Stressstrain curve

The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular material displays is known as that material's Stress-Strain curve. It is unique for each material and is found by recording the amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive loading (stress). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material (including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E). [1] Stress-strain curves of various materials vary widely, and different tensile tests conducted on the same material yield different results, depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the speed of the loading. It is possible, however, to distinguish some common characteristics among the stress-strain curves of various groups of materials and, on this basis, to divide materials into two broad categories; namely, the ductile materials and the brittle materials.[2]

Ductile materials Ductile materials, which includes structural steel, as well as many alloys of other metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures.[3] Low carbon steel generally exhibits a very linear stressstrain relationship up to a well defined yield point (Fig.2). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is the modulus of elasticity or Young's Modulus. After the yield point, the curve typically decreases slightly because of dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres. As deformation continues, the stress increases on account of strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate strength. Until this point, the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly because of Poisson contractions. The actual rupture point is in the same vertical line as the visual rupture point. However, beyond this point a neck forms where the local cross-sectional area decreases more quickly than the rest of the sample resulting in an increase in the true stress. As shown in Fig.2, On an engineering stressstrain curve this is seen as a decrease in the apparent stress. However if the curve is plotted in terms of true stress and true strain the stress will continue to rise until failure. Eventually the neck becomes unstable and the specimen ruptures (fractures). Less ductile materials such as aluminum and medium to high carbon steels do not have a well-defined yield point.There are generally two types of yield points,upper and lower yield point. For these materials the yield strength is typically determined by the "offset yield method", by which a line is drawn parallel to the linear elastic portion of the curve and intersecting the abscissa at some arbitrary value (generally from 0.1% to 0.2%). The intersection of this line and the stressstrain curve is reported as the yield point. The elastic region is the portion of the curve where the material will return to its original shape if the load is removed. The plastic region is the portion where some permanent deformation will occur, even if the load is removed. Failure point is when the object ruptures.

Brittle materials

Brittle materials, which includes cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation.[4] Brittle materials such as concrete or carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and do not strain-harden. Therefore the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. A most unusual stress-strain curve is shown in Fig.3. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the original component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile materials. A typical stress strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. Testing of several identical specimen, cast iron, or soil, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the sample gets larger, the size of defects also grows. In general, the tensile strength of a rope is always less than sum of the tensile strength of its individual fibers.

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured at each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress and the strain can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress along the y-axis and the strain along the xaxis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbon structural steel.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural steel and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of rupture like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line between these two classes.

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law) From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or

or

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of ElasticityE or Young's Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stressstraindiagram from O to P. Then

Elastic Limit The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic Limit The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.

Yield Point Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.

Rapture Strength Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking strength.

Modulus of Resilience Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to P, in Nm/m 3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-straincurve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.

Modulus of Toughness Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually increased from O to R, in Nm/m 3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

http://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/stress-strain-diagram http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93strain_curve

Stress/Strain Curves

Stress/strain curves are often acquired under constant strain-rate conditions. The force required to produce this deformation behavior is measured with the Load Cell and normalized to yield the nominal or true stress.

Nominal stress/strain curves for Al2 O3 (a), a low carbon steel (b), a cross-linked natural rubber (c), and a the polymer, polymethyl-methacrylate, tested at 122 C are shown inthe figure opposite. Note that most of these materials fracture at a nominal stress less than 25%, and that the rubber extends by 800% before fracture. The aluminum oxide and the rubber behave elastically to their fracture point. The low carbon steel and the polymer show elastic and plastic behavior before fracturing.

http://www.princeton.edu/~humcomp/sophlab/m&mgl_4.htm

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/engineering/geotech/pubs/04107/chapt2.cfm

http://www.google.co.in/imgres?q=stress+strain+curve&start=98&hl=en&sa=X&biw=1280&bih=705&a ddh=36&tbm=isch&prmd=imvnsb&tbnid=3XOPeos1YBd4M:&imgrefurl=http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx%3FID%3DCheckArticle%26site%3Dkt s%26NM%3D42&docid=2Qqi5xuSgvLjjM&imgurl=http://www.keytometals.com/img/screens/stress_stra in_tension.gif&w=489&h=385&ei=HacaULm1DezxmAW09YGIBQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=562&vpy=277 &dur=7125&hovh=199&hovw=253&tx=150&ty=96&sig=116413961377058484642&page=6&tbnh=154 &tbnw=196&ndsp=20&ved=1t:429,r:12,s:98,i:44