POWER TRANSFORMER PROTECTION APPLICATION CHART: Transformer are used for a very wide variety of application.

The type of protection that will be provided for a transformer depends upon its KVA rating and its importance. The only protection that will possibly be provided to a small lighting transformer may be in the form of fuses while power transformers connected in 500KV station Jamshoro and in sub-stations from 132 to 220 KV very elaborate protection. Table 5.1 and 5.2 summarize the transformer protection scenario and application of various protection schemes. TABLE 5.1 Internal and external faults acting transformers Internal faults Phase fault Ground fault Inter-turn faults Tap-changer failure Leakage of oil from tank For faults originating in the transformer itself, the approximate proportion of faults due to each of the causes listed above is shown in Figure 5.1. y y y y Winding and terminal Core Tank and accessories OLTC External faults System phase faults System ground faults Overloads over fluxing

Table 5.2 Application of protective scheme Protection scheme Fault Phase fault Ground fault Inter-turn fault Oil leaks Primary Percentage differential relay Percentage differential relay Back-up Over-current/distance Over-current/distance

Buchholz relay Buchholz relay

Overloads Over-fluxing

OC relay with thermal image of protected unit Over fluxing relay which measures (V/F) ratio

5.2. VALUABLE AND MOST EFFICIENT SCHEMES WORKING IN 500KV SUBSTATION JAMSHORO: For continuous and reliable supply of power to consumer, each fault which has tendency to disturb this continuity and reliability carries importance. But from the protection schemes implemented on the power transformers in the 500KV grid stations, the most important and efficient with respect to their working are two: y y Differential protection Buchholz relay

Restricted earth fault protection is also used separately and in combination with differential relay. 5.3. PERCENTAGE DIFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS: We assume a delta-star transformer having turns ratio of 1:1. Note that the star point is grounded. Figure 5.2 Development of CT connections for differential protection of three phase transformer In order to devise the CT connections, we follow the following sequence of steps: 1. Determine the instantaneous direction of currents Ia, Ib and Ic through the secondary windings (see in figure 5.2) 2. The primary winding current IA, IB and IC are determined. Note that because of the turns ratio of 1:1 IA = Ia, IB = Ib, and IA = Ic (see figure 5.3). 3. Line currents on the star side are determined. These are same as phase currents IA, IB and IC. 4. Line currents on the delta side are then determined. These are (Ic - IA), (IA IB) and (IB - IC) as shown in figure 5.3 Note: (IC - IA), etc. are all phasor differences. Figure 5.3 Determination of the line currents on the two sides of the transformer 5. Therefore, if we connect the secondary windings of the CTs on both the sides in star, then the currents would not match up and a spill current would result. We observe, however, that the line currents would exactly match

with the secondary currents of CTs on the delta side, provided that these are connected in star. This is shown in figure 4.9. Figure 5.4 Final connections of percentage differential relay under normal load or external balanced fault a) Phase c-to-ground (c-g) External Faults: Consider phase c-to-ground (c-g) external fault as shown in figure 5.5 It can be seen that due to fault on phase c, there is an over current in phase c. This current is supplied through two of the lines on the delta side. Similarly, due to the delta connections of CT secondary on the star side, two of the pilot wires the fault current, with the result that the current circulates in two of the percentage differential units and there is no current in the spill path. Thus, the scheme remains stable on e-g external fault. b) Phase c-to-ground (c-g) Internal Fault: A c-g internal fault is shown in figure 5.6. The currents on the delta side are exactly the same as those in the case of c-g external fault. However, since the fault is internal, there is no fault current through the primaries of the CTs on the star side. The path of the fault current is shown in bold lines. It can be seen from the figure that the fault current flows through the spill path in two of the percentage differential units causing them to operate, thus tripping out the transformer. Figure 5.6 Phase c to ground (c-g) internal fault 5.4 Percentage differential relay with harmonic restraint: We have seen that the percentage differential scheme tends to maloperation due to magnetizing inrush. One way to combat this problem is desensitize the relay for a brief period of time, just after switching on. However, this is not desirable; since the probability of insulation failure just after switching on is quite high, desensitized relay would be blind to faults taking place at that crucial time. A solution of this problem suggests it self, when we compare the waveforms of internal fault current with that of the inrush current. The inrush waveform is rich in harmonics where as the internal fault current consists of only of the fundamental. Thus, we can develop additional restraint based on harmonic content of the inrush current. This additional restraint comes into picture only during the inrush condition and is ineffective during faults. Table 5.3 gives the harmonic content of a typical inrush waveform.

Table 5.3 Harmonic content of inrush waveform Frequency Fundamental DC Second harmonic Third harmonic Fourth harmonic Fifth harmonic Sixth harmonic Seventh harmonic Magnitude 100 % 40-60 % 30-70 % 10-30 % Less than 5 % Less than 5 % Less than 5 % Less than 5 %

Figure 5.7 shows the conceptual scheme of a harmonic restraint differential relay The fundamental component of spill current is segregated with the help of a filter and is used to develop the tripping torque. The non-fundamental component of the spill current aids the unfiltered circulating current in developing the restraining torque. This makes the relay stable on inrush while at the same time not affecting its operating in case of genuine internal faults. Figure 5.7 Conceptual representation of harmonic restraint percentage differential relay 5.5 Basic considerations for transformer differential protection: In applying the principles of differential protection to transforms, a variety of consideration have to e taken into account. These includes:  Correction for possible phase shift across the transformers windings (phase correction)  The effect of the variety of earthing and winding arrangements(filtering of zero sequence currents)  Correction for possible unbalance of signals from current transformers on either side of the windings(ratio correction)  The effect of magnetizing inrush during initial energization  The possible occurrence of over fluxing In traditional transformer differential schemes, the requirements for phase and ratio correction were met by the application of external interposing current transformers (ICT s), as a secondary

replica of the main winding connections, or by a delta connection of the main CT s to provide phase correction only. Digital/numerical relays implement ratio and phase correction in the relay software instead, thus enabling most combinations of transformers winding arrangements to be catered for, irrespective of the winding connections of the primary CT s .This avoids the additional space and cost requirements of hardware interposing CT s. 5.5.1. PHASE CORRECTION: Correct operation of transformers differential protection requires that the transformers primary and secondary currents as measured by the relay, are in phase , If the transformer is connected delta/star, as shown in Figure5.8, balanced three-phase through to the relay seeing through current as an unbalanced fault current, and result in relay operation. Phase correction must be implemented. Figure 5.8 Differential protections for two windings delta/star transformer Electromechanical and static relays use appropriate CT/ICT connections to ensure that the primary and secondary currents applied to the relay are in phase. For digital and numerical relays, it is common to use star connected line CT s on all windings of the transformers and compensate for the winding phase shift in software. 5.5.2. FILTERING OF ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENTS: It is essential to provide some form of zero sequence filtering where a transformer winding can pass zero sequence current to an external earth fault. This is to ensure that out-of-zone earth faults are not seen by the transformer protection as an in-zone fault. This is achieved by use of delta-connected line CT s or interposing CT s for older relays and hence the winding connection of the line and/or interposing CT s must take this unto account, in addition to any phase compensation necessary. For digital/numerical relays, the required filtering is applied in the relay software. 5.5.3. Ratio correction: Correct operation of the differential element requires that currents in the differential element balance under load and through fault conditions. As the primary and secondary line CT ratio may not exactly match the transformer rated winding currents, digital/numerical relays are provided with ratio correction factors for each of the CT inputs. The correction factors may be calculated automatically by the relay from knowledge of the line CT ratios and the transformer MVA ratings. However, if interposing CTs used, ratio correction may not be such an easy task and may need to take into account a factor of if delta-connected CTS or ICTs are involved. If

the transformer is fitted with a tap changer, line CT ratios and correction factors are normally chosen to achieve current balance at the mid tap of the transformer. It is necessary to ensure that current mismatch due to off-nominal tap operation will not cause spurious operation. Bias setting: Bias is applied to transformer differential protection for the same reason as any unit protection scheme to ensure stability for external faults while allowing sensitive settings to pick up internal faults. Some relays use a bias characteristic with three sections, as shown in figure 5.9. The first section is set higher than the transformer magnetizing current. The second section is set to allow for off-nominal tap settings, while the third has a larger bias slope beginning well above rated current to cater for heavy through-fault conditions. Figure 5.9 Typical bias characteristics 5.6. Problem: Now to see that how differential protection scheme is designed and whether our designed scheme remains stable on the full load or external fault, let`s take a problem, in which assume CT ratios on our own choice? Task: Consider a 45 MVA, 11 KV/66 KV, star delta transformer, and design the percentage differential scheme. What is the minimum recommended percentage bias? Solution: Full load current on 11 KV side = Full load current on 66 KV side = If we allow for 25 % overload, Then, Primary current = (IF*1.25) = 2361.88*1.25 A= 2952.35 A Secondary current = 393.64*1.25A = 492.05 A For primary side of transformer, choosing a CT ratio of 3000:5 i.e. CT ratio = 600 = 393.64 A 

For secondary side of transformer, choosing a CT ratio of 500:5 i.e. CT ratio = 100

CT secondary currents for primary side of power transformer = 2361.88/600 = 3.936 A CT secondary currents for secondary side of power transformer = 393.64/100 = 393.6 A Since secondary of CT on 11 KV side are in delta, so currents in the pilot wires   Since secondary of CT on 66 KV side in star, so currents in the pilot wires = 3.936 A Turns ratio of the interposing CT = (6.817/3.936):1 = 1.731:1 Current in primary side CT after introducing interposing CT = 6.817/1.731 = 3.938 A Current in the pilot wire of delta side CT = 3.936 A Current in the pilot wire of delta side CT = 3.936 A Assuming a slope of 40 %, Spill current required for tripping is = 0.4*((3.936+3.938)/2) = 1.57 Actual spill current = 3.938 3.936 = 0.002 A. Therefore, the scheme remains stable on full load current or external fault. We found that pilot wire currents are 6.817 A from the star side CTs while they are 3.936 A from the delta side CTs. Thus, we need intermediate CTs to correct this mismatch as shown in figure (5.10). Such CTs are known as interposing CTs and are usually autotransformer. Figure 5.10 Percentage differential relay BUCHHOLZ PROTECTION: Buchholz protection is normally provided on all transformers fitted with a conservator. The Buchholz relay is contained in a cast housing which is connected in the pipe to the conservator, as in figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11 Buchholz relay mounting arrangement A typical Buchholz relay will have two sets of contacts. One is arranged to operate for slow accumulations of gas, the other for bulk displacement of oil in the event of a heavy internal fault. An alarm is generated for the former, but the latter is usually direct wired to the CB trip relay. The device will therefore give an alarm for the following fault conditions, all of which are of a low order of urgency. I. II. III. IV. V. Hot spots on the core due to short circuit of lamination insulation Core bolt insulation failure Faulty joints Interterm faults or other winding faults involving only lower power in feeds Loss of oil due to leakage

An inspection window is usually provided on either side of the gas collection space. Visible white or yellow gas indicates that insulation has been burnt, while black or grey gas indicates the presence of dissociated oil. In these cases the gases will probably be inflammable, whereas released air will not. A vent valve is provided on the top of the housing for the gas to be released or collected for analysis. Transformers with forced oil circulation may experience oil flow to/form the conservator or starting/stopping of the pumps. The Buchholz relay must not operate in these circumstances. Cleaning operations may cause aeration of the oil. Under such conditions, tripping of the transformer due to Buchholz operation should be inhibited for a suitable period. Because of its universal response to faults within the transformer, some of which are difficult to detect by other means, the Buchholz relay is invaluable, whether regarded as a main protection or as a supplement to other protection schemes. Tests carried out by striking a high voltage arc in a transformer tank filled with oil, have shown that operation times of 0.05s-0.1s are possible. Electrical protection is generally used as well, either to obtain faster operation for heavy faults, or because Buchholz relays have to be prevented from tripping during oil maintenance periods. Conservation are fitted to oil-cooled transformers above 1000KVA rating, except those to north American design practice that use a different techniques. Figure 5.12 Construction of the Buchholz relay The conceptual diagram of the inner working of the Buchholz relay is shown in Figure 5.12. When an incipient fault such as the winding -to-core fault or an inter-turn fault occurs on the transformer winding, there is severe heating of the oil. This causes gases to be liberated from the oil around 350C.There is a build-up of oil pressure causing oil to rush into the conservator. A vane is placed in the path of surge of oil between the transformer and the conservator. A set

of contacts, operated by this vane, is used as trip contacts of the Buchholz relay. This output of Buchholz relay may be used to trip the transformer. The Buchholz relay also has another set of contacts operated by a float. These contacts stay open when the transformer tank is filled with oil. However, in case of leakage of oil or decomposition of oil, the float sinks causing the contacts to close. Loss of oil will no doubt cause the transformer temperature to rise but does not warrant immediate tripping. Hence, normally these contacts are wired to an alarm which alerts the operator. 5.8. HIGH RESISTANCE GROUND FAULTS IN TRANSFORMERS: A percentage differential relay has a certain minimum value of pick-up for initial faults. Faults with fault current below this value are not detected by the percentage differential relay. Winding-to-core faults, which are of the single phase-to-ground type, involving high resistance, fall in this category. Therefore, we must have a more sensitive relaying scheme to cater for high resistance ground faults. 5.8.1. High resistance ground faults on the delta side: Figure 5.13 shows the earth fault protection for the delta side of a delta-star transformer. If there is a fault on the star side then the currents flow in the lines connected to the delta side in such a way that there is no spill current through the relay on the CT secondary side, thus the reach is automatically restricted to the delta side. Figure 5.13 Earth fault protection for the delta side of delta-star transformer Since this is a current balance scheme, it is independent of the load current and hence can be made as sensitive as desired. 5.8.2. High resistance ground faults on the star side: Figure 5.14 shows the restricted earth fault protection whose reach is limited to the star side of the transformer. Ground fault beyond the star side CTs, any where in the system do cause current to follow on the secondary of the CTs. However the current circulates through the CTs in the neutral path and the CT is faulted phase. Thus, no spill current flows and the scheme remains stable on external faults. Figure 5.14 Earth fault protection for the star side of delta star transformer 5.9. COMBINED DIFFERENTIAL AND RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT SCHEMES: The advantages to be obtained by the use of restricted earth fault protection lead to the system being frequently used in conjunction with an overall differential system. The importance of this is shown in figure 5.15 from which it will be seen that if the neutral of a star-connected winding

is earthed through a resistance of one per unit, an overall differential system having an effective setting of 20 % will detect faults in only 42 % of the winding from the line end. Figure 5.15 Amount of winding protected when transformer is resistance earthed and ratings of transformer and resistor are equal Implementation of a combined differential/REF protection scheme is made easy if a numerical relay with software ratio/phase compensation is used. All compensation is made internally in the relay. Where software ratio/phase correction is not available, either a summation transformer or auxiliary CTs can be used. The connections are shown in Figures 5.16 and 5.17 respectively. Care must be taken in calculating the settings, but the only significant disadvantage of the Combined Differential/REF scheme is that the REF element is likely to operate for heavy internal faults as well as the differential elements, thus making subsequent fault analysis some what confusing. However, the saving in CTs outweighs this disadvantage. Figure 5.16 Combined differential and earth fault protection using summation current transformer Figure 5.17 Combined differential and earth fault protection using auxiliary current transformer 5.10. PHENOMENON OF OVER FLUXING IN POWER TRANFORMERS: Protection against over fluxing: The flux and the applied voltage in a transformer are related through the following expression

Where V is the r.m.s value of the voltage f is the frequency N is the number of turns in the winding.

Whenever there is an over-voltage (frequency remaining constant), the transformer core is subjected to a higher value of flux in order to be able to support the higher applied voltage. By design power transformers operate at the knee of the saturation curve at normal voltage. Hence any increase in applied voltage, and the consequent increase in flux density, drives the

transformer, therefore draws an excessive magnetization current. Hence this condition is described as over-execution. Over fluxing arises principally from the following system conditions: a) High system voltage b) Low system frequency c) Geomagnetic disturbances The latter results in low frequency earth currents circulating through a transmission system. Since momentary system disturbances can cause transient over fluxing that is not dangerous, time delayed tripping is required. The normal protection is an IDMT or definite characteristic, initiated if a defined V/F threshold is exceeded. Often separate alarm and trip elements are provided. The alarm function would be definite time-delayed and the trip function would be an IDTM characteristic. A typical characteristic is shown in Figure 5.18 Figure 5.18 Typical IDTM curve for over fluxing protection Geomagnetic disturbances may result in over fluxing without the V/f threshold being exceeded. Some relays provide a 5th harmonic detection feature, which can be used to detect such a condition, as level of this harmonic rise under over fluxing conditions It can e easily seen that over-excitation can also occur in case of low-frequency operation of the transformer at rated voltage. Therefore to keep the working flux within the permissible design limits, the V/f ratio must not exceed the permissible limit. For example, a transformer designed for a per unit voltage limit of 1.25 per unit (125%) at rated frequency will experience over-fluxing whenever the per unit volts/hertz exceeds 1.25(125%), i.e. whenever the voltage exceeds 125% at rated frequency or the frequency falls blow approximately 80%(below approximately 40Hz on 50Hz bases) at rated voltage. Thus over-excitation can be detected by measuring the V/f ratio by a so called volts/hertz relay. 5.11. INTER-TURN FAULTS IN TRANSFORMERS: Inter-turn fault cause heavy current to flow within the shorted turns. However, seen from the transformer terminals, the reflected current can be quite small. This can be seen from the simplified analysis of Figure5.20.