School of Biosystems Engineering Hydraulics and pneumatic control Chapter two: Physical properties of hydraulic fluid

Introduction
The single most important material in a hydraulic system is the working fluid itself. Hydraulic fluid characteristics have a crucial effect on equipment performance and life. It is important to use a clean, high-quality fluid in order to achieve efficient hydraulic system operation. Most modern hydraulic fluids are complex compound that have been carefully prepared to meet their demanding task. In addition to having a base fluid, hydraulic fluids contain special additives to provide desired characteristics. A hydraulic fluid has the following four primary functions: Transmit power Lubricate moving parts Seal clearances between mating parts Dissipate heat

Introduction.
In addition a hydraulic fluid must be inexpensive and readily available. To accomplish properly the four primary functions and be practical from a safety and cost point of view, a hydraulic fluid should have the following properties: Good lubricity Ideal viscosity Chemical stability Compatibility with system materials High degree of incompressibility Fire resistance Good heat-transfer capability Low density Foam resistance Non toxicity Low volatility

Hydraulic fluid must also be changed periodically, the frequency depending not only on the fluid but also on the operating conditions. Laboratory analysis is the best method for the determining when a fluid should be changed. Generally speaking, a fluid should be changed when its viscosity and acidity increase due to fluid breakdown or contamination. Preferably, the fluid should be changed while the system is at operating temperature. In this way, most of the impurities are in suspension and will be drained off.

Introduction .
Much hydraulic fluid has been discarded in the past due to the possibility that contamination existed- it costs more to test the fluid than to replace it. This situation has changed as the need to conserve hydraulic fluids has developed. Figure 2.1 shows a hydraulic fluid test kit that provides a quick, easy method to test system contamination. Even small hydraulic systems may be checked. The test kit may be used on the spot to determine whether fluid quality permits continued use. Three key quality indicators can be evaluated: viscosity, water content, and foreign particle contamination level.

Figure 2.1. Hydraulic fluid test kit. (Courtesy of Gulf Oil Corp. , Houston, Texas.)

Fluids: Liquids and Gases

Liquids The term fluid refers to both gases and liquids. A liquid is a fluid that, for a given mass, will have a definite volume independent of the shape of its container. This means that even though a liquid will assume the shape of the container, it will fill only the part of the container whose volume equals the volume of the quantity of the liquid. For example, if water is poured into a vessel and the volume of water is not sufficient to fill the vessel, a free surface will b e formed, as shown in the figure 2.2(a). A free surface is also formed in the case of a body of water, such a lake, exposed to the atmosphere [figure 2.2(b)]. Liquids are considered to be incompressible so that their volume does not change with pressure changes. This is not exactly true, but the change in volume due to pressure change is small that it is ignored for most engineering applications.

Figure 2.2 free surface of a liquid

Fluids: Liquids and Gases

Gases Gases, on the other hand, are fluids that are readily compressible. In addition, their volume will vary to fill the vessel containing them. This is illustrated in figure 2.3, where a gas is allowed to enter an empty vessel. As shown, the gas molecules always fill the entire vessel. Therefore unlike liquids, which have a definite volume for a given mass, the volume of the given mass of gas will increase to fill the vessel that contains it. Gases are generally influenced by the pressure to which they are subjected. An increase in pressure causes the volume of the gas to decrease and vice versa.

Figure 2.3. A gas always fills its entire vessel.

Air is the only gas commonly used in fluid power systems because it is inexpensive and readily available. Air also has the following desirable features as a power fluid: It is fire resistant It is not messy It can be exhausted back into the atmosphere

The disadvantages of using air versus using hydraulic oil are: Due to its compressibility, air cannot be used in an application where accurate rate of positioning or rigid holding is required. Because air is compressible, it tends to be sluggish. Air can be corrosive, since it contains oxygen and water. A lubricant must be added to air to lubricate valves and actuators Air pressures of greater that 250 psi are typically not used due to explosion dangers involved if components such as air tanks should be rupture. This is because air (due to its compressibility) can store a large amount of energy as it is compressed in a manner similar to that of a mechanical spring.

Specific weight, density and specific gravity

Weight versus mass All objects, whether solids or fluids are pulled towered the center of the earth by a force of attraction. This force is called the weight of the object and is proportional to the objects mass as defined by

Where, in the English systems of units (also called U.S. customary units used extensively in the United States) we have F = force in units of lb, W = weight in units of lb, m= mass of object in unit slugs, g= proportionality constant called the acceleration of gravity, which equals 32.2ft/s2. From equation (2.1), W equals 32.2 lb if m is 1 slug. Therefore, 1 slug is the amount of mass that weights 32.2 lb on the surface of the earth.

F = W = mg

Specific weight Figure 2.5 shows a cubic container full of water as an example of discussing the fluid property called specific weight. Since the container has the shape of rectangular solid, its volume can be calculated using equation (2.2).

Figure 2.5. Cubic container full of water.

volume = (area of base )x (height )

weight specific weight = volume

W = V

Knowing that 1 ft3 of water weighs 62.4 lb, we can now calculate the specific weight of water using above equation :
water =
W 62.4 lb = = 62.4 lb / ft 3 V 1 ft 3

Specific gravity The specific (SG) of a given fluid is defined as the specific weight of the fluid divided by the specific weight of water. Therefore, the specific gravity of water is unity by definition. The specific gravity of oil can be found using: (SG )oil = oil water

(SG)oil =

56 lb / ft 3 62.4 lb / ft 3

= 0.899

Most oils have a specific weight of about 56 lb/ft3, or 0.0325 lb/in3. However, depending on the type of oil, the specific weight can vary from low of 55 lb/ft3 to a high of 58 lb/ft3. Note that specific gravity is a dimensionless parameter (has no units).

Density In addition to specific weight, we can also talk about the fluid property called density, which is defined as the mass per unit volume:

m = V
Where = Greek symbol rho = mass density (kg/m3), m= mass (kg), V= volume (m3). Since weight is proportional to mass (from the equation W= mg), it follows that specific gravity can also be defined as the density of the given fluid divided by the density of water. This is shown as follows:

W = mg V = Vg

Solving for the density we have = Where = specific weight of the fluid

Hence density equals specific weight divided by the acceleration of gravity. This allows us to obtain the desired result.
SG =

water

g water

water

The density of oil having a specific weight of 56 lb/ft3 can be found from equation
oil
56 lb

lb s 2 lb.s 2 slugs ft 3 = = 1.74 3 = 1.74 4 = 1.74 3 ft ft ft ft 32.2 ft 2 s

Note that from equation W = mg Thus, we have the following equality of units between weight and mass: lb = slugs ft / s 2

Force and pressure Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Hence, pressure is the amount of force acting over a unit area, as indicated by Where p= pressure, F=Force, A= Area. will have units of lb/ft2 F and Area have units of lb and ft2, respectively. Similarly, by changing the units of A from ft2 to in2, the units for p will become lb/in2. Lets go back to our 1-ft3 container of figure 2.5. The pressure acting on the bottom of the container can be calculated using equation above, knowing that the total force acting at the bottom equals the 62.4-lb weight of the water:
p= 62.4 lb 1 ft 2 = 62.4 lb / ft 2 = 62.4 psf

p =

F A

Note that units of lb/ft2are commonly written as psf. Also, since 1 ft2 = 144 in2, the pressure at the bottom of the container can be found in units of lb/ft2 as follows using equation above: Units of lb/in2 are commonly written as psi. Head We can now conclude that, due to its weight, a 1-ft column of water develops at its base pressure of 0.433 psi. The 1-ft height of water is commonly called a pressure head. Lets now refer to figure 2.6, which shows a 10-ft high column of water that has a cross-sectional area of 1 ft2. Since there are 10 ft3 of water and each cubic foot weighs 62.4 lb, the total weight of water is 624 lb. the pressure at the base is
p= 624 lb 144 in 2 = 4.33 lb / in 2 = 4.33 psi

p=

62.4 lb 144 in
2

= 0.433 lb / in 2 = 0.433 psi

Thus each foot of the 10-ft head develops a pressure increase of 0.433 psi from its top to bottom.

Figure 2.6. Pressure developed by a 10-ft column of water

What happens to the pressure if the fluid is not water? Figure 2.7 shows at 1-ft3 volume of oil. Assuming a weight of density of 57 lb/ft3, the pressure at the base is liquid column changes it weight (and thus the force at its bottom) by a proportional amount. Hence F/A (which equals pressure) remains content.

57 lb F p= = = 0.40 psi 2 A 144 in

Figure 2.7. Pressure developed by 1-and 2-ft columns of oil.

Atmospheric pressure What about the pressure developed on the surface of Earth due to force of attraction between the atmosphere and the Earth? For all practical purposes we live at the bottom of a huge sea of air, which extends hundreds of miles above us. Equation
p = H

cannot be used to find this pressure

because of the compressibility of air. As a result the density of the air is not constant throughout the atmosphere.

Lets refer to figure 2.8 which shows a column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 in2 and as high the atmosphere extends above the surface of the earth. This entire column of air weighs about 14.7 lb and thus produces a pressure of about 14.7 lb/in2 on the surface of the Earth at sea level. This pressure is called atmospheric pressure and the value of 14.7 lb/ln2 is called standard atmosphere pressure because atmospheric pressure varies a small amount depending on the weather conditions which affect the density of the air. Unless otherwise specified, the actual atmospheric pressure will be assumed to equal the standard atmosphere pressure.

Figure 2.8. The atmosphere as a pressure head

Gauge and absolute pressure Why then, does a deflated automobile tire read zero pressure of 14.7 psi when using a pressure gauge? The answer lies in the fact that a pressure gauge reads gauge pressure and not absolute pressure. Gauge pressures are measured relative to the atmosphere, whereas absolute pressures are measured relative to a perfect vacuum such as that existing in outer space. To distinguish between them, gauge pressures are labeled psig, or simply psi, whereas absolute pressures are labeled psi (abs), or simply psia.

Figure 2.9. Operation of a mercury barometer.

This means that atmospheric pressure equals 14.7 psia or 0 psig. Atmospheric pressure is measured with special devices called barometers. Figure 2.9 shows how a mercury barometer works. The atmospheric pressure to be measured can support a column of mercury equal to 30.0 in. because this head produces a pressure of 14.7 psi. This can be checked by using equation (2.9) and noting that the specific weight of the mercury is 0.490 lb/in3:

p = H
14 . 7 lb / in 2 = 0 . 490 lb / in 3 H (in )

H = 30.00 in of mercury

Figure 2.10 has a chart showing the difference between gauge and absolute pressures. Lets examine two pressure levels: p1 and p2. Relative to a perfect vacuum they are (a pressure greater less than atmospheric pressure) p 1 = 24 . 7 psia (a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure) Relative to the atmosphere, they are suction (or vacuum) = 10 psig p1 = 10 psig
p 1 = 4 . 7 psia

p 1 = 10 psig

The use of terms suction or vacuum and the use of minus sign mean that pressure p1 is 10 psi below atmospheric pressure. Also note that the terms psi and psig are used interchangeably. Hence, p1 also equals -10 psi and p2 equals 10 psi. as can be seen from figure 2.10, the following equation can be used in converting gauge pressures to absolute pressures, and vice versa.
p abs = p gauge + p atm

Vacuum or suction pressures exist in certain locations of fluid power systems (for example, in the inlet or suction lines of pumps). Therefore, it is important to understand the meaning of pressures below atmospheric pressure. One way to generate a suction pressure is to remove some of the fluid from a closed vessel initially containing fluid at atmospheric pressure.

Figure 2.10. Difference between absolute and gauge pressures

The SI metric system Introduction The SI metric system was standardized in June 1960 when the International Organization for Standardization approved a metric system called Le Systme International dUnits. This system, which is abbreviated SI, has supplanted the old CGS (centimetergram-second) metric system, and U.S. adoption of the SI metric system is considered to imminent. In the metric system, the units of measurement are as follows: Length is the meter (m). Mass is the kilogram (kg) Force is the newton (N) Time is the second (s) Temperature is the degree Celsius (0C)

Length, mass and force comparisons with English system The relative sizes of length, mass and force units between the metric and English systems are given as follows: One meter equals 39.4 in = 3.28 ft One kilogram equals 0.685 slugs One newton equals 0.225lb A newton is the force required to give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2. Stated mathematically, we have Since the acceleration of gravity at sea level equals 9.80 m/s2, a mass of 1 kg weighs 9.80 N. Also, since 1 N = 0.225 lb, mass of 1 kg also weighs 2.20 lb.

Pressure comparisons The SI metric system uses units of Pascals (Pa) to represent pressure. A pressure of 1 Pa is equal to a force of 1 N applied over the area of 1 m2 and thus is a very small unit of pressure.
1 Pa = 1 N / m 2

The conversion between pascals and psi is as follows: 1Pa = 0 . 000145 psi

Atmospheric pressure in units of pascals is found as follows by converting 14.7 psi in to its equivalent pressure in pascals:
patm (Pa) = 14.7 psi(abs) 1Pa = 101000Pa(abs) , 0.000145psi

Thus, atmospheric pressure equals 101,000 Pa (abs) as well as 14.7 psia. Since the pascal is very small unit, the bar is commonly used:
1bar = 10 5 N / m 2 = 10 5 Pa = 14.5 psi

Thus, atmospheric pressure equals 14.7/14.5 bars (abs), or 1.01 bars (abs).

Bulk modulus The highly favorable power-to-weight ratio and the stiffness of hydraulic systems make them the frequent choice for most high-power applications. The stiffness of a hydraulic system is directly related to the incompressibility of the oil. Bulk modulus is a measure of this incompressibility. The higher the bulk modulus, the less compressible of stiffer the fluid. Mathematically the bulk modulus is defined by equation (2.12), where the minus sign indicates that as the pressure increases on a given amount of oil, the oils volume decreases; and vice versa: Where = bulk modulus (psi, kPa) p= Change in pressure (psi, kPa) V= Change in volume (in3, m3) V= Original volume (in3, m3)

p V /V

The bulk modulus of an oil changes somewhat with changes in pressure and temperature. However, for pressure and temperature variations that occur in most fluid power systems , this factor can be neglected. A typical value for oil is 250,000 psi (1.72 x 106 kPa).

Viscosity Introduction Viscosity is probably the single most important property of a hydraulic fluid. It is a measure of a fluids resistance to fluid. When the viscosity is low, the fluid flows easily and is thin in appearance. A fluid that flows with difficulty has a high viscosity and is thick in appearance. In reality, the ideal viscosity for a given hydraulic system is a compromise. Too high a viscosity results in:
High resistance to flow, which causes sluggish operation Increased power consumption due to frictional losses. Increased pressure drop through valves and lines. High temperatures caused by friction

On the other hand, if the viscosity is too low, the result is Increased oil leakage past seals. Excessive wear due to break down of the oil film between mating moving parts. These moving parts may be internal components of pump (such as pistons reciprocating in cylinder bores of a piston pump) or a sliding spool inside the body of a valves as shown in figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13. Fluid film lubricates and seals moving parts.

Absolute viscosity A concept of viscosity can be understood by examining two parallel plates separated by an oil film of thickness y, as illustrated in figure 2.14. The lower plate is stationary, whereas the upper plate moves with a velocity v as it being pushed by a force F as shown. Because of viscosity, the oil adheres to both surfaces. Thus, the velocity of the layer of fluid in contact with the lower plate is zero, and the velocity of the layer in contact with the top place is v. The consequence in a linearly varying velocity profile whose slop is v/y. the absolute viscosity of the oil can be represented mathematically as follows: `
=
v/ y = shear stress in oil F/A = v / y slope of velocity profile

Where = Greek symbol the shear stress in the fluid in units of force per unit area (lb/ft2, N/m2); the shear stress (which is produced by the force F) causes the sliding of adjacent layers of oil; v = Velocity of the moving parts (ft/s, m/s); y = Oil film thickness (ft, m); = Greek symbol the absolute viscosity of the oil, F = Force applied to the moving upper plate (lb, N) A = Area of the moving plate surface in contact with the oil (ft2, m2).

Figure 2.14. Fluid velocity profile between parallel plates due to viscosity.

Kinematic viscosity Calculations in hydraulic systems often involve the use of kinematic viscosity rather than absolute viscosity. Kinematic viscosity equals absolute viscosity divided by density:
v =

Where = Greek symbol nu = kinematic viscosity. Units for the kinematic viscosity are given as follows: English: ft2/s, SI metric: m2/s and CGS metric: cm2/s. A viscosity of 1 cm2/s is called a stoke. Because a stoke is a large unit, viscosity is typically reported in centistokes (cS).