Chapter 6Phonation II: Measurement and Instrumentation Fundamental frequency (F0) is the rate of vibration of the vocal folds.

We perceive F0 as pitch When women get older, F0 goes downthe opposite happens for men.

Pitch Control F0 is controlled by: The length of the vocal folds The tension exerted upon VF mass per unit length Stiffness of VF Length of Vocal FoldsAnatomy and Physiology 1. The cricothyroid muscle plays the primary role a. Stretches and tenses the vocal folds by tilting the thyroid cartilage anteriorly. b. This movement lengthens the vocal folds, increasing tension c. Therefore, when the cricothyroidcontracts, F0 is raised.

2. The thyroarytenoid muscles a. Thyrovocalis (vocalis): contraction of the vocalis draws the cricoid and thyroid cartilages further apart, TENSING the vocal folds (raising F0) b. Thyromuscularis (muscularis): draws the arytenoid cartilages forward, RELAXING the thyrovocalis and adducting the VF 3. The cricothyroid and thyroarytenoid have an agonist/antagonist relationship

Subglottal pressureF0 Regulation: The greater the subglottal pressure, the greater the vibrational amplitude (lateral stretch) of the VF, raising F0 We tend to speak around a common range, called the mean speaking F0 range.

Mean Fundamental Frequency (MFF) Men Women Boys Girls 100-150 Hz 150-200 Hz 220-240 Hz 238-243 Hz

Types of Voice Analysis Objective Measurements Acoustic Recording/Analysis

Quantitative documentation of vocal function

Imperfect, non-invasive measure

Understand underlying vocal mechanism

Discriminate normal from pathologic voice

Document treatment efficiency and outcome

Inconsistent agreement between acoustic measures and audio-perceptual ratings Measure changes in vocal production across time

Compare between normal and disordered group data Health insurance issues

Three Ways of Measuring F0: Habitual Voice Use, Maximum Performance, and Regularity: Habitual Voice Use Measures how the system performs in regular, everyday function. Measures mean F0 and intensity or range. o Sustained vowel o Reading o Running speech (connected speech) Maximum Performance The span from lowest to highest frequency of which the individual is physiological capable. o How does the system perform under stress? What are the physiological limits of the system? o Phonate from lowest to highest pitch

Maximum range can be elicited as part of a frequency-intensity task called the voice range profile (graphical representation of amplitude and frequency)

Regularity How stable is the system? A short term irregularity is called a perturbation Jitter o F0 perturbation is jitter and is measured by the cycle to cycle regularity of frequency in the period of vibration o Average period difference/average period o <1% is considered normal. o Not perceptually discriminated; cannot be used as screening Jitter percentage Jitter factorthe average cycle-to-cycle difference in the frequency/average frequency of the sample.

Determiners of Intensity: Subglottal pressurea key variable in regulation of intensity and contributes to F0 control. o The greater the subglottal pressure, the more intensity (and F0) Vocal fold closure o The greater the closure, the greater the build up of subglottal pressure and the less energy is lost to the subglottal space o The longer the duration of closure, the longer subglottal pressure can build up (Psub) o Speed of closurethe sharper the airflow cuts off at the glottis and thus the more energy is transmitted to the area above the vocal folds Vocal tract resonance Overall, intensity is a complex interplay of aerodynamic activity (subglottal pressure) and muscular activity. Extrinsic laryngeal muscles and thoracic muscles are more active with increased activity. Motor equivalencespecific motor strategies used to increase intensity may vary among individuals. Intensity is a direct correlation of the sound pressure level (SPL) of voice. Measured with dB. The direct correlate is loudness. Measurement: sustained vowels, reading, or conversation

Norm Intensity Levels: Habitual (moderate) intensity = 70 dB SPL = 75 dB SPL Reading (at habitual F0) Sustained vowel (at habitual F0) Sustained vowel (at 10% of frequency range) Sustained vowel (at 90% of frequency range) Sustained vowel (across entire frequency range)

Minimum intensity

= 49 dB SPL

Maximum intensity

= 102 dB SPL Men= 47-100 dB SPL Women = 51-104 dB SPL

Intensity (dynamic) range

Shimmer Intensity perturbation = shimmer Less than 2.6% is normal Cycle to cycle irregularity of the acoustic waveform Not perceptually discriminated; not for screening

Relative average perturbation, aka frequency perturbation quotient: Average difference in periods between three adjacent cycles; divided by the average period

Harmonics to Noise Ratio (H/N) A ratio measure of the energy in the voice signal. May be derived from different algorithms and expressed in various units. Greater harmonic energy in voice reflects better voice quality

Stresses on Vocal Folds during Phonation Tensile stressthe greatest force per unit area of the vocal folds. o Due to contraction of the cricothyroid o Passive force exerted upon the vocal folds Contractile stress o Active stress o Function of the elongation (strain) of the vocal folds Impact Stress (collision stress)the impact of the vocal folds at midline o When they impact, the velocity decreases rapidly

Inertial Stressoccurs from the acceleration and deceleration of the vocal folds excluding impact stress Aerodynamic Stressthe air pressure from within the glottis during the open phase of phonation Shear Stressa force applied parallel to the surface of the vocal folds o Due to the upheaval of tissue that forms the mucosal wave Measurements of Phonatory Aerodynamics

Spirometermeasures vital capacity (the volume of airflow in the lungs. Determines pressure to drive VF Pneumatochographmeasures the rate of airflow to and from the lungs Mean Airflow Range Adult Men Adult Women 109-182 (ml/sec) 76-172 (ml/sec)

Normal values can vary widely among individuals, so by itself the mean airflow doesnt tell us much about the functioning of the system. Direct measurement of subglottal pressure can be done by sticking a needle through the cricothyroid membrane just below the vocal folds. Must be performed by a physician. Subglottal pressure can also be measured by intraoral pressure. Vocal Efficiencythe ratio of the radiated acoustic power to the aerodynamic power. Voice production involves converting aerodynamic power (mean subglottal pressure x airflow rate) into acoustic power. The ratio of aerodynamic power to acoustic power at the glottis is called glottal efficiency Vocal efficiency in adults is greater than in young children S/Z ratio measures the integrity of phonatory glottal pressure (no unit of measure) /s/ and /z/ should be of equal durations, yielding a value of 1. If s/z is greater than 1, it is a red flag to check the glottal edge of VF or suspect VF paralysis (if s/z is more than one it shows a reduction in voiced duration values) 95% of patients with pathologies such as nodules and polyps found a ratio of 1.4

Maximum Phonation Time (MPT)--the duration of a maximally sustained vowel. Used to assess integrity of phonatory glottal closure. Life Span Change Maximum Phonation Time Children Children Adults Children 6-15 years 10-20 seconds (approx.) Adults 3-4 years 5-12 years 18-39 years 66-93 years 7.5-8.95 14.97-17.74 20.90-24.60 seconds 14.20-18.10 seconds

Norm Maximum Phonation Time Men 17-41 years 24.9 seconds

Women

18-40 years

17.9 seconds

Phonatory Quotientvital capacity/maximum phonation time. Measured in ml/sec Instrumentation for Vocal Fold Assessment Glottographythe analysis of vibratory movements of the vocal folds during phonation using any one or a combination of measures including photography, electroglottography, ultrasound glottography, and inverse filtering. All these methods provide waveforms corresponding to various aspects of the phonatory behavior of the vocal folds. Depict specific aspects of the vibration of the vocal folds over time. Laryngeal Videoendoscopy and Stroboscopy: Stroboscopyuses a pulsing light to simulate movement at a rate slower than the actual rate of movement. Exploits limitations of the human eye; optical illusion of slow motion Indirect method of observing the larynx Uses xenon lights, which are used for seeing: o Patterns of VF vibration and glottis closure o Periodicity, symmetry, amplitude of VF vibration, stiffness, phase closure Better to see movement Videoendoscopy--If you use a scope with a halogen (not xenon) light, you cant see vibrations. BUT Steady and bright light allows you to see structure General appearance, lesions, color, edema Glottic and supraglottic functions Secretions Better to see structure

Types of Endoscopes Rigid (trans-oral) scopeinto mouth. (SLPs can use to see structure) Breathing, coughing, and sustained vowel. Distort normal shape of vocal folds Better to see structure Flexible (trans-nasal) scopeinto nose; better to see movement (ENTs only) Less-bright, fish eye Vocal tract in normal Unobstructed Evaluation of nasal, velopharyngeal, singing, swallowing Better to see movement High-speed laryngeal imaging--expensive Videokymography (VKG)medical method; black and white images; shows cycle-to-cycle irregularity in vocal fold movement. Scans the middle of the vocal folds Photoglottography (PGG)information about relative size of the glottal opening (changes in size) Measures the amount of light passing through the vocal folds during each vibratory cycle Electroglottography (EEG)provides a waveform that corresponds to the relative contact of the vocal folds during vibration. The vocal fold closure is related to the peak of the waveform Electrodes on the neck on either side of the thyroid cartilage

Open Quotientthe ratio of the open phase of the vocal fold vibration to the entire duration of the glottal cycle Speed Quotientthe ratio of the duration of the opening phase of the vocal folds to the duration of the closing phase. Contact (Closed) Quotientthe ratio of the period the folds are in contact compared to the entire glottal cycle.

EMGINVASIVE; intra electrodes are inserted into specific muscles to measure electrical activity Measure/diagnose injury, neurological damage, paralysis, etc.

Vocal Registersa register is a series of consecutive F0 of approximately equivalent vocal quality. Refers to particular modes of vibration of the vocal folds. The transition between two registers is perceived as an abrupt change in vocal quality. Quantal changetransition from one state to another due to a continually changing variable

There are three basic registers: Most speech by men and women occurs in the Modal Register. The span is 90-450 Hz for men and 150-520 Hz for women. Glottal Fry (pulse phonation) occurs when the cricothyroid is so relaxed there is minimal tension on the vocal folds. There is therefore a decrease in stiffness. The cords are short, thickened, and have increased mas per unit along with a lax mucosal cover. This causes four characteristics: 1. F0 is very low (35-50 Hz in men and women) 2. Prolonged duration of closed phase 3. Low mean airflow and subglottal pressure 4. Double closure pattern for each cycle (dichrotic phonation) Falsetto is in the frequencies above the modal register. o Occurs when the cricothyroid is contracted and unopposed by the thyroarytenoid. Vocal folds have increased tension and stiffness, decreased thickness (raising F0 by raising rate of vibration) (see image above). o High tension causes buildup of elastic recoil, reduced amplitude of mucosal wave vibration, and a shortened closed phase of the vibratory cycle Prosody Pitch, loudness, tempo, and rhythm. All are SUPRASEGMENTAL featuresfeatures larger than the phonetic segment.