a light film of water. This will indicate that the linings have been cooled and the film will help to buffer the room. By maintaining thermal balance the firefighter will improve conditions and maximise visibility. Systematic search techniques should be employed. As progress in made through the structure it will be necessary to use the compartmentation to your advantage. If it is necessary to make entry through closed doors then the same risk assessment procedure should be used as for external entry. It is very important to ensure that the linings above and around the door have been cooled. This will help to prevent the ignition of hot rich gases and will assist in the formation of a buffer zone. Another consideration before entry is consider weather or not to ventilate. If the smoke can effectively be removed from the room it will reduce the risk of smoke gas explosion or rollover. If this is not possible it may be necessary to antiventilate. This will limit oxygen supply and when combined with gas cooling will help to prevent the accumulated fuel from igniting. The process of progressively advancing using the combination of ventilation/antiventilation with gas cooling and painting the linings is known as SAFE ZONING. The effectiveness of the safe zone

will depend on: Volume and geometry of the compartment Design, construction materials, structural integrity Fire stage, fuel loading etc The basic principle is to control the environment with a combination of ventilation tactics and gas cooling. This stabilises the compartment and allows for precise location of the seat of fire and victims. A simple way of remembering the process is: PULSE PAINT PENCIL EXTINGUISH Pulse Cool and shrink gas layer Paint Cool linings to reduce pyrolysis and to prevent reignition from radiant feedback Pencil Lob water onto base to blacken it down and allow advancement Extinguish careful and gradual direct application to preserve scene and maintain thermal balance. These steps are repeated until the fire is extinguished. If the fire is visible it is recommended to blacken it down before entry. VENTILATION INDUCED FLASHOVER Where the size or number of openings is limited it is possible for a state of ventilation controlled stability to occur. If the compartment is open up at this stage there will be an accumulation of excess fuel. If the opening is large then a large amount of heat energy will be released and it will take time for the fire to re establish itself. If the opening are small it is possible then the temperature reduction will be minimal but the additional oxygen will allow for the sudden consumption of the accumulated fuel and the result will be a sudden transition to flashover. An important part of risk management and accountability is to relay the indicators and progress to an outside team. As soon as practical a RIT should be established. The RIT will gain a profile of the fire from the external indicators. By sharing the interior and exterior indicators a more complete risk assessment can be achieved. Modern turnout gear is designed to protect the firefighter from the extreme temperatures that can be encountered. It the process the garments reduce the ability of the body to shed metabolic heat. HEAT SOAKING When subjected to high heat levels the heat will slowly work through the layers and by the time that the firefighters starts to feel the heat the entire garment has become heat soaked. Modern aramid materials are able to withstand very high temperatures.

Eventually the heat will soak to the skin of the wear. At about 56 C the skin will start to burn. It will take a long time for the heat to dissipate once the exposure has ceased. This is why it is advisable to shed the garments as soon as possible to allow for the body to cool down. Staying low will help to reduce this heat soaking effect. Dont wait until you feel the heat increase on your skin. Many firefighters rely on using their ears to sense the heat. One of the problems with this approach is that it is not always a reliable indicator of impending changes. Very high temperatures do not always precede emergent fire phenomena. The firefighter should learn to recognise the early indicators and respond before the late indicators are upon him. Guarding the line of retreat in high-risk environments. In marginal situations or where deep or prolonged penetration is required it may be necessary to ensure that a safe line of retreat is maintained. One method of achieving this is to position support teams along the line of retreat to maintain a safe zone. There are a number of options that can be considered in assisting the maintenance of the safe zone. Some examples are: 1. Using the compartmentation to advantage. 2. Selective ventilation and anti-ventilation. 3. Gas cooling and Painting of the escape route. RIT assessments should consider positioning of ladders and breaking of locks (not necessarily opening up) to give further escape routes if conditions deteriorate. Remember: Hope for the best but plan for the worst.
Painting Pencilling Pulsations

VERTICAL VENTILATION The tactical use of vertical ventilation most certainly has a use on the fireground. However, it is a strategy that should be used sparingly and with a specific objective. The random cutting of holes in roofs may often serve no purpose whatsoever and such operations should be carefully considered before implementing. The placement of firefighters on roofs and above fires is a dangerous practice and a defensive operation might prove a better option. There will be occasions where the fire compartment itself can be isolated (or the fire extinguished/controlled) and a stair-shaft may be vented to safely & effectively relieve conditions therein, enabling search and rescue operations to advance with speed onto the upper floors of a structure. However, where a working fire is open to the stairs a venting action of any sort may have disastrous consequences! The negative pressure created in such a situation may 'suck' smoke, flames and heat towards the stairway and could even cause compartment windows to fail, creating a backdraft effect in the fire compartment. This effect has caused major problems for firefighters in the past - a UK firefighter was killed by the resulting 'flashover' in one instance whilst firefighters battling a major fire in New York's Empire State Building were burned as the airflow up the stair-shaft behind them pulled the windows inwards and caused a major escalation of the fire-front. A similar occurrence at a UK high-rise fire in 2001 trapped many building occupants above the fire who had to be rescued by helicopter from the roof-top as natural 'stack' caused a negative pressure in the stair-shaft to 'pull' the smoke and heat out of the apartment and into the stairway. HORIZONTAL (WINDOW) VENTILATION Tactical venting actions at windows can be both beneficial and counter-productive! If the wrong window is selected that serves an adjacent compartment to the fire then heat conditions within the fire

compartment are likely to increase! If the window to the fire compartment is vented whilst underventilated conditions are presenting themselves then the fire will most likely escalate. However, it is beyond doubt that window venting actions called by the interior crew can produce effective results, relieving heat and improving visibility whilst directing the fire's flame plume away from the advancing firefighters. This can work effectively under ventilation-controlled conditions but should only be utilised when water is being worked towards the compartment of involvement. Any window venting action should take into account the likely effects of exterior winds before implementation. POSITIVE PRESSURE VENTILATION The use of PPV in an offensive pre-attack mode needs careful consideration. As window ventilation (outlet point) is a requirement the above considerations should be applied. Where a fire is presenting under-ventilated conditions the use of PPV should be witheld until conditions change, particularly where occupants may remain within the structure. Where a fire is burning in a ventilation-controlled stage the use of PPV may increase the rate of heat release within the compartment although if airflow management is effective an actual reduction in compartmental temperature may quickly ensue. However, there is no doubt that PPV can and will improve conditions for advancing firefighters in certain situations. The strategy should be used with careful consideration and in unison with monitoring by firefighters equipped with thermal image cameras. INDIRECT WATER-FOG APPLICATIONS The use of indirect water-fog tactics should be reserved for unoccupied compartments and applied from the exterior. This strategy most certainly offers the firefighter a safe and reliable method of dealing with fires presenting under-ventilated conditions and may be the best option under such circumstances. The injection of water-fog droplets in a constant burst applied through a partially opened entrance doorway or naturally vented window may decrease heat by striking surfaces, walls and ceiling to create an atmosphere full of wet-steam where any form of rapid fire progress is impossible. 3D OFFENSIVE (PULSING) WATER-FOG APPLICATIONS A Swedish innovation that utilises short bursts (pulses) of water-fog applied into the fire gases from an interior position. This style of firefighting is becoming extremely popular with firefighters, particularly when used as an entry and advance technique into structures/compartments presenting under-ventilated conditions where entry is necessary due to persons reported trapped or unaccounted for. Whilst advancing towards the fire this form of attack can be used to cool and inert dangerous formations of fire gases in the overhead. Correctly applied, this use of water-fog maintains thermal balance; avoids excessive steam clouds; narrows flammability limits of fire gases; raises the smoke interface and improves visibility. The risk of flashover and backdraft is greatly alleviated as 'pulses' of water-fog are directed into the gases, avoiding excessive contact with super-heated surfaces, walls and ceiling. Such techniques can be practiced and perfected in flashover 'can' container simulators whilst learning fire behavior and are scientifically proven as far more effective than bouncing or patterning straight/smooth streams off the ceiling. This form of attack may also be used to extinguish gas reservoirs that have formed and are burning off in stair-shafts or geometrically large compartments - where it is just accumulated gases burning without any real class 'A' fire load in the immediate vicinity. STRAIGHT STREAM/SMOOTH-BORE ATTACK On reaching a fire the most effective way to extinguish the flames is by directing a straight or smoothbore stream directly at the base of the flames, into the fire's source. The penetration qualities of such a stream are most effective although be aware - up to 90 percent of the water applied will run-off unused in the cooling process! The disadvantage of smooth-bore nozzles for interior attack are that they do not provide a fog option which is essential for asserting control over a dynamic compartmental environment full of dangerous fire gases. THE MOST DANGEROUS OPENING A FIREFIGHTER MAY MAKE IS AT THE ENTRANCE DOOR! - Any time YOU open a door to enter the structure/compartment you are initiating a gravity current (air-track) - If this becomes active (particularly in under-ventilated conditions) then you are feeding air to the fire. This sounds basic but how many firefighters or SOPs are conditioned to avoid this?! Consider the option of closing the entrance door behind you! It is a confidence factor that prevents firefighters from doing this - but research the backdrafts that have occurred (many fatal) - read the reports - see how a gravity current initiated the event - and then read Daniel Gojkovic's & Lasse Bengtsson's report on CFD modeling. The swedish concept of antiventilation (close-down) may present the safest option in under-ventilated conditions where entry is necessary to search for victims. COMBINING TACTICS - IS IT SAFE? IS IT EFFECTIVE? One of the major concerns of employing 'new-wave' strategies to fight compartment fires is the operational implementation of tactical options in combination without fear of conflict or breach of safety. For example, if a crew is advancing along a hallway filled with dangerous fire gases towards a

room fully involved in fire, is it safe and effective to utilize both PPV airflows and 3D pulsing fog patterns in the attack? Empirical research to date suggests that, in general, both strategies may be implemented in unison without conflict. The use of 3D pulsing fog is also equally effective in both vented and un-vented compartments unlike indirect fog attack methods which rely on an un-vented compartment for optimum results. More research is being undertaken that directly relates to the combination of various tactical firefighting options and will be reported here in due course.