Contrastive Rhetoric and Text-Typological Conventions in Translation Teaching

Sonia Colina
Arizona State University

Abstract: This paper illustrates the relevance of contrastive rhetoric research to Translation Studies and shows how it can be applied to translation pedagogy. After a brief descriptive analysis of the recipe genre in English and Spanish, student translations are examined. It is shown that the work of novice translators is one case in which source-language textual features are transferred into the target text. The effects of explicit instruction on textual features and text-typological conventions are examined by comparing student translations: a significant improvement in the work of students exposed to explicit instruction is indicative of the benefit of pedagogical intervention. The evidence presented also indicates that translation competence is in fact separate from bilingualism. Rsum: Cet article se propose d'examiner l'intrt de la rhtorique contrastive pour les tudes de traduction et son usage possible en pdagogie de la traduction. Une brve analyse du genre "recette de cuisine" en anglais et en espagnol est suivie d'une prsentation de copies d'tudiants. Les traducteurs dbutants transposent d'habitude des proprits textuelles de la langue-source en langue-cible. Or, une comparaison de ces copies montre que des instructions prcises engendrent des effets bnfiques, en l'occurrence sur ces proprits et sur les conventions gnriques. Elle souligne galement que la comptence traductive doit tre distingue du bilinguisme.

0.

Introduction

Text linguistics and contrastive rhetoric have in the last two or three decades attracted a great deal of attention from researchers in theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics as well as from teachers of English as a Second Language. Translation Studies, however, has been somewhat slower in direct-

Target 9:2 (1997), 335-353. DOI 10.1075/target.9.2.07col ISSN 0924-1884 / E-ISSN 1569-9986 John Benjamins Publishing Company

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ing its attention to text linguistics and contrastive rhetoric, in spite of an emerging body of literature (Tirkkonen-Condit 1986; Hatim and Mason 1990; Nord 1991; Neubert and Shreve 1992). This paper is one more effort toward applying research in contrastive rhetoric to translation studies and translation pedagogy in particular. Texts are linguistic units, of no predetermined length, written or oral, characterized by exhibiting texture the property that makes texts coherent, cohesive wholes. In the discourse and translation studies literature, texts are often classified according to genre and text type. Genres "are conventionalized forms of texts which reflect the functions and goals involved in particular social occasions as well as the purposes of the participants involved in them" (Hatim and Mason 1990: 69). Genre ascription is at least in part determined by the social context in which a text exists, resulting in generic categories such as novel, poem, editorial, joke, ad, recipe, news broadcast.1 Text types refer to the main rhetorical purpose of a text, i.e. argumentative, informative, expressive, persuasive, descriptive, which may be in turn realized by a sequence of rhetorical purposes. Language-specific patterns of structural organization and syntactic features serve to identify text types and genres. As shown by studies in contrastive rhetoric (Kaplan 1966; Hinds 1983), textual features vary across languages and cultures: thus, the structure of Korean written academic discourse is not the same as that of English (Eggington 1987); German academic discourse often seems "chaotic and disorganized" to the English reader not exposed to the less direct, less reader-oriented structural patterns used in German; periphrastic passive constructions are syntactic markers of academic scientific discourse in English, whereas a "se-passive" is preferred in Spanish. For a text to function as a sign with its intended pragmatic force, the receptor must be able to identify it as a token of a particular text type and genre. Such ability is dependent upon the receptor and writer sharing the same knowledge of textual features and conventions a common occurrence when both belong to the same linguistic and cultural community. In translated texts, however, the writer and the receptor of the translated text belong to different cultural and linguistic systems that do not normally share textual features and conventions. It follows therefore that the transfer of the source-language text into a target language will involve changes in textual features and organization. If the translator, as the individual responsible for transferring the text into the target language and culture, fails to recognize the existence of textual

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features and to perform the necessary changes, an array of negative effects on the communicative event is likely to follow: the text's rhetorical purpose will not be achieved, and ultimately, processing of the text as a coherent, cohesive whole may be difficult. On a more concrete level, the transfer of sourcetextual features may result in a recipe that is so hard to read that Spanish cuisine is replaced with Betty Crocker, an ad that does not sell anything because it has too much technical information, or a request ("can you open the door?") that is interpreted not as a request for action, but as a query for information. In addition to the task of recognizing textual features and making the relevant changes, the translator is faced with the need to consider the translation's context of situation and how it affects textual features. While many translations require that the target text have the same function and purpose as the original and that textual structure and features be adapted to match conventions in the target community, this is not always the case. The translational norms of a particular community may dictate transfer of the source's textual structure to the target text; or the intrinsic value of the original may demand preservation of textual features, as in the translation of many literary texts. The translator is ultimately responsible for making these decisions on the basis of the context of situation of the translation and translational norms. The importance of knowledge of textual structure and textual features in the source and target languages and their role as markers of text type and genre raises a number of questions: do all professional translators have this knowledge? If not, how do we account for this fact? How do professional translators acquire it? Do they follow translational norms? Do novices have knowledge of textual features and of their effects in translation? Van den Broeck (1986) provides some answers concerning professional translators. He reports that in a comparative study of translations of French and English cookbooks into Dutch the translators introduced shifts at the syntactic and macro-structural level that are indicative of a concern for adopting textual norms of the target system. Examples of such changes are the use of the imperative the dominant directive structure in Dutch recipes instead of the infinitive, and the restructuring of the text to adapt to the list-and-instructions organization preferred by TL norms. This paper provides an answer for the last question above. It focuses on the translational behavior of students with the goal of ascertaining their knowledge of textual structures in relation to the translation task.

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The case study to be presented here is based on one lesson which was part of an introductory course:in translation taught by the author at the University of Illinois from 1992 to 1995 (cf. Colina 1994 and 1996 for course description, methodology, rationale and goals). The text in question was a cookbook recipe to be translated from Spanish into English (cf. Appendix for source text).2 The students, consisting mostly of Spanish majors and minors in their third and fourth years of study, had not had any training in translation before enrolling in the course. As the examples to be presented below show, the data and observations collected indicate that beginning students of translation do not have any knowledge of text type and genre conventions. Or at least they are not aware of their relevance and applicability to translation (textual transfer competence). I will take as my point of departure the hypothesis that although some gifted students may naturally and instinctively consider textual structure, most translation students will benefit from explicit instruction on textual features. The paper shows student strategies before and after instruction on contrastive rhetoric and text types, and illustrates a type of instruction.

1.

Contrastive Study3

Given the scarcity of contrastive descriptive studies dealing with textual structure and syntactic features, and in particular with Spanish vs. English texts, I will briefly summarize some of the features that help readers of Spanish and English identify a particular text as a recipe in each of the two languages.

1.1. Recipes in English

Extensive analysis of random recipe books revealed the following textual features:4 (a) Textual structure/patterns The macrostructure of a recipe typically consists of a list of ingredients and amounts, usually in a visually prominent form, e.g. a column, followed by instructions in paragraph form. The recipe may or may not be accompanied by pictures. This is obviously related to the instructional text type and to the nature of the recipe.

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(b) Syntactic features 1. Prepositions are normally absent from the list of ingredients, e.g. 1 cup allpurpose flour, vs. *1 cup OF all-purpose flour (1) CORN DOGS 1 pound frankfurters vegetable oil 1 cup all-purpose flour* 2 tablespoons cornmeal 1/2 teaspoon salt 3 tablespoons shortening 3/4 cup milk 1 egg, beaten 1 medium onion, grated, if desired (Betty Crocker's Cookbook 1990: 233)

2. Although the definite article is normally used in English after the first introduction of an entity, it is normally omitted in recipes, as are indefinite articles. (2) Pat [the] frankfurters dry. Heat [the] oil (2 to 3 inches) in [a] deep fryer or [a] Dutch oven to 365. Mix the flour, cornmeal, baking powder and salt. Cut in [the] shortening. Stir in [the] remaining ingredients. Dip [the] frankfurters into [the] batter, allowing excess to drip into [the] bowl. Fry turning once, until brown, about 6 minutes; drain. Insert [a] wooden skewer in [the] end of each frankfurter if desired. 4 servings; 580 calories per serving. Accompany with carrot and celery sticks, potato chips and ice cream with Crunchy Chocolate Sauce. *If using self-rising flour, omit [the] baking powder and salt. (Betty Crocker's Cookbook 1990: 153)

Note that the frequency of zero article is higher in recipes than in other genres, although there are instances in which a definite or indefinite article is used nonetheless. Within the recipe genre, article ellipsis can be viewed as a continuum, with some styles exhibiting higher frequency than others. The text above (2) is on the higher end of the continuum. (3) is an example on the lower end, i.e. with fewer cases of zero article: (3) Method Slice the onion finely, brown in the butter and then place in a small dish. Put the ground spices into a breakfast cup of water, add to the fat in the pan and cook for 3 minutes, stirring the while. Now add the chicken, mix well, see that the meat is just covered by water and boil for 20 minutes with the lid on the pan. When the liquid has almost evaporated, continue to cook, but stir the chicken till golden brown. Crush the browned onion with a spoon and add it to the chicken with the

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yogurt, salt to taste and remainder of the spices. Add a cup of water, put on the lid and simmer gently till the chicken is tender. (If the chicken is not quite done and the liquid has evaporated, add a little more water and cook for a further period). (Day 1970: 128 as quoted in Brown and Yule 1983: 175.)

Zero article usage is a variable text feature in recipes; that is, it may be regarded as peripheral in the characterization/identification of the recipe genre. Other textual markers are essential and exhibit no variation (cf. 3 below). 3. Once a topic entity (what the information is about) has been selected, the writer will refer to it by means of zero anaphora. (For formal properties of this construction see Haegeman 1987, Massam and Roberge 1989, Massam 1992.)
(4) Trim excess fat from lamb shoulder; cut lamb into 1-inch cubes. Place lamb in glass or plastic bowl. Mix lemon juice, oil, salt, oregano and pepper; pour over lamb. Dip frankfurters into batter, allowing excess to drip into bowl. Fry turning once, until brown, about 6 minutes; drain .

(5)

Zero anaphora (no overt marker) is used in (4) after pour, indicated here by , to refer to the entity just introduced: lemon juice, oil, salt, oregano and pepper. (5) is a similar example; refers to the batter-dipped frankfurters, and the after drain to batter-dipped, browned frankfurters.5 Zero-anaphora is possible due to the immediacy of the non-linguistic context available in recipes. This possibility is exploited in English recipes.6 4. Recipes in English exhibit a lack of subordination, with complex sentences frequently using coordination. Punctuation signs are preferred to conjunctions. 5. The imperative is the most common mood used to give instructions, and therefore the dominant one in recipes. 1.2. Recipes in Spanish (a) Textual structure/patterns The macrostructure of a recipe in Spanish is almost identical to that of its English counterpart. This is not surprising, given the fact that the textual organization of content is motivated by universal cognitive structures: before giving instructions on how to prepare a dish (mixing, boiling, baking, frying, etc.), it is necessary to know what are we going to prepare. As a result,

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ingredients will be given first, followed by instructions on what to do with them.7 (b) Syntactic features 1. Prepositions are used in the list of ingredients. (6) Un cuarto de kilo de meluza u otro a fourth of kilo of hake or other 50 gramos 50 grams de queso Gruyre of cheese Gruyre pescado bianco fish white

Medio litro de leche half litre of milk Aceite de oliva oil of olive Un cuarto kilo de gambas one fourth kilo of shrimp media half cebolla onion de mantequilla of butter (Landa 1992: 109)

50 gramos 50 grams

2. Zero article usage is not possible, e.g. Se pelan las patatas, *se pelan patatas. (7) Se pica la cebolla muy menuda y se fre en una tacita de aceite haste que est dorada. Se pelan las gambas y se pican junto con la merluza, todo en crudo, en trozos pequeos. Se aaden entonces a la cebolla, para que se hagan junto con ella. Cuando el pescado est hecho se le agregan dos cucharadas de harina, se dj freir un poco y se empieza a aadir, poco a poco y sin dejar de remover, la leche fra para hacer una bechamel. Tiene que cocer unos diez minutos. Por ultimo, se echa a la bechamel la mitad de la mantequilla, y se sala al gusto. Se reparte en seis conchas individuates para horno o en cacharros pequeos de barro. Se espolvorea con el queso rallado y unos daditos del resto de la mantequilla, y se mete a horno fuerte para que se gratine. Se sirven muy calientes en los mismos recipientes. (Landa 1992: 109)

3. Zero anaphora. Contrary to English, zero anaphora in Spanish is not a marked structure used to refer to previously established topic entities. There are two situations that need to be examined in relation to zero anaphora. Spanish uses two tenses to give instructions: the infinitive (also the imperative) and the se-passive ('pasiva refleja'). While the infinitive takes a direct object, the se-passive

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functions like a passive in that it takes a subject (in spite of the fact that the verb has an active form). This is shown by the agreement on the verb. (8) a. Pelar peel-infinitive Pele peel-imperative Se se las patatas the potatoes (direct object) las patatas the potatoes (direct object) pelan las patatas peel the potatoes (subject) 3 person pl. present. Ind.

b.

The occurrence of the infinitive or the se-passive is in free variation, although it tends to be consistent throughout a text. For texts with the infinitive, successive mentions of an entity after its first introduction will be accomplished with a noun phrase or an object pronoun. (9) is an example of infinitive use and (10) of the imperative. Topics and their referents are shown through co-indexation.8 (9) Chamuscar el pollo, para quemar el resto de plumn, lavarlo1 secarlo1 y cortarlo1 en cuartos o en octavos. Guardarlo1 en la ne vera para que est muy fro al adobarlo1. Mezclar el zumo de limon con el ajo picado y la pastilla de caldo2 y sazonar [[este adobo]2 con sal y pimienta]3 Envolver bien los trozos de [pollo1 en este jugo3]4 (1+3) y dejarlo1 en maceration de 2 a 3 horas. Calentar el aceite en una sartn amplia, rebozar los trozos de pollo4, uno a uno, en harina y freirlos4 en dos o tres veces en el aceite durante unos 7/8 minutos, a fuego suave. Cuando estn hechos por dentro, subir el fuego para que se doren por fuera. Escurrir bien sobre el papel de cocina y servir con patatas paja y ensalada. (Gil de Antunano 1995: 29) Haz pur1 las frambuesas o las fresas2 con la mezcladora elctrica y reserva algunas2 para decoracin. Anade la miel y vuelve a batir. Si no dispones de mezcladora, cuela la fruta con un cedazo fino y aade luego la miel. Bate la nata3 hasta formar picos duros e incorprala3 al pur1 junto con el vino4, si es que lo4 utilizas. Virtelo5 (1+3+4) en copas de cristal y decralo5 con la fruta reservada. Acompnalo5 con galletas dulces. (Bowen and Spencer 1985: 15)

(10)

Texts that use the se-passive show instances of zero anaphora. This is however an unmarked structure, since normally Spanish uses zero anaphora to establish topic continuity of subjects. As shown in (9)-(10) above, 0 is not found when the topics are objects.9 (11) Se pica la cebollal muy menuda y se fre 1 en una tacita de aceite haste que 1 est dorada. Se pelan las gambas2 y se pican 2 junto con la merluza, todo en crudo, en trozos pequenos. Se aaden 2 entonces a la cebolla, para que se

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hagan 2 junto con ella. Cuando el pescado3 est hecho se le agregan dos cucharadas de harina, se deja freir 3 un poco y se empieza a aadir, poco a poco y sin dejar de remover, la leche fra para hacer una bechamel4. Tiene que cocer unos diez minutos. Por ultimo, se echa a la bechamel la mitad de la mantequilla5, y se sala 5 al gusto. Se reparte 5 en seis conchas individuales para horno o en cacharros pequenos de barro. Se espolvorea 6 con el queso rallado y unos daditos del resto de la mantequilla, y se mete 7 a horno fuerte para que se gratine 7. Se sirven 8 muy calientes en los mismos recipientes. (Landa 1992: 109)

4. More subordination Spanish texts show a higher degree of preference for hypotactic constructions.
(12) Se limpia la merluza y se le qui ta la espina (puede hacerlo el pescadero), se sala y se roca con el zumo de medio limon por dentro y por fuera. Se ponen a cocer los huevos. Aparte se prepara el relleno poniendo en una sartn al fuego un poco de aceite con media cebolla y el ajo muy picados hasta que se doren. Entonces se afiaden las gambas peladas y picadas, que se saltean con la cebolla. Cuando se vea que estn hechas, se retira la sartn del fuego. Los huevos cocidos y unas cuantas aceitunas se pican muy menudos y se mezclan con las gambas, mezcla a la que se afiaden dos cucharadas de salsa de tomate y perejil picado. Con esta pasta, que tiene que quedar espesa, se rellena la merluza. Si se ha sacado la espina sin abrir la cola, entonces se rellena por los extremos con la ayuda de una cuchara, y no hace falta atarla. Si se ha abierto entera, se extiende el relleno sobre uno de los lomos y se pone el otro encima, y en este caso conviene atarla un poco para que no se salga el relleno.... (Landa 1992: 106-107)

5. Se-passive and infinitives It has already been mentioned that Spanish uses the imperative or the sepassive as the dominant tense in recipes. 1.3. Contrastive Results It is expected that a recipe written in English, as an instance of the instructional text type and the recipe genre, will show the above-mentioned textual features (cf. 1.1.). Ideally, this should be true regardless of whether the text is a translation or an original recipe (a fact which may not be so for other genres and text types). However, this is not always the case in translation where the source-text structure and conventions are often transferred into the target text. Given the textual features of recipes in Spanish and a Spanish source (cf. 1.2.), one can predict that the following features may find their way into the target text: prepositions used in the list of ingredients; excessive use of the definite

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and indefinite articles; absence of zero anaphora (object pronouns and/or nominal phrases used instead); higher frequency and complexity of hypotactic constructions. The macrostructure of the text should not be affected, given its similarity with the English source. An interesting issue that requires further research relates to the conditions under which the SL (source-language) textual features surface in the target text. The present study shows that the work of novice translators is one case in which SL textual features surface in the target text.

2.

Text Types and Contrastive Rhetoric in the Translation Classroom

This section examines student translational behavior with respect to text types and textual features. English-speaking students were asked to prepare a draft of a translation of two recipes into their mother tongue and bring it to class for discussion. They knew that after the in-class discussion they would have a week to review their texts before turning them in for a grade. Although previous lessons had introduced basic text types (Rei 1976), no other information had been provided for the draft stage. For the in-class discussion, students were given a handout with questions to be answered before the actual translation product was discussed. The first section of this handout dealt with preparatory stages, such as the translation's communicative situation, e.g. receptor audience, purpose, need for research, and text type and genre. (13) shows some of the questions contained in the handout: (13) A. Translation Process: Context of Situation and more
1. What is the purpose of this text? In other words, what is its communicative function: to express an opinion? convey information? other? What would be the purpose of translating such a text into English? Who would be the reader? What kind of translation decisions/techniques derive from the factors in (1), (2), and (3)? Write out (IN ENGLISH) your favorite recipe. Given the purpose and audience of the target text, what do you think would be the ultimate test of translation accuracy and quality? Describe the kind of research/documentation you will need to carry out for this particular translation project.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

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Attention was drawn to different styles in connection with question number (5). Students were also made aware of the relevance of parallel reading. After the in-class discussion (1 hour to 1 1/2 hours), the students' translations were turned in for feedback and evaluation. Most students produced texts with heavy transfer of textual features at the syntactic level: heavy use of articles and lack of zero anaphora were the two most common ones, followed by use of prepositions in the ingredient list.10 The text in (14) is an example of a student's target text.
(14) 100 g of butter 225 g of crushed gingerbread cookies 450 of cream cheese 50 g of powder sugar 6 tablespoons of cream [. . .] Lightly grease a 23 cm cake pan with butter. Melt the remaining butter in a small saucepan; add the crushed ginger bread cookies, and mix well. Use this mixture to cover the bottom of the cake pan, and place it in the refrigerator until it hardens. In a bowl, mix the cream cheese with the sugar until it becomes smooth and creamy. Stir in the cream and 450 g of black currants. Dissolve the gelatin in 2 tablespoons of boiling water, and combine it with the currant mixture. Pour this onto the refrigerated cheesecake crust. Let chill in the refrigerator approximately one hour or until it hardens. Meanwhile, whip the cream until it is very smooth, add the egg white. Spoon this cream onto the chilled cheesecake. Decorate the cream topping and the edge of the cheesecake with the remaining black currants. Refrigerate 15 minutes before serving.11

Notice that in addition to the use of prepositions in the ingredient list, the student has used the explicit object in all cases (no zero anaphora) except in two sentences (15):
(15) Let 0 chill in the refrigerator approximately one hour or until it hardens. Refrigerate 0 15 minutes before serving.

These happen to be cases in which the original omits the object too ("dejar enfriar 0/refrigerar 0 " ) . Given the unsatisfactory results, in later semesters question 5 was modified to read:
(16) 5. a) Write (IN ENGLISH) your favorite recipe, b) Compare this recipe with the text you have to translate. What syntactic and textual features strike you as different?

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The textual differences (lack of prepositions, zero anaphora, use of articles) were pointed out in class: As a result, the overall quality of the assignments turned in improved significantly. Most of the students made the appropriate changes.
(17) 2 cups crushed graham crackers 1/3 cup butter, melted 5 cups cream cheese 5 cups cottage cheese, drained 1 cup granulated sugar 2 tsp. vanilla extract 5 eggs, yolks separated from the whites [. . .] Preheat oven to 450. Grease sides and bottom of a 9" spring-form cake pan. Combine crushed crackers with butter and press firmly into cake pan. Refrigerate 15-20 minutes or until set. In large bowl, mix cream cheese, cottage cheese, sugar, vanilla, salt, and yolks. Beat until uniform and creamy. Add milk, whipped cream, and flour. Beat egg whites until hard peaks form and fold into cheese mixture. Add lemon rind. Pour over mixture into pan and bake at 360 for 45 minutes. Allow to cool in oven, with door open. Refrigerate before serving.12 (18) Lightly grease a 9in. spring form pan with a little butter. Melt the rest of the butter in a saucepan. Add crushed gingerbread. Mix well. Use mixture to line base of pan. Refrigerate until it hardens. In bowl beat cream cheese with sugar until mix is creamy. Add whipped cream and 3/4 pound of black currant mix. Pour mix on top of crust. Refrigerate 0 until it hardens (approximately 1 hour). Meanwhile, beat heavy cream to form soft peaks. Add egg whites and pour this13 on top of refrigerated cheesecake. Decorate top and edges with remaining black currants. Refrigerate 15 minutes before serving.14

As (17) and (18) show, considerable improvement was observed in the target texts throughout various semesters after text types, genres and textual features associated with them were made the focus of instruction. Prepositions were not used in the ingredients list; articles were omitted more frequently; and zero anaphora was used often (indicated in (17) and (18) with ). As a whole, the target recipes can easily be identified as prototypical recipes in English. Since the students were all native speakers of English, it can safely be assumed that earlier inappropriateness of the target text as a sample of a recipe in English was due not to a lack of familiarity with the language, or even the text type, but to a lack of translational competence. This supports the claim that translational competence is a skill separate from language skills as well as the proposed difference between the native translator (Harris 1973, 1977;

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Toury 1995) and the professional (Hnig 1988). In sum, the data obtained through the work of students indicate that instruction is necessary as it relates to textual features and textual structure. While it is also true that very talented students produced adequate texts without instruction, they are, as in any field, a minority. The translation profession cannot possibly afford relying exclusively on a talented minority that does not need instruction, if nothing else because of the amount of material that needs to be translated. In addition, there are further advantages to teaching textual features even to those students who can produce a textually adequate target text. Such instruction will provide them with a better understanding of what they do when they translate, allowing them to defend and explain translation decisions. For all students, in fact, explicit instruction will result in a speeding-up of the learning process. The type of instruction required need not be a lecture on contrastive rhetoric and text-typological conventions. (Notice that in the case study described in this paper there was no lecture component to the lesson.) A short mention of why these notions are relevant to translation in the context of an illustrative assignment (e.g. a recipe) should suffice. This is to be followed up by translation applications such as the ones mentioned here: pre-translation activities, in-class discussion, and an exemplified discussion of the relevant features in each text. At the introductory level and in most courses that train professional translators as well, contrastive rhetoric and discourse analysis should only be introduced as they become relevant to translation tasks.

3.

Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Research

Various implications for the teaching of translation can be derived from the data and the case study examined in this paper. The pedagogical approach discussed here introduces students to the decision-making process: it teaches them that translation is not a list of magical rules, while providing the skills necessary for adequate decisions based on the communicative situation that confronts them. In addition, translation classes comprising the translation of texts as communicative units (in the Hallidayan sense) are beneficial to the student in that they help him/her understand translation by explicitly dealing with a number of processes that have normally been dealt with only intuitively. The

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movement towards the text as a unit of translation has frequently been misunderstood mostly by people with no recent training in linguistics as a movement from small to large, disregarding textual features and everything which makes a text different from a sequence of sentences. This paper shows that merely translating texts rather than sentences in the classroom does not result in more adequate translation. Textual features and structure need to be taught in order for this to occur. The approach to translation teaching presented in this paper also stresses translational competence: being bilingual and being able to understand both types of recipes is not enough. The students realize this immediately upon discussion of their drafts and final versions. In addition to several implications for translation teaching, this study has revealed various other issues in need of further research. Improved performance was observed as the result of teaching textual features in English and Spanish recipes. Improvement, however, was observed across semesters; further validation of the observations could be sought by collecting data within the same semester, and by asking the same group of students to translate similar texts before and after explicit instruction. The results would be further validated if supported by a quantitative study. It is also necessary to determine how professional translators perform with respect to textual features and how this relates to their level of expertise and training. Finally, it would be worth investigating when translators learn/acquire the ability to take textual features into account and where this belongs in a developmental model of translator competence. Author's address: Sonia Colina Department of Languages and Literatures Main Campus Arizona State University P.O.Box 870202 TEMPE, AZ 85287-0202 USA

Notes
1. Genres are referred to as text classes (Textsorte) by German linguists and translation scholars. German scholars distinguish between genre, i.e. text class, and text type as defined here. Many English-speaking theorists, however, often use the term text type to refer to both text type and genre: "Text types are seen as highly conventionalised patterns of general purpose and organisation of content suitable for a specific situation, which provide the external form of speech acts" (Sager 1994: 85).

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2.

The source text was the Spanish version (not a translation) of an English recipe, published in Spain for a Spanish audience. Although this may at first look like a questionable source due to possible transfer from the English recipe it was based on, careful study of the Spanish text revealed no difference in terms of textual structure when compared to other Spanish recipes. While the ingredient list of the Spanish source contained ingredients not very likely to be used by the average Spanish cook (but common in English-speaking countries), this was found to be helpful from a pedagogical point of view when teaching translation into English to beginners. By eliminating some translation problems, e.g. dealing with a long list of products that may not be available in American grocery stores, the text allows students to concentrate on the issues under discussion, i.e. textual features. This study focuses on the main differences between the recipe genres in English and in Spanish in order to illustrate the relevant consequences for the teaching of translation. More detailed studies of the genre, based on larger corpora, are likely to reveal finer details and the conditions under which some features are used in both languages. This type of work, however, is beyond the scope of the present study. Some of the same features were also found by Norrick (1983): list-and-instruction structure, ellipsis of articles and object noun phrases ('zero article' and 'zero anaphora'). Zero anaphora is rare as a marker of topic continuity in English. It is found with topics that exhibit the greatest degree of contiguity, i.e. no ambiguity (no potentially interfering topics) or short distance (normally not more than one clause), and when the topic is a syntactic subject (not with objects), e.g. She left and got into her car (cf. Givn 1983). Zero anaphora is common, however, in recipes where it is used as a marker of topic continuity for objects, thus serving to identify a particular text as belonging to the recipe genre. Whether this is also a feature of other instructional texts, e.g. instruction manuals, and how this affects their translation remains to be investigated. Sadock (1974), however, reports of the existence of zero anaphora in the language of labels, e.g. Shake before using, Do not take internally. Notice, however, that paragraph division tends to be different, with paragraphs being longer and fewer in Spanish. This is not an exclusive feature of recipes; it can be found in most formal texts in Spanish. Notice that topics are modified by the instructions of the recipe: in (10) lo ('it') does not refer to the wine ('el vino'), but to a mix of whipped cream ('nata'), puree ('pur'), and wine ('vino'). Indexing is somewhat inadequate to represent this situation (cf. Brown and Yule 1983). I have tried to indicate this by a new index 5 consisting of the sum of 1, 3 and 4, i.e. 5 (1+3+4) (cf. also 4 (1+3) in (9)). (11) shows similar problems: the topic marked with subindex 6 is not just the bechamel plus butter mix in 5, it is 5 plus salt; 7 is 6 with parmesan cheese and butter, and 8 is 7 after broiling in the oven. Occasional examples of zero anaphora objects were found. Notice that they occur with a topic previously identified in discourse, which is no longer the same because it has been modified as the result of a later action. Below l refers not to the pieces of chicken, but to the pieces of chicken that have been fried and browned. 2 has as its referent modified 1,1, without the oil that has been patted dry with the paper towel. Having a modified referent, however, cannot be considered a factor controlling the use of because NP and pronominal objects also refer to modified antecedents (10).

3.

4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

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Calentar el aceite en una sartn amplia, rebozar los trozos de pollo, uno a uno, en harina y frerlos en dos o trs veces en el aceite durante unos 7/8 minutos, a fuego suave. Cuando estn hechos por dentro, subir el fuego para que se doren por fuera. Escurrir 1 bien sobre el papel de cocina y servir 2 con patatas paja y ensalada. (Gil de Antuano 1995: 29) A more likely explanation for these occurrences of empty objects has to do with English influence. The book where this recipe was found refers to polio Kentucky (clear reference to Kentucky Fried Chicken) and uses words such as bol ('bowl'), where a more traditional writer would prefer cuenco ('bowl'). Some cases of zero anaphora with objects were also found in less traditional cookbooks, such as fastfood, microwave-style cooking. Van den Broeck (1986: 45) reports on the writing of new versions of traditional French recipes to meet the demands of a modern user that prefers simplicity to refinement of style. A similar trend may be emerging in Spanish as a the result of changing life-styles and American influence. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. This may be due to the saliency of the ingredient list. Other textual features may not be so easy to identify. Cf. Appendix (i) for source text. Cf. Appendix (ii) for source text. Notice that there is still one case in which zero anaphora would have been more appropriate than explicit use of an object, i.e. this. Cf. Appendix (i) for source text.

References
Bowen, Carol and Jill Spencer. 1985. Enciclopedia prctica de la repostera. Madrid: Servagrup. Brown, Gillian and George Yule. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P. Colina, Sonia. 1994. "The Role of Translation in a Non-Translation Program". Proceedings of the ATA Annual Conference. NJ: Learned Information, 1994. 351-360. Colina, Sonia. 1996. "An Introductory Course in Translation: Methodological and Pedagogical Issues". Carmen Valero Carcs, ed. Encuentros en torno a la traduccin II: Una realidad interdisciplinar. Alcal de Henares: Universidad de Alcal, 1996, 45-51. [No author.] 1990. Betty Crocker's Cookbook. New York: Golden Press. Day, Harvey. 1970. The Complete Book of Curries. The Cookery Book Club. Gil de Antunano, Maria Jesus. 1995. Con mucho gusto: Menus completos de Maria Jesus Gil de Antunano. Madrid: Ediciones el Pas. Givn, Talmy, ed. 1983. Topic Continuity in Discourse. Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Eggington, William. 1987. "Written Academic Discourse in Korean: Implications for Effective Communication in Writing Across Languages". Ulla Connor and Robert Kaplan, eds. Writing Across Languages: Analysis of L2 Text. Massachusetts: Adison, 1987. 153-168.

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Haegeman, Liliane. 1987. "Register Variation in English: Some Theoretical Observations". Journal of English Linguistics 20:2. 230-248. Harris, Brian. 1973. "La traductologie, la traduction naturelle, la traduction automatique et la smantique". Cahiers de Linguistique 10 (no page numbers). Harris, Brian. 1977. "The Importance of Natural Translation". Working Papers on Bilingualism 12. 96-114. Hatim, Basil and Ian Mason. 1990. Discourse and the Translator. London and New York: Longman. Hinds, John. 1983. "Contrastive Rhetoric: Japanes and English". Text 3:2. 183-195. House, Juliane and Shoshana Blum-Kulka, eds. 1986. Interlingual and Intercultural Communication: Discourse and Cognition in Translation and Second Language Acquisition Studies. Tubingen: Gunter Narr. Hnig, Hans G. 1988. "Wissen bersetzer eigentlich, was sie tun?" Lebende Sprachen 33:1. 10-13. Kaplan, Robert B. 1966. "Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education". Language Learning 16. 1-20. Landa, Angela. 1992. A fuego lento. Madrid: Nerea. Massam, Diane. 1992. "Null Objects and Non-Thematic Subjects". Journal of Linguistics 28. 115-137. Massam , Diane and Yves Roberge. 1989. "Recipe Context Null Objects in English". Linguistic Inquiry 20:1. 134-139. Neubert, Albrecht and Gregory M. Shreve. 1992. Translation as Text. Kent, Ohio, and London, England: Kent State UP. Nord, Christiane. 1991. Text Analysis in Translation. Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA: Rodopi. Norrick, Kassel. 1983. "Recipes as Texts: Technical Language in the Kitchen". Ren Jungen, Sabine De Knop, Peter H. Nelde and Marie-Paule Quix, eds. Sprache, Diskurs und Text. Tubingen: Niemayer, 1983. 173-182. Rei, Katharina. 1976. Texttyp und Ubersetzungsmethode: Der operative Text. Kronberg/ Ts.: Scriptor. Sager, Juan. 1994. Language Engineering and Translation: Consequences of Automation. Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Sadock, Jerrold. 1974. "Read at Your Own Risk: Syntactic and Semantic Horrors You Can Find in Your Medicine Chest". Proceedings of the 10th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society. Chicago, IL: Chicago Linguistics Society. Tirkkonen-Condit, Sonja. 1986. "Text Type Markers and Translation Equivalence". House and Blum-Kulka 1986: 95-113. Toury, Gideon. 1995. Descriptive Translation Studies and beyond. Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Van den Broeck, Raymond. 1986. "Contrastive Discourse Analysis as a Tool for the Interpretation of Shifts in Translated Texts". House and Blum-Kulka 1986: 37-47.

352 Appendix
(i)

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Pastel de queso con grosellas negras y jengibre Para 6 personas 100 g de mantequilla 225 g de queso fresco graso 50 g de azcar extrafina 6 cucharadas de nata 575 g de grosellas negras, quitado el rabo 15 g de gelatina en polvo 300 ml de nata doble 1 clara de huevo, batida a punto de nieve

Engrasa ligeramente con un poco de mantequilla un molde de fondo abatible de 23 cm. Derrite el resto de la mantequilla en un cazo pequeno, anade al triturado de galletas de jengibre y mzclalo bien. Utiliza esta mezcla para forrar la base del molde y refrigera hasta que se endurezca. En un cuenco, bate el queso fresco con el azcar hasta obtener una mezcla uniforme y cremosa. Incorpora la nata y 450g de grosellas negras. Disuelve la gelatina en 2 cucharadas de agua hirviendo e incoprala a la mezcla de grosellas. Vierte esta mezcla sobre la corteza de pastel de queso refrigerada. Ponla en la nevera hasta que endurezca, aproximadamente 1 hora. Entretanto, bate la nata doble hasta formar picos blandos y aade la clara a punto de nieve. Vierte esta crema con una cuchara sobre la parte superior del pastel de queso refrigerado. Adorna la crema de nata y clara con las grosellas restantes y decora tambin con ellas el borde del pastel de queso. Refrigera 15 minutos antes de servir. (Bowen and Spencer 1985: 63) (ii) Pastel de queso neoyorquino Para 8-10 personas Base 175 g de galletas cracker 75 g de mantequilla, derretida Relleno 450 g de queso fresco graso 450 de requesn, colado 275 g de azcar extrafina 2 cucharaditas de esencia de vainilla 1 pizca de sal 5 huevos, las claras separadas de las yemas 1 lata (100 ml) de leche evaporada 100 ml de nata doble 3 cucharadas de harina 1 cucharada de zumo de limon

Calienta el horno a temperatura alta (230 Gas 8). Engrasa ligeramente la base y los lados de un molde de fondo abatible de 23 cm. Tritura las galletas metindolas en una boisa de

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plstico y pasndoles el rodilllo por encima o con la mezcladora elctrica. Mzclalas con la mantequilla y acomdalas sobre el fondo del molde. Refrigera de 15 a 20 minutos o hasta que se endurezcan. Entretanto, mezcla en un cuenco grande el queso fresco, el requesn, el azcar, la vainilla, la sal y las yemas, batiendo hasta obtener una mezcla uniforme y cremosa. Anade la leche evaporada, la nata y la harina. Bate las claras hasta formar picos duros e incorprates a la mezcla de queso junto con el zumo de limn. Vierte esta mezcla en el molde y ponlo en el horno. Reduce inmediatamente la temperatura del horno a moderada (180 C, Gas 4). Cuece durante 45 minutos y apaga el horno. Deja que el pastel se enfre dentro del horno, con la puerta entreabierta. Refrigera antes de servir. (Bowen and Spencer 1985: 63)