Protective Relaying

PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Principles & Philosophies

FORTUNATO C. LEYNES, FIIEE
Chairman Board of Electrical Engineering Professional Regulation Commission Vice President Manila Electric Company 15th IIEE Region 8 Conference June 26, 2010
Protective Relaying
The branch of electric power engineering concerned with the principles of design, construction/ installation, operation and maintenance of equipment (called relays or protective relays) which detect abnormal power system conditions, and initiate corrective action as quickly as possible in order to return the power system to its normal state.
Power System Protection - Meralco
ARE PROTECTIVE RELAYING PRACTICES BASED ON THE PROBABILITY OF FAILURE

protective relaying practices are based on the probability of failure to the extent that present-day practices are the result of years of experience in which the frequency of failure undoubtedly has played a part; the probability of failure, seldom if ever, enters directly into the choice of a particular type of relaying equipment except when, for one reason or another, one finds it most difficult to apply the type that otherwise would be used; more importantly, the probability of failure should be considered only together with the consequences of failure should it occur; the justification for a given practice equals the likelihood of trouble times the cost of the trouble; regardless of the probability of failure, no portion of a system should be entirely without protection, even if it is only back-up relaying.
EVALUATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

the cost of repairing the damage. the likelihood that the trouble may spread and involve other equipment. the time that the equipment is out of service. the loss in revenue and the strained public relations while the equipment is out of service. By expediting the equipments return to service, protective relaying helps to minimize the amount of equipment reserve required, since there is less likelihood of another failure before the first failure can be repaired.
PROTECTION SYSTEM OBJECTIVES

1. To remove the faulty device from the power system to prevent or minimize hazards to people, equipment damage, and adverse effect upon the normal operation of the remaining system. 2. To provide alternate means for removing the faulty device, for the same reason as in 1, when there is a protective equipment failure such as a breaker or any primary protection. 3. Prevent operation of protective system for heavy load surges and power swings or other conditions that will not cause damage or adversely affect operation of the system. 4. Recognize when a catastrophic system failure is imminent or has occurred and take necessary steps to minimize the disturbance and facilitate the speedy restoration to normal
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROTECTION SYSTEM

Economics Personality of the relay engineer and the characteristics of the power system Location and availability of disconnecting and isolating devices [circuit breakers, switches, and input devices (CTs and VTs)] Available fault indicators (fault studies and such)
HOW DO PROTECTIVE RELAYS OPERATE?

These are the parameters that may cause the protective relays to operate:
magnitude (voltage, current, power) frequency phase angle duration rate of change direction or order of change harmonics or wave shape
RELAY CLASSIFICATIONS BY FUNCTION

1. Protective relays 2. Regulating relays 3. Reclosing, synchronism check, and synchronizing relays 4. Monitoring relays 5. Auxiliary relays 6. Other relay classifications
by operating principles by performance characteristics etc.
RELAY CLASSIFICATIONS BY SPEED OF OPERATION

1. Instantaneous. These relays operate as soon as a secure decision is made. No intentional time delay is introduced to slow down the relay response. 2. Time delay. An intentional time delay is inserted between the relay decision time and the initiation of the trip action. 3. High speed. A relay that operates in less than a specified time. The specified time in present practice is 50 milliseconds (3 cycles on a 60 Hz system). 4. Ultra high speed. This term is not included in the Relay Standards but is commonly considered to be operation in 4 milliseconds or less.
CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY OPERATION

Correct Correct but undesired Incorrect No conclusion
CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY OPERATION

CORRECT TRIPPING
CORRECT TRIPPING BUT UNDESIRED F INCORRECT TRIPPING
PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION

Primary Protection - Schemes that are designed to
specifically protect one equipment zone. In any locations, this primary relaying may overlap into other zone of protection, providing additional protection for those zones.
Primary A. Limited B. Overlap
BACK-UP PROTECTION
Schemes that are designed to operate in place of or in parallel with the primary protection. Back-up protection probably will sense faults in more that one zone, is usually slower in operation, and may isolate a larger portion of the system. Backup protection for a specific zone may be provided by a local scheme or one located remotely. Back-up A. B. C. D. E. In Place of Primary Overlap Slower Increase Coverage in Isolation Local/Remote
THREE MEMBERS OF PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

1. Sensor - Feeds system information to the relay, e.g., currents and voltages 2. Relay - Makes a decision as to the need for action, e.g., overcurrent relay, etc. 3. Switching or Controlling Device - Physically isolates or control the problem, e.g., circuit breaker
THREE MEMBERS OF PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

Sensor
Feedback Signals Relay Power Circuit Breaker

FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF RELAYING

Decides whether system quantities are normal or abnormal
Power System Voltage and current transformer Relay Circuit Breaker
These devices Change Electrical Quantities to a Level low enough for the relay to use i.e. 5A, 110 V
Opens and isolate a faulty section of the system as sent by the relay
ELECTRICAL DIAGRAM OF RELAYING

CB CT Transmission Line Trip Coil
Station Battery
Relay Contacts
TYPICAL CONTROL CIRCUIT
DEFINITION OF OPERATION
Mechanical movement of the operating mechanism is imparted to a contact structure to close or to open contacts
we say that a relay "operates," we mean that it either closes or opens its contacts - whichever is the required action under the circumstances.
RELAY CONTACTS
a contact - normally open contact, it closes when the relay operates and opens when the relay resets b contact - normally closed contact, it opens when the relay operates and closes when the relay resets
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS (Transducers)

Change the magnitudes, but not the nature of the measured quantities Provide isolation from the hostile environment of the power system Types Current Transformers - CTs Potential Transformers - PTs Voltage Transformers - VTs Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers - CCVTs
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Secondary Winding
Iron Core Primary Conductor Secondary Terminals

Rating: Specify continuous rating of secondary winding (1A, 5A) Specify primary current which will nominally produce rated secondary current (e.g., 800A, 1,000A)
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Current Ratio Polarity: - Indicated by dots (dot or square) on drawings - Indicates instantaneous relationship in the directions of primary and secondary currents. 100/5 200/5 400/5 500/5 600/5 800/5 1000/5 1200/5 2000/5 100/1 200/1 400/1 500/1 600/1 800/1 1000/1 1200/1 2000/1
Is Ip
Current entering the polarity mark on the primary will cause a current to instantaneously leave the polarity mark on the secondary
MOST COMMON TYPES OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

Core-Balanced or Ring type or Doughnut Type
Bushing or the Bar-Type
Wound Primary Type
Rogowsky Coil - Optical CT

CT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Ip/N Ie Zm Ip N-turns
Ve Is = Ip/N - Ie Vs = Is * (Zb + 2Rw) Ve = Vs + Is*Rct
Rct
Rw
Is
Rct - CT Winding resistance in ohms/turn Rw - Lead (wiring) Resistance Zb - Burden Impedance Zm - Magnetizing Impedance
Ve
Vs Rw
Zb
Ie
CT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Ip/N Ie Zm Ip N-turns
At Saturation point: Is = Ip/N Ve Zm will be small which result in Ie being large
Rct
Rw
Is
Ve
Vs Rw
Zb
Rct - CT Winding resistance in ohms/turn Rw - Lead (wiring) Resistance Zb - Burden Impedance Zm - Magnetizing Impedance N - is the nominal ratio of CT
Ie
CT ERROR CALCULATION
Given: Primary Current , Ip Total impedance burden on the CT, including lead wire resistance CT Secondary Excitation Characteristics Neglected Factor: CT transient characteristic
Ip/N Ie Zm Ip N-turns Given : Is, Zb, Secondary Excitation Characteristic curve Steps : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. From the Burden and Is, cal. Vs From Vs, Rct and Is, cal. Ve From Ve and Sec. Excitation curve, determine Ie From Is and Ie, determine Ip/N From Ip/N and N, determine Ip
Rct
Rw
Is
Ve
Ve Vs Rw Zb
Ie
Ip/N Ie Zm Ip N-turns Given : Steps : 1. 2. 3. 4. From Ip and N, det Ip/N Calculate Ve to determine Ie from curve From Ie, calculate Is, Vs and Ve From Secondary Excitation curve, determine new value of Ie 5. Repeat step 3 and 4 until successive iterations yields insignificant changes in Ie
Rct
Rw
Is
Ve
Ve Vs Rw Zb
Ie
Ip, Zb, Secondary Excitation Characteristic curve
CT CONNECTION
Delta Connection
For balance 3 - phase fault : Is = Ip/N * 3 For phase - to - phase fault : Is = Ip/N * 3 / 2 in two lines
Ip Is
Relay
Is = Ip/N * 3
in remaning line
Is is 30 degrees phase shifted relative to Ip. Delta-connected CT will not produce Zero-sequence currents. Zero-sequence currents will be trapped inside the delta and cannot be measured by the relays in the CT secondary.
CT CONNECTION
Wye Connection Is1 Is2 Is3 Ir Ip1 I p2 Ip3 Is is in phase with Ip Wye connection will detect all kinds of fault and loads With the saturation of any one CT, a fake residual current will be produced
Relay Is1 = Ip1/N Ir = Is1 + Is2 + Is3
CT CONNECTION
Core Balance CT
Induced Current is a function of: Ia + Ib + Ic = 3Io
Will not respond to 3-phase and phase-to-phase faults Power Cables Normally used for low voltage ground fault applications
CT ACCURACY CLASS
ANSI C57.13
Secondary Terminal Voltage 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 4 2 1
Errors will not exceed 10% for secondary voltage equal to or less than value described by curve
C800
8 C400 C200 C100
Class C - Indicates that the transformer ratio can be calculated Class T - Indicates that the transformer ratio must be determine by test
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Secondary Amperes

CT SATURATION CURVE
PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

A critical factor in the success of any nation is electric power. Providing, operating and maintaining an effective power system is an important challenge. One key element to be considered in power system design is system protection. System Protection is accomplished via the coordinated application of protective devices including fuses, circuit breakers, reclosers, sectionalizers and other relays. Protective relays are devices which monitor power system conditions and operate to quickly and accurately isolate faults or dangerous conditions. A well designed protective system can limit damage to equipment, as well as minimize the extent of associated service interruption.

Factors Which Influence Design of a Protective System Sensitivity Selectivity Reliability Dependability Security Speed Economics Experience Industry Standards

Sensitivity - the minimum signal required to produce an output. A more sensitive relay will be able to discern a smaller condition. Sensitivity is very important when the input quantities are very small Selectivity - the ability of the relay to recognize a fault or abnormal system condition, and to discriminate between those upon which it should and should not operate or at a slightly delayed manner

Reliability the level of assurance that the relay will function as intended. Reliability is considered in two parts, dependability and security
Dependability - the ability of the relay to trip for all faults and conditions for which operation tripping is desired. Security the ability of the relay to not operate trip for any fault or condition for which tripping is undesired.

Speed The ability of the relay to operate in the required time period. The ultimate goal of the protective equipment is to isolate the fault as quickly as possible.
Economics - The cost of installation, operation, and maintenance of the protection system which must be weighted against potential losses due to equipment damage or service interruption. Experience - Those problems which experience has shown to be most likely are given highest priority. Larger, critical systems are protected from less probable events.
PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Industry Standards
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and other organizations provide industry standards through ANSI or IEC. These include specific standards for many applications. ANSI-C37.90-1989 - Relays and Relay System Associated with Electric Power Apparatus IEEE STD 242-1975 - Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power System
FAULTS VERSUS ABNORMAL CONDITIONS

One important concept in protective relaying is the difference between faults and abnormal conditions. Faults are short circuits or arcs, actual system failures. Abnormal conditions are such as overvoltage, undervoltage, or overexcitation. Abnormal conditions are undesirable events, and can often lead to faults or equipment failure. Most relays are applied to protect the system or equipment from either faults or abnormal conditions. This will govern the philosophy of protection.
ZONE OF PROTECTION
Relay schemes are designed to protect specific areas or equipment. The electric grid is divided into zones which can be isolated via circuit breakers, fuses or sectionalizers. Each zone is individually protected, and is defined as a ZONE of Protection. Protective relay schemes are designed to isolate a given zone for any tripping condition. This minimizes or prevents equipment damage, thus, permitting more rapid restoration of the system, and, minimizes the extent and duration of the interference with the operation of the whole system (overtrip). Zones are established encompassing certain system elements such as generators, busses, transformers, and lines. This allows protective relaying schemes to be tailored to the equipment of a specific element. When a fault occurs, the zone including the failed equipment is isolated from the rest of the system.
ZONE OF PROTECTION
The boundaries of the zone of protection are defined by the current and voltage transformers, which provide the system information to the relays. Each zone of protection includes the isolating circuit breakers, as well as the protected equipment. Each zone overlaps the adjacent zone, and the circuit breaker will be in two zones. This is necessary to ensure that blind spots cannot exist, and that all the portions of the power system are protected. A fault in the overlap area will trip both zones. This especially desirable in the case of a circuit breaker failure.
ZONE OF PROTECTION
3 6 Zone of Protection
5 1 87B 50/51
CT REQUIREMENTS FOR OVERLAPPING ZONES
52
2 G
PROTECTION COORDINATION
In order to increase dependability, and insure that all faults will be cleared, protective relays from a given zone of protection will usually operate as backup devices for faults in the adjacent zones. Utilities generally design their systems for single contingency, meaning, that the system can survive the loss of any single device (including protective relays). In order to provide this backup function while still isolating the minimum amount of equipment, the protective relays must be coordinated. That is, if the relays in the faulted zone fail to operate (single contingency), the relays in the adjacent zone(s), will operate after a time delay. In this means, dependability is increased with only a small risk to security.
PROTECTION COORDINATION
51 LOADS 50/51 TO SOURCE 51 R
LOADS
DEVELOPMENT OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Electro-mechanical relay Solid-state relay Digital relay
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL RELAYS
The most commonly used Uses the induction disc principle (watthour meter) Provides individual phase protection
SOLID-STATE RELAYS
Characteristic curve is obtained through use of RC timing circuits No moving parts Used to retrofit electromechanical relays Fast reset Less maintenance
DIGITAL RELAYS
Selectable characteristic curves and protection functions Metering and control functions Event and/or disturbance recording Remote communication Self-monitoring All in
DIGITAL RELAYS
DEVICE FUNCTION NUMBERS

1 2 21 24 25 Description A device, such as a control switch, etc., that serves, either directly or through such permissive devices as protective and time-delay relays, to place equipment in or out of operation. time delay starting or A device that functions to give a desired amount of time delay before or after any point of closing relay operation in a switching sequence or protective relay system, except as specifically provided distance relay A device that functions when the circuit admittance, impedance, or reactance increases or decreases beyond a predetermined value. volts per hertz relay A device that operates when the ratio of voltage to frequency is above a preset value or is below a different preset value. The relay may have any combination of instantaneous or time synchronizing or A synchronizing device produces an output that causes closure at zero-phase angle synchronism-check relay difference between two circuits. It may or may not include voltage and speed control. A synchronism-check relay permits the paralleling of two circuits that are within presc undervoltage relay A device that operates when its input voltage is less than a predetermined value. annunciator relay A nonautomatically reset device that gives a number of separate visual indications upon the functioning of protective devices and that may also be arranged to perform a lockout function. directional power relay A device that operates on a predetermined value of power flow in a given direction such as reverse power flow resulting from the motoring of a generator upon loss of its prime mover. undercurrent or A device that functions when the current or power flow decreases below a predetermined underpower relay value. reverse-phase or phase- A device in a polyphase circuit that operates when the polyphase currents are of reversebalance current relay phase sequence or when the polyphase currents are unbalanced or when the negative phasephase-sequence or A device in a polyphase circuit that functions upon a predetermined value of polyphase phase-balance voltage voltage in the desired phase sequence, when the polyphase voltages are unbalanced, or relay when the negative phase-sequence voltage exceeds a preset value. instantaneous A device that operates with no intentional time delay when the current exceeds a preset overcurrent relay value. ac time overcurrent relay A device that functions when the ac input current exceeds a predetermined value, and in which the input cur-rent and operating time are inversely related through a substantial portion Device master element
27 30 32 37 46 47
50 51

Description A device that is used to close and interrupt an ac power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency conditions. 59 overvoltage relay A device that operates when its input voltage exceeds a predetermined value. 64 ground detector relay A device that operates upon failure of machine or other apparatus insulation to ground. NOTE This function is not applied to a device connected in the secondary circuit of current transformers in a normally grounded power system where other overcurrent device numbers with the suffix G or N should be used; for example, 51N for an ac time over 67 ac directional overcurrent A device that functions at a desired value of ac overcurrent flowing in a predetermined relay direction. 68 blocking or "out-of-step" A device that initiates a pilot signal for blocking of tripping on external faults in a transmission line or in other apparatus under predetermined conditions, or cooperates with other devices to relay block tripping or reclosing on an out-of-step condition or 69 permissive control device A device with two-positions that in one position permits the closing of a circuit breaker, or the placing of a piece of equipment into operation, and in the other position, prevents the circuit breaker or the equipment from being operated. 79 reclosing relay A device that controls the automatic reclosing and locking out of an ac circuit interrupter. 81 frequency relay A device that responds to the frequency of an electrical quantity, operating when the frequency or rate of change of frequency exceeds or is less than a predetermined value. 86 lockout relay A device that trips and maintains the associated equipment or devices inoperative until it is reset by an operator, either locally or remotely. 87 differential protective A device that operates on a percentage, phase angle, or other quantitative difference of two relay or more currents or other electrical quantities. 94 tripping or trip-free relay A device that functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor, or equipment; to permit immediate tripping by other devices; or to prevent immediate reclosing of a circuit interrupter if it should open automatically, even though in individual specific installations if none of the functions 95-99 used only for specific These device numbers are used its closing circuit is maint applications assigned to the numbers from 1 through 94 are suitable. 52 Device ac circuit breaker

(Suffixes)
Suffix Letter A B G GS L M N T V U X Y Z Relay Application Alarm only or automatic Bus protection Ground -fault or generator Ground -fault protection Line protection Motor protection Ground -fault protection Transformer protection Voltage Unit protection Auxiliary relay Auxiliary relay Auxiliary relay Amplifying Information
System neutral type protection Toroidal or ground sensor type
Relay coil connected in residual CT circuit
Generator and transformer
BASIC STEPS FOR RELAY SETTING & COORDINATION STUDY

Data collection Fault current calculation Equipment performance Special requirements Selection and plotting of preliminary settings Check final settings
SETTING & COORDINATION

Organized time-current study of all devices in series from the utilization device to the source. Comparison of the time it takes the individual devices to operate.
SETTING & COORDINATION

Determine the characteristics, ratings and settings of overcurrent protective devices against a fault Provide protection against overloads on equipment Data useful for selection of instrument transformer ratios, fuse ratings, CB ratings and settings
QUESTIONS?
PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Principles & Philosophies
FORTUNATO C. LEYNES, FIIEE
Chairman Board of Electrical Engineering Professional Regulation Commission Vice President Manila Electric Company 15th IIEE Region 8 Conference June 26, 2010

Protective Relaying - An Overview

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Protective Relaying - An Overview

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Principles & Philosophies

Power System Protection - Meralco

ARE PROTECTIVE RELAYING PRACTICES BASED ON THE PROBABILITY OF FAILURE

EVALUATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

PROTECTION SYSTEM OBJECTIVES

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROTECTION SYSTEM

HOW DO PROTECTIVE RELAYS OPERATE?

RELAY CLASSIFICATIONS BY FUNCTION

RELAY CLASSIFICATIONS BY SPEED OF OPERATION

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY OPERATION

Power System Protection - Meralco

CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY OPERATION

CORRECT TRIPPING BUT UNDESIRED F INCORRECT TRIPPING

Power System Protection - Meralco

PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION

Primary A. Limited B. Overlap

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

THREE MEMBERS OF PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

Power System Protection - Meralco

THREE MEMBERS OF PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

Feedback Signals Relay Power Circuit Breaker

FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF RELAYING

ELECTRICAL DIAGRAM OF RELAYING

Power System Protection - Meralco

TYPICAL CONTROL CIRCUIT

Power System Protection - Meralco

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS (Transducers)

Iron Core Primary Conductor Secondary Terminals

Power System Protection - Meralco

MOST COMMON TYPES OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

Bushing or the Bar-Type

Wound Primary Type

Rogowsky Coil - Optical CT

Power System Protection - Meralco

Relay Is1 = Ip1/N Ir = Is1 + Is2 + Is3

Induced Current is a function of: Ia + Ib + Ic = 3Io

Power System Protection - Meralco

8 C400 C200 C100

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Secondary Amperes

Power System Protection - Meralco

PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

Power System Protection - Meralco

PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

Power System Protection - Meralco

PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

FAULTS VERSUS ABNORMAL CONDITIONS

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

DEVELOPMENT OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS

Electro-mechanical relay Solid-state relay Digital relay

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco

Power System Protection - Meralco