Lab

OPTICS LAB MANUAL
Surendra Singh with Raj Gupta, Ray Hughes, and Reeta Vyas
Department of Physics, University of Arkansas
2005
How to use this manual
This manual is to help you perform the experiments described herein and
develop an understanding of the basic principles of Optics. Refer to your
textbook for additional discussion of these principles. You should familiarize
yourself with both the details of the procedure and the physics involved in
each of these experiments before you come to the laboratory.
We invite your comments to improve the manual.
ii
Contents
How to use this manual ii
1 Thin Lenses 1
1.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Converging Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Diverging Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Experimental Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Optical Instruments 11
2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 The Magnifying Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 The Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 The Compound Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 The Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Beam Expanders (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Other Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.2 The Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Measurement of Refractive Index 23
3.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.1 The Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.2 Inteferometric Refractometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.1 The Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
iii
3.2.2 The Refractometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.1 The Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.2 The Interferometirc Refractometer . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4 Interference by the Division of the Wavefront 38
4.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.1 Lloyds Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.2 Fresnels Biprism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2.1 Determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3.1 Lloyds Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3.2 Fresnels Biprism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5 Michelson Interferometer 46
5.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1.1 Coherenc Time and Coherence Length . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.2 Polarization Dependence of Interference . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.1 Wavelength of HeNe Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.2 Wavelength of Sodium D Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6 Polarization of Light 55
6.1 States of Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1.1 Unpolarized light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.1.2 Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.2.1 Linear Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.2.2 Brewster Angle (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.3 Circular Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2.4 Optical Diode : Optical Isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.2.5 Polarization Rotator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.6 Elliptically Polarized Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.7 An Amusement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7 Resolving Power of a Grating and Limit of Resolution 67
7.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2.1 Resolving Power of a Grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.2.2 Determination of the Grating Constant d . . . . . . . . 69
7.3 Limit of Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8 Image Formation and Spatial Filtering 73
8.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9 Holography 80
9.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.2.1 Transmission and Reection Holograms . . . . . . . . . 82
9.2.2 Darkroom Chemicals Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.3 Viewing a Transmission Hologram . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10 Photoelectric Eect 89
10.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
A Error Analysis 95
A.1 Signicant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
A.2 Classication of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
A.3 Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
A.4 Sample Mean and Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A.5 Propagation of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
A.6 Standard Deviation of an Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
A.7 Special Rules for Combining Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
A.7.1 Sum and dierence: V = ax by . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
A.7.2 Product of various powers: V = x
p
y
q
. . . . . . . . . . 104
A.7.3 Logarithm of a quantity: V = Aln x . . . . . . . . . . 105
A.7.4 Exponential of a quantity: V = Ae
bx
. . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 1
Thin Lenses
1.1 Theory
The object and image distances, s
o
and s
i
, both measured from the center
of a thin lens, are related by the lens formula
1
s
o
+
1
s
i
=
1
f
, (1.1)
where f is the focal length of the lens. The image distance s
i
is positive for
a real image and negative for a virtual image. Similarly, the object distance
s
o
is positive for a real object and negative for a virtual object. A real image
is formed by light rays that converge after passing through the lens. A real
image can be projected onto a screen. A virtual image is formed by light
rays that diverge after passing through the lens. To the eye viewing these
refracted rays, they appear to come from an image located on the other side
of the lens. A virtual image cannot be projected onto a screen.
Q1 : What kind of rays are associated with real and virtual
objects?
Lenses can be divided into two categories : converging and diverging.
A converging lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges. A diverging
lens is thinner in the middle than at the edges.
Q2 : When are these two statements about converging and
diverging lenses false?
Light rays incident parallel to the axis of a converging lens converge to-
ward a point on the axis after refraction by the lens
1
. This point is called
1
For a diverging lens the refracted rays appear to diverge from a point.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. THIN LENSES
Qty. Description
1 optical bench with stages
1 positive lens
1 negative lens
1 lens holder
1 laboratory telescope with a holder
1 circular frame with vertical wire attached
1 image screen with holder
1 plane mirror with holder
1 illuminated object (could use a desk lamp and a pin or aperture)
Table 1.1: Apparatus for the Thin Lenses experiment.
the image focal point of the lens. Thus the focal point is the image of an
axial object at innity. There is another axial point which is such that the
rays starting from an object placed there emerge parallel to the axis of the
lens
2
. This point is called the object focal point. The distance from the cen-
ter of the lens to the focal point is called the focal length of the lens. For a
lens surrounded by the same medium on the two sides, the object and image
focal points are located symmetrically on the opposite sides of a lens. Their
distances from the lens have the same value and we will denote this length
by f.
A converging lens has a positive focal length, f > 0, and is therefore also
called a positive lens. A diverging lens has a negative focal length, f < 0.
For this reason a diverging lens is also called a negative lens. Algebraic signs
should be observed carefully in Eq. (1.1).
Q3 : Focal length f is one of the two characteristic parameters
of a lens. What is the other parameter?
From Eq. (1.1), we see that the object and image locations are inter-
changeable. This means if an object at a distance s
o
produces an image at
s
i
, then the same object placed at a distance s
i
from the lens will produce
an image at at s
o
. Two such points that an object at one produces an image
at the other, are called conjugate points.
2
For a diverging lens the rays are incident on the lens converging toward the object
focal point and emerge parallel to the axis.
1.2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 3
1.2 Experimental Procedure
1.2.1 Converging Lens
In this portion of the experiment, you will determine the focal length of a
positive lens. For every procedure described below, make at least three
determinations of the focal length. Sample tables for recording
your measurements have been provided at the end of this Chapter.
Be sure to record the correct number of signicant gures, for
example, 50.0cm0.1cm. Report your results along with uncertainties.
Focal length by parallel rays
Method I
Form a sharp image of a distant object (10 m or farther) upon a screen and
measure the distance from the center of the lens to the screen [ Fig 1.1(I)].
This distance is equal to the focal length (f) of the lens. Draw a ray diagram
for this method. Make several independent measurements. Record your
measurements in a Table in INK. Take the average of your results and assign
uncertainties.
Method II
Focus a telescope on a distant object and without changing the adjustment
of the telescope, place it on an optical bench. Aim it toward the converging
lens. Place an illuminated object on the other side of the lens [Fig 1.1 (II)].
Keep the telescope, the lens, and the object at the same height above the
bench. Look through the telescope and move the lens either toward or away
from the object until you get a sharp image of the object in the telescope.
Measure the distance from the center of the lens to the object. This distance
is equal to the focal length of the lens. Make three or more independent
measurements for the lens provided and take the average of your results.
Assign uncertainty. Draw a ray diagram to explain this method.
Focal length by parallax
Place a vertical plane mirror just behind the lens [ Fig 1.1 (III)]. Set an
illuminated object (a pin or short vertical wire) in front of the lens. Look
past the illuminated object toward the lens. You should see an inverted
image of the object. Move the object toward or away from the lens until
its image appears to oat directly above the object. When this happens,
the object and its image are a focal length away from the lens. Draw a ray
Mirror Lens Object Distant Lens Image
Object on a screen
f
Distant Lens Telescope
Object
f
(I) (II) (III)
Image
Observer
Figure 1.1: Measurement of the focal length of a positive lens by (I) the
image of a distant object; (II) using a telescope focused for parallel rays;
(III) the method of parallax.
diagram and explain how this method works. Take several measurements,
calculate the average of your measurements and assign errors.
Focal length by conjugate points
Place an illuminated object near one end of the optical bench. Place the lens
before the object and put a screen on the other side of the lens to receive
the image of the object. Adjust the positions of both the lens and the screen
until a sharp image appears on the screen. The object and its image dene
a pair of conjugate points (Fig. 1.2).
Record the object and image distances s
o
and s
i
. Measure the distance b
between the object and its image.
Without moving the object or the screen, move the lens until another
sharp image is cast on the screen. Record the distance a between the new
and the old positions of the lens. Also record the object and image distances
s
o
and s
i
for the new position of the lens. In terms of a and b the focal length
of the lens is given by
f =
b
2
a
2
4b
. (1.2)
Q4 : Derive this relation in your report.
Repeat the measurements described above for at least ve values of b and
calculate the focal length in each case using Eq. (1.2). Take the average and
assign uncertainty.
Use the data recorded above for object and image distances to plot 1/s
i
(yaxis ) against 1/s
o
(xaxis). The points should lie on a straight line.
s
o
s
i
a
b
s'
o
s'
i
O
L
I
F
O
L
I'
F
Figure 1.2: Focal length by conjugate points
Note that you should have at least 10 pairs of data from ve measurements
of b. Intercept of this straight line with the x or the y axis is 1/f.
Determine f from the intercept.
1.2.2 Diverging Lens
A diverging lens by itself does not form a real image. Therefore the methods
described for positive lenses cannot be used to determine the focal length of
a diverging lens. In this part of the experiment, we will learn two methods
for determining the focal length of a negative lens.
Focal length by virtual object
Set up an illuminated object, positive lens, and screen as in the Focal length
by conjugate foci subsection of Sec. 1.2.1 and obtain a sharp image I
1
on
the screen. Record the image distance from the positive lens as s
i1
in the
table provided at the end of this Chapter. Now place the diverging lens
between the converging lens and the screen. The original image I
1
serves as
a virtual object (negative object distance) for the diverging lens. Without
moving the screen record the distance s
o2
with due care for the algebraic
signs. The diverging lens will cause the image to lie farther from the positive
lens (see Figure 1.3). Now move the screen until the new image I
2
is in
focus. Record the distance of the screen from the negative lens as s
i2
in the
O
s
o1
s
i1
s
o2
s
i2
L
1
L
2
F
1
I
1
I
2
Figure 1.3: Measurement of focal length of a negative lens.
table provided. This arrangement results in a real image if the converging
lens focal length is shorter than the magnitude of the focal length of the
diverging lens. The two positions of the screen recorded above are a pair of
conjugate points of the diverging lens. Compute the focal length of the lens
using Eq. (1.1). Make at least three measurements.
Focal length by parallax
Mount the diverging lens on the optical bench. On the side opposite the
viewer place an illuminated object. Looking through the lens, determine the
general location of the image. At the approximate site of the image, mount
the image locator. The image locator is a short vertical wire attached to a
circular frame (see Fig. 1.4). The image locator wire frame should be directly
visible outside the eld of view of the lens. Use the tip of the wire frame to
locate the image of the object. Adjust the position of the image locator wire
frame viewed above the lens until its position coincides with the image of the
object formed by the lens. Measure the distances from the center of the lens
to both the wire frame (d
i
) and the object (d
o
).
Q5 : How are d
i
and d
o
related to s
o
and s
i
?
Repeat this procedure three times for the given lens. Record the data in
the table provided and calculate the focal length of the lens.
1.3. EXPERIMENTAL DATA 7
Image of
object wire
Curved wire
Field of View
Figure 1.4: Special image locator; circular frame with vertical wire.
1.3 Experimental Data
Converging Lens
Q6 : In Method I of the Focal length by parallel rays subsection
of Sec. 1.2.1, why will the image formed lie in the principal focal
plane of the lens?
trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average std dev
focal length f
Table 1.2: Focal length by parallel rays, method I.
Q7 : In Method II of the Focal length by parallel rays, Sec. 1.2.1,
why is the distance measured equal to the focal length of the lens ?
Q8 : In the Focal length by parallax,Sec. 1.2.1, why are the
object and its image a focal length away from the lens when the
focal length f
Table 1.3: Focal length by parallel rays, method II.
focal length f
Table 1.4: Focal length by parallax.
virtual image lies directly above the object? Draw a ray diagram.
Q9 : In the Focal length by conjugate points, Sec. 1.2.1, how
does the second set of measurements ( s
o
, s
i
) compare with the rst
set (s
o
, s
i
)?
Q10 : Compare the values of the focal length determined above.
Which method gives more reliable result ? Give reasons.
Use equation (1) to make a plot of s
i
versus s
o
for a positive lens. You
may nd it convenient to plot s
o
and s
i
in units of the focal length of the
lens. Remember that s
o
and s
i
can be positive or negative. Label regions
of graph by the type of image that would be formed (magnied/reduced,
upright/inverted, real/virtual). Your data for the positive lens correspond to
one branch (real objects and images) of this curve. There is another branch
of this curve that corresponds to virtual objects and images.
trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 trial 4 std dev
s
o
s
i
s
o
s
i
a
b
f
Table 1.5: Focal length by the method of conjugate points
Q11 : What arrangement would you use to explore this branch?
Diverging Lens
trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 std dev
s
o1
s
i1
s
o2
s
i2
f
focal length f =
Table 1.6: Focal length of a negative lens by virtual object.
trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 std dev
d
f
d
v
f
focal length f =
Table 1.7: Focal length of a negative lens by parallax.
Chapter 2
Optical Instruments
2.1 Theory
The simple magnier, telescope, and microscope are examples of optical in-
struments. Optical instruments aid the eye by increasing the angular size
of the retinal image of an object. The angular size of the retinal image, in
turn, is equal to the angle subtended at the eye by the object or the image
under view. This angle increases as the object under view approaches the
eye. The shortest object distance for which the eye can comfortably produce
a sharp retinal image is called the near point N of the eye. Thus with the
unaided eye the largest retinal image is obtained when the object is at the
near point. For the normal eye N 25 cm. With an optical instrument, the
eye sees the magnied image of the object formed by the instrument. It is
this magnifying power (M.P.) that makes an optical instrument useful. It is
dened as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image produced
by the instrument to the angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object
when it is placed at the near point of the eye. In this experiment we study
how two common instruments aid the eye.
2.1.1 The Magnifying Lens
Suppose a small object OO
subtends an angle at the unaided eye when it

is placed at the near point as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Consider now the same
object placed just inside the principal focus F of a positive lens LL
as shown
in Fig. 2.1(b). The lens forms a virtual, upright, and magnied image II
of
the object. The eye placed behind the lens sees the image II
. If the eye is
11
12 CHAPTER 2. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
O
O'
I'
I
L'
L
s
i
= - q
s
o
= p
(b)
F
O'
O
N = 25 cm
(a)
Figure 2.1: Magnifying power of a simple magnier.
placed immediately behind the lens, the angle in Fig. 2.1(b) is very nearly
equal to the angle subtended at the eye by the image II
. Thus the lens has

aided the eye by eectively increasing the angle subtended at the eye by the
object from to .
The magnifying power of the lens is then given by
M.P. =

, (2.1)
which for small angles and (tan , sin ), becomes [see Fig. 2.1]
M.P. =
N
p
. (2.2)
Using the relation between object location s
o
p, image location s
i
q
(notice that we have a virtual image), and the focal length f
1
p

1
q
=
1
f
, (2.3)
we can express the magnifying power as
M.P. =
N
p
= N
f + q
fq
. (2.4)
Since q lies in the interval N q < , the magnifying power may vary in
the interval
N
f
M.P.
N
f
+ 1. (2.5)
2.1. THEORY 13
It is clear that for the magnifying power to exceed unity the focal length f
must be smaller than N.
Note that, in general, magnifying power and ordinary magnication (ratio
of image size to object size) are dierent. Also, since the eye is relaxed
when looking at distant objects, it is better to focus the magnifying lens
so that the virtual image appears far from it. In this case the magnifying
power is M.P.= N/f. When the image is at N, the magnifying power is
(M.P.= N/f + 1). This small gain in magnifying power is seldom worth the
eye strain that accompanies it.
A simple magnier described here (or some sophisticated version of it
called an eyepiece) is part of many other instruments such as compound mi-
croscopes and telescopes. For microscopic objects a simple magnier does
not have enough magnifying power. In such cases we use a compound mi-
croscope. A compound microscope uses a short focal length lens, called the
objective, to produce a real enlraged image of the microscopic entity under
investigation. The image formed by the objective is further enlarged by the
eyepiece.
2.1.2 The Telescope
The telescope is an instrument for viewing objects hundreds of meters to
millions of kilometers away. Such objects subtend small angles at the eye
and cannot be brought closer to the eye for direct inspection. We shall see
that a telescope aides the eye in such cases.
A simple telescope consists of a large aperture objective lens L
o
of long
focal length f
o
> 0, and an eyepiece lens L
e
of short focal length f
e
> 0.
Figure 2.2 shows the optical paths of two sets of rays propagating through a
telescope. Rays 1 and 2 originate from a point on the lower edge and rays 3
and 4 originate from the upper edge of some distant object ( s
o
f
o
angular
size ). The objective forms a real, inverted ( and minied) image PP
of
the distant object in its focal plane.
1
Image PP
formed by the objective is observed through the eyepiece L

e
which is placed such that the image PP
lies just inside the focal plane of

the eyepiece. Rays 1 and 2 then emerge nearly parallel to each other from
the eyepiece. An observer viewing these rays sees the nal virtual image II
at innity. Image II
subtends an angle at the eye. Thus the telescope

1
This image may be seen directly by placing the eye 25 cm (to maximize the angle
subtended at the eye) behind the image and looking toward the objective lens. The
magnifying power in this case is f
o
/25 which is greater than unity only if f
o
> 25 cm.
H
H'
P'
eye piece
P
objective
Entrance Pupil
diameter D
1
2
3
4
to infinity
f
o
f
e
3
4
1
2
Exit Pupil
Diameter d
L
o
L
e
I
I'
Figure 2.2: Telescope; optical paths of two sets of rays.
has eectively increased the angle subtended by the object at the eye. Note
that the nal image II
is inverted with respect to the distant object. This

is a characteristic of the astronomical telescope, as distinguished from the
terrestial telescope.
The magnifying power of the telescope is given by,
M.P.

. (2.6)
These angles, greatly exaggerated in the gure, are quite small in the cases
of practical interest. By tracing a ray incident through the rst focal point of
the objective you can show that, for relaxed viewing, the magnifying power
is also given by
M.P. =
f
o
f
e
. (2.7)
It might appear from Eq. 2.7 that eyepieces of smaller focal lengths f
e
would
result in bigger and better images, but this is not true because diraction
by the objective lens which you may not have studied yet ultimately
limits the resolving power (ability to see details) of a telescope.
There is another way for determining the magnifyiong power of a tele-
scope. An examination of Fig. 2.2 shows that all rays emerging from the
eyepiece pass through a small circle at HH
called the eye ring (exit pupil)

of the telescope. The eye ring is just the real image of the objective lens
2.1. THEORY 15
formed by the eyepiece.
2
The position and size of the eye ring may then
be computed by treating the objective lens L
o
as an object in front of the
eyepiece. The diameter d of the eye ring HH
in Fig. 2.2 is then given by

d = D
_
f
e
f
o
_
. (2.8)
Using this in Eq. (2.7) we can write,
M.P. =
D
d
. (2.9)
Thus the magnifying power of the telescope is also equal to the diameter of the
objective divided by the diameter of the eye ring. By properly illuminating
the objective lens, its real image (the eye ring) may be projected onto a
screen and measured.
In a well designed optical instrument, the eye ring should match the pupil
of the eye in order to gather all the rays from the object. A single eyepiece
lens used in this experiment gives an eye ring that is too far from the lens
for convenient observing. To avoid this and other defects, an eyepiece is
usually composed of several lenses, e.g., a Ramsden eyepiece. Equation (2.9)
clearly indicates the need for an objective lens of large aperture and long
focal length if large magnifying power is demanded from a telescope. Also,
a study of diraction eects in telescopes reveals the desirability of having
an objective lens of large aperture in order to increase the resolving power
(ability to show detail) of the instrument.
2.1.3 The Compound Microscope
Microscope is used for viewing small nearby objects. Just like a telescope, a
compound microscope is consists of two lenses: objective and eyepiece (see
Fig. ??). However, unlike a telescope, focal length of both the lenses in a
miscroscope are much smaller then the distance L between the focal points
of the objective and the eyepiece. Objective forms a real, inverted, and
magnied image. Thus magnication of the objective is given by (L/f
o
).
If the nal image formed by eyepiece is at innity and the standard near
point is choosen to be 25 cm, then magnifying power of the microscope is
given by
2
This can be seen by considering rays 1 and 3 as originating from the lower edge and
rays 2 and 4 from the upper edge of the objective.
Qty. Description
1 optical bench with stages
1 short ( 12.5 cm) focal length positive lens
1 long ( 50 cm) focal length positive lens
1 aluminum lens holder
1 spring-tension lens holder
1 short section of a translucent scale
1 photocopy of a meter stick posted on wall
wire suitable for use as object
Table 2.1: Apparatus for the Optical Instruments experiment.
Several precautions taken during the performance of the experiments de-
scribed in this Chapter will literally save you headaches. Align lenses and
other optical components on the optical bench so that they dene a good
optic axis. Keep all optical surfaces clean. Ask your instructor for help
in cleaning the optics. Bad alignment and dirty optics produce distorted
and poor quality images. These problems become especially acute for a
multi-lens optical system such as the telescope. Lenses with very short fo-
cal lengths (high magnifying power) will produce poor results in the event
of misalignment. When using the parallax method for locating images, lens
defects and/or poor alignment may result in misleading movement of the
images/reference object if the eye is moved too far. Adjustments of this sort
should be made with limited motion of the head.
Make at least three measurements of each quantity being measured
and then determine its average and the standard deviation.
We will use a short focal length converging lens as a magnifying lens and a
transluscent scale as the object. We will study the magnifying power of the
lens for two values of q (image location): 25 cm and 100 cm.
Determine the focal length of the lens and set it at a convenient mark
near one end of the optical bench. Mount the transluscent scale horizontally
F
Eye Lens Object
Wire
& the image
q
Figure 2.3: Determination of the magnifying power of a lens.
beyond the lens, near the principal focus of the lens. Place the eye just
behind the lens and focus the system by moving the object (scale) rather
than the lens. You will notice that there is a wide range of object positions
for which a sharp image of the object is obtained. This range corresponds to
the image distances (s
i
= q) 25 cm q < .
To focus the system so that the image distance q = 25cm = s
i
, set
a long vertical wire (or a pin) 25 cm from the lens on the optical bench.
Focus the system by moving the object (the illuminated translucent scale)
until the virtual image as seen through the lens coincides with the wire
as seen directly above the lens. When this happens, there should be no
parallax (relative motion) between the wire and the image of the object (see
Fig. 2.3). You can accomplish this as follows. With both eyes open, bring
one eye as close to the lens as possible so that you can see the image through
the lens. With your other (unaided) eye look, past both the lens and the
object, directly at the wire. Move the object so that the two images merge
into one. This may require some patience, since your eyes are not used to this
sort of maneuver. One of your eyes may fail to function properly initially,
allowing you to see only one of the images. To overcome this, simply close
the eye that is accepting the image so that the other eye will form an image.
Then try opening your other eye again. Eventually, you should be able to see
both the wire and the object image simultaneously and remove any parallax
between them. When this happens the virtual image of the object appear at
the same location as the wire.
Remove the wire and replace it with a horizontal section of a reference
scale of some sort (e.g., a meter stick). Match the virtual image of the
transluscent scale as seen through the lens with the reference scale just
mounted as seen above the lens. In this case the magnifying power of
the lens is equal to the linear magnication. Determine the magnication by
direct observation and compare it with the value 25/p given by Eq. (2.5) for
the magnifying power. The value of p may be read directly from the optical
bench scale.
Next set the vertical wire at q = 100 cm, and focus the system so that
the virtual image coincides with the position of the wire. Calculate the
magnifying power and compare it with the theoretical value N/f(= 25/f)
derived in section 2.1.1. Record the value of p (object distance) for this case
and calculate the magnifying power.
2.2.2 The Telescope
We now build a telescope and measure its magnifying power. Set the short
focus lens, which you have just used as a magnier, approximately 20 cm
from one end of the optical bench. This lens will now be used as an eyepiece
for the telescope. On the other side of the lens, place a short vertical wire (a
substitute for cross hairs) at the principal focus of the lens. Point the optical
bench toward a scale several meters away in the laboratory. (You can use a
photocopy of a meter stick posted on the wall.) Focus the eyepiece on the
wire by moving the wire toward the eyepiece until the virtual image of the
wire as seen through the lens coincides in position with the the distant
scale (see Fig. 2.4, Step 1). Use the method of parallax for this adjustment.
In the use of a real telescope, this procedure is equivalent to focusing the
eyepiece on the cross hairs of the telescope.
Determine the focal length of the objective and place it on the optical
bench in front of the wire, at a distance equal to its focal length. Adjust
the position of the objective lens so that a sharp image of the distant scale
is visible through the eyepiece. Continue this adjustment until there is no
parallax between the image of the vertical wire and the image of the distant
scale viewed through the eyepiece. This procedure corresponds to focusing
the eyepiece and cross hairs on a distant object.
If the preceding adjustments have been properly made, then (i) the ob-
jective forms a real inverted image of the distant scale at the location of the
vertical wire and (ii) the eyepiece forms virtual images of both the wire and
the real image of the distant scale (formed by the objective) that coincide
with the location of the actual distant scale (see Fig. 2.4). Make sure that
you understand this.
The magnifying power of the telescope can be determined experimentally
by comparing the distance between two scale marks as seen through the
telescope and as seen by the unaided eye.
3
3
This comparison may be done as follows (see Fig. 2.4). With both eyes open one
viewing the distant scale directly and the other viewing it through the telescope align
Step 2: Focusing the eyepiece
Virtual image
of the wire
F
Eye Eyepiece
Distant scale & the
virtual image of the
wire
Wire
Step 1: Focusing the eyepiece

F
Eye Eyepiece
Distant scale
Wire & the real
inverted image of
the distant scale
formed by the objective
Objective
Virtual image formed by
the eyepiece of the real
image produced by the
objective
Figure 2.4: Determination of the magnifying power of a telescope.
We make another determination of the magnifying power of the telescope.
Illuminate the objective of the telescope from the side and project its real
image formed by the eyepiece lens on a white screen placed behind the eye-
piece. This real image is the eye ring HH
of the telescope (Fig. 2.2). Notice

the size and location of the eye ring. Measure the diameters of the eye ring
and the objective lens. Compute the magnifying power by use of Eq. 2.9 and
compare it with that calculated using Eq. 2.7.
the telescope so that the images on the retina of your eye are superimposed (recall the
advice in subsection 2.2.1 if this proves dicult to accomplish). Eventually, obtain the
dual image and make a direct comparison of scale length; i.e., one scale division on the
virtual image scale equals X scale divisions on the real distant scale. Then, X = M.P..
If necessary, have your partner indicate divisions on the distant scale with a pointer and
then have him/her read the value of X for you. Compare this value of the magnifying
power with that given by Eq. 2.7.
f
i
f
o
D
i
D
o
Figure 2.5: A beam expander
2.3 Beam Expanders (optional)
In many optical experiments light beams with large cross-section are needed.
Suppose a collimated optical beam of diameter D
i
is incident on the arrange-
ment of lenses shown in Fig. 2.5.
Q1 : What is the diameter D
o
of the beam exiting the system
in terms of D
i
, f
i
and f
o
? When does this arrangement act as a
beam expander? Consider both cases - f
i
positive and f
i
negative.
What would you do to reduce beam size. You may use a laser beam
to carry out this experiment.
2.4 Other Instruments
Telecope described here is a simple refractor astronomical telescope. In all
cases the nal image is inverted with respect to the object. This is of no
consequence for astronomical objects such as the planets, stars, and galax-
ies. For terrestrial objects orientation of the image is important. Terrestrial
telescope have an image erecting system between the objective and the eye-
piece. This arrangement usually leads to long draw tube. For this reason
binocular telescopes utilize erecting prisms.
The refractor telescopes two drawbacks : the chromatic aberration and
long tube lengths, especially if large magnication is desired. Chromatic
aberration is partly corrected by using multi-element achromatic lenses. A
reector telescope, where a spherical mirror is used as an objective, addresses
both the chromatic aberration and the long draw tube problems.
You may wish to assemble a slide projector or a compound microscope.
Feel free to ask for help in assembling these intruments.
Q2 : In the The Magnifying Lens subsection of Sec. 2.2.1, show that
the linear magnication for the case q = N equal to the magnifying
power of the lens.
p
linear mag
Table 2.2: The magnifying lens for image at q = 25 cm.
p
lin mag
Table 2.3: The magnifying lens for image at q = 100 cm.
2.5.2 The Telescope
Q3 : Prove that the magnifying power of a telescope is given by
f
0
/f
e
. Also derive the relation
M.P. =
f
o
f
e
=
LL
HH
=
D
d
,
where LL
, HH
, D and d are dened in Section 2.1.2.

f
o
f
e
=
measured LL
(D)
measured HH
(d)
Calculated M.P.
Table 2.4: Measurements of the telescope eye ring.
Chapter 3
Measurement of Refractive
Index
3.1 Theory
The refractive index n of a medium is dened by
n =
c
v
, (3.1)
where c is the speed of light in free space and v is the speed of light inside
the medium. The refractive index n depends on the wavelength (strictly
speaking, frequency) of light traversing the medium. For most transparent
materials the dependence of n on wavelength is given by the Sellmeiers
formula
n() = n
0
+
B
2
2
0
2
0
. (3.2)
The constant B is given by
B =
Ne
2
8
2
0
m
e
c
2
, (3.3)
where N is the eective number of electrons per unit volume participating
in the polarization process,
o
= c/
0
is their characteristic frequency, and e
and m
e
are the electronic charge and mass. In the limit
0
Eq. (3.2)
can be approximated as
n() A +
B
2
, (3.4)
23
24 CHAPTER 3. MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTIVE INDEX
where constants A = n
o
+ B
2
o
and B
= B
4
o
. It follows from Eq. (3.2)
that the refractive index increases as the wavelength of light decreases. This
behavior of the refractive index is referred to as normal dispersion. For a
dilute gas n
0
1 and the electron density N is proportional to the molecular
density . It follows that the refractive index is proportional to the density
of molecules,
n 1 = const . (3.5)
From the ideal gas law, = p/k
B
T, and it follows from Eq. (4) that at
constant temperature
n 1 = C p , (3.6)
where p is the absolute pressure of the gas, C is a constant of proportionality,
and k
B
is the Boltzmann constant.
A knowledge of the refractive index of a material is important in many
applications involving optical fabrication and design. For example in fabri-
cating antirefelection coating on lenses for ne optical instruments requires a
knowledge of the refractive indices of the materials of the substrate and thin
lms. Many studies involving phase changes are carried out using measure-
ment of n and its relation to macroscopic properties. Here we will study two
methods for determining the refractive index. The rst method is more suit-
able for liquids and solids. The second method is an interferometric method
used for raried media such as gases.
3.1.1 The Prism
A convenient method for determining the refractive index is to use the mate-
rial in the form of a prism. Refractive index of the material of a prism using
the method of angle of minimum deviation is given by
n() =
sin [(A + D
m
()) /2]
sin (A/2)
. (3.7)
Here A is the Prism angle and D
m
() is the angle of minimum deviation.
Since n depends on the wavelength (strictly speaking, frequency), each wave-
length has a slightly dierent angle of minimum deviation. We will use this
to study the variation of the refractive index as a function of wavelength.
3.1. THEORY 25
M
1
M
2
BS
diffuse screen
or a lens
*
Source
L
n
Figure 3.1: Setup of the refractometer experiment.
3.1.2 Inteferometric Refractometer
This refractometer is a variation of Rayleigh refractometer and uses two-
beam interference of light to determine the refractive index of a gas. This
method is very sensitive and is excellent for measuring small changes in the
refractive index of a material. We will use this method to study the pressure
dependence of the refractive index of air. Refractive index of air at room
tempertaure and pressure is n 1.000. As shown in Fig. 3.1, a beam splitter
divides the incident light into two and directs them along separate arms of
an interferometer. One beam travels in air at room temperture and pressure.
The second beam traverses a gas tube at room temperature, but where the
pressure can be varied. Two beams are brought together at the beam splitter.
The resulting interference pattern depends on the relative path dierence
between the two arms of the interferometer. If a laser is being used as the
source you may be able to project these fringes on a wall or screen. In our
experiment we change the refractive index of the gas in the cell by altering
the gas pressure inside the cell.
Suppose initially the cell is open to the atmosphere so that its pressure
is the atmospheric pressure (p
0
) and then it is evacuated with a vacuum
pump. As the pressure in the tube drops the refractive index of air in the
cell decreases (cf Eq. (5)) from its initial value n
0
and the interference fringes
will be observed to shift.
Let the refractive indices of air in the open arm and the cell be n
0
and
n, respectively. Then the dierence in the optical paths of the two beams is
(n
0
n) 2L where L is the cell length. When the refractive index of the air
in the cell changes by n, the total number of fringes m, that are shifted, is
given by
m = n
2L
,
= C [p]
2L
, (3.8)
where p is the change in the pressure of the evacuated compartment from
its initial pressure p
0
. Equation (3.8) has the form of the equation of a
straight line, where m would be plotted along the ordinate (vertical axis)
and p along the abscissa (horizontal axis). The slope of this straight line is
(m/p) = 2CL/ . Assuming we know the wavelength of the light and
the length of the cell L, we can determine the value of the proportionality
constant C. Substituting this result into Eq. (3.6), we nd that the refractive
index of air is given by
n = 1 +
_
m
p
_

2L
p . (3.9)
Absolute pressure p is given by p
0
p. By counting the number of fringes m
that pass a reference point as the pressure changes by p, we can determine
n for any pressure p.
Make at least three measurements of each quantity and then de-
termine the average and its standard deviation.
3.2.1 The Prism
The spectrometer consists of a collimator, a dispersing element, and a tele-
scope. Two types of student spectrometer are available. Their working is
similar. The locations of various controls are listed in Table 3.2.
Note that in order to use any of the ne adjust features the corresponding
lock screw must be tightened. Do not force rotation of the instrument when
the lock screw is tightened. Placed the prism upon the spectrometer table
and clamp it to the table. A built-in magnifying glass is used to read the
Gaertner vernier, while the Pasco spectroscope has a separate magnifying
glass. If you are unfamiliar with reading vernier scales ask your instructor
for help.
Qty. Description
1 Pasco or Gaertner student spectrometer
1 glass prism
1 helium discharge tube
1 desklamp or other white-light source
Table 3.1: Apparatus for the Prism Experiment.
Control Gaertner Pasco
telescope rotation lock screw on telescope base directly beneath telescope
telescope rotation ne adjust directly beneath telescope beneath and to right of telescope
spectrometer table lock screw directly beneath table directly beneath table
spectrometer table height lock screw directly beneath table n/a
spectrometer table leveling screws underneath table underneath table
table rotation lock screw n/a base
table rotation ne adjust n/a base
collimator slit width adjust input of collimator input of collimator
telescope focus sliding eyepiece focus knob on telescope
collimator focus sliding lens focus knob on collimator
Table 3.2: Comparison of Gaertner and Pasco spectrometers.
A
2A
collimated
beam
prism
Figure 3.2: Determination of the prism angle A.
Determination of Prism Angle
To determine the refractive index of a material in the form of a prism requires
that we know the angle of the prism. A white light source is used for this
measurement. Place the prism onto the spectroscope table so that it splits
the collimated beam into two as in Fig. 3.2. With the telescope rotation lock
screw loosened, swing the telescope to view one of these beams. Tighten the
telescope rotation lock screw and use the telescope rotation ne adjust control
to place the crosshairs on one of the edges of the image of the collimator slit
seen through the telescope. Focus the crosshairs if necessary. Record the
angular position of the telescope using the degree scale and vernier, and then
loosen the lock screw and swing the telescope to the other side to receive the
second beam. Using the technique described above, record the position of
the telescope again. As shown in Fig. 3.2, the angle of the prism, A, is simply
half the angle between the two beams. Repeat this measurement three times
and calculate the average value of A and its standard deviation.
Determination of Refractive Index
Once the prism angle A is known the refractive index of the prism is deter-
mined by measuring the angle of minimum deviation suered by the light
beam from the collimator in passing through the prism. When the prism
is set for minimum deviation, the light passes symmetrically through the
prism. Using the Helium light source, move the telescope and prism about
until the spectrum of light appears as shown in Fig. 3.3(a). You will see dif-
ferent colored images of the slit. The collimator, prism, and telescope should
be placed as shown in Fig. 3.3(b). Rotate the prism table and observe the
D
colllimator
prism
angle of
deviation
telescope telescope
D
angle of
deviation
(b)
blue red
next order -2 -1 0 1 2 next order
(a)
Figure 3.3: (a) Spectrum as viewed through the spectroscope eyepiece. (b)
Measurement of angle of minimum deviation.
Helium spectral lines
Color (nm)
red 706.5
red 667.8
yellow 587.5
green 500.1
blue-green 492.2
blue 471.3
violet 447.1
Table 3.3: Helium spectral lines.
motion of slit images. You will notice that as the prism table is rotated slit
images rst move closer to the original undeected beam direction direction
and then move away from the original beam direction as we continue to ro-
tate the prism table in the same direction. This means that the angle of
deviation D rst decreases and then increases. At some point the angle of
deviation D (see Fig. 3.3(b)) is minimized. This happens at dierent posi-
tions for dierent colored images. While viewing a particular color image of
the slit through the telescope, and using the cross hairs measure the angle of
minimum deviation D you can produce.
Rotate the prism and the telescope so that the angle of deviation changes
sign. Measure the angle of minimum deviation again. Note that D is mea-
sured from the undeviated beam from the collimator. Repeat this measure-
ment for a total of three readings for each of the six to eight colors of the
spectrum. Calculate averages and standard deviations as usual.
From measured A and Ds calculate the refractive index at dierent wave-
lengths by using Eq. (3.7). The wavelengths for each spectral line may be
obtained from the Table 3.3. Plot a n vs curve by using the data collected
above drawing error bars for each data point. Fit a smooth curve of the form
given by Eq. (2) through these points. What are the values of B,
0
and n
0
.
Qty. Description
1 optical bench with translating stage for eyepiece
1 Helium-Neon laser ( 632.8nm)
1 laser mount that will attach to optical bench
1 beam expander to provide spatially broad beam of light
1 double slit with large slit separation
1 gas cell
1 vacuum pump for evacuating tube compartment
1 pressure gauge
Table 3.4: Apparatus for the Refractometer experiment.
3.2.2 The Refractometer
Determination of Refractive Index
The He:Ne laser, beam expander or diuser, interferometer, and eyepiece
are placed on the optical bench so that they are aligned vertically and hor-
izontally. Adjust the interferometer arm lengths to be approximately the
same. Measure the tube length L, recording the data in the place provided
in Sec. 3.3.2.
When the system is properly aligned, the interference fringes should ap-
pear similar to those seen in the Michelson interferometer.
Connect the vacuum pump and the gauge to the cell. Adjust the rate of
change of pressure in the compartment for ease of counting fringes. One way
to achieve this is to restrict the evacuation valve. Another method is to rst
evacuate the compartment, record the gauge reading, and then turn o the
vacuum pump, allowing air to leak slowly back into the compartment. One
person should count the fringes, while the other reads the gauge. Record
fringe count m and p in the table provided. Note that m recorded in the
data table is the running count of the fringes passing the reference point. A
convenient pressure interval to record m is 2cm of mercury, although you may
use any interval that is convenient. If fringe shift is being recorded during
evacuation the rst nonzero table entry will be for p = 2cm, followed by
p = 4cm, etc. If m is being recorded while the air is leaking back into the
tube the rst reading should be the maximum gauge pressure p
m
. The rst
nonzero entry will be p
m
2cm, followed by p
m
4cm etc. It is suggested
that you convert all pressure readings from cm of mercury to Torr using
that 76.0cm of Hg = 760Torr. Take three sets of data, as indicated by the
data-table headings m
trial1
, m
trial2
, and m
trial3
. Then nd the average and
standard deviation for each p, entering these values in the table, too. Plot
the averages of these readings and from the slope of the resulting straight
line C
_
2L
_
determine the value of C, which should be on the order of 10
7
( 632.8nm). Please note that you are to plot p and not p.
The absolute pressure within the evacuated compartment of the refrac-
tometer is needed for the nal portion of this lab. This may be obtained
from the gauge pressure as follows (all units are cm of mercury):
p
abs
= p
atm
p
gauge
, (3.10)
where p
abs
is the absolute pressure of the compartment, p
atm
is atmostpheric
pressure which well assume is 76.0cm of mercury or 760 Torr, p
gauge
is
the gauge pressure. Using this relationship and (n 1) = Cp
abs
, calculate
(n 1) for various absolute tube pressures (in Torr) that were encountered
during your experiment. A table has been provided for this purpose. Note
that n should increase with pressure.
Now plot (n 1) versus p
abs
and extrapolate the resulting straight line
to p
abs
760 Torr. Record the extrapolated value in the table referred to in
the preceding paragraph.
3.3.1 The Prism
left beam
right beam
prism angle A
Table 3.5: Determination of prism angle A.
(nm) trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average std dev
706.5
667.8
587.5
500.1
492.2
471.3
447.1
Table 3.6: Determination of D
.
Plot n as a function of
3.3.2 The Interferometirc Refractometer
Plot of m as a function of p (Torr)
Plot of (n 1) versus p
abs
(Torr)
p m statistics
cm Torr m
trial1
m
trial2
m
trial3
< m >
m
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 20
4 40
6 60
8 80
10 100
12 120
14 140
16 160
18 180
20 200
22 220
24 240
26 260
28 280
30 300
Table 3.7: Determination of m. L = .
p
abs
(Torr) (n 1)
760
Table 3.8: Absolute pressure versus refractive index.
Chapter 4
Interference by the Division of
the Wavefront
4.1 Theory
There are two methods for producing two coherent sources. One method
involves the division of the wavefront as in the Youngs double slit experi-
ment and the second method involves the division of the amplitude as in the
Micheslson interferometer. In this experiemnt we study two arrangements
for producing inteference by wavefront division and use these to determine
the wavelength of light. Refer to Chapter 13 of Jenkins and White or Section
9.3 of Hecht for a discussion of Lloyds Mirror and Fresnels Biprism.
4.1.1 Lloyds Mirror
Lloyds mirror is a mirror or a glass plate used to produce interference fringes
by superposing the light from a slit source with the light from the virtual
image of that slit source, as shown in Fig. (4.1). A part of the incident wave-
front from source S
1
is intercepted by the mirror and is reected back. The
reected wavefront overlaps the wavefront coming directly from the source S
1
in the region shaded region and produces interference. The reected wave-
front appears to come from the virtual image S
2
of S
1
. Thus in the shaded
region we have two source interference. Line EF is the perpendicular bisec-
tor of S
1
S
2
. F is therefore equidistant from S
1
and S
2
. If the distance y of
point P from F is small compared to D the angle is small and will be given
38
4.1. THEORY 39
S
2
P
glass plate
or mirror
F
E
a
D
y
S
1
Figure 4.1: Formation of fringes in the Lloyds mirror setup.
by
=

a
=
y
D
, (4.1)
or
= y
_
a
D
_
. (4.2)
Since the reected beam suers a phase change of upon reection from
the mirror the location of the bright fringe of order m ( corresponding to
2/ + = 2m) on the screen EF will be
y
m
=
_
m
1
2
_
a
D
, (4.3)
where a is the separation between the sources S
1
and S
2
, and D is the
source to screen distance. We can determine the wavelength of light from
measurements of the fringe separation. If y
m
and y
n
denote the locations of
fringes of order m and n, respectively,
_
2
n
_
+ = 2 n, (4.4)
_
2
m
_
+ = 2 m, (4.5)
40 CHAPTER 4. INTERFERENCE BY THE DIVISION OF THE WAVEFRONT
where is the wavelength of the light. Rearranging and subtracting these
equations, we nd that
=

n
m
n m
=
_
y
n
y
m
n m
_
a
D
, (4.6)
or
= (fringe width)
_
a
D
_
. (4.7)
Hence, to determine , we simply measure the width of an interfer-
ence fringe (center-to-center distance between two successive fringes), the
separation a between S
1
and S
2
, and the distance D.
The extra phase change of experienced by the reected beam may be
veried by placing a screen ush with the end of the mirror or the glass plate.
Since the real slit S
1
and its virtual image S
2
are equidistant from the line
where the mirror and receptor touch, we might expect to see a bright fringe
due to constructive interference. The dark fringe one sees instead veries the
relative phase change suered by the beam reected by the mirror.
4.1.2 Fresnels Biprism
The arrangement from Fresnel biprism is shown in Fig. (4.2). The biprism
consists of two small angle prisms joined together at their bases. When a
wavefront from the source S is incident, the upper portion of the wavefront is
refracted downward and the lower portion is refracted upward. The refracted
wavefronts appear to come from virtual sources S
1
and S
2
. They overlap
in the shaded region and produce inteference fringes. If a be the separation
beteween S
1
and S
2
and d+D be the source to screen separation, the location
of the m-th bright fringe is given by
y
m
= m
_
D + d
a
_
, (4.8)
where y is measured from the center of the interference pattern. Just as in
the Lloyds mirror experiment, the wavelength of light can be determined
from measurements of fringe separation in the interference pattern.
Make at least three measurements of each quantity and then de-
termine its average and the standard deviation.
S
1
S
2
S
d D
a
a = d
y
P
Figure 4.2: An outline of Fresnels biprism setup.

Qty. Description
1 optical bench
1 mirror or glass plate to serve as Lloyds mirror
1 eyepiece with micrometer-motion crosshairs
1 one translating stage to mount eyepiece on bench
1 adjustable, rotating slit to accomodate alignment with mirror
1 mercury discharge tube with green lter (Pasco 9113)
1 sodium discharge tube
1 positive lens used to measure a only
Table 4.1: Apparatus for the LLoyds Mirror experiment.
Mercury
lamp
filter
slit
Lloyd's mirror
green
eye piece
lens (for measurement
of d only )
100cm
Figure 4.3: Outline of the experimental setup.
4.2.1 Determination of
Arrange the apparatus on the optical bench as shown in Fig. 4.3. Rotate the
slit in its mount so that it is parallel to the plane of the mirror. Study the
eect of changing the slit width and its orientation on fringe contrast and
adjust the slit width and orientation for maximum clarity. Note that because
of diraction at the edge of the mirror, the fringe width varies a little near
the mirror do not use the rst three or four fringes for measurements.
D is the distance from the real slit to the cross hairs of the eyepiece and
may be measured directly on the optical bench. The cross hairs inside the
micrometer eyepiece are located at the front face of the plate to which the
eyepiece is attached. To determine the source separation a use a positive
lens to form images of S and S
in the focal plane of the eyepiece. The

distance between the two slit images viewed through the eyepiece can then be
measured with the eyepiece micrometer. (Generally ve turns of the eyepiece
micrometer is equal to 1.25mm of travel. Conrm this by calibrating the
eyepiece micrometer.) If we call this distance R, we see that
a
R
=
s
o
s
i
, (4.9)
where s
o
is the object distance (the distance from the real slit to the positive
lens), and s
i
is the image distance (the distance from the positive lens to
the focal plane of the eyepiece). Obviously, D = s
o
+ s
i
. Determine a both
before and after measuring the interference fringe width, to ensure the setup
has not changed. The positive lens is to be placed on the bench only when
measuring a. Remove the positive lens from the bench when measuring the
interference fringe width.
Make one determination of the wavelength of the green line of mercury.
d D
Primary
source
slit
Filter
eye piece
Figure 4.4: Outline of the experimental setup.
As always, make at least three measurements of the fringe width for each
wavelength. Be sure to note the uncertainty in all of your measurements,
especially that of measuring the fringe width. Record these measurements in
Table 4.2. You will nd it convenient to count several fringes at a time while
moving the cross hairs across the eld of view. Then divide the distance
traveled by the number of fringes counted to obtain fringe separation. The
accepted value for the green line of mercury is
Hg
546.1 nm.
Also study colored interference fringes in this experiment by removing the
green lter. Notice the order of colors in interference fringes and comment
on their visibility.
Experimental arrangement for Fresnels biprism is shown in Fig. 4.4. Re-
place the mercury source with a sodium lamp. Adjust slit orientation and
width to obtain sharp fringes. Use micrometer to determine fringe separa-
tion. Distances d and D are directly measurable. It remains now to measure
the linear separation a between the virtual sources S
1
and S
2
. Since the
prism angle is small ( 1
o
) source separation is given by
a d. (4.10)
The angular separation between the virtual sources can be measured using
a spectrometer. If parallel light from the collimator illuminates both halves of
the biprisms, two images are produced and the angular separation between
them is easily measured. Virtual source separation is also given by
a 2d(n 1) , (4.11)
where n is the refractive index of the prism. Prism angle can again be
determined by using a spectrometer. Use one of these methods to deter-
mine a. The accepted value of wavelength for the yellow line of sodium is
Na
589.3 nm. Record your data in Table 4.3
4.3.1 Lloyds Mirror
R
before
s
o,before
s
i,before
a
before
# of fringes
distance traveled
fringe width
R
after
s
o,after
s
i,after
a
after
Hg
Table 4.2: Determination of the wavelength of mercury green line. D = .
Draw a sketch and explain the technique used to determine a.
4.3.2 Fresnels Biprism
# of fringes
distance traveled
fringe width
a
Na
Table 4.3: Determination of wavelength by Fresnels biprism. D = ; d = .
Chapter 5
Michelson Interferometer
5.1 Theory
Michelson interferometer is the best known example of amplitude splitting
interferometers. An outline of this interferometer is shown in Fig. 5.1. Light
from the source S is divided into two beams of nearly equal amplitudes by
a thin aluminum coating on the back side of the plane parallel plate M.
The two beams are reected back by two highly reecting mirrors M
1
and
M
2
and return to beam splitter M. The transmitted portion of the beam
from M
1
and the reected portion of the beam from M
2
overlap and produce
interference fringes. The compensator plate C is an exact replica (other
than that it is not coated) of the beam splitter M and serves to equalize
the optical paths in the two arms for all wavelengths. This is not essential
for producing fringes with monochromatic light, but it is indispensible when
a white light source ( or some other source with short coherence length) is
used. The mirror M
1
translates on straight, parallel ways by turning a screw
whose pitch is quite accurately 1 mm. The mirror M
2
is provided with tilt
adjustment screws to make its image in M either parallel to M
1
or at a small
angle with M
1
. The coated surfaces of the plates and mirrors must never be
touched, as they cannot be cleaned without damaging them.
The interferometer is aligned by rst making the optical paths MM
1
and MM
2
approximately equal with the aid of dividers or a ruler. Looking
into the interferometer, one sees several images of a wire placed between
the diuser screen and M. The strongest of these images will be due to
reections originating at the aluminized surface of M. The tilt screws on M
2
are adjusted until the strong images coincide in the eld of view. It should
46
5.1. THEORY 47
M
1
M
2
BS
C
S
*
light
source
2d
d
M
1
M
2
S
1
S
S
2
2d cos
*
(a) (b)
Figure 5.1: (a) Ray paths in the Michelson interferometer ; (b) Two-source
interference arrangement equivalent to the Michelson interferometer.
then be possible to see interference bands. On rening the orientation of
M
2
one obtains a set of concentric circles (Haidingers fringes) which do
not expand or contract as the position of the eye is changed sideways or
vertically. As M1 is translated, the interference rings expand or contract.
Let d be the dierence in the optical lengths of the two arms. Then the path
dierence between the two interfering beams at the center of the interference
pattern will be 2d because both beams traverse the inteferometer twice. As
d decreases interference rings shrink and each time d decreases by /2 a ring
disappears at the center. As d increases interference rings expand and each
time d increases by /2 a ring grows out from the center. This provides a
simple method for determining the wavelength of monochromatic light. If N
rings appear or disappear at the center as d changes by D, the wavelength
of light will be given by
=
2D
N
. (5.1)
Michelson inteferometer can also be used to determine the wavelength of
two closely spaced spectral lines emitted by a source. If the incident light
contains two wavelengths, each wavelength will produce its own interference
48 CHAPTER 5. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER
L
2
2
1
2
Figure 5.2: Relative locations of the fringes at the center for the two wave-
lengths
1
and
2
as d is varied.
2
is assumed to be smaller of the two
wavelengths. The minima in the two patterns (or the maxima) coincide at
the center each time d changes by L.
pattern. As d is varied the two interference patterns will shift relative to one
another. The intensity at the center will be simultaneously a minimum for
both patterns when
2d
0
= p
1
1
, (5.2)
2d
0
= p
2
2
, (5.3)
where p
1
and p
2
are two integers, and 2d
0
is the optical path dierence at
the center of the pattern. As d is increased the minima of the two interfer-
ence patters will at rst shift farther apart and then come closer together
again. The visibility of the total fringe pattern accordingly falls o and then
increases to a second maximum. Figure 5.2 shows the relative positions of
the minima (dark bands) in the two interference patterns as the position of
M
1
is varied. The two patterns are seen to resemble a vernier and a scale.
When the minima of the two patterns at the center coincide, the fringes
have high visibility; half way between the positions of maximum visibility,
fringe visibility falls to a minimum and if both lines have equal intensity one
sees a uniform illumination across the eld of view because the minimum of
one fringe pattern coincides with the maximum of the other. At the next
occurrence of maximum visibility,
2 (d
0
+ L) = (p
1
+ N)
1
, (5.4)
2 (d
0
+ L) = (p
2
+ N + 1)
2
, (5.5)
5.1. THEORY 49
where L represents the displacement of M
1
between successive visibility max-
ima, and N is the number of fringes
1
that pass by during the displacement
of M
1
. By using Eqs. (2)-(5) we nd that
2L = N
1
, (5.6)
2L = (N + 1)
2
. (5.7)
From these equations we nd that the ratio of the wavelengths is
2
=
N + 1
N
. (5.8)
If one wavelength is known, the other can be determined with the help of this
equation, in principle. Even when the two wavelengths cannot be determined
the dierence between the wavelengths can always be determined. From Eqs.
(6) and (7) the wavelength dierence is
2
=
2L
N(N + 1)
. (5.9)
Usually L can be measured with good accuracy. It is easier to locate visibility
minima than the maxima. The value of L is, therefore, best determined
by observing at least two successive minima of visibility and obtaining the
average of many such observations. It is usually too tedious and not very
accurate to determine N by direct count. For example for sodium D-lines
typically 1000 fringes must be counted. We can cast Eq. (9) in a form that
does not involve N. Using Eqs.(5) and (6) on the right hand side of Eq.(9)
to eliminate N and N + 1 we nd
1
N(N + 1)
=

1
1
(2L)
2

2
rmav
(2L)
2
, (5.10)
where
rmav
is the average wavelength. It can be determined by adjusting
the Michelson interferometer for maximum fringe visibility and counting the
number of fringes that disappear or appear at the center as the path dierence
is varied. Thus one may obtain a value for a wave-length interval which is
not easily resolved.
5.1.1 Coherenc Time and Coherence Length
Michelson interferometer can also be used to illustrate several other con-
cepts important for interference. In all experiments involving interference we
have considered, the two interfering beams are always derived from the same
source. We nd by experiments that it is impossible to produce interference
fringes from two separate sources, such as two incandescent laments side by
side. This is due to the fact that the light from any one source is not an in-
nite train of waves. There are sudden changes in phase occurring on a very
short time scale of the order of 10
8
s. Thus although interference fringes
may exist for such short intervals, they shift their position each time there is
a phase change, with the result that no fringes at all will be seen. In essence
these sources produce wavetrains of average duration 10
8
s. This time is
called the coherence time
c
of the source. The average length,
c
= c
c
, of
the wavetrains emitted by the source, is called the coherence length of the
source. Successive wavetrains even from the same source, in general, have
no denite phase relation with one another. Special arrangements are nec-
essary to produce sources of light that have a denite phase relationship to
one another. In Youngs experiment, Lloyds mirror, Fresnels biprism, and
Michelson interferometer the two sources always have a point to point phase
correspondence since they are both derived from the same source. If the
phase of the light from a point in S
1
suddenly changes, that of the light from
the corresponding point in S
2
will shift simultaneously. The result is that
the dierence in phase between any pair of points in the two sources remains
constant, and so the interference pattern remains stationary. Sources that
have this point to point phase relation are called coherent sources.
Even when there is point to point phase correspondence between sources
one further condition must be satised if stationary fringes are to be observed.
The path dierence between the light coming from the two sources must not
exceed the coherence length (average length of the wavetrains emitted by the
sources) of the light emitted by the sources. If the path dierence exceeds
the coherence length the two interfering waves are derived from dierent
wavetrains that have no denite phase relation to one another. Cohertence
length of lasers can be several meters. On the other hand for mercury and
sodium lamp it is only about 10
2
m. Using Michelson interferometer we can
actually measure the length of the wavetrains emitted by a source !
5.1.2 Polarization Dependence of Interference
Interference of light also depends on the vector nature (polarization) of light.
Thus two beams having orthogonal polarization will not produce interference.
This is easily illustrated by placing two linear polarizers in the two arms of
Qty. Description
1 Michelson interferometer
1 sodium discharge tube
1 Helium-Neon laser
1 white-light source
Table 5.1: Apparatus for the Michelson interferometer experiment.
the interferometer.
1
Keep one polarizer xed and rotate the other polarizer.
It will be seen that no interference fringes occur when the transmission axes
of the polarizers are orthogonal. On the other hand, sharp fringes with good
contrast are produced when the transmission axes are parllel.
Make at least three measurements of each quantity and then deter-
mine the average and the standard deviation of that quantity.
A simple technique for adjusting the angles of mirrors M
1
and M
2
is to
look into the output port of the interferometer while holding a thin object
like a mechanical pencil between a white-light or sodium light source and the
input port of the interferometer. Ghost images of the object will be seen
unless the mirrors are aligned correctly. Be sure to place the tip of the object
in the middle of the eld of view.
5.2.1 Wavelength of HeNe Laser
In this step of the experiment, we use a HeNe laser as the light source, casting
the fringes formed by the interferometer onto the wall or perhaps a sheet of
some sort. DO NOT LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE INTERFER-
OMETER ITSELF.
These fringes are distinct enough that they may be counted as the path
length of the Michelson interferometer is changed. While one person carefully
turns the micrometer to move mirror M
1
a distance D
HeNe
, the other person
counts the number of fringes N
HeNe
that either collapse into the central bright
1
If the source produces polarized light you may need only one polarizer.
spot or grow out from it. These data are recorded in Table 5.2, which
includes entries for the initial and nal locations of the mirror M
1
.
Insert a linear polarizer in each arm. Keep one polarizer xed and rotate
the other polarizer until a fringe pattern with good contrast is obtained.
Record this position of the polarizer. Rotate this polarizer slowly and notice
the brightness of the fringe pattern. When the fringe pattern vanishes record
the polarizer reading. Compute the angular separation between the two
positions of the polarizer.
Explain your observations. Estimate the coherence length of
the laser by moving one mirror and nding the distance at which
fringes disappear.
5.2.2 Wavelength of Sodium D Lines
Next we use the sodium discharge lamp as a light source. Light from sodium
lamp consists of two closely spaced wavelengths. We will determine the
dierence between the two wavelengths. First we determine the average
wavelength. Translate the movable mirror until you get fringes with good
contrast. This happens when the minimum (or the maximum) of the two
fringe patterns coincide at the center. Determine the average wavelength
by counting, say 50, fringes that disappear at the center and recording the
corresponding mirror displacement. Wavelength is then given by Eq. (1). To
determine the wavelength dierence between the two sodium D lines measure
the distance L
Na
between the fringe visibility minima as described in Sec. 5.1.
Note that the eld of view will be evenly illuminated when the visibility of
the fringes is at a minimum. Fringe visibility maxima correspond to the
most distinct fringes. It is easier to determine when the eld of view is free
of fringes than it is to decide when the fringes are most distinct.
While looking into the output port of the interferometer, carefully rotate
the micrometer until you recognize a fringe visibility minimum. Record the
micrometer setting in Table 5.4 and then translate mirror M
1
until you arrive
at a second minimum, record that mirror position, and repeat for a third
and nal time. Now you may determine a value for L
Na
using these three
mirror positions. Repeat this procedure for a total of three trials, and then
determine the average and standard deviation of L
Na
. Using the formulae
given in Sec. 5.1, determine
D2
and compare it with the accepted value 589.0
nm.
Estimate the coherence length of the sodium lamp.
initial M
1
nal M
1
d
HeNe
N
HeNe
HeNe
Table 5.2: Wavelength of HeNe laser. The number of fringes N that pass
by when mirror M
1
is displaced by d allows a determination the wavelength
via = 2d/N.
Initial setting P
i
Final setting P
f
Angular separation |P
f
P
i
|
Table 5.3: Polarization dependence of interference.
The coherence length of the laser was found to be
c

min
1
min
2
min
3
d
Na
N
Na
D2
Table 5.4: Wavelength of Sodium D lines. Distances d
Na
separating fringe
visibility minima are recorded. Then N
Na
= 2L
Na
/
D1
.
Chapter 6
Polarization of Light
Light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves. This means the electric
and magnetic eld vectors

E (V/m) and

B (T) lie in a plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation characterized by the energy ux density vector
(Poynting vector)

S (W/m
2
). The relative orientation of

E,

B and

S is given
by
S =
E

B
0
. (6.1)
Given the direction of propagation and the direction of the electric vector,
the direction of the magnetic vector is determined. Polarization of light is
related to the orientation of the electric eld. If the electric vector points
along a xed direction, light is said to be linearly polarized. Many other
possibilities exist. If the electric vector rotates as a function of time we
E
B
S
Direction of propagation
Figure 6.1: Relative orientation of the electric and magnetic elds and the
Poynting vector for an electromagnetic wave.
55
56 CHAPTER 6. POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
have elliptically polarized wave. If the orientation of the electric eld vector
changes at random, the wave is said to be unpolarized. What state of polar-
ization is produced depends on the source. In laboratory, of course, we can
produce any state of polarization. In this experiment we will study dierent
states of polarization and how they are produced and detected.
6.1 States of Polarization
Consider a plane wave propagating in the z direction. Then the electric eld
vector lies in the x y plane. We can then write its x and y components in
the form
E
x
= E
01
cos(kz t +
1
), (6.2)
E
y
= E
02
cos(kz t +
2
). (6.3)
Here is the angular frequency of the wave, k = n/c is the wave number,
n is the refractive index of the medium and
1
and
2
are the initial phases
for the two components of the wave. Dierent states of polarization are
realized for dierent choices of the phase dierence =
2

1
and the
relative magnitudes of E
01
and E
02
. At all times the relation

E

B =
0
S
is satised.
6.1.1 Unpolarized light
Light from natural sources, such as the sun or an incandescent solid, is unpo-
larized. For natural light
1
and
2
vary over a time scale of the order of 10
8
s in an uncorrelated manner. Therefore, the phase dierence also varies
at random. There are uctuations in the amplitude as well. The electric
eld takes all possible orientations in the x y plane and on average, the
amplitudes of the x and y components are equal E
01
= E
02
E
0
. Such
a wave can be represented by two orthogonal linear polarizations of equal
amplitude but random phases.
E
x
= E
0
cos[kz t +
1
(t)], (6.4)
E
y
= E
0
cos[kz t +
2
(t)] , (6.5)
where
1
(t) and
2
(t) are random functions of time.
6.1. STATES OF POLARIZATION 57
6.1.2 Polarized Light
Even when
1
and
2
vary at random, the phase dierence =
2
(t)
2
(t)
could still be constant provided that
1
and
2
vary in a completely correlated
manner. If =
2
(t)
1
(t) is a constant we can write the electric eld,
without the loss of generality, as
E
1
= E
01
cos(kz t), (6.6)
E
2
= E
02
cos(kz t + ). (6.7)
Let us consider some special values of the phase dierence in the interval
[, ]. For = 0 we have a wave linearly polarized in a direction making
an angle = tan
1
(E
02
/E
01
) with the x axis. For = we have a linearly
polarized wave in a direction making an angle = tan
1
(E
02
/E
01
)
tan
1
(E
02
/E
01
) with the x axis. For E
02
= 0 we have a wave
E
1
= xE
01
cos(kz t) , (6.8)
polarized in the x-direction and for E
01
= 0 we have a wave
E
2
= yE
02
cos(kz t) , (6.9)
polarized in the y direction. Waves in Eqs. (6.8) and (6.9) are said to have
orthogonal polarizations because

E
1
E
2
= 0. In general, a wave of amplitude
E
0
linearly polarized in a direction making an angle with the xaxis can
be expressed as a superposition of two orthogonal linearly polarized waves as
E = ( xE
0
cos + yE
0
sin) cos(kz t). (6.10)
If the wave amplitudes are equal, E
01
= E
02
= E
0
, and = /2 90
o
the electric eld components can be written as
E
1
= E
0
cos(kz t) (6.11)
E
2
= E
0
sin(kz t) . (6.12)
In this case the x and y components of the eld satisfy
E
1
2
+ E
2
2
= E
2
0
(6.13)
which is the equation of a circle with radius E
0
. Thus the tip of the electric
eld vector traces a circle with angular frequency . The rotation of the
electric eld vector is counterclockwise for = /2 and clockwise for =
/2 for an approaching wave. The former is referred to as left circularly
polarized (positive helicity) and the latter as right circularly polarized wave
(negative helicity).
For values of and E
01
and E
02
other than those discussed in the preced-
ing two paragraphs we have an elliptically polarized wave because the tip of
the electric eld vector traces an ellipse in the x y plane. For example, for
E
01
> E
02
and = /2 the electric eld vector rotates in an ellipse with
major axis along the x direction and minor axis along the y direction.
Similarly for E
01
= E
02
= E
0
and = /4 we have a left elliptically polarized
light with the axes of the ellipse rotated 45
o
with respect to the co-ordinate
axes. Since straight line and circle are special cases of an ellipse, elliptical
polarization is the most general state of polarization of light. We now study
how these states are produced and detected.
CAUTION : Handle all optical elements by their frames. Do not touch
any optical surfaces. Linear polarizers are marked by the direction of their
transmission axis and wave plates ( also referred to as retarders) by their fast
axis.
6.2.1 Linear Polarization
Mount a laser close to one end of the optical table so that the beam is
traveling parallel to and on top of a line of tapped holes in the table. If
necessary, use a beam expander (3) to obtain a beam of 2-3 mm diameter.
Mount two mirrors M
1
and M
2
at the two far corners of the table as shown
in the diagram.
1
Adjust mirror heights until the beam is incident very nearly
at the centers of the mirrors and it is traveling parallel to the surface of the
optical table.
Place the detector about 100 cm from the second mirror M
2
and make
sure that the detectors intercepts the whole laser beam. Insert a polarizer P
1
between M
2
and the detector so that the beam is incident normally on the
polarizer. Rotate the polarizer and observe the variation of light intensity
as recorded by the detector. From your observations what can you conclude
about the polarization of the light from the laser? Leave this polarizer P
1
1
These mirrors are not essential; they do provide better control over beam height and
beam pointing.
Laser
Beam
Expander
M
1
M
2
P
1
P
2
Detector/Meter
( Power Meter )
Figure 6.2: Experimental setup for producing and analyzing linear polariza-
tion.
with the notch in the polarizer frame pointing vertically up. Mount a second
polarizer P
2
(it will be called the analyzer) in a rotation stage and place it
in line with the laser beam between the rst polarizer P
1
and the detector.
Rotate the analyzer P
2
and monitor the intensity falling on the photodetec-
tor until a maximum in intensity is reached. Record both the intensity and
the angular position of P
2
. This angular position of P
2
will be the reference
for measuring angles. Rotate the analyzer in 5
o
increments between 0
o
and
180
o
. For each setting of P
2
, record the angular displacement from the
reference position, and the output of the detector as measured by the volt-
meter. The output of the detector is proportional to the irradiance of the
light (Watts/m
2
) falling on the detector which in turn is proportional to the
square of the amplitude of the electric eld transmitted by P
2
.
Maximum intensity I( = 0) I
0
Plot the results of your measurements and compare them to the Law of
Malus
I() = I
0
cos
2
. (6.14)
Q1 : Derive this in your report. In your comparison you may nd it
convenient to plot I()/I
0
. You may have to adjust your plots to make the
comparison, but you should justify any adjustment in your notebook.
Q2 : What does this tell you about the nature of light ? What
is the state of polarization of light after it emerges from the rst
polarizer? Record your comments on the comparison in your laboratory
notebook.
Laser
Beam
Expander
M
1
M
2
P
1
Rotation
Stage
Detector/Meter
( Power Meter )
Figure 6.3: Polarization in reection.
6.2.2 Brewster Angle (Optional)
A polarizer is one way of producing linearly polarized light from an unpo-
larized beam. Reection can also produce polarized light. The degree of
polarization depends on the angle of incidence. At one particular angle,
called Brewster angle (polarization angle), reected light is completely po-
larized perpendicular to the plane of incidence. At this angle of incidence,
the reection coecient is zero for light polarized parallel to the plane of
incidence.
To study polarization in the process of reection, remove the analyzer
P
2
and mount a lens holder in a rotation stage. Attach the rotation stage
to the table such that the laser beam passes through the center of the lens
holder. Tape a microscope glass slide to the lens holder so that the slide is
held rmly in place and the beam does not pass through the tape.
Rotate the lens holder so that the beam reected from the slide is sent
back along the input beam. Adjust the screws at the back of the lens holder
if necessary. You may want to use an index card with a hole in it to set the
beam. Set the rotation stage to 0
o
and tighten the screw on the lens holder
to x it in the holder.
Rotate P
1
so that its transmission axis is horizontal (notch horizontal).
This means the light incident on the microscope slide is polarized horizontally
and the electric vector lies in the plane of incidence. Remove the detector
and attach an index card to it since you are going to have to follow the beam
on the table.
Turn the rotation stage away from 0
o
and record the reection. Observe
how the intensity depends on the angle of incidence. Locate accurately any
maximum or minimum. By successive approximations, bring the stage to
produce the extremum. (You may nd that you can improve the minimum
by slightly tweaking the input polarizer by a small amount) Record the angle
of the rotation stage and determine the angle between the beam and the
normal to the reecting surface.
What is the refractive index of the material of the microscope
slide ? Make a plot of the irradiance as a function of the angle of
incidence.
Rotate the input polarizer P
1
to the orthogonal position so that the elec-
tric vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. Observe the angular
dependence of the irradiance of the reected beam. Make a plot of irradiance
as a function of the angle of incidence. Compare the plots for parallel and
perpendicular polarizations and comment on the similarities and dierences.
Q3 : When is the reected light completely polarized? What
is the state of polarization of the transmitted light then? Make
predictions and check them experimentally.
6.2.3 Circular Polarization
Polarization of light can be used to control the passage of light through an
optical system and to impress information on a light wave modulating the
amount of light passing through a birefringent material.
In this project a birefringent material will be used to change the polar-
ization of the laser. Using a quarter-wave plate and a polarizer we will build
an optical isolator. When we add a second quarter-wave plate, a polarization
rotator results.
Mount the beamsplitter (BS) in a lens holder and place the unit about
10 cm to the right from mirror M
2
. Orient the beamsplitter such that the
beamsplitter surface is inclined at 45
o
to the beam.
Place a white index card to monitor the reection (of the return beam)
from the beam splitter. Mount a polarizer P
1
on the optical breadboard in
line with the laser beam and several centimeter to the right of the beam-
splitter (BS). Set the polarizer with its transmission axis up. Adjust the
polarizer mount slightly so that the reection o this polarizer can be seen
on the index card.
Mount a second polarizer P
2
into a rotation stage about 15 cm to the right
of the rst polarizer. Rotate the second polarizer P
2
until it completely blocks
the light from the rst polarizer (i.e. Polarization axes crossed). Adjust
Laser
Beam
Expander
M
1
M
2
P
1
P
2
BS QWP
Detector/Meter
( Power Meter )
Index Card
Figure 6.4: Experimental arrangement for producing circular polarization.
the second polarizer so that the reection from this can be recognized as a
separate beam on the index card.
Insert a quarter-wave plate QWP into a rotating mount and place the
assembly between the two polarizers P
1
and P
2
. Slowly rotate the quarter-
wave plate until the output through the second polarizer is a maximum.
Rotate the second polarizer and observe the variation of the output irra-
diance.
Q4 : What state of polarization have you produced ? What
are the states of polarization at the output of P1, QWP, and P2 ?
How would you distinguish between this state and an unpolarized
beam? The quarter-wave plate has converted the linear input beam to a
circularly polarized beam.
6.2.4 Optical Diode : Optical Isolator
Remove P
2
and replace it with a mirror M
3
that reects light back on to
itself (Fig. 9-2). Observe the light reections on the index card. There will
be surface reections o the surfaces of the polarizer and the quarter-wave
plate, but there will be no strong reection from the mirror because the
mirror reverses the circularly polarized light and on second passage through
the quarter-wave plate, the beam is again linearly polarized but at right
angles to the original polarization. When the beam reected by M
3
hits
the polarizer P
1
again, it is absorbed. This is equivalent to saying that the
outgoing beam has been isolated from reections after the quarter-wave
plate.
Laser
Beam
Expander
M
1
M
2
P
1
M
3
BS QWP
Index Card
Figure 6.5: Experimental arrangement for an optical diode (optical isolator).
Q5 : How would you test that this is indeed what is happening?
6.2.5 Polarization Rotator
Start with the arrangement for producing circularly polarized light with a
single quarter-wave plate. Hold a second quarter-wave plate between the
crossed polarizers without disturbing the orientation of the rst. Rotate the
second quarter-wave plate until the light passing through the second polarizer
P
2
is a maximum. You have now created a half-wave plate which rotates the
input polarization by 90
o
. Instead of two QWPs you may also use a single
half wave plate (HWP).
Q6 : How would you check this out? The device that you have
constructed is a polarization rotator.
6.2.6 Elliptically Polarized Light
Elliptically polarized light is the most general type of polarized light. Con-
sider a set of crossed polarizers. A QWP is introduced between them with
its optic axis at an angle to the transmission axis of the polarizer. We can
resolve the light incident on the QWP into components parallel and perpen-
dicular to the optic axis of the QWP. After passing through the QWP the
two components have a relative phase dierence of /2. Light incident on
Laser
Beam
Expander
M
1
M
2
P
1
P
2
BS
QWP
1
QWP
2
or
a Single HWP
Index Card
Detector/Meter
( Power Meter )
Figure 6.6: Experimental arrangement for polarization rotator.
the analyzer is described by
E
e
= Acos cos t (6.15)
E
o
= Asin(cos t /2) (6.16)
Show that this represents an elliptically polarized light. Determine the prin-
cipal axes of the ellipse by rotating the analyzer. Start with the QWP optic
axis aligned with the transmission axis of the polarizer. Increment the angle
between the QWP axis and P
1
in steps of 10
o
and record how much do you
have to rotate the analyzer from its crossed position to nd the major and
minor axes of the polarization ellipse.
Q7 : How would you determine the direction of rotation of the
electric vector?
Finally take the unknown retarder and place it between the crossed po-
larizers with its axis making angles of 10
o
, 20
o
, 30
o
, 40
o
80
o
with P
1
.
Determine the maximum or minimum by rotating the analyzer. Find the
retardation introduced by the unknown plate.
6.2.7 An Amusement
Starting with the arrangement in the previous section, rotate the rst po-
larizer by some specic angle, say 10
o
, and then determine the amount by
which the second polarizer must be rotated to extinguish the beam.
Q8 : You will nd that the analyzer must rotate through twice
the angle of the initial polarizer. Is this really true? What is the
state of polarization in this case after P1, QWP1, and QWP2?
Ang. Disp. () Intensity (Volts) I/I
0
cos
2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
75
80
85
90
Table 6.1: Law of Malus
Chapter 7
Resolving Power of a Grating
and Limit of Resolution
7.1 Theory
For a discussion of diraction gratings, refer to Chapter 17 of Jenkins and
White or Chapter 10 of Hecht and Zajac.
The resolving power of a grating or a prism is given by
R

, (7.1)
where is the wavelength resolved from the wavelength + . Consider
an assembly of N slits with a separation of d between each slit (d is referred
to as the grating constant). If the mth maximum in intensity occurs at an
angle , then the extreme optical path dierence between waves leaving slit
1 and the Nth slit is mN. The rst minimum occurs at + when the
extreme path dierence is mN + since waves from the Nth slit will be
/2 wavelengths out of phase with the wave from the N/2 slit.
The Rayleigh criterion for resolution requires that if two sources are just
resolved, the central maximum of the diraction pattern from one source falls
upon the minimum of the other. Then if we are to resolve a second compo-
nent diering in wavelength by , it must produce a maximum at the rst
minimum described above. For the ray of wavelength + , mN ( + )
must be the extreme path length dierence for a maximum so that
mN + = mN ( + ) . (7.2)
67
68CHAPTER 7. RESOLVING POWER OF A GRATING AND LIMIT OF RESOLUTION
Qty. Description
1 transmission grating (2000 lines/inch or 300 lines/mm)
1 student spectrometer focused for parallel light
1 vernier calipers for adjusting eective size of grating
1 mercury vapor source
Table 7.1: Apparatus for the Resolving Power of a Diraction Grating ex-
periment.
This equation then leads to the following expression for the resolving power
of the diraction grating
R =

= mN . (7.3)
Make at least three measurements of each quantity and then deter-
mine the average and the standard deviation of that quantity.
7.2.1 Resolving Power of a Grating
Mount the transmission grating so that the incident light is normal and the
caliper lies between the collimator and the grating. The caliper jaws should
be parallel to the lines of the grating and as close to the grating as possible.
The jaws of the caliper provide a variable aperture which determines the
number of lines on the grating which are used. With the calipers fully open
the spectral orders are scanned. You should be able to see several orders
present on either side of the central image. Set the scope on the yellow lines
of the rst orders and vary the calipers until the lines are resolved. Record
the order and the width of the slit. Repeat, going to higher orders, until the
last observable order is resolved for both sides of the central image. Record
your measurements in Table 7.3. Table 7.2 provides the wavelengths of the
mercury spectrum.
7.3. LIMIT OF RESOLUTION 69
Color Wavelength (nm)
Red 623.4
Yellow 579.0
Yellow 577.0
Green 546.1
Blue 435.8
Violet 407.8
Violet 404.7
Table 7.2: The mercury spectrum.
7.2.2 Determination of the Grating Constant d
Measure the angular position of several known lines of a given light source
and record your measurements in Table 7.4. Knowing the angular position,
the order, and the wavelength, d may be determined from
m = d sin . (7.4)
7.3 Limit of Resolution
Set the the long vertical lament lamp securely on the table. Place a red
lter in front of the lamp followed by the resolution source object (RSO) slit
plate as shown. The RSO consists of rows of slits. The long dimension of
the resolution object plate should be vertical. The top row has slits with
largest separation. Slits in each successive row have half as much separation
as the row above it. Make sure you do not place the lter too close to the
lamp. Stand back about 3-4 m from the plate. Hold the slide with the slitlm
slide with the long dimension vertical such that the CAL monogram is in the
upper right corner. Hold the lm close to the eye (almost touching the eye)
and look through the slide at the resolution source object. In the rst column
on the slitlm you will see single slits of dierent widths. Choose a slit with
some aperture size, say D, and focus your attention on one particular row of
object slits on the RSO plate. Move back and forth until you are just able
to resolve two adjacent slits. Determine the distance where you are just
able to resolve two adjacent slits. Compute the angle subtended at the eye
by two adjacent slits. Compare this to /D.
D
l
Lamp
Filter
Resolution Slit
Object Plate
Slitfilm
Apertures
Figure 7.1: Limit of resolution set up
Looking through the same aperture replace the red lter by blue. What
qualitative change do you see? Move back and forth and determine the
distance where you are just able to resolve two adjacent slits. Once again
compute the angle subtended at your eye by two adjacent slits. Compare
this to /D.
Change D and repeat the steps outlined above. Choose a dierent row
of slits and repeat the steps in the previous two paragraphs.
Q1 : For a xed D and which color allows you better resolu-
tion? How does resolution change with ? Your eye has a nite
aperture too (the pupil). Are you limited by the pupil or by the
slitwidth in your experiment? How do you decide? What do you
learn from this experiment?
Remove the RSO. You can now use the slitlm to observe dozens of
diraction patterns. Investigate at least two of these qualitatively and include
them in your report.
Caliper Width
order m trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average std dev N
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 7.3: Resolving Power of a Grating. Using yellow lines of of each spectral
order to determine R. Caliper width is recorded when lines are just resolved.
Eective number of slits N may be obtained from this measurement and
known number of slits per inch.
Q2 : Rederive the relationship for resolution using a diagram
showing all quantities. Compute the resolution necessary to re-
solve the mercury 579.07 nm and 576.98 nm doublet. Compare
the observed and the computed resolutions.
Angular Position
order m trial 1 trial 2 trial 3 average std dev d
Table 7.4: Determination of the grating constant d. d may be determined
from m = d sin .
Chapter 8
Image Formation and Spatial
Filtering
8.1 Theory
For discussions of the diraction theory of image formation and/or spatial
ltering, see Sec. 28.12 of Jenkins and White or Sec. 14.1 of Hecht and
Zajac.
Every image is a synthesis of a diraction pattern. The purpose of an
optical instrument is to synthesize a diraction pattern to form an images of
an object. The image that you see in the eyepiece of an optical instrument is
always an accurate synthesis of some diraction pattern but not necessar-
ily the diraction pattern of the real object you are trying to see. The nal
image delivered by these instruments is critically dependent on how much of
the real objects diraction pattern is utilized. Since optical elements have
nite apertures no instrument utilizes all of an objects diraction pattern.
It follows that the images formed by optical instruments are to some extent
false. This includes images formed by the naked eye.
In this experiment we study how the image of a real object may be falsied
when only a part of its diraction pattern is utilized. For our investigations,
we will use a simple object that has a repetitive structure a piece of screen
mesh. The diraction pattern of this object is simple and repetitive.
The form of the above pattern may be understood by considering the
wire mesh as a pair of diraction gratings with their lines crossed at 90
.
The rst grating of the pair provides, say, the familiar horizontal row of
dots. The second grating disperses each of these dots into a vertical column
73
74 CHAPTER 8. IMAGE FORMATION AND SPATIAL FILTERING
a
1
a
2
a
2
a
1
b
2
b
2
b
1
b
1
0
c
1
c
1
c
2
c
2
d
2
d
2
d
1
d
1
Screen
Diffraction Pattern
Figure 8.1: Diraction pattern of a wire mesh.
of dots, thus building up the pattern of Fig. 8.1.
Consider now the eect of suppressing certain parts of the full dirac-
tion pattern of Fig. 8.1, and using a lens to synthesize the remaining orders
into an image. We rst use a mask that accepts only the orders a
n
of Fig. 8.1,
as shown in Fig. 8.2. Since a
n
is the diraction pattern of a set of vertical
wires, we will see in our eyepiece nothing but a eld of vertical wires the
horizontal wires will have wholly disappeared. Similarly, when we pick o
and synthesize the vertical orders b
n
we will see only horizontal wires. Most
interesting is the case in which we pick o only diagonal orders, say c
n
. This
time we will see a very real-looking set of wires at 45
wires which do not,

of course, exist in the real object. Should we add the orders d
n
with a mask
having an X-shaped cutout, the eyepiece would reveal a very convincing piece
of mesh, but rotated 45
with respect to the real mesh.

The above is a preview of what to expect, so you will know if you have
set up the apparatus correctly. Later in the course of this experiment you
will use masks which will admit the central maximum only, central maximum
plus second-order only, rst-order only, and various other combinations. In
these cases you will be asked to anticipate what the image will look like,
and you will have to explain what you see in the eyepiece, on the basis of
diraction theory.
The ideas of this experiment, although developed in a simple and qualita-
tive way, serves as an introduction to the important topic of spatial ltering
and Fourier Optics. The diraction pattern of Fig. 8.1 is the two-dimensional
8.1. THEORY 75
Diffraction Pattern Image
Figure 8.2: Spatial ltering.
Fourier transform of the object, the object being viewed as a mathematical
function. The image seen by the eyepiece is, in turn, the Fourier transform
of the diraction pattern. In this manner information is transmitted from
the object to the eye. If all the information were transmitted, the image
would be a perfect representation of the object. However, due to the -
nite size of optical apertures, the image function is not strictly proportional
to the object function, but is modied in certain respects. The totality of
these modications is called the optical transfer function (OTF) of the sys-
tem. Anything done deliberately to alter the OTF is called spatial ltering.
Spatial ltering can often be used to falsify an image in useful ways, for
example, lling in the spaces between scan lines of a TV picture, or removing
scratches from a transparency. The ltering may be done either optically,
by suitable masks (as we shall do in this experiment), or analytically, by
appropriate programming of a computer.
Qty. Description
1 optical bench with component carriers
1 eyepiece
1 microscope slide in holder for mounting on bench
1 candle and matches for soot-mask microscope slide
1 lens of 15 to 25 cm focal length
1 piece of screen mesh, 30 to 100 wires per cm
1 ashlight and mount
1 white card or screen
1 variable slit on rotating mount
Table 8.1: Apparatus for the Spatial Filtering experiment.
Record your observations in the format suggested in Sec. 8.3. Step 1.
Set up the equipment approximately as shown in Fig. 8.3. For the moment,
put a white card in the holder intended for the microscope slide (mask).
Focus the diraction pattern of the mesh at the plane of the mask and then
draw this pattern as indicated in Sec. 8.3.
Step 2.
Remove the white card and without disturbing the bulb-lens-mask spacing
focus an image of the mesh just in front of the eyepiece. Move the eyepiece
eye piece eye mask lens wire mash lamp iris
60cm 20cm 20cm 80cm
Figure 8.3: An outline of the experimental setup.

back and forth until you can see a clear image of the mesh in it. We are now
ready to have some fun with spatial ltering.
Step 3.
Mount an adjustable slit in the holder for the mask and move the carrier until
a crisp diraction pattern appears on the slit. Open the slit and adjust its
orientation so that only the orders a
n
of Fig. 8.1 pass through the slit. View
the result in the eyepiece. If successful, you should see clear, distinct, and
real-looking vertical lines. If not, try adjusting the slit width and orientation.
Light coming around the slide may be a problem, in which case you should
use a cardboard screen with a hole just big enough to admit the diraction
pattern, between the lens and the slide. Insert this stop in the optical
path during the actual viewing through the eyepiece only, otherwise, it will
interfere with your work at other times.
Step 4.
Reposition and use the slit for b
n
and the c
n
and observe the eects on the
image of the mesh. Draw in Sec. 8.3 the c
n
mask and the pattern it produces.
Make sure that you preserve the relative orientation of the mask and what
you see in the eyepiece.
Step 5. (Optional)
Now you are ready to try some eects not previewed in Sec. 8.1. In every case
below, make a drawing anticipating what you will see, before you actually
perform the experiment. Afterwards, draw what you did see, together with
the mask that produced it, in their correct spatial relation. Use the adjustable
slit or the appropriate slides for
(i) The central maximum, 0,
(ii) 0 and a
2
,
(iii) a
1
only,
(iv) 0 and c
1
,
(v) 0, c
1
, and d
1
.
Compare the spacing of the wires in cases (ii) and (iii) with each other
and with the spacing seen when the mask is not present. Make as good
a quantitative estimate as possible. One way to do this is to look through
the eyepiece and simultaneously view with the other eye an illuminated scale;
or arrange a crude reticule at the focus of the eyepiece.
Step 6.
Make an oblong opening for a
1
and 0. While observing the view in the eye-
piece, move a paper clip slowly from left to right against the back (uncoated
side) of the slide. When the wire of the paper clip blocks only the central
maximum, a notable change should occur. Describe this with a diagram in
Sec. 8.3. Now enlarge the oblong until it includes all orders a
n
and 0. Once
more block 0 with the paper clip. What happens this time?
Step 7.
Install the variable slit in place of the glass mask and its holder. Focus the
diraction pattern carefully at the plane of the slit. Arrange the centering of
the pattern so that the central maximum just falls into the slit, both when
the slit is vertical and when it is horizontal. Now observe the mesh through
the eyepiece while rotating the slit from horizontal to vertical or vice versa.
You will certainly see 45
wires, and probably also wires inclined at other

angles due to higher-order spectra being captured. Next, view one set of lines
with the slits orientation xed, and gradually widen and narrow the slit to
see the mechanism by which one set of wires is discriminated against.
Step 1. Draw the diraction pattern of mesh as seen on white card in place
of mask.
Step 4. Draw the c
n
mask and the resulting image pattern.
Step 5.
(i) Passing the central maximum only : Draw (a) the mask, (b) the predicted
pattern, and (c) the observed image pattern.
(ii) Passing the central maximum and a
2
: Draw (a) the mask, (b) the
predicted pattern, and (c) the observed pattern.
(iii) Passing a
1
only : Draw (a) the mask, (b) the predicted pattern, and (c)
the observed pattern.
(iv) Passing the central maximum and c
1
(v) Passing the central maximum, c
1
, and d
1
How do the spacings of the horizontal wires in patterns observed in (ii) and
(iii) compare?
How do the spacings of the vertical wires in patterns observed in (ii) and (iii)
compare?
How does the spacing of the wires in pattern (ii) compare with the spacing
in the absence of the mask?
How does the spacing of the wires in pattern (iii) compare with the spacing
in the absence of the mask?
Step 6. Passing the central maximum and a
1
: Draw (a) the observed image
pattern. Also draw (b) the pattern with central maximum blocked.
Passing the central maximum and the a
n
: Draw (a) the observed image
pattern. Also draw (b) the pattern with central maximum blocked.
Step 7. Draw the observed image pattern and compare with the pattern
without mask.
Chapter 9
Holography
9.1 Theory
Our goal in this lab is to understand the concepts involved in the making of
a hologram. For discussions of the theory of holography, see Chapter 31 of
Jenkins and White or Sec. 14.3 of Hecht and Zajac. There are several good
articles about holography in the American Journal of Physics, including one
on pages 954957 in Volume 43 (No. 11).
An ordinary photograph is a record of the intensity of light |E|
2
reected
from an object. It has no phase information. There is no parallax stored in
the lm. This means the information about the phase relationship between
light waves reected from dierent parts of the objects is not recorded. It is
only a two dimensional record of the object. Also, on a given piece of lm
only one part of the image may be stored.
A hologram, on the other hand, not only records the intensity information
of the light reected by the object but also the phase relationship between
light rays from dierent parts of the object. Displaying the hologram results
in reconstructing both the intensity and phase pattern of the original light
waves. It reproduces a set of light rays identical to the ones that are actually
scattered by the object. Since all the phase and intensity information is
present a true three dimensional image having the same parallax as the object
is formed. The image is in every way the same as the object itself. Of course
the object is not physically present, but all the light rays that would come
from it are present. The result is that you couldnt test for the existence
of the object by vision alone. In every sense, the image would be visually
real. This is what a hologram does. Another interesting dierence between
80
a photograph and a hologram is that the entire image is stored on a piece of
any size.
How do we record the information about the phase? This is done by
illuminating the object with a light with long coherence length. This is where
lasers come in. Although laser light is coherent its coherence length is nite.
The nite length over which the beam will remain coherent is known as the
coherence length L
c
of the laser. Since it is the coherence of the beam that
we wish to utilize in constructing the interference pattern on the hologram it
is clear that we cannot use an object whose dimensions exceed the coherence
length. Also beam path dierences cannot exceed one coherence length.
Therefore we strive to keep all paths of approximately the same length. This
type of coherence is known as temporal coherence and tells us about the
quality of the beam for a given length of time t = L
c
/c. Another type of
coherence, spatial coherence, is also important in making holograms. Spatial
coherence refers to the uniformity of phase across the beam at a given instant
of time. For holography , we need a beam with uniform cross section known
as the TEM
00
mode. Mathematically this mode corresponds to a Gaussian
(classic bell curve) beam prole. To further enhance the uniformity of our
beam, we shall use a spatial lter. We also need a method to diverge the
beam enough to cover the object. Any irregularities in the beam or the lens
will be greatly magnied in so doing. The purpose of the spatial lter is thus
twofold: it expands the beam to the necessary size, and secondly it cleans
up the beam, i.e. produces a beam of uniform cross section. Aligning the
spatial lter and keeping beam irregularities can be a trying experience. Be
patient, the fruits of your care and hard work will be evident in the quality
of the hologram. So persevere!
Safety Rules for the Laser Lab
Do not look directly into the laser beam or its reection
Do not touch any optical surfaces
Use a nonreecting white card to locate the beam
Watch for others when redirecting the beam
Do not eat in the laser lab or the darkroom
Wear gloves while working in the darkroom
When mixing acids and water, always add the acid to the water
Wash your hands several times after working with darkroom chemicals
82 CHAPTER 9. HOLOGRAPHY
Qty. Description
1 HeNe laser
1 pinhole or spatial lter for output of laser
1 shutter to control exposure times
1 front surface mirror mounted to cast beam through spatial lter
1 spatial lter to cast broad beam upon object
1 holographic lm plate (4 5 in.) holder
1 object whose image is to be recorded
1 shock table
Table 9.1: Optical apparatus for a reection hologram.
Qty. Description
4 trays (developer, bath, bleach, xer)
Developer and chemicals(do not expose to room light)
red-sensitive holographic plates (AGFA 8E75-HD NAH, 4 5 in.)
1 timer
tongs or gloves for handling plates
1 empty plate box for drying plates
Table 9.2: Darkroom apparatus for the Holography experiment.
9.2.1 Transmission and Reection Holograms
We describe here only how to produce a single-beam reection hologram. The
image of this type of hologram may be viewed using an overhead projector
as light source.
As shown in Fig. 9.1, the expanded laser beam illuminates both the plate
and the object behind the plate. The name reection hologram refers to
the fact the light reected from the object interferes with the light incident
on the plate, creating the holographic image.
Depending on the size of shock table available, it may be necessary or
advantageous to use a front-surface mirror to reect the beam from the laser
through the spatial lter. This additional path length facilitates expansion of
the beam and makes the task of aligning the components somewhat simpler.
beam expander
plate holder
object
shutter
Laser
aperture
Figure 9.1: Single beam reection hologram. It is true that transmission
holograms yield the best depth, parallax, and resolution, but they are not
viewable in ordinary light. Reection holograms (also known as Braggs angle
holograms) can be viewed in sunlight or with a point source of light without
any need for special lighting situations.
The alignment of the spatial lter is somewhat dicult, but when successful,
the resulting images are of quite good quality.
Use the following procedure to expose a holographic plate.
The laser must be allowed to warm up for a time sucient for it to
stabilize (at least an hour or so). Set the shutter for the exposure time
desired this may range from 0.5 seconds to 4 or 5 seconds. Ensure that
the beam fully illuminates the space described by the plate holder. The
object to be imaged should be placed behind the plate holder, close enough
to it for good illumination, but not so close that it will be jarred during
the process of inserting the plate into the holder. We have had good results
with a variety of objects ranging from the ubiquitous die to an illustrated
coee mug and a toy airplane made of light wood. Ivory gurines should
also work well. Bear in mind that the nature of the image will aect the
exposure, developer, and bleach times. Several attempts with a given object
will probably be necessary to produce a good quality hologram.
Have everyone stand away from the table and then turn the lights o.
Open the light-tight box of plates and carefully remove one plate using your
ngertips only. These plates have an emulsion on one side only; the emulsion
side should be placed toward the object (away from the incident laser beam).
A moist nger will nd the emulsion side to be considerably more tacky
than the glass side. After determining which side has the emulsion, it is
probably wise to stick to some sort of convention when handling the plate.
For instance, hold the emulsion side toward yourself when carrying it and
then of course keep the emulsion side up when placing the plate in the
darkroom trays to avoid scratching the lm.
Now slide the plate into the plate holder, being careful to avoid touching
the surfaces of the plate as well as the object. Make sure that the plate
slides fully down into the holder. Replace the cover of the light-tight plate
box holding the unexposed plates.
Move over to the shutter control, and then wait at least thirty seconds
for any vibrations or air currents to settle down. Any dust in the path of the
beam or motion of the components will degrade the quality of the image.
Open the shutter for the desired length of time (we are presently getting
good with results with exposure times on the order of one half of one second).
Then with gloves on remove the plate from its holder. If you like,
you may rst remove the object to avoid knocking it into the emulsion of
the plate. Holding the emulsion side of the plate toward yourself, proceed
to the darkroom, where the chemicals should have been prepared per the
instructions in Subsection 9.2.2.
Close the door of the darkroom. Do not use a safety lamp. Do not
turn on the lights in the laser lab, as the darkroom door is not light-tight.
Place the plate in the developer tray, emulsion side up. Agitate the
developer by rocking the tray gently back and forth. Do this for anywhere
from about 1.5 to 2.5 minutes. As with all of the timings given here, you
will have to make several trials to determine the best combination of times
to use.
Remove the plate using either a pair of tongs or your gloved hands. Place
the plate emulsion side up in a tray set in the bottom of the right-hand sink.
The tray should be full of tap water, with enough ow from the tap that the
bath is continually being replenished. There is no need to agitate the bath
since the water is owing. Leave the plate in the water bath for about three
minutes. Rinse the developer from your gloves.
the plate emulsion side up in the bleach tray for about one minute, gently
agitating the tray as before. Avoid dripping water in the other trays.
Remove the plate using either a pair of tongs or your gloved hands. Be
careful to avoid dripping bleach from the plate into the other trays. Place
the plate emulsion side up in the water-bath tray for about three minutes.
Rinse the bleach from your gloves.
the plate emulsion side up in the xer tray for about two minutes, gently
agitating the tray as before. Avoid dripping water in the other trays.
At this point, you may turn on a safety light if you like. Finally, place
the developed plate into a rack from an empty light-tight plate box for drying.
It takes at least ten minutes for a plate to dry fully do not rush this step.
When leaving the darkroom, be sure to close the door to preserve the
quality of the developer. You may now turn the laser lab lights on.
After the plate has dried, it may be viewed by standing so that the light
from the sun or an overhead projector is cast over your shoulder. Holding
the plate in front of you and to the side from which the light is coming, you
should be able to view the image from many dierent angles. Any swirly gray
patterns seen on the lm are not the interference pattern you are trying to
record. They are a result of optical imperfections and dust in the beam path.
The pattern you are recording is microscopic and it would be a good idea to
examine the lm under a microscope to see the complex three dimensional
interference pattern you have recorded on the lm.
9.2.2 Darkroom Chemicals Preparation
The holographic chemicals are all stocked in the darkroom and are mixed
on an as-needed basis. The reason for this is that the shelf life of the mixed
developer is only a day or so!
Discuss with your instructor and follow the instruction on the chemical
packet for preparing chemicals for developing.
Figure 9.2 shows the additional complexity involved in producing a split-
beam reection hologram.
Figures 9.3 and 9.4 illustrate the setups required to produce transmission
holograms.
aperture
beam splitter
50/50
beam splitter
reference beam
plate
object
reference mirror
reference lens
card
object mirror
object lens
card
object mirror
object lens
laser
shutter
Figure 9.2: Split beam reection hologram. Note that the arrangement shown
will yield a dynamic hologram when viewed with a point source of light.
9.2.3 Viewing a Transmission Hologram
In order to view a transmission hologram, you need to place the plate in the
same position relative to the laser beam as when the exposure was made.
Therefore, if the optical table is still set up from the exposure , just place the
plate into the mount and view. It is not dicult to align if the equipment
has been moved, just view the image until it is clearly visible. Be careful in
looking at the plate with the laser beam, do not look directly down the beam
and beware of regions of specular reection where the beam will be coming
straight through the lm.
Notice that one can observe the image from various angles and actually see
dierent views of the image by just moving your eyes. The object appears to
actually be there just behind the plate (virtual image). Now ip the hologram
over and place back in the mount. The image will appear to be in front of the
beam expander shutter
Laser
aperture
plate holder
object
Figure 9.3: Single beam transmission hologram.
aperture
beam splitter
50/50
beam splitter
reference beam
plate
object
reference mirror
reference lens
object mirror
object lens
card
object mirror
object lens
card
laser
Figure 9.4: Split beam transmission hologram. This is the basic setup. The
most sensible approach is to maintain a symmetry in the placement of the
components. This also gives the most satisfactory results.
plate when viewed from a short distance. This image is called pseudoscopic:
it is actually inside-out. It is possible to place an object in the path of the
image for projection when viewed this way (real image, pseudoscopic). Now
hit the plate with just the undispersed dot of the laser beam. Notice that
with just this dot , it is possible to view the entire object. As you move
the viewing spot about, you will see the image from dierent points of view.
The eect is the same as looking through a tiny hole to see the view out of
a window. In order to see the entire image, you will have to move your head
about to dierent positions, but it is all there! Thus the entire hologram is an
assembled of images, one from each point of view, yet each viewpoint contains
the entire image. This is just an inkling of the power and information stored
in a hologram!
Chapter 10
Photoelectric Eect
In all experiments that we have performed so far, light can be described in
the language of rays and waves. We now look at situations where the wave
picture of light is inadequate to explain experimental observations. The
photoelectric eect, together with the Compton eect and the Raman eect,
requires light to be treated as a stream of particles. The experiment on the
photoelectric eect introduces you to the quantum aspect of light.
For a discussions of the photoelectric eect see Chapter 13 of Hecht or
Chapter 33 of Jenkins and White.
10.1 Theory
The photoelectric eect is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when
the surface is illuminated by light. It was rst noted by Heinrick Hertz in
1887. Attempts to explain the experimental observations deed theoretical
physics until 1905 when Einstein applied the then new Quantum Theory to
the eect and obtained complete agreement with experimental observations.
The photoelectric eect thus provided one of the key tests of the new theory
and partly for his explanation of it Einstein received the Nobel prize.
Einsteins basic assumption was that light consists of particles, or quanta,
of energy. Each quantum has a well dened energy given by
E = h (10.1)
Based on this assumption Einstein proposed the following relation for the
89
90 CHAPTER 10. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Qty. Description
1 Mercury vapor lamp
1 Intensity lters (transmissivity 80%, 60%, 40%, and 20%)
2 UV blocking lters (green and yellow lters)
1 Photocell with a stand
1 Digital multimeter
1 patch cords
1 goniometer to hold the source and the photoelectric cell
1 Sliding mount with a grating and lens
Table 10.1: Apparatus for the photoelectric eect.
kinetic energy K of the emitted electrons :
K = h W
0
(10.2)
where K is the kinetic energy of the electron, h is the Plancks constant,
is the frequency of the incident light and W
0
is the work function of the
metal being used. Work function is the minimum amount of work required
to free an electron from the metal surface. An interesting consequence of
Eq. (3) is that for a given metal the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
is independent of light intensity. It depends only on the frequency of the
incident light. Would you have guessed that the kinetic energy would
be independent of light intensity? A wave model of light would have
predicted that the kinetic energy depends on light intensity.
The simple relation of Eq. (2) completely explains the photoelectric eect
and suggests a way to determine Plancks constant h and the work function
W
0
. To experimentally investigate the Einstein relation we note that one
must determine the kinetic energy K of the electrons as a function of light
frequency . Consider the setup shown in Figure 1. Suppose initially the ap-
plied potential V is zero. Then when light strikes the metal surface, electrons
are emitted with kinetic energy K. They proceed through the vacuum until
they strike the other metal plate and are registered as an electrical current
by the ammeter. Now consider what happens as the potential V is increased.
The electrons now experience a retarding force and when V is high enough
all the electrons emitted will be just brought to rest and no current will be
ammeter
voltmeter
e
V
A
+
light
metal
h
Figure 10.1: Setup to observe the photoelectric eect.
registered. When this happens we know the kinetic energy of the electrons.
eV =
1
2
mv
2
= K = h W
0
. (10.3)
Thus we have a means of determining one of the parameters in the Einstein
relation. Light frequency is selected by using an appropriate color lter
which allows only the light of a certain frequency to pass through. For
example, a red lter transmits light quanta of frequencies corresponding to
the red color and absorbs quanta of all other frequencies. Another approach is
to use a grating to separate the incident light into its component frequencies.
Dierent frequencies then can be selected from the spectrum with the help
of a slit that allows only a certain part of the spectrum to pass through.
The rest of the spectrum is blocked. Thus by using the light of dierent
frequencies and determining the stopping voltage we can determine both h
and W
0
in the Einstein relation.
An outline of the apparatus is shown in Figure 2. Since the electric current
produced by a light source of any reasonable intensity is very small (it varies
from 10
12
10
9
A), it is dicult to measure the null point in current
mercury light
source
filter grating
S
C AMP
Voltmeter
Figure 10.2: An outline of the experimental setup.
with currents of this size. For this reason, in the experiment we measure the
stopping voltage directly with the help of an high impedance amplier.
The photoelectrons emitted from the photocathode move toward the an-
ode producing a small photo-current. This photocurrent is used to charge a
small capacitance. When the potential on this capacitance reaches the stop-
ping potential for the photoelectrons, the current decreases to zero and the
anode-to-cathode potential stabilizes. This nal voltage between the anode
and the cathode is therefore the stopping potential of the photoelectrons.
This voltage is measured with the help of a high input impedance ( > 10
12
), unity gain amplier [Fig. 2].
The procedure for recording the data is as follows. Turn the mercury
vapor lamp on and allow about 5 minutes for it to stabilize. Attach the
grating and lens sliding mount to the mercury lamp housing. Place a card
in front of the grating. You should see sharp mercury line spectra. Mount
the photoelectric cell on the support rod on the support assembly. Place
the support assembly over the pin at the end of the coupling bar assembly
[Fig. 3]. Set the photocell directly in front of the light source and adjust the
grating/lens assembly so that a sharp image of the source aperture is seen on
the mask on the photocell. Rotate support assembly until the light in one of
spectral lines in the rst order enters the photo cell. If you select the green
Hg Source
Grating
Photocell
Mask and
Filter Holder
Coupling Bar
Assembly
Support Base
Assembly
Figure 10.3: Details of the experimental setup.
or yellow spectral line, place the corresponding colored lter over the White
Reective Mask on the h/e apparatus. Place the Variable Transmission Filter
so that the light passes through the section marked 100% and reaches the
photodiode.
Depress momentarily the zero switch S on the photocell to discharge any
accumulated charge on the storage capacitor. Read the output voltage on
the voltmeter and approximately how much time is required to recharge the
instrument to the maximum voltage. The maximum voltage is the stopping
voltage. Move the Variable Transmission Filter so that next section is directly
in front of the incoming light. Record the stopping voltage and approximate
charge time for dierent transmission fractions. Repeat the procedure for
all available lines in the spectrum and record these observations in your
notebook. Repeat the procedure for the second order spectral lines.
Plot a graph of intensity versus stopping potential, and intensity versus
charging time. Explain the eect of intensity on the stopping potential and
charging time.
Plot a graph of the stopping potential V vs light frequency ( = c/).
The stopping potential gives us the kinetic energy of the electrons via K =
eV . Using this in Eq. (2) and rearranging it we obtain
V = (h/e) W
0
/e . (10.4)
Thus the slope of the V vs. graph determines the ratio h/e and the intercept
determines the ratio W
0
/e. If V
0
is the intercept in volts then W
0
= eV
0
.
We will automatically get the work function W
0
in electron volts by dropping
e: W
0
= -V
0
eV (electron-volts). Assign experimental error to your measured
values of h and W
0
. The following constants are given :
e = 1.602 10
19
C (10.5)
c = 2.998 10
8
m/s (10.6)
Appendix A
Error Analysis
Scientic knowledge is based on the results of measurements of physical quan-
tities. Therefore we must understand how to express the results of mea-
surements and how to analyze and draw meaningful conclusions from them.
Since all measurements are subject to errors or uncertainties, the result of
any physical measurement must consists of two essential components: (1) a
numerical value (in a specied system of units) giving the best possible esti-
mate of the quantity measured, and (2) the degree of uncertainty associated
with this value. For example, a measurement of the width of a table would
give a result such as 85.3 0.1 cm. We can minimize the error by using
more sophisticated apparatus or techniques but we cannot eliminate it.
It is important to keep in mind that error is not the dierence between
the measurement and some accepted exact value. Accepted values are not
right answers. They are just measurements made by other people which
have errors associated with them as well. For example, the true value of
the ratio of the proton mass to that of the electron is 1836.153 .001.
Error does not mean mean blunder. Reading a scale backwards, or
reading a centimeter scale as inches are blunders which can be caught and
should be avoided. One should never refer to human error as an excuse for
deviation of your measured results from an accepted value.
Error refers to the uncertainty in measurements. It is an intrinsic part of
95
96 APPENDIX A. ERROR ANALYSIS
the measurement. Although we cannot eliminate error, it can be character-
ized. For instance, the repeated measurements may cluster tightly together
or they may spread widely. This pattern can be analyzed systematically.
It is also important to distinguish between the accuarcy and precision of
a result. The accuracy of an experiment is a measure of how close the result
of the experiment comes to the true value. The precision of an experiment,
on the other hand, refers to how exactly is the result determined without
reference to what the result means. For example, if in an experiment de-
termining the length of a table, the table is found to be 1.752 m long, the
measurement indicates a high precision on the order of 1 mm. The correc-
tions to this result due to thermal expansion will improve the accuracy but
not the precision.
The way in which the result of an experiment is written should reect the
precision. To indicate the precision we write a number with as many digits
as are signicant.
A.1 Signicant Figures
The signicant gures of a measured or calculated quantity are the meaning-
ful digits in it - digits which can be trusted, even if some are zeros. There are
conventions for expressing the results of measurements to properly indicate
their signicant gures.
Any digit that is not zero is signicant. Thus 639 has three signicant
gures and 1.492 has four signicant gures.
Zeros between non zero digits are signicant. Thus 1023 has four sig-
nicant gures.
Zeros to the left of the rst non zero digit are not signicant. Thus
0.000069 has only two signicant gures. This is more easily seen if
scientic notation is used to write it as 6.910
5
.
For numbers with decimal points, zeros to the right of a non zero digit
are signicant. Thus 3.00 has three signicant gures and 0.040 has two
signicant gures. For this reason it is important to keep the trailing
zeros to indicate the actual number of signicant gures.
A.1. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 97
For numbers without decimal points, trailing zeros may or may not be
signicant. Thus, 400 indicates only one signicant gure. To indicate
that the trailing zeros are signicant a decimal point must be added or
use scientifc notaton to write it. For example, 400. or 4.0010
2
has
three signicant gures, and 4 10
2
has one signicant gure.
Exact numbers have an innite number of signicant digits. For exam-
ple, if there are two oranges on a table, then the number of oranges is
2.000... . Dened numbers are also like this. For example, the num-
ber of centimeters per inch (2.54) has an innite number of signicant
digits, as does the speed of light (299792458 m/s).
There are also specic rules for consistently expressing the uncertainty
associated with a number. In general, the last signicant gure in any result
should be of the same order of magnitude (i.e.. in the same decimal position)
as the uncertainty. Also, the uncertainty should be rounded to one or two
signicant gures. Always work out the uncertainty after nding the number
of signicant gures for the actual measurement.
Thus the correct format for reporting the focal length of a lens is:
14.82 0.02 cm OR 15.01.5 cm OR 15 1 cm
By the same token
14.82 0.02385 cm is wrong but 14.82 0.02 is acceptable
10.0 2 cm is wrong but 10.0 2.0 cm is acceptable
4 0.5 is wrong but 4.0 0.5 is acceptable
In practice, when doing mathematical calculations, it is a good idea to
keep an extra digit than is signicant to reduce rounding errors. But in the
end, the answer must be expressed with only the proper number of signicant
gures. After addition or subtraction, the result is signicant only to the
place determined by the largest last signicant place in the original numbers.
For example,
89.332 + 1.1 = 90.432
should be rounded to get 90.4 as the tenths place is the last signicant place in
the second number. After multiplication or division, the number of signicant
gures in the result is determined by the original number with the smallest
number of signicant gures. For example,
(2.80) (4.5039) = 12.61092
should be rounded o to 12.6 since 2.80 has three signicant gures.
Read any good introductory physics textbook for an explanation for work-
ing out signicant gures.
A.2 Classication of Errors
Errors of measurement can be classied into two categories.
Systematic errors are errors which tend to shift all measurements in a
systematic way so their mean value is displaced. This may be due to incorrect
calibration of equipment, consistently improper use of equipment or failure
to properly account for some eect. In a sense, a systematic error is rather
like a blunder. Large systematic errors can and must be eliminated in a good
experiment. Small systematic errors will always be present. For instance, no
instrument can ever be calibrated perfectly.
Other sources of systematic errors are external eects which can change
the results of the experiment, but for which the corrections are not well
known. In science, the reasons why several independent conrmations of
experimental results are often required (especially using dierent techniques)
is because dierent apparatus at dierent places may be aected by dierent
systematic eects.
Random errors are the uctuations in observations which yield results
that dier from experiment to experiment. These errors are beyond the
control of the observer. If we are measuring the decay rate of a radioactive
sample we get dierent results from one time interval to another. This is due
to the inherently random nature of the process being investigated.
A.3 Normal Distribution
When a quantity x is measured a large number of times a pattern will begin
to emerge from the data. A picture of the distribution of measurements
might look like the histogram in Fig. 1. To obtain such a plot we divide
A.3. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 99
P(x)
-3

-2

-

-

-2

-3
x
Figure A.1: A typical histogram of measured values of x and the normal
(Gaussian) distribution.
the range of observed values of x into many intervals of equal size, compute
the fraction of observations that lie within each interval, and then plot this
fraction against the average of the observations in each respective interval.
Figure A.1 shows one such plot.
If make an innite number of measurements, we can determine the true
distribution (called the parent distribution) that governs the probability of
getting any particular result in one measurement. Making an innite number
of measurements is costly and time consuming. So we must decide at some
stage that the measurement is complete. It should be kept in mind that
repeating the experiment is the only way to gain condence in the accuracy
of our result.
In the absence of any specic information or theoretical basis we assume
the parent distribution to be a Gaussian . This assumption will tend to be
valid for random errors because of the law of large numbers. The Gaussian
distribution, also called the Normal distribution, has the form :
P(x) =
1
2
e
(x)
2
/2
2
, (A.1)
where is the center (the most probable value), and is the width (stan-
dard deviation) of the distribution. The normal distribution is shown by the
continuous curve in Fig. A.1. In terms of this distribution P(x)dx is the
probability that a measurement of x will yield a result between x and x+dx.
For a Gaussian distribution, the measured values are distributed symmetri-
cally around the true value . Approximately 68% of the measurements will
fall within of , while 95% will be within 2 and only 5% will be more
than 2 away from .
A.4 Sample Mean and Variance
In an actual experiment we measure a physical quantity a nite number of
times, say N, with the results x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
N
. These measurements repre-
sent a nite sample from the parent population. All of our calculations must
be made from this sample. Then the average or mean of the our measure-
ments
x =
1
N
N
k=1
x
k
. (A.2)
is our best estimate of the true value of the parent distribution.
1
This is a reasonable estimate of the mean because random errors would
dier in sign and magnitude from measurement to measurement. So in the
calculation of the average or mean value of our sample, some of the random
variations could be expected to cancel out the others. This is the best that
can be done to deal with random errors: repeat the measurement many
times, varying as many parameters as possible and use the sample average
as the best estimate of the true value of x. For example, in the case of
the measurement of the focal length of a lens by using a distant object, use
several dierent distant objects -large and small, dierent helpers to read the
scale, etc.
We are also interested in an estimate of the standard deviation . In
terms of our measurements the best estimate for would be the sample
1
This estimate for nite N will dier from the true mean value; though, of course, for
larger N it will be closer to the parent mean.
A.5. PROPAGATION OF ERRORS 101
standard deviation s given by
s
2
1
N 1
N
k=1
(x
k
)
2
. (A.3)
Note that this formula has N1 in the denominator. This is because we need
at least one observation to determine x. That leaves only N 1 independent
observations to determine . What these numbers x and s mean is that if
we made one more measurement of x, there is 68% probability that it will
lie within x s (and therefore 32% probability that it will disagree with the
accepted value x by more than s).
In addition to the uncertainty of one measurement, we are also interested
in the error of the mean, that is, how close is our estimate x to the true value
. This uncertainty in estimating is given by
x
=
s
N
, (A.4)
where N is the number of independent measurements [ See Sec. 1.7 for a
proof]. The uncertainty in the determination of the mean is equal to the
standard deviation of an individual measurement divided by the square root
of the number of independent measurements. This means that the accuracy
of our estimate improves in proportion to the square root of the number of
measurements in the sample. This is a fundamental principle of statistics.
Similarly, we could estimate the uncertainty in
itself. This however, is

usually not required.
A.5 Propagation of Errors
Often the quantity of interest V is calculated from two measured quantities
x and y by means of a theoretical formula V = f(x, y). Then V is uncertain
as a result of the uncertainties in the measured quantities x and y. How do
we combine the errors in x and y to estimate the error in V ?
In general the errors in x and y are correlated. These correlations can be
characterized by the correlation coecient
xy
dened by
xy
= lim
N
1
N
x
y
N
k=1
(x
k
x
)(y
k
y
) , (A.5)
where
x
,
y
,
x
and
y
are given by equations similar to (2) and (4). For
N pairs of measurements of x and y the best estimate of
xy
is
xy
=
1
(N 1)
x
y
N
k=1
(x
k
y
k
) ,
=
1
(N 1)
x
y
_
N
k=1
x
k
y
k
N x y
_
(A.6)
For independent errors
xy
is equal to zero. For completely correlated errors,
xy
is either +1 or -1. We can now estimate errors in V .
From N measurements of x and y we can compute x and y and N values
of V = f(x, y): V
1
= f(x
1
, y
1
), V
2
= f(x
2
, y
2
), . . . , V
N
= f(x
N
, y
N
). We shall
make the fundamental assumption that the most probable value of V is
V = f( x, y). (A.7)
Then the deviation of V
k
can be expressed in terms of the deviations of x
k
and y
k
by
V
k
V
k

V
V
x
x
k
+
V
y
y
k
, (A.8)
where x
k
= x
k
x and y
k
= y
k
y, respectively, are the deviations of x
k
and y
k
. It is easy to check that the sum of the deviations
N
k=1
V
k
vanishes.
The average of the squares of deviations of V will be
1
N
N
k=1
(V
k
)
2
=
1
N
N
k=1
_
_
V
x
_
2
(x
k
)
2
+
_
V
y
_
2
(y
k
)
2
+ 2
_
V
x
__
V
y
_
x
k
y
k
_
.
(A.9)
Taking the square root of both sides in the limit N , we obtain the
standard deviation of V
V
=
_
V
x
_
2
2
x
+
_
V
y
_
2
2
y
+ 2
xy
_
V
x
__
V
y
_
y
. (A.10)
Equation (A.10) may be generalized for the case when V is a function of
A.6. STANDARD DEVIATION OF AN AVERAGE 103
many measured quantities. For example, if V = V (x, y, z), then
V
=
_
_
V
x
_
2
2
x
+
_
V
y
_
2
2
y
+
_
V
z
_
2
2
z
+ 2
xy
_
V
x
__
V
y
_
y
+ 2
xz
_
V
x
__
V
z
_
z
+ 2
yz
_
V
y
__
V
z
_
z
_1
2
. (A.11)
With a nite number of measurements N, we obtain the best estimate of
V
by substituting in Eq. (A.10) the best estimates s
x
and s
y
of
x
and
y
,
and the best estimates of
xy
from Eq. (A.6). If measurements are known a
priori to be independent,
xy
is set equal to zero.
A.6 Standard Deviation of an Average
We are now in a position to derive Eq. (A.4) for the standard deviation
x
of the average. We make use of the fact that the average x is a quantity
computed from the measured quantities x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
N
by means of Eq. (A.2).
Then
x
x
1
=
x
x
2
= =
x
x
N
=
1
N
, (A.12)
and since we are considering only the random errors in the measurements
x
k
, they may be considered independent, so that we may take their mutual
correlation equal to zero. Eq. (A.10) modied for this case then gives the
result stated in Eq. (A.4)
x
=
_
1
N
_
s
2
x
1
+ s
2
x
2
+ s
2
x
3
+ + s
2
x
N
_
=
s
N
, (A.13)
where we have used the fact that s
x
k
= s
x
s for each value of k.
We can also estimate the standard deviation
V
of the average of V . We
expect the averages x and y to have the same degree of correlation as the
individual pairs of measurements. In fact, it is shown in advance treatises
that
xy
=
x y
. Therefore we expect the standard deviations of averages
to combine in the same way as the standard deviations of the individual
measurements:
V
=
_
V
x
_
2
2
x
+
_
V
y
_
2
2
y
+ 2
xy
_
V
x
__
V
y
_
y
. (A.14)
A.7 Special Rules for Combining Errors
The rules expressed by Eqs. (A.10) and (A.14) are valid regardless of the
mathematical form of V = V (x, y). In the following special cases a and b are
some constants, x and y are independent (
xy
= 0) variables and
x
and
y
are the corresponding uncertainties.
A.7.1 Sum and dierence: V = ax by
V
x
= a ,
V
y
= b , (A.15)
V
=
_
a
2
2
x
+ b
2
2
y
. (A.16)
For example, for V = x + y with x = 100 3 and y = 6 4,
V = 106
3
2
+ 4
2
= 106 5
A.7.2 Product of various powers: V = x
p
y
q
V
x
= px
p1
y
q
,
V
y
= qx
p
y
q1
, (A.17)
V
=
_
p
2
x
2(p1)
y
2q
2
x
+ q
2
x
2p
y
2(q1)
2
y
. (A.18)
A.7. SPECIAL RULES FOR COMBINING ERRORS 105
For fractional standard deviation we can write
V
=
p
2
_
x
x
_
2
+ q
2
_
y
y
_
2
. (A.19)
For the special cases V = xy or V = x/y corresponding to p = 1 and q = 1,
we obtain
V
=
x
x
_
2
+ q
2
_
y
y
_
2
. (A.20)
For example, for V = xy and x = 100 3 and y = 6 4, we nd
V = (100.0 0.3)(6.0 0.4) = 600 600
_
0.3
100.0
_
2
+
_
0.4
6.0
_
2
= 600 40.
On the other hand, for V = x
2
with x = 10 1, we nd
V = (101)
2
= 10
2
_
1 2
1
10
_
= 10020 and not

V = 10
2
_
1
2
1
10
_
= 10014
A.7.3 Logarithm of a quantity: V = Aln x
In this case dV /dx = A/x. Then from Eq. (19) we obtain
V
= A

x
x
. (A.21)
A.7.4 Exponential of a quantity: V = Ae
bx
Using dV /dx = Abe
bx
= bV in Eq.(19) we obtain
V
= B
x
. (A.22)
Reference:
John R. Taylor, An Introduction to Error Analysis : The Study of Un-
certainties in PhysicalMeasurements ( University Science Books, 1982).

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OPTICS LAB MANUAL

subtends an angle at the unaided eye when it

. Thus the lens has

formed by the objective is observed through the eyepiece L

lies just inside the focal plane of

subtends an angle at the eye. Thus the telescope

is inverted with respect to the distant object. This

called the eye ring (exit pupil)

in Fig. 2.2 is then given by

Step 1: Focusing the eyepiece

of the telescope (Fig. 2.2). Notice

, D and d are dened in Section 2.1.2.

Figure 4.2: An outline of Fresnels biprism setup.

in the focal plane of the eyepiece. The

wires which do not,

with respect to the real mesh.

Figure 8.3: An outline of the experimental setup.

wires, and probably also wires inclined at other

itself. This however, is

V = (100.0 0.3)(6.0 0.4) = 600 600

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