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Definition: Permutation -A permutation of a set of distinct objects is an ordered arrangement of these objects.

-An ordered arrangement of r elements of a set is called a r -permutation. -The number of r -permutations of a set with n elements is denoted by P(n, r ).
THEOREM 1

If n is a positive integer and r is an integer with 1 < r < n, then there are P(n, r) = n (n - l)(n - 2) (n - r + 1) r-permutations of a set with n distinct elements. Proof: We will use the product rule to prove that this formula is correct. The first element of the permutation can be chosen in n ways because there are n elements in the set. There are n - 1 ways to choose the second element of the permutation, because there are n - 1 elements left in the set after using the element picked for the first position. Similarly, there are n -2 ways to choose the third element, and so on, until there are exactly n - (r - I) = n - r + 1 ways to choose the rth element. Consequently, by the product rule, there are n(n - 1)(n -2)(n - r + 1) r-permutations of the set. Note that P (n, 0) = 1 whenever n is a nonnegative integer because there is exactly one way to order zero elements. That is, there is exactly one list with no elements in it, namely the empty list.

Order matters. After selecting the objects, two different orderings or arrangements constitute different permutations. Choose the first object n ways, Choose the second object (since selection is without replacement) (n - 1) ways, the rth object (n - r + 1) ways. By the rule of product, The number of permutations of n things taken r at a time P(n,r) = n(n - 1)(n - 2) . . . (n - r + 1) Note: P(n, r) n!_ (n r)!

Example 1: Let A and B be finite sets and let | A | | B | . Count the number of injections from A to B. Note there are no injections if | A | > | B | (why?) There are P( | B |, | A | ) injections: We order the elements of A, {a1, a2, . . . } and assume the urn contains the set B. There are | B | ways to choose the image of a1, | B | - 1 ways to choose the image of a2, and so forth. Selection is without replacement. Otherwise we do not construct an injection. EXAMPLE 2: if = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, then < 1 2 3 4 5 6>, < 2 1 4 3 6 5 >, and < 1 3 5 2 4 6 > are three , neither is < 1 2 3 4 5 5>

permutation of I6, however , < 1 2 4 5 > is not a permutation of nor < 1 2 3 4 5 7 >.

whithin the permutation < 2 1 3 5 4 6 > we say that 2 is in the first position, 1 in the second position, 3 in the third position,and so on.

EXAMPLE 3: Here are all permutation on {1,2,3}: < 1 2 3>, <1 3 2>, <3 1 2> , < 2 1 3>, <2 3 1>, < 3 2 1>. Notice there are 6 = 3! Such permutations. EXAMPLE 4: List all 4! Permutation on the four numbers {1, 2, 3, 4,} The multiplication shows us why the factorial function counts permutation of an n-set. Since a permutation is an order list, we may count the ways to fill in the n blanks. < _ _ _ --- _ > First we see that we have n choices for the element to place in the first position of the permutation. After that we have only ( n 1 ) choice for the entry in the second position, then ( n -2 ) for the third position, and so on. At the next to last position we have two choices remaining and then one choice for the last position. Thus the number of permutation on n elements is n(n-1)(n-2)-----2.1 = n! EXAMPLE 5: Suppose that we start with the permutation < 2 1 3 4 >. We can insert the element 5 in any one of five different position to obtain < 2 1 3 4 5 >, <2 1 3 5 4>,<2 1 5 3 4>, <2 5 1 3 4>, and < 5 2 1 3 4>.

Definition: Combination
A combination of a set of distinct elements is an unordered selection of elements from the set. An r -combination of elements of a set is an unordered selection of r elements from the set. Thus, an r -combination is simply a subset of the set with r elements. The number of r -combinations of a set with n distinct elements is denoted by C(n, r ).

THEOREM The number of r- combinations of set with n elements, where n is a non negative integer and r is an integer with 0 < r < n, equals

The number of combinations of n things taken r at a time

Other names for C(n, r): n choose r The binomial coefficient Definition: Binomial Coefficient
An other usual notation to compute the number of r -combinations from a set of n elements is

EXAMPLE 1
A letter lock consists of three rings, each marked with fifteen different letters. Find in how many ways it is possible to make an unsuccessful attempt to open the lock. Answer: 1st ring can be attempted in 15 ways. 1st and 2nd ring can be attempted in 15 x 15 = 152 ways 1st and 2nd and 3d ring can be attempted in 15 x 15 x 15 = 153 ways Among these 153 attempts, one attempt will be a successful attempt. Hence the number of unsuccessful attempts is 153-1= 3375 -1 = 3374

EXAMPLE 2
Given five different green dyes, four different blue dyes and three different red dyes, how many combinations of dyes can be chosen taking atleast one green and one blue dye? Answer: The least number of dyes that a combination can have is 2. (one blue and one green). Maximum number of dyes that a combination can have is 12 (5G, 4B, 6R). Atleast one green dye can be selected out of 5 green dyes. The number of ways is

After selecting one or more green dyes, we can select atleast one blue dye out of 4 different blue dyes. The number of ways is

After selecting atleast one green dye and atleast one blue dye, at least one red dye or no red dye can be selected in

= 1 + 3 + 3 + 1 = 8 ways The total number of combinations (31)(15)(8) = 3720.

EXAMPLE 3
From a class of 32 students, 4 are to be chosen for a competition. In how many ways can this be done? Answer:

We are to select 4 students from 32.This selection can done in

EXAMPLE 4
A sportsteam of 11 students is to be constituted choosing at least 5 from class XI and 5 at least from XII. If there are 20 students in each of these classes, in how many ways can the team be constituted? Answer: Number of students in each class is 20.

Total number of selections = 2 x 600935040 = 1201870080

EXAMPLE 5
How many ways are there to travel in xyz space from the origin (0,0,0) to the point (4,3,5) by taking steps on unit in the positive x direction, one unit in the positive y direction, or one unit in the positive z direction? (Moving in the negative x, y, or z direction is prohibited, so that no backtracking is allowed).

Answer: notation remark: C(n,k) is a number of simple combinations of k elements from n, C(n,k) = n! / ( k!(n-k)! ) We have to make 4 steps in x direction, 3 steps in y direction and 5 steps in z direction, a total of 12 steps. There are C(12,4) ways to choose which steps will be in x direction. Once they are chosen, there are C(8,3) ways to choose which of the other steps will be in y direction. The 5 left steps are automatically assigned to z direction. So, the answer is C(12,4) * C(8,3) = 27,720.

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