Autumn D.

Hayes SBS200: Human Development 2011CH Module #1: Essay Questions August 8, 2012

Page |1 1. What strengths and limitations do the clinical (or case study) method and ethnography have in common? In the first chapter of the text, the author (Berk, 2010) explains the similarities and differences between the clinical (or case study) and ethnography research methods commonly used to study human development. Ethnographic research shares similar likeness to that of the clinical method, in such that both are descriptive, qualitative techniques commonly used. A shared strength of the two methods is that they each produce thorough, comprehensive perceptiveness into the various aspects that influence human development. Shared limitations of the two methods lie in the truth that the findings have a strong potential to be influenced and founded on the researchers theoretical preferences, prejudiced by the investigators personal cultural values, causing them to misinterpret what they see. Furthermore, the two methods are limited in the application of the findings in that the results of the studies do not produce general conclusions to draw upon, but rather produce findings that are only applicipable to the single subject studied. The results cannot be applied to anyone other than the one specific subject examined. (Berk, 2010, p.28-31) 2. Distinguish among age-graded, history-graded, and non-normative influences on lifespan

development. Cite an example of each in Sofies story at the beginning of this chapter. Age-graded influences are biological and socio-cultural events that are linked fairly clearly with age, such as physical maturation during childhood. History-graded influences are environmental, cataclysmic, and social events that affect a vast majority of members of a culture at the same time. Non-normative influences are those events that are exclusive for a particular individual however, are not part of an overall pattern tied to the life cycle. Age-graded and history-graded influences are average on impact to the course of development because they affect a large group of people the same way whereas; non-normative influences have a more powerful impact with the potential to enhance the multi-directionality of development. An example of an age-graded influence in Sofies life would be the age of which she entered elementary school. Of Sofies life, the events and experiences she had surrounding the political

Page |2 turbulence through the rise of Hitler is an example of history-graded influences on her development. (Berk, 2010, p.11-13) 3. How does poverty affect the family system, placing all aspects of development at risk? In the second chapter of our text, we focus our studies on biological and environmental factors and how they impact development. Poverty within a family system can be compared to that of cancer within the human body. Poor families have many more stressful problems to deal with. Not only do poor families deal with the unexpected daily crisis that we all face, but they also have a constant concern for their financial crisis. Financial hardships, heavily weighted by the fear, burden, and uncertainty, depress an individuals emotional balance, resulting in flared tempers and a lack of control over emotions and ultimately, weaken the family system. The behaviors of each family member affect those of the others and in turn, the relationships suffer. We understand the family to be the greatest influence throughout development, and fulfilling familial bonds are proven to be the greatest prediction for physical and psychological health and well being. For those families living in poverty, all aspects of development are at serious risk. Children in poverty have poor physical health, lack intellectual advancements, and suffer emotional and mental health illness. (Berk, 2010, p.59-63) 4. What is epigenesis, and how does it differ from range of reaction and genetic-environmental correlation? Provide an example of epigenesis. The basics of epigenesis states that our DNA isnt written in stone. That depending on our environments, we can actually alter how our genes are expressed. The concept of epigenesis suggests that development is the continuous, bidirectional influence of heredity and the environment, a combined on-going process of nature and nurture intertwined. In range of reaction and genetic-environmental correlation concepts, emphasis is placed on heredity as the influencing factor in development. Prior to the concept of

epigenesis, all previous theories on nature vs. nurture place PRIMARY emphasis on NATURE. (Berk, 2010, p.72-76) The following is a research example of epigenetic change influenced by the environment as conducted by a University of California anatomist, Dr. Marion Diamond. She selected a species of white rats that had been specifically bred to be of above average intelligence. They were

Page |3 randomly separated into two groups. Group A was raised in cages that had activity wheels, lots of toys which were replaced with new toys every four days and given lots of attention from the graduate students who were caretakers of the cages. Group B were raised in environmentally barren cages, provided nothing but food pellets and water. They received little or no attention from the grad students overseeing the project. The pups or offspring of Group A were then raised in regular cages without any notable environmental stimulation or toys. However, the rat pups turned out to be smarter than their parents and their offspring even smarter. The increase in intelligence (for solving tricky mazes) went on for at least three generations. The offspring of Group B rats were less intelligent than their parents and their offspring even less intelligent for solving the same maze as Group A. Again, the dumbing down went on for at least three generations. Remember, all the rats were from the same gene pool or species. The important consideration is that genetic cascades are turned on or off by our experiences and our perception of our environment. (Pulos, 2012, January 16) 5. Links between family and community foster development throughout the lifespan. Cite several examples from our discussion that support this idea. In poverty stricken urban areas, higher instances of criminal activity, family violence, child abuse and neglect, and instances of youth anti-social activity occur amounting to a less than desirable atmosphere within the community, with little to no community involvement. In comparison, affluent neighborhoods, which provide safe parameters, offer resources, and strong social ties reduce family stress and enhance adjustment. The available resources within a neighborhood have a greater negative impact on poor families than it does on well-to-do families. Poor families are dependent upon the resources provided to them within the confines of the system. Poor families rely on public education, after-school community life experiences, and enrichment activities as made available through the areas resources, whereas, affluent families can afford to pursue privately funded methods of education, activities, etc. and have the financial means to transport their children to alternate surrounding neighborhoods for enrichment. In neighborhoods that promote strong connections amongst members, encourage a feeling of pride in ones community, through united efforts of community clean-up and/or community crime watch, strong

Page |4 community ties foster adults well being, as well as play an integral part in childrens development. According to the social systems perspective, families optimal function occurs when they have ties to their community. (Berk, 2010, p.63-65) 6. Why is genetic counseling called a communication process? Who should seek it? Genetic counseling is called a communication process because it involves a genetics counselor providing information to couples, educating them on genetic principles, genetic testing, and the prevention of genetic disorders, by addressing the scientific evidence exclusive to the specific couples combined DNA, and ultimately assisting the couple in the best choice of action in light of the risks but in respect of their family goals. Genetic counselors assist couples who have reproductive problems by helping them

understand different potential outcomes as well as helping them understand different reproductive choices. Individuals who should seek genetic counseling are those who have had prior difficulties conceiving, who have a history of miscarriages, which have a family history of genetic problems, and for women over the age of 35. (Berk, 2010, p.53-56) 7. Using your knowledge of X-linked inheritance, explain why males are more vulnerable than females to miscarriage, infant death, genetic disorders, and other problems. The 23rd pair of chromosomes on the DNA strand is also known as the sex chromosome. Females are known as XX, males are known as XY, with the understanding that the X is constant and the larger of the two chromosomes, carrying more genetic material. When the gamete forms in males, the X and Y separate and the sex of the offspring is determined by whether the X-bearing or the Y-bearing chromosome fertilizes the egg. It is possible that the female, stronger by the fact that she carries more genetic material, benefits from a greater variety of genes. (Berk, 2010, p.50-51) 8. Why is the period of the embryo regarded as the most dramatic prenatal period? Why is the fetal period called the growth and finishing phase? The period of the embryo is regarded as the most dramatic prenatal period because it is during these first six weeks that the most rapid prenatal changes take place and the groundwork is laid and complete for all body structures and internal organs. The fetal period is called the growth and finishing phase because

Page |5 with all the organs, muscles, and nervous system already in place, it is during this period that those organs and systems connect and become organized. During this phase of development, the organism increases rapidly in size and by the end of this phase, all functions, organs, and systems are completely formed. (Berk, 2010, p. 82-83) 9. Why is it difficult to determine the prenatal effects of many environmental agents, such as drugs and pollution? The harm done by teratogens is not always simple and straightforward. The harm done can depend on dose, heredity, other negative influences, and age. The effects may also extend beyond immediate physical damage, resulting in delayed or subtle health defects. Furthermore, psychological consequences may occur indirectly. (Berk, 2010, p. 85) 10. What functions does REM sleep serve in young infants? Can sleep tell us anything about the health of the newborns central nervous system? Explain. Researchers believe that the stimulation of REM sleep is vital for growth of the central nervous system. The normal sleep behavior of a newborn is an organized pattern of observable sleep states. According to those infants studied that have either suffered brain-damage or who have had trauma associated with birth, REM sleep patterns are observed as broken, irregular and abnormal. Comparing sleep state observations of a normal newborn can help identify abnormalities present in the central nervous system. (Berk, 2010, p. 108-109)

Page |6 Reference Berk, Laura E. (2010). Development through the lifespan, 5th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon (Pearson). Pulos, Lee. (2012, January 16). Epigenesis: The New Biology. Adventures in Learning