Group Theory

Michael Bushell
michael.bushell@student.manchester.ac.uk
January 18, 2013
About
These are my own notes from lectures, they may contain errors.
1
CONTENTS 2
Contents
1 Prerequisite Knowledge 4
2 The Symmetric Group (S
n
) 5
2.1 The Alternating Group (A
n
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Subgroups 8
3.1 Centralizers, Normalizers, Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Subgroup Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4 Conjugacy 13
4.1 Some Properties of Conjugacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Counting Conjugates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2.1 Worked Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3 The Class Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4 Conjugacy in S
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5 Group Actions 20
5.1 G-orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2 Cauchys Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3 Burnsides Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups 28
6.1 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1.1 Classication of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups . . 29
7 Normal Subgroups 31
7.1 Quotient Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.1.1 Subgroups of Quotient Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.2.1 Isomorphism Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8 Simple Groups 40
8.1 Composition Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.1.1 The Jordan-H older Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9 Sylows Theorems 45
9.1 Simple Groups and Sylows Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
CONTENTS 3
10 Extension Material 49
10.1 Commutator Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.2 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.3 A
n
is simple for n 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.4 The unique simple group of order 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1 PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE 4
1 Prerequisite Knowledge
We should be familar with the denition of a group and subgroup.
Denition 1.1. If G is a group and S G, the right cosets of S in G are
the collection of sets
Sg = xg [ x S
for each g G.
Remark If S G is a subgroup the following cosets properties hold:
(i) g G : g Hg
(ii) a, b G : Ha = Hb ab
1
H
(iii) a, b G : Ha = Hb or Ha Hb =
(iv) g G : [H[ = [Hg[
(v) The right cosets are a partition of G
Denition 1.2. If H G, then the number of right cosets of H in G is
written [G : H] and is called the index of H in G.
Theorem 1.3 (Lagranges Theorem). If G is a nite group and H G a
subgroup, then [G[ = [H[[G : H].
Corollary 1.4. If K H G are nite, then [G : K] = [G : H][H : K].
2 THE SYMMETRIC GROUP (S
N
) 5
2 The Symmetric Group (S
n
)
Denition 2.1. In S
n
a cycle of length 2 is called a transposition.
Lemma 2.2. Let n 2, then every permutation in S
n
can be written as a
product of transpositions.
Proof. Let S
n
and write =
1

2
. . .
t
as a product of disjoint cycles.
For each cycle
i
we have

i
= (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
r
) = (
1

2
)(
1

3
) (
1

r
)
as required.
Denition 2.3. Let n 2 and S
n
, then is an even (respectively odd)
permutation if it can be written as a product of an even (repsectively odd)
number of transpositions.
Theorem 2.4. Any permutation is either even or odd, and cannot be both.
Proof. Let S
n
and dene C() to be the number of cycles in when
written as a disjoint union of cycles (including those of length one), and
dene S() = (1)
nC()
. The following two lemmas are needed:
Lemma 2.5. If S
n
is a transposition, then C() = C() 1.
Proof. Write = (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
a
)(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
b
)(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
c
) as a prod-
uct of disjoint cycles and suppose = (, ). There are two possibilities:
(i) Suppose and both lie in the same cycle of , without loss of gener-
ality suppose this is
= (
1
= ,
2
, . . . ,
i1
,
i
= ,
i+1
, . . . ,
a
)
then
= (,
2
, . . . ,
i1
, ,
i+1
, . . . ,
a
)(
1
, . . . ,
b
) (, )
= (,
2
, . . . ,
i1
, ,
i+1
, . . . ,
a
)(, )(
1
, . . . ,
b
)
= (,
2
, . . . ,
i1
)(,
i+1
, . . . ,
a
)(
1
, . . . ,
b
)
and so C() = C() + 1.
2 THE SYMMETRIC GROUP (S
N
) 6
(ii) Suppose and lie in seperate cylces of , without loss of generality
suppose we have
= (
1
= ,
2
, . . . ,
a
)(
1
= ,
2
, . . . ,
b
)
then
= (,
2
, . . . ,
a
)(,
2
, . . . ,
b
)(
1
, . . . ,
c
) (, )
= (,
2
, . . . ,
a
)(,
2
, . . . ,
b
)(, )(
1
, . . . ,
c
)
= (,
2
, . . . ,
a
, ,
2
, . . . ,
b
)(
1
, . . . ,
c
)
and so C() = C() 1.
Lemma 2.6. If can be written as a product of r transpositions, then S() =
(1)
r
.
Proof. Suppose =
1

2

r
. Now, since
1
has the form

1
= () (
1
)(
2
) (
n1
)
. .
(n-1) 1-cycles
we have C(
1
) = n 1, hence n C(
1
) = 1. Making repeated use of the
rst lemma, we have
n C(
1

2
) = n (C() 1) 0, 2
n C(
1

3
) = n (C(
1

2
) 1) 1, 3
n C(
1

4
) = n (C(
1

3
) 1) 0, 2, 4
As so on, it is clear that nC() = nC(
1

2

r
) is even if r is even and
odd if r is odd, therefore
S() = (1)
nC()
= (1)
r
as claimed.
Suppose can be written as the product of r
1
transpositions and also as
a product of r
2
transpositions, then by the second lemma
(1)
r
1
= S() = (1)
r
2
So either both r
1
and r
2
are even, or both r
1
and r
2
are odd. Therefore
cannot be both an even and odd permutaiton.
2 THE SYMMETRIC GROUP (S
N
) 7
2.1 The Alternating Group (A
n
)
Denition 2.7. For n 2, dene A
n
= S
n
[ is even, the alternating
group of degree n
Proposition 2.8. A
n
is a subgroup of S
n
.
Proof. Firstly, (1) = (1, 2)(1, 2) is even so (1) A
n
and A
n
,= .
Suppose
1
,
2
A
n
, then we can write

1
= (
1
,
1
)(
2
,
2
) (
r
,
r
)

2
= (
1
,
1
)(
2
,
2
) (
s
,
s
)
then

1
2
= ((
1
,
1
)(
2
,
2
) (
s
,
s
))
1
= (
s
,
s
)
1
(
2
,
2
)
1
(
1
,
1
)
1
= (
s
,
s
) (
2
,
2
)(
1
,
1
)
where r and s are both even, so

1
2
= (
1
,
1
) (
r
,
r
)(
s
,
s
) (
1
,
1
)
can be written as a product of r + s transpositions, and r + s is even so

1
2
A
n
.
Therefore, by the subgroup criterion A
n
S
n
.
3 SUBGROUPS 8
3 Subgroups
3.1 Centralizers, Normalizers, Generators
When studying a group, the existence and properties of its subgroups gives
us information about the group as a whole. In this section we exhibit various
subgroups that exist for arbitrary groups.
Denition 3.1. Let G be any group, and A, B G be any two subsets, for
g G dene:
(i) AB = ab [ a A, b B
(ii) A
g
= a
g
[ a A, where a
g
= g
1
ag is conjugation by g.
(iii) A

= a
1
[ a A
We will use these to construct subgroups.
Denition 3.2. Suppose G is a group and S G is a nonempty subset,
dene
(i) C
G
(S) = g G [ x S : gx = xg
(ii) N
G
(S) = g G [ S
g
= S
(iii) S = x
1
x
2
x
m
[ m N, x
i
S S

we call C
G
(S) the centralizer of S in G, N
G
(S) the normalizer of S in G,
and S the subgroup of G generated by S.
Proposition 3.3. Let G be a group and S G a nonempty subset, then
C
G
(S), N
G
(S), S are all subgroups of G.
Proof. Let S G be given.
(i) We show C
G
(S) G.
Firstly, 1x = x = x1 for all x S, so 1 C
G
(S) and C
G
(S) ,= .
Let g, h C
G
(S), then
(gh)x = g(hx) = g(xh) = (gx)h = (xg)h = x(gh)
so gh C
G
(S).
Since gx = xg for all x S, we have xg
1
= g
1
x for all x S, and so
g
1
C
G
(S).
Therefore, C
G
(S) G by the subgroup criterion.
3 SUBGROUPS 9
(ii) We show N
G
(S) G.
Firstly,
S
1
= 1
1
x1 [ x S = x [ x S = S
so 1 N
G
(S) and N
G
(S) ,= .
Suppose g, h N
G
(S), then
(S
g
)
h
= g
1
xg [ x S
h
= h
1
yh [ y g
1
xg [ x S
= h
1
(g
1
xg)h [ x S
= (gh)
1
x(gh) [ x S
= S
(gh)
Now both g, h N
G
(S) so we know S
g
= S = S
h
, hence
S
(gh
1
)
= (S
g
)
h
1
= (S
h
)
h
1
= S
(hh
1
)
= S
1
= S
Therefore, gh
1
N
G
(S) and N
G
(S) G by the subgroup criterion.
(iii) We show S G.
By assumption S ,= , so there exists x S, then x S S
1
so
x S and S , = .
Suppose g, h S, then
g = x
1
x
2
x
m
, h = y
1
y
2
y
n
for some m, n N, x
i
, y
i
S S

, then
gh
1
= (x
1
x
2
x
m
)(y
1
y
2
y
n
)
1
= x
1
x
2
x
m
y
1
n
y
1
n1
y
1
1
Each y
i
S S

so also each y
1
i
S S

.
So gh
1
S and therefore S G by the subgroup criterion.
3 SUBGROUPS 10
Remark We can say more about S, C
G
(S), N
G
(S).
(i) Observe that
g C
G
(S) x S : gx = xg
x S : x
g
= g
1
xg = x
S
g
= x
g
[ x S = x [ x S = S
g N
G
(S)
Therefore, C
G
(S) N
G
(S) and moreover C
G
(S) N
G
(S).
(ii) Suppose S G is actually a subgroup of G, furthermore that S is an
abelian group, then for g S we have gx = xg, x S, since S is
abelian, hence g C
G
(S).
Therefore, S C
G
(S) and moreover S C
G
(S).
(iii) Suppose S G is actually a subgroup of G, let g, x, y S
x
g
= y
g
g
1
xg = g
1
yg gg
1
x = ygg
1
x = y
So conjugation by a xed element within a group is one-to-one, hence
x S S
x
= y
x
[ y S = S x N
G
(S)
Therefore, S N
G
(S) and moreover S N
G
(S).
There is one particular centralizer that is given its own name:
Denition 3.4. Consider when S = G itself, then
C
G
(G) = g G [ h G : gh = hg
is called the centre of G and usually denoted Z(G).
3 SUBGROUPS 11
3.2 Subgroup Products
Suppose that G is a group and H, K G are two arbitrary subgroups, when
is HK = hk [ h H, k K a group?
Lemma 3.5. Let G be a group and H, K G be subgroups, then HK G
if and only if HK = KH.
Proof. (i) Suppose HK G, observe that
H = H1 = h1 [ h H, 1 G HK
and similarly K HK, hence
KH = kh [ k K HK, h H HK HK
since HK is a group closed under multiplication.
Let g HK, since HK is a group g
1
HK, so g
1
= hk for some
h H, k K, hence
g = (hk)
1
= k
1
h
1
KH
as h
1
H, k
1
K.
Thus, HK KH and therefore HK = KH.
(ii) Conversely, suppose that HK = KH, with H, K G.
Firstly, 1 H and 1 K, so 1 = 1 1 HK and HK ,= .
Suppose x, y HK = KH, then x = h
1
k
1
for some h
1
H, k
2
K
and y = k
2
h
2
for some h
2
H, k
2
K. Hence
xy
1
= (h
1
k
1
)(k
2
h
2
)
1
= h
1
k
1
h
1
2
k
1
2
As k
1
h
1
2
KH = HK, then k
1
h
1
2
= h

for some h

H, k

K.
Thus
xy
1
= h
1
h

k
1
2
HK
since h
1
h

H and k

k
1
2
K.
Therefore, HK G by the subgroup criterion.
3 SUBGROUPS 12
Lemma 3.6. Let G be a nite group and H, K G, then
[HK[ =
[H[[K[
[H K[
Proof. Recall that H K K.
Let k
1
, . . . , k
n
K be a complete set of right coset representatives of
H K in K (n = [K : H K] = [K[/[H K[).
First observe that HK =

kK
Hk is the union of right cosets of H in G
by elements of K.
Let k K, so k (H K)k
j
for some k
j
, and we can write k = xk
j
where x H K, now
kk
1
j
= xk
j
k
1
j
= x H K H
so Hk = Hk
j
.
Therefore every right coset of H in G by an element of K can be repre-
sented by some k
i
, hence HK =

kK
Hk =

n
i=1
Hk
i
we now show that
this union is disjoint.
Observe that (H K)k
i
(for i = . . . , n) are pairwise disjoint (by choice
of k
i
). Suppose Hk
i
= Hk
j
, then k
i
k
1
j
H. But k
i
, k
j
K by denition,
so k
i
k
1
j
K and k
i
k
1
j
H K, thus k
i
and k
j
lie in the same right coset
of H K in K, and therefore k
i
= k
j
by choice of these respresentatives.
Therefore
HK =
_
kK
Hk =
n
_
i=1
Hk
i
which is a disjoint union and so
[HK[ =

n
_
i=1
Hk
i

=
n

i=1
[Hk
i
[ = n[H[ =
[H[[K[
[H K[
since all right cosets of H in G are equinumerous and H itself is such a coset.
4 CONJUGACY 13
4 Conjugacy
Denition 4.1. Recall, given a group G and subset S G, we dened
S
g
= g
1
xg [ x S = x
g
[ x S
we say that S
g
is a conjugate (in G) of S.
In particular, when S = x is a singleton set, S
g
= x
g
. So, for any
two elements x, y G we say x and y are conjugate if there exists g G
such that x
g
= y.
It is easily seen that conjugacy of elements in a group is an equivalence
relation, we call the equivalence class [x] = x
g
[ g G (all elements
conjugate to x in G) the conjugacy class of x G, and use notation [x] = x
G
.
4.1 Some Properties of Conjugacy
Given a group G, a subset S G, and element g G, some basic properties
follow:
(i) [S[ = [S
g
[.
Proof. The map f : S G dened by x x
g
is bijective
x
g
= y
g
g
1
xg = g
1
yg x = y
Hence, [S
g
[ = [f(S)[ = [S[.
(ii) If S G, then S
g
G.
Proof. Firstly, 1 S as S G, so 1 = 1
g
S
g
, so S
g
,= .
Let x, y S
g
, so x = a
g
, y = b
g
for some a, b S, then
xy
1
= a
g
(b
g
)
1
= g
1
ag(g
1
bg)
1
= g
1
xgg
1
b
1
g = (ab
1
)
g
where ab
1
S since S is a group, therefore xy
1
S
g
and S
g
G by
the subgroup criterion.
(iii) If x Z(G), then x
G
= x, in particular 1
G
= 1.
Proof. Let x Z(G), then x
g
= g
1
xg = xg
1
g = x, since x commutes
with all elements of G. Hence, x
G
= x
g
[ g G = x.
(iv) Conjugate elements have the same order.
4 CONJUGACY 14
Proof. Observe that
(x
g
)
2
= (g
1
xg)
2
= (g
1
xg)(g
1
xg) = g
1
x
2
g = (x
2
)
g
so by induction (x
g
)
n
= (x
n
)
g
, hence if y = x
g
, then
y
n
= 1 (x
g
)
n
= 1 (x
n
)
g
= 1 x
n
= 1
where the last step follows since 1
G
= 1, so 1 can be the only element
conjugate to 1.
4 CONJUGACY 15
4.2 Counting Conjugates
Lemma 4.2. Suppose G is a group, then G is the disjoint union of its con-
jugacy classes.
Proof. As remarked earlier, it is easily shown that conjugacy of elements is
an equivalence relation. Any equivalence relation on a set partitions that set
into disjoint equivalence classes.
Lemma 4.3. Suppose G is a group and S G (S ,= ). Let N = N
G
(S)
and choose g
i
[ i I to be a complete set of right coset representatives for
N in G, then S
g
i
[ i I is a distinct collection of all possible conjugates
of S in G.
Proof. Let g G, then g = hg
i
for some h N and i I (since g lies in a
right coset Ng
i
of N), thus
S
g
= S
(hg
i
)
= (S
h
)
g
i
= S
g
i
(recall, by denition h N S
h
= S). So every conjugate of S in G is
of this form.
Now suppose that S
g
i
= S
g
j
, then
S
g
i
g
1
j
= S
g
j
g
1
j
= S
1
= S
so g
i
g
1
j
N, that is, Ng
i
= Ng
j
is same right coset of N, a contradiction
to the choice of these representatives therefore, each S
g
i
is a distinct
conjugate.
Corollary 4.4. When G is nite, the number of conjugates of S in G is
[G : N
G
(S)].
Remark In particular, when considering a singleton set S = x, we have
N
G
(x) = C
G
(x). Therefore, [x
G
[ = [G : C
G
(x)] and moreover [x
G
[ divides
[G[ that is, the size of each conjugacy class divides the order of the group.
4 CONJUGACY 16
4.2.1 Worked Example
Example 4.5. Let G = S
4
and S = (1, 2), (1, 3, 2, 4). We will nd all
conjugates of S in G.
First, lets nd all the elements of S.
We know (1, 3, 2, 4) S so [(1, 3, 2, 4)[ = 4 divides [S[ (and as (1, 2)
S, we know [S[ > 4). Similarly, S S
4
so [S[ divides [S
4
[ = 24, hence [S[ =
8 or 12.
We can nd
S = (1), (1, 3, 2, 4), (1, 2)(3, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3),
(1, 2), (1, 3)(2, 4), (3, 4), (1, 4)(2, 3)
by calculating each (1, 3, 2, 4)
n
(1, 2) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3. And observing that no
more elements can be formed from nite products in S S

.
Lets nd N
G
(S).
Firstly S N
G
(S) G since S G, so [S[ divides [N
G
(S)[ which divides
[G[, this implies N
G
(S) = 8 or 24, meaning N
G
(S) = S or N
G
(S) = G.
If N
G
(S) = G, then every element of G conjugates S to S, so lets try
(1, 2, 3) G in particular:
(1, 2)
(1,2,3)
= (1, 2, 3)
1
(1, 2)(1, 2, 3) = (1, 3, 2)(1, 2)(1, 2, 3) = (2, 3) , S
so S
(1,2,3)
,= S and (1, 2, 3) , N
G
(S), thus N
G
(S) ,= G hence N
G
(S) = S.
Therefore, S has just [G : N
G
(S)] = [G[/[N
G
(S)[ = 24/8 = 3 conjugates.
It is easily found that (1), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2) is a complete set of right coset
representatives of N
G
(S) in G, therefore the conjugates of S in G are
S = S
(1)
, S
(1,2,3)
, S
(1,3,2)
Finally, as S G, we know S
(1,2,3)
and S
(1,3,2)
are subgroups of G also.
4 CONJUGACY 17
4.3 The Class Equation
Theorem 4.6. Let G be a nite group and x
1
, . . . , x
k
G be representatives
of the conjugacy classes of G. Let n
i
= [x
G
i
[ and without loss of generality
assume n
1
= n
2
= = n
m
= 1 and n
i
> 1 for i > m, then
[G[ =
k

i=1
n
i
=
k

i=1
[G : C
G
(x
i
)]
= [Z(G)[ +
k

i=m+1
[G : C
G
(x
i
)]
Proof. Recall, G is the disjoint union of its conjugacy classes, hence
[G[ =

n
_
i=1
x
G
i

=
n

i=1

x
G
i

=
n

i=1
n
i
by choice of x
i
.
We have shown that [G : C
G
(x
i
)] = [x
G
i
[ = n
i
, now splitting the sum gives
[G[ =
m

i=1
n
i
+
n

i=m+1
n
i
= [Z(G)[ +
n

i=m+1
[G : C
G
(x
i
)]
as n
i
= 1 x
G
i
= x
i
x
i
Z(G).
The following is an example of the usefulness of the class equation.
Denition 4.7. Let p be a prime number, a group G is called a p-group if
and only if [G[ = p
n
for some n N0 (that is, G has prime power order).
Lemma 4.8. If G is a p-group and G ,= 1, then Z(G) ,= 1 (a non-trivial
p-group has a non-trivial centre).
Proof. We know each n
i
divides [G[ = p
n
, so if n
i
,= 1, then p divides n
i
.
By the class equation
[Z(G)[ = [G[
k

i=m+1
n
i
where both terms of the right-hand side are divisble by p, hence p divides
Z(G) and so [Z(G)[ > 1, therefore Z(G) ,= 1.
4 CONJUGACY 18
4.4 Conjugacy in S
n
Finding conjugacy classes in symmetric groups S
n
is particularly simple.
Lemma 4.9. Let , S
n
, if = , then ()

= , in other words:
if

, then

.
Proof. By direct calculation
()

= ()(
1
) = (
1
) = () =
as claimed.
Suppose S
n
is written as a product of pairwise disjoint cycles
= (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
a
)(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
b
)(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
c
)
then, for instance, we have the cycle (
1
,
2
, . . . ,
a
), that is

1
so in

=
1
we have the cycle

similarly for the other cycles in , hence

= (
1
,
2
. . . ,
a
)(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
b
)(
1
,
2
, . . . ,
c
)
Allowing us to easily calculate conjugates in S
n
.
Example 4.10. In S
8
, let = (1, 5, 7, 6, 2)(3, 8)(4) and = (1, 2)(5, 8)(3, 4, 6, 7),
then

= (1, 5, 7, 6, 2)(3, 8)(4) = (2, 8, 3, 7, 1)(4, 5)(6)

Moreover, notice how the number and lengths of cycles remains the same.
Denition 4.11. A permutation in S
n
that has C
r
cycles of length r (for
r N) is said to have cycle type 1
C
1
, 2
C
2
, 3
C
3
, . . . (terms where C
r
= 0 are
usually omitted).
Example 4.12. Let = (1, 5, 7, 6, 2)(3, 8)(4) as in the previous example,
then has cycle type 1
1
, 2
1
, 5
1
.
4 CONJUGACY 19
Lemma 4.13. Permutations
1
,
2
S
n
are conjugate in S
n
if and only if

1
and
2
have the same cycle type.
Proof. (i) Supose
1
,
2
are conjugate, then
2
=

1
for some S
n
, and
as seen above
1
,

1
have exaclty the same cycle type.
(ii) Conversely, suppose
1
and
2
have the same cycle type, we can then
write

1
= (
1
, . . . ,
a
)(
1
, . . . ,
b
)(
1
, . . . ,
c
)

2
= (

1
, . . . ,

a
)(

1
, . . . ,

b
)(

1
, . . . ,

c
)
now dene S
n
by

i
,
j
,

j
,
k
,

k
, . . .
then
2
=

1
, and
1
and
2
are conjugate.
Example 4.14. In S
26
, the permutations:

1
= (1, 2, 3, 4)(10, 11, 12)(20, 21, 22, 25, 26)

2
= (17, 18, 19)(1, 7, 8, 25)(2, 4, 6, 9, 10)
both have cycle type 1
14
, 3
1
, 4
1
, 5
1
and are therefore conjugate.
Warning! Whilst two elements may be conjugates in S
n
, they may not be
conjugate when considered as elements of a subgroup (e.g.: A
n
), the following
example illustrates this.
Example 4.15. In S
4
clearly (1, 4)(2, 3) and (1, 3)(2, 4) are conjugate (as
they have the same cyclic type), by the method in the lemma we nd explic-
itly:
(1, 4)(2, 3)
(3,4)
= (1, 3)(2, 4)
But (3, 4) , A
4
so we cannot conclude that (1, 4)(2, 3) and (1, 3)(2, 4) are
conjugate in A
4
. However, we also have
(1, 4)(2, 3)
(1,2,3)
= (1, 3)(2, 4)
where here (1, 2, 3) = (1, 2)(1, 3) A
4
, so in fact they are conjugate in A
4
.
On the other hand, (1, 2, 3) and (1, 3, 2) are conjugate in S
4
, but in this
case no A
4
exists such that (1, 2, 3)

= (1, 3, 2), so they are not conjugate

in A
4
.
5 GROUP ACTIONS 20
5 Group Actions
Denition 5.1. Let G be a group and a nonempty set, we say that G
acts on if for each g G and there is a corresponding g (see
footnote
1
) such that
(A1) : g
1
, g
2
G : (g
1
g
2
) = ( g
1
) g
2
.
(A2) : 1 = .
we also say is a G-set to mean that G acts on .
Remark More formally, we have dened a map G given by
(g, ) g, which satises the given properties.
Example 5.2. Naturally permutations act on the set they are permuting.
Let G S
n
, then G acts on = 1, . . . , n by action g = where

g
(i.e.: the permutation g maps to ), for g G and , . The
properties are easily checked.
Example 5.3. Let G be a group, then G acts on itself = G by the action
g =
g
= g
1
g, i.e.: by conjugation.
Let , g
1
, g
2
G, then (recalling properties of conjugation)
(g
1
g
2
) =
g
1
g
2
= (
g
1
)
g
2
= ( g
1
)
g
2
= ( g
1
) g
2
and
1 =
1
=
so (A1) and (A2) are satised.
Example 5.4. Let G be a group and H G a subgroup. Let = Hx [
x G be the right cosets of H in G, then G acts on by (Hx) g = H(xg)
for all Hx , g G.
Let g
1
, g
2
G, Hx , then
(Hx g
1
) g
2
= H(xg
1
) g
2
= H((xg
1
)g
2
) = H(x(g
1
g
2
)) = Hx (g
1
g
2
)
where we have used associativity in H, so (A1) holds, and
Hx 1 = H(x1) = Hx
so (A2) holds, and this is indeed a group action.
In particular, if H = 1 is the trivial subgroup, then

= G and this
group action of G on is just the group product.
1
I am using to distinguish between the action and the group product (which will
remain juxtaposition of symbols) usually it is left to context to make clear which is
intended.
5 GROUP ACTIONS 21
Example 5.5. Let G be a group, p a prime and
= (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
p
) [ x
i
G and x
1
x
2
x
p
= 1
Let = (1, 2, . . . , p) S
p
.
For = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
p
) , dene
(x
1
, . . . , x
p1
, x
p
) = (x
1
, . . . , x
(p1)
, x
p
) = (x
2
, . . . , x
p
, x
1
)
in eect rotates the p-tuple to the left.
We can dene

n
=
acts n-times
..
(( ) )
then is a -set.
Example 5.6. Let G be a nite group, k N, and = X G [ [X[ = k
be all k-element subsets of G.
Given g G, X = g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
k
dene action Xg = g
1
g, g
2
g, . . . , g
k
g,
then is a G-set.
5 GROUP ACTIONS 22
5.1 G-orbits
Proposition 5.7. Suppose G is a group that acts of . Let , and
write if and only if g G : g = , this is an equivalence relation
on .
Proof. (i) Let , then 1 = by (A2) so .
(ii) Let , , suppose , then g = for some g G, hence,
g
1
= ( g) g
1
= (gg
1
) = 1 =
using (A1) then (A2), as g
1
G we conclude .
(iii) Let , , , suppose and , then g
1
= and g
2
=
for some g
1
, g
2
G, hence
(g
1
g
2
) = ( g
1
) g
2
= g
2
=
so .
Denition 5.8. The equivalence classes of are called the G-orbits. Let
, the G-orbit of containing is denoted by
G
.
Denition 5.9. Let G be a group and a G-set, for , dene
G

= g G [ g =
this is called the stabalizer in G of .
Lemma 5.10. Let G be a group and a G-set, let , then G

G.
Proof. Firstly, 1 = by (A1), so 1 G

and G

,= .
Suppose g, h G

, then
(gh
1
) = ( g) h
1
= ( h) h
1
= (hh
1
) = 1 =
using (A1), (A2) and the fact that g = = h, hence gh
1
G

Therefore G

G by the subgroup criterion.

Lemma 5.11. Let G be a nite group, a nite G-set, and a G-orbit of
, then
(i) : [[ = [
G
[ = [G : G

]
(ii) , : if g = , then (G

)
g
= G

.
5 GROUP ACTIONS 23
Proof. (i) Let g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
be a complete set of right coset representatives
for G

in G (where n = [G : G

]). By denition = g [ g G,
given g G we know g = hg
i
for some h G

and i 1, . . . , n, so
g = (hg
i
) = ( h) g
i
= g
i
therefore the action of G on is completely determined by the actions
of g
1
, . . . , g
n
, thus = g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
.
Suppose g
i
= g
j
, then
( g
i
) g
1
j
= ( g
j
) g
1
j
and
(g
i
g
1
j
) = (g
j
g
1
j
) = 1 =
hence g
i
g
1
j
G

and so g
i
and g
j
represent the same right coset of G

in G, so g
i
= g
j
by choice of these elements.
Therefore g
1
, g
2
, . . . , g
n
are distinct and [[ = n = [G : G

].
(ii) Let , , so g = for some g G.
Let x (G

)
g
, then x = g
1
hg for some h G

, then
x = ( g) (g
1
hg)
= (gg
1
hg)
= (hg)
= ( h) g
= g
=
using action properties, and h = since h G

. Thus, x G

and
so (G

)
g
G

.
Let x G

, then x = and (gx) = ( g) x = x = , so

(gxg
1
) = ( (gx)) g
1
= g
1
= ( g) g
1
=
hence h = gxg
1
G

, so y = g
1
hg (G

)
g
so, G

(G

)
g
and
G

= (G

)
g
as claimed.
5 GROUP ACTIONS 24
We summarize the properties of orbits weve seen above in the following
theorem.
Theorem 5.12. Let G be a nite group and a nite G-set.
(i) is a disjoint union of G-orbits =

m
i=1

i
.
(ii) : G

G.
(iii) If
i

i
(for i = 1, . . . , m), then [[ =

m
i=1
[
i
[ =

m
i=1
[G : G

I
].
(iv) [
i
[ divides [G[, for each i = 1, . . . , m.
Remark Recall, that we can dene a group to act on itself by conjugacy
(i.e.: , g G : g =
g
), then the G-orbit
G
is just the conjugacy
class of (also denoted
G
) and the stabalizer G

is just the centralizer of

in G (previously denoted C
G
()).
Thus, the class equation for conjugacy classes is a special case of the
above theorem for group actions.
5 GROUP ACTIONS 25
5.2 Cauchys Theorem
The following theorem is an application of group actions.
Theorem 5.13. Let p be a prime number and G a nite group, if p divides
[G[, then G has at least one element of order p.
Proof. Let = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
p
) [ x
i
G and x
1
x
2
x
p
= 1 and =
(1, 2, . . . , p) S
p
. Recall, from a previous example that acts on .
Write =

n
i=1

i
where
i
are the -orbits of . We know [
i
[
divides [[ for each i = 1, . . . , n and [[ = p. Therefore [
i
[ = 1 or p.
Suppose that [
i
[ = 1 for some 1 i n, so that
i
= for some
= (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
p
). As is the only element in its orbit, it follows that

m
= for all m Z that is:
(x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
p
) = (x
2
, x
3
, . . . , x
1
) = (x
3
, x
4
, . . . , x
2
)
2
=
and comparing elements of the p-tuple, we see that
x
1
= x
2
= = x
p1
= x
p
and so x
1
x
2
x
p
= x
p
1
= 1, hence x
1
G is an element of order 1 or p, if
x
1
,= 1, then we have our required element of order p.
Note
1
= (1, 1, , 1) is such a singleton -orbit and if there are no
other singleton orbits then [[ =

n
i=1
[
i
[ = 1 + (n 1)p.
But [[ = [G[
p1
because to satisfy x
1
x
2
x
p
= 1 we may choose
x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
p1
arbitarily (having [G[ choices for each), so x
p
= x
1
p1
x
1
1
is uniquely determined. Thus, since p divides [G[, we know p divides [[.
Contradicting [[ = 1 + (n 1)p, therefore there must exist another single-
ton orbit
j
= (x, x, . . . , x) for which x ,= 1, and x is then the required
element of order p.
5 GROUP ACTIONS 26
5.3 Burnsides Lemma
Denition 5.14. Let G be a group and a G-set, if is a G-orbit itself,
then we say G acts transitively on , i.e.: for any

G
= g [ g G =
since the G-orbits partiation (in this case, trivially, into just the set
itself).
Denition 5.15. Let G be a group and a G-set, for g G dene
x

(g) = [ g =
the set of elements xed by g under its action on .
Notice that x

(1) = for any action.

Theorem 5.16. Let G be a nite group and a nite G-set. If G has
t orbits on , then t =
1
|G|

gG
[ x

(g)[. In other words, the number of

orbits is equal to the average number of points xed by elements of G under
its action.
Proof. For the case t = 1, we have a single orbit so G acts transitively on ,
dene
S = (, g) G [ g =
we will count [S[ in two ways.
(i) Consider g G xed and let vary, then
(, g) S g = x

(g)
therefore, [S[ =

gG
[ x

(g)[.
(ii) Consider xed and let g G vary, then
(, g) S g = g G

therefore
[S[ =

[G

[ =

[G[
[G : G

]
=

[G[
[
G
[
=

[G[
[[
= [[
[G[
[[
= [G[
5 GROUP ACTIONS 27
Hence
[G[ = [S[ =

gG
[ x
G
(g)[
and
1
[G[

gG
[ x

(g)[ = 1 = t
as required.
Now in the general case (t 1) let
1
, . . . ,
t
be the G-orbits and observe
that if G acts on , then G also acts (transitively) on each orbit
i
considered
as its own set. So using the t = 1 case on each orbit and our knowledge that
is partitioned by these orbits, we have
1
[G[

gG
[ x

(g)[ =
t

i=1
1
[G[

g
i
[ x

i
(g)[ =
t

i=1
1 = t
as claimed.
6 FINITELY GENERATED ABELIAN GROUPS 28
6 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups
Denition 6.1. A group G is nitely generated (f.g.) if there exists a nite
subset S G such that S = G.
Lemma 6.2. Z
n
Z
m

= Z
nm
if and only if gcd(n, m) = 1.
Proof. () Suppose gcd(n, m) = 1, then if for some k N
(1, 1)
k
= (1 + 1 + + 1
. .
k-times in Z
n
, 1 + 1 + + 1
. .
k-times in Z
m
) = (0, 0)
then n[k and m[k, so k nm and as gcd(n, m) = 1, then nm[k. Also
(1, 1)
nm
= (0, 0).
Hence, the order of (1, 1) Z
n
Z
m
is nm and as Z
n
Z
m
contains
just nm elements it must be cyclic: Z
n
Z
m
= (1, 1), therefore
Z
n
Z
m

= Z
nm
(as cyclic groups of the same order are isomorphic).
() Suppose Z
n
Z
m

= Z
nm
and for contradiction d = gcd(n, m) > 1.
Write n = n

d and m = m

d (possible as d[n and d[m).

Let (x, y) Z
n
Z
m
be an arbitrary group element and observe
(x, y)
n

dm

= ( x + + x
. .
nm

-times in Z
n
, y + + y
. .
n

m-times in Z
m
) = (0, 0)
as n

dm

= nm

and n

dm

= n

m.
Hence, the order of (x, y) is at most n

dm

but n

dm

< n

ddm

= nm,
this is a contradiction since Z
n
Z
m

= Z
nm
must contain at least one
element of order nm (as it is a cyclic group).
6 FINITELY GENERATED ABELIAN GROUPS 29
6.1 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups
Example 6.3. Some examples of f.g. abelian groups:
(i) Any nite abelian group is a f.g. abelian group.
(ii) (Z, +) is a f.g. abelian group (generted by 1).
(iii) ZZ is a nitely generated abelian group (generated by (0, 1), (1, 0)).
6.1.1 Classication of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups
For abelian groups that are nitely generated, we have a complete classica-
tion as follows.
Theorem 6.4. Any nitely generated abelian group G is isomorphic to a
direct product of cyclic groups and can be written:
G

= Z
m
1
Z
m
2
Z
m
k
Z
s
for some m
i
, s N such that m
i
[m
i+1
for i = 1, . . . , k 1. (We call s the
rank of G and m
1
, . . . , m
k
the torsion coecients of G).
Proof. Extension material.
Corollary 6.5. Any nite abelian group is isomorphic to Z
m
1
Z
m
k
for some m
i
N such that m
i
[m
i+1
. (In this case, [G[ = m
1
m
2
m
k
).
Corollary 6.6. A nitely generated abelian group which has no elements of
nite order (except the identity) is isomorphic to Z
s
for some s N.
The following theorem tells us for any f.g. abelian group, its rank and
torsion coecients are uniquely determined.
Theorem 6.7. Suppose
G
1
= Z
m
1
Z
m
2
Z
m
k
Z
r
where m
i
[m
i+1
and
G
2
= Z
n
1
Z
n
2
Z
n
l
Z
s
where n
i
[n
i+1
then G
1

= G
2
if and only if k = l and m
i
= n
i
for i = 1, . . . , k and r = s.
Proof. Extension material.
6 FINITELY GENERATED ABELIAN GROUPS 30
Example 6.8. By the classication of f.g. abelian groups, there are only
two possibly abelian groups of order 12:
(i) G

= Z
12
, or
(ii) G

= Z
2
Z
6
.
Note that Z
3
Z
4
doesnt satisfy the conditions of the theorem (3 doesnt
divide 4) so doesnt give a third group (as gcd(3, 4) = 1, we see that in fact
Z
3
Z
4

= Z
12
).
Example 6.9. The group Z
6
Z
10
doesnt appear on our classiciation, but
Z
6
Z
10

= (Z
2
Z
5
) Z
10

= Z
2
(Z
3
Z
10
)

= Z
2
Z
30
which is of the required form.
Example 6.10. The abelian groups of order 24 are Z
24
, Z
2
Z
12
, and Z
2

Z
2
Z
6
. No two of which isomorphic.
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 31
7 Normal Subgroups
Denition 7.1. Suppose G is a group and N G is a subgroup, then N is
a normal subgroup if g G : N
g
= N.
We write N G to denote that N is a normal subgroup of G.
There are equivalent denitions given in the following lemma.
Lemma 7.2. Let G be a group and N G, then the following are equivalent:
(i) N G,
(ii) G = N
G
(N),
(iii) The conjugates of N in G are N,
(iv) g G, n N : g
1
ng N,
(v) g G : Ng = gN.
Remark Part (iv) says that N G is equivalent to N being the union of
conjugacy classes in G.
Example 7.3. Some normal subgroups include:
(i) For any group G, we have 1 G and GG.
(ii) If G is an abelian group, then all subgroups are normal.
(iii) More generally, if H G and H Z(G), then H is normal in G.
Lemma 7.4. If G is a group and H G and [G : H] = 2, then H G.
Proof. We verify property (v) of the above lemma. Let g G, then either
(i) g H, then Hg = H = gH simply because H is a group and closed
under its product, otherwise
(ii) g , H, so g GH. Now by hypothesis [G : H] = 2, meaning H
has precisely two right cosets in G, namely H and GH. Since g , H,
we know Hg = GH. But by the same argument, G has precisely the
same two left cosets and so GH = gH, therefore Hg = gH.
Either way, Hg = gH for all g G. Therefore H G.
Corollary 7.5. A
n
S
n
for all n 2.
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 32
7.1 Quotient Groups
Given a group G and a subgroup H G we can form a set of right cosets
Hg [ g G. Furthermore, when H G is a normal subgroup, we can
dene a product of two cosets:
Let g, h G, then
(Ng)(Nh) = n
1
gn
2
h [ n
1
, n
2
N
= N(gN)h
= N(Ng)h
= N(gh)
making use of the fact that Ng = gN, since N G.
Denition 7.6. Let G be a group and N G be a normal subgroup, then
G/N = Ng [ g G is a group whose product is dened to be
(Ng
1
)(Ng
2
) = N(g
1
g
2
)
then, G/N is called the qoutient group of G by N.
Notation If G is a group and N G, we may sometimes write Ng = g as
a shorthand.
Lemma 7.7. G/N as dened above is actually a group.
Proof. Suppose G is a group and N G.
(G1) We must show that the product is a well-dened operation (since it is
dened in terms of a choice of coset representative, we must show that
it is actually independent of this choice).
Let g
1
, g
2
, h
1
, h
2
G such that Ng
1
= Ng
2
and Nh
1
= Nh
2
, then
N(g
1
h
1
) = (Ng
1
)(Nh
1
) = (Ng
2
)(Nh
2
) = N(g
2
h
2
)
as required.
(G2) Let x, y, z G, then
[(Nx)(Ny)](Nz) = N(xy)N(z)
= N((xy)z)
= N(x(yz))
= N(x)N(yz)
= N(x)[N(y)N(z)]
using the associativity of G.
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 33
(G3) The element N = N1 is the identity element.
(N1)(Ng) = N(1g) = Ng = N(g1) = (Ng)(N1)
for all g G.
(G4) Given Ng its inverse is (Ng)
1
= N(g
1
) since
(Ng)(Ng
1
) = N(gg
1
) = N1 = N(g
1
g) = (Ng
1
)(Ng)
for each g G.
We have veried all the group axioms, therefore G/N is a group.
Remarks
(i) The elements of the group G/N are right cosets of N in G.
(ii) 1 = N is the identity of the group.
(iii) For all right cosets g G/N we have (g)
1
= (g
1
).
(iv) If G is nite, then [G/N[ = [G : N] = [G[/[N[.
(v) let g G/N, then (g)
n
= (g
n
) so (g)
n
= 1 if and only if g
n
N, hence
the order of g is the smallest n such that g
n
N.
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 34
The following two lemmas use quotient groups to establish information
about the group.
Lemma 7.8. Let G be a group, if G/Z(G) is cyclic, then G is abelian.
Proof. Suppose G/Z(G) is cyclic, then there exists x G/Z(G) such that
G/Z(G) = x = x
n
[ n Z.
Since x
n
= x
n
, this means every right coset of Z(G) is of the form Z(G)x
n
for some n Z.
Let g, h G, then g = z
1
x
i
and h = z
2
x
j
for some z
1
, z
2
Z(G) and
i, j Z, hence
gh = z
1
x
i
z
2
x
h
= z
1
z
2
x
i
x
j
= z
1
z
2
x
i+j
= z
2
x
j
z
1
x
i
= hg
using the fact that elements in Z(G) commute with those in G, therefore G
is an abelian group.
Lemma 7.9. If G is a group and [G[ = p
2
(where p is prime), then G is
abelian (and hence G

= Z
p
Z
p
or G

= Z
p
2).
Proof. Since G is a p-group and G ,= 1, by lemma 4.8 we know that
Z(G) ,= 1, hence [Z(G)[ = p or p
2
by Lagranges theorem.
Suppose [Z(G)[ = p, then [G/Z(G)[ = [G : Z(G)] = p
2
/p = p. Hence
G/Z(G)

= Z
p
and in particular is cyclic. So by lemma 7.8 above, G is
abelian. This implies Z(G) = G and [Z(G)[ = [G[ = p
2
, a contradiction.
Therefore, [Z(G)[ = p
2
and Z(G) = G (this time without a contradic-
tion!) and hence G is abelian.
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 35
7.1.1 Subgroups of Quotient Groups
Lemma 7.10. Let G be a group and N G be a normal subgroup. All sub-
groups of G/N are of the form H/N where N H G and vice versa. That
is, there is a one-to-one correspondence between subgroups of the quotient
group G/N and subgroups of G containing N.
Proof. (i) Assume K G/N and set
H =
_
xK
x G
Note 1 K and so 1 = N H and H ,= .
We show H G, let x, y H, so that x, y K. Since K G/N,
xy
1
= x(y)
1
K and hence xy
1
H. Therefore, H G by the
subgroup criterion. Moreover, N H G as N H and N G.
(ii) Conversely, assume H G with N H, it follows easily that N H.
We know that since H G, that H/N G/N, we show this is actually
a subgroup.
Firstly, 1 H/N, so H/N ,= .
Let x, y H/N, then x(y)
1
= xy

1 H/N if and only if xy

1
H,
this holds since H is a group and x, y H. Therefore, H/N G/N by
the subgroup criterion.
Remark We can extend this theorem so show that H/N is normal in G/N
if and only if H is normal in G.
Knowing the subgroups of G/N gives us all the subgroups of G containing
N and vice versa.
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 36
7.2 Homomorphisms
Denition 7.11. Let G and K be groups, a map : G K is a homomor-
phism from G to K provided
g
1
, g
2
G : (g
1
g
2
) = (g
1
)(g
2
)
we will write
G = im() = g [ g G K
for the image of , and
ker() = g G [ g = 1
K
K G
for the kernal of .
Lemma 7.12. Let : G K be a group homomorphism, then
(i) g G : (g
1
) = (g)
1
,
(ii) 1
G
= 1
K
,
(iii) ker() G,
(iv) G K.
Proof. All four properties are easily checked.
Example 7.13. These are numerous examples of group homomorphims.
(i) Let G be any group and NG a normal subgroup, dene : G G/N
by g g, then is a homomorphism (the natural homomorphism from
G to G/N). Note, ker() = N and G = G/N.
(ii) Let G = GL(n, F) where n N and F is any eld, let K = (F0,
F
)
be the group of units in F under eld multiplication, dene : G K
by g = det(g), then is a homomorphism. Note, ker() = SL(n, F)
GL(n, F) and G = K.
(iii) Let G be a group and H G a subgroup. Suppose [G : H] = n, let
= Hx [ x G be the set of right cosets of H in G (note isnt
necessarily a group as H isnt assumed to be a normal subgroup of G).
For each g , dene a map
g
: by (Hx)
g
= H(xg). Note
that
g
is a permutation of , as follows:
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 37
Suppose (Hx)
g
= (Hy)
g
, then H(xg) = H(yg) and (xg)(yg)
1
=
xy
1
H, hence Hx = Hy, i.e.: is injective. Since [[ = n is nite,

g
is therefore a bijectiion , i.e.: a permutation of .
We now dene : G Sym() by g
g
, then:
Let g
1
, g
2
G, then (g
1
g
2
) =
g
1
g
2
whereas (g
1
)(g
2
) =
g
1

g
2
,
these maps are equal as given x = Hx
x
g
1
g
2
= x(g
1
g
2
) = (xg
1
)g
2
= xg
1

g
2
= (x
g
1
)
g
2
= x
g
1

g
2
therefore : G Sym() is a homomorphism.
We have
ker() = g G [ g =
g
= 1
Sym()

= g G [ x G : H(xg) = Hx
= g G [ x G : xgx
1
H
= g G [ x G : g H
x

xG
H
x
= core
G
(H)
we dene core
G
(H) to be the core of H in G it is the intersection of
all the conjugates of H in G.
All we can say in general about G is that G Sym().
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 38
7.2.1 Isomorphism Theorems
Theorem 7.14 (1
st
Isomorphism Theorem).
Let : G K be a group homomorphism, then G/ ker()

= G.
Theorem 7.15 (2
nd
Isomorphism Theorem).
Let G be a group and N, MG be normal subgroups such that N M G,
then
(G/N)/(M/N)

= G/M
Proof. Firstly, N G and N M, so N M and M/N is dened.
For g G, let g = Ng and g = Mg be shorthand notation of cosets of N
and M respectively.
Dene : G/N G/M by g = g.
Suppose g =

h, then gh
1
N so gh
1
M since N M, hence
g = g =

h =

h and so is well-dened.
Moreover, let g
1
, g
2
G, then
( g
1
g
2
) = ( g
1
g
2
) = g
1
g
2
= g
1
g
2
= ( g
1
)( g
2
)
and so is a homomorphism.
We see that
ker() = g G/N [ g = M
= Ng [ Mg = M
= Ng [ g M
= M/N
Finally, is surjective, given g G/M it is easily veried that g = g for
g G/N.
Therefore, by the rst isomorphism theorem
(G/N)/(M/N) = (G/N)/ ker()

= (G/N) = G/M
as claimed.
7 NORMAL SUBGROUPS 39
Theorem 7.16 (3
rd
Isomorphism Theorem).
Let G be a group, H G and N G, then HN/N

= H/(H N).
Proof. Dene : H G/N by h = x, then is a homomorphism, for let
h
1
, h
2
H, then
(h
1
h
2
) = h
1
h
2
= h
1
h
2
= (h
1
)(h
2
)
as required.
Now
ker() = h H [ h = N = h H [ h N = H N
and
H = h [ h H = Nh [ h H = NH/H
therefore, by the rst isomorphism theorem
H/(H N) = H/ ker()

= H = NH/H
as claimed.
8 SIMPLE GROUPS 40
8 Simple Groups
Denition 8.1. A group G is a simple group if G ,= 1 and the only normal
subgroups of G are 1 and G itself.
Example 8.2. Some simple groups include:
(i) Let p be prime, then Z
p
is simple.
(ii) Let n 5, then A
n
is simple (we wil prove the n = 5 case below).
(iii) Let G = SL(n, p), for n N, p prime. Then G/Z(G) is simple provided
(n, p) ,= (2, 2), (2, 3).
We will now prove that A
5
is a simple group. The folllowing lemmas will
be useful.
Lemma 8.3. Let G be a group and N G a normal subgroup, for g G
and n N, then [n, g] = n
1
g
1
ng N.
Proof. N G so g
1
ng N, now as n
1
N, then [n, g] = n
1
g
1
ng N
also.
Lemma 8.4. Let n 3, then every element of A
n
can be written as a product
of 3-cycles (i.e.: 3-cycles generate A
n
).
Proof. Consider two transpositions (, ), (, ) A
n
, then either
(i) (, )(, ) = (1), if , = , , or
(ii) (, )(, ) = (, , ), if = and ,= , else
(iii) (, )(, ) = (, )(, )(, )(, ) = (, , )(, , )
exactly one of the preceeding statements hold, but in any case we see that
the product of two transpositions is either the identity (1) or a product of
three cycles.
Let A
n
, then =
1

2

k
for k transpositions
i
, where k is even.
Hence, = (
1

2
)(
2

4
) (
k1

k
) and by the above consideration, we can
write as a product of 3-cycles.
8 SIMPLE GROUPS 41
Lemma 8.5. Let n 5, then the 3-cycles are all conjugate in A
n
.
Proof. Firstly, 3-cycles are all conjugate in S
n
since they have the same
cycle type.
Let = (
1
,
2
,
3
) and = (
1
,
2
,
3
) be arbitrary 3-cycles in A
n
, then
there exists g S
n
such that
g
= .
Since n 5, we can choose
4
,
5

1
,
2
,
3
, set = (
4
,
5
), note
commutes with , so

g
= (g)
1
g = g
1

1
g = g
1
g =
g
Since is a transposition, either g or g is even, therefore and are
conjugate in A
n
.
Proposition 8.6. A
5
is simple.
Proof. Suppose N A
5
and N ,= 1, let N and ,= (1), then the cycle
type of is one of the following: (i) 1
1
, 2
2
, (ii) 1
2
, 3
1
, or (iii) 5
1
(since no
other cycle type will given an even permutation).
Write = , , , , , we consider the three cases seperately.
(i) Write = (, )(, ), let = (, , ), then [, ] = (, , ) N.
(ii) Write = (, , ).
(iii) Write = (, , , , ), let = (, , ), then [, ] = (, , ) N.
In any case, N must contain at least one three cycle, say . Any other 3-
cycle, say A
5
, is conjugate to by lemma 8.5. Since N is a normal
subgroup of A
5
, then N.
Therefore, N contains all 3-cycles and therefore N = A
5
by lemma 8.4.
8 SIMPLE GROUPS 42
8.1 Composition Series
Denition 8.7. Let G be a group, if we have subgroups G
1
, G
2
, . . . , G
n
G
such that
(i) GG
1
G
2
G
n
= 1, and
(ii) G/G
1
, G
1
/G
2
, . . . , G
n1
/G
n
are all simple groups,
then we call G, G
1
, G
2
, . . . , G
n
a composition series for G and G
i
/G
i+1
the
composition factors.
Denition 8.8. Let G be a group, then K is a maximal normal subgroup
of G if K G (K ,= G) and if N G with K N, then either N = K or
N = G.
Four useful results
(A) K is a maximal normal subgroup of G if and only if G/K is simple.
(B) If N
1
, N
2
G, then N
1
N
2
G.
(C) If N
1
, N
2
G, then N
1
N
2
G.
(D) If N G, H G, then HN/N

= H/(H N).
We will make use of these in the following theorems.
Lemma 8.9. Any nite group, except 1, has at least one composition
series.
Proof. Let G be a nite group, we will prove by induction on [G[.
When G = Z
2
(the only group of order 2, up to isomorphism), then G is
itself simple so G1 is a composition series for G.
In the general case, let K be a maximal normal subgroup of G (which must
exist as G is nite), by (A) we know G/K is simple and GK. If K = 1,
then we have a composition series G1, otherwise by induction K has a
composition series K K
1
K
n
= 1, hence GK K
1
K
n
,
is a composition series of G.
8 SIMPLE GROUPS 43
8.1.1 The Jordan-Holder Theorem
Theorem 8.10. Let G be a nite group (G ,= 1), suppose
GH
1
H
2
H
r
= 1
and
GK
1
K
2
K
s
= 1
are two composition series for G, then
(i) r = s, and
(ii) the two series of r factor groups G/H
1
, . . . , H
r1
/H
r
and G/K
1
, . . . , K
r1
/K
r
are equal up to isomorphism and multiplicities.
Proof. We will say two such composition series are equivalent if they satisfy
properties (i) and (ii) of the theorem (note this is an equivalence relation).
If H
1
= 1, then G

= G/H
1
and so G is simple and has exactly one
composition series (namely G 1) and any two given composition series
must therefore be equivalent. For induction on [G[ this covers the base case
G = Z
2
.
Otherwise, we may suppose H
1
,= 1 and K
1
,= 1. There are two
possibilities:
(i) If H
1
= K
1
, then
H
1
H
2
H
r
= 1
and
H
1
K
2
K
s
= 1
are two composition series for H
1
, so by induction they are equivalent.
Hence, the original composition series for G are equivalent also.
(ii) If H
1
,= K
1
, then H
1
K
1
G by (B), we cannot have both H
1
= H
1
K
1
and K
1
= H
1
K
1
, so without loss of generality suppose H
1
,= H
1
K
1
,
then H
1
H
1
K
1
is a proper subgroup. Since G/H
1
is simple, H
1
is a
maximal normal subgroup of G by (A), therefore it must be the case
that H
1
K
1
= G.
Consider G/K
1
= H
1
K
1
/K
1

= H
1
/(H
1
K
1
) by (D), let L = H
1
K
1
.
If L = 1, do nothing, else choose a composition series for L (existing
by lemma 8.9), say L L
1
L
t
= 1.
8 SIMPLE GROUPS 44
We now have four composition series for G, as follows
(1) : GH
1
H
2
H
r
= 1
(2) : GK
1
K
2
K
s
= 1
(3) : GH
1
L L
1
L
t
= 1
(4) : GK
1
L L
2
L
t
= 1
For compositions series (1) and (3) we may apply case (i) and conclude
they are equivalent. Similarly, (2) and (4) are equivalent.
Since G/H
1
= H
1
K
1
/H
1

= K
1
/(H
1
K
1
) = K
1
/L and similarly
G/K
1

= H
1
/L, we may conclude composition series (3) and (4) are
equivalent.
Therefore, composition series (1) and (2) are equivalent, as claimed.
Example 8.11. Some composition series.
(i) If G is a simple group, then G G
1
= 1 is a composition series for
G. We have a single composition factor G/G
1

= G.
(ii) For G = Z
6
we know G = g for some g G with order 6 (as G is
cyclic). We can give two composition series:
GG
1
G
2
where G
1
= g
2
, G
2
= 1
GH
1
H
2
where G
1
= g
3
, G
2
= 1
We have composition factors G/G
1

= Z
2
and G
1
/G
2

= Z
3
(as [G[ = 6
and [G
1
[ = 3), similarly G/H
1

= Z
3
and H
1
/H
2

= Z
2
(as H
1
= 2).
Note that the composition factors are equal (but in dierent order) in
accordance with the Jordan-H older theorem.
(iii) For G = S
4
we have composition series GG
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
= 1,
where G
1
= A
4
, G
2
= (1), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), and G
3
=
(1), (12)(34). and composition factors G/G
2

= Z
2
, G
1
/G
2

= Z
3
,
G
2
/G
3

= Z
2
, and G
3
/G
4

= Z
2
.
9 SYLOWS THEOREMS 45
9 Sylows Theorems
Theorem 9.1. If G is a nite group and p prime, write [G[ = p
r
m where
p m and r N 0, then
(i) G has at least one subgroup P of order p
r
,
(ii) The subgroups of G of order p
r
form a conjugacy class in G (these Sylow
p-subgroups are all conjugate to each other),
(iii) If X is a p-subgroup of G, then g G : X P
g
,
(iv) If n is a number of subgroups of G with order p
r
, then n [ m and
n 1 (mod p) (i.e.: p [ (n 1)).
Proof. By induction on [G[ we prove (i) as follows.
Let p be a prime and write [G[ = p
r
m where p m.
If p [G[, then r = 0 and p
r
= 1. In which case P = 1 is the required
subgroup in particular, this deals with the case [G[ = 1.
If p [ [G[, then suppose there exists a subgroup H G such that
p
r
[ [H[, then [H[ = p
r
m

where p m

so by induction H contains at
least one subgroup P of order p
r
, in which case P G is the required
subgroup.
Otherwise, for all H G we have p
r
[H[ and by Lagranges theorem
[G[ = [H[[G : H] so p [ [G : H].
If Z(G) = G, then p [ [Z(G)[ simply because p [ [G[. Otherwise, choose
g GZ(G), then C
G
(g) G so p [ [G : C
G
(g)] = [g
G
[. Hence, by the
class equation [Z(G)[ = [G[

k
i=l
n
i
, we see p [ [Z(G)[.
Therefore, p [ [Z(G)[ and by Cauchys theorem Z(G) must have an
element x Z(G) of order p (see theorem 5.13). Let X = x, then
[X[ = p and X Z(G) G. Moreover X G so consider G/X. We
have [G/X[ = [G[/[X[ = p
r
m/p = p
r1
m, thus by induction [G/X[
has at least one subgroup K of order p
r1
. Hence K = P/X for some
X P G (see lemma 7.10) where [P[ = [P : X][X[ = [P/X[[X[ =
p
r1
p = p
r
, therefore P G is the required subgroup.
9 SYLOWS THEOREMS 46
Remarks
(i) For a group G and p prime Syl
p
(G) denotes the set of Sylow p-subgroups
of G (i.e.: P Syl
p
(G) means P G and [P[ = p
r
where [G[ = p
r
m
such that p m).
(ii) The number of Sylow p-subgroups will be denoted n
p
= [ Syl
p
(G)[.
(iii) For any P Syl
p
(G) it follows from (ii) in Sylows theorem (9.1) that
Syl
p
(G) = P
g
[ g G. Recall, the number of distinct conjugates of
P in G is n
p
= [ Syl
p
(G)[ = [G : N
G
(P)].
Useful results The following things to remember will be used in succeed-
ing lemmas:
(A) If P Syl
p
(G), then P G if and only if n
p
= 1.
Proof. As n
p
= [G : N
G
(P)], then n
p
= 1 if and only if N
G
(P) = G if
and only if P G.
(B) If [G[ = p
r
m with p m, then n
p
[ m and n
p
1 (mod p).
(C) If P Syl
p
(G) and Q Syl
q
(G) where p, q are distinct primes, then
P Q = 1.
Proof. As P Q g and P Q P, then [P Q[ [ [P[ by Lagranges
theorem (1.3), similarly [P Q[ [ [Q[. As [P[ = p
r
and [Q[ = q
s
for some
r, s N 0 and p ,= q, it can only be the case that [P Q[ = 1 and
therefore P Q = 1.
Theorem 9.2. If [G[ = pq where p, q are distinct primes and p (q 1),
then G has a normal Sylow p-subgroup.
Proof. Using (B) we know n
p
[ q so n
p
= 1 or n
p
= q (as q is prime). Suppose
n
p
= q, we also know n
p
1 (mod p), so n
p
= 1 0 (mod p), i.e. p [ (n
p
1),
but n
p
1 = q 1 contradicting our hypothesis. Therefore n
p
= 1 and the
theorem follows by (A).
9 SYLOWS THEOREMS 47
Corollary 9.3. If [G[ = pq where p, q are distinct primes such that p < q
and p (q 1), then G is cyclic.
Proof. Let P Syl
p
(G) and Q Syl
q
(G), by the above theorem P G.
Since p q we also know q (p 1), so similarly QG. Since [P[ = p and
[Q[ = q are both prime, then P

= Z
p
and Q

= Z
q
are cyclic.
Let P = x and Q = y (where x has order p and y has order q). By
lemma 8.3, [x, y] P Q = 1, hence xy = yx and it follows that xy has
order pq and therefore G = xy is cyclic.
Example 9.4. A group of order 15 is cyclic.
9.1 Simple Groups and Sylows Theorems
Lemma 9.5. No simple groups exist of orders (i) 200, or (ii) 30.
Proof. (i) Suppose [G[ = 200 = 2
3
5
2
.
For p = 5, by Sylows theorems 9.1, we know n
5
[ 2
3
so n
5
1, 2, 4, 8
but also n
5
= 1 (mod 5) so n
5
1, 6, 11, . . .. Therefore, it can only be
the case that n
5
= 1. So there exists P Syl
5
(G) such that [P[ = 5
2
and P G, therefore G is not simple.
(ii) Suppose [G[ = 30 = 2 3 5.
Assume G is simple, then n
3
> 1 and n
5
> 1.
By Sylows theorems 9.1, we know n
3
[ 10 so n
3
1, 2, 5, 10 and
n
3
1 (mod 3) so n
3
1, 4, 7, 10, . . ., therefore n
3
= 10. Similarly
n
5
[ 6 so n
3
1, 6 and n
5
1 (mod 5) so n
3
1, 6, 11, . . ., therefore
n
5
= 5.
Let P
1
, P
2
Syl
3
(G) and P
1
,= P
2
, so [P
1
[ = [P
2
[ = 3. By Lagranges
theorem 1.3, [P
1
P
2
[ [ [P
1
[, so necessarily P
1
P
2
= 1. So the
number of elements (excluding 1) contained in the Sylow 3-subgroups
of G is 2 n
2
= 20.
Similarly, the number of elements (excluding 1) contained in the Sylow
5-subgroups of G is 4 n
5
= 24.
By (C) we are assured we have counted 44 distinct elements in G, a
contradiction. Therefore G cannot be simple.
9 SYLOWS THEOREMS 48
Theorem 9.6. If [G[ = pqr where p, q, and r are distinct primes, then G is
not simple.
Proof. Suppose G is simple, then n
p
> 1, n
q
> 1, and n
r
> 1. As in the
previous lemma 9.5, we count the number of elements contained in Sylow p-
subgroups (respectively q-subgroups, r-subgroups) of G, there are n
p
(p 1)
(respectively n
q
(q 1), n
r
(r 1)) excluding 1
G
in each case (and we are
assured we have not double counted), hence
[G[ 1 + n
p
(p 1) + n
q
(q 1) + n
r
(r 1) (1)
Without loss of generality assume p > q > r, then
(1) n
p
[ qr so n
p
q, r, qr; n
p
1 (mod p) so n
p
1 +p > q, r, so n
p
= qr.
(2) n
q
[ pr so n
q
p, r, pr; n
q
1 (mod q) so n
q
1 + q > r, so n
q
p.
(3) n
r
[ pq so n
r
p, q, pq, so n
r
q.
hence, substituting into equation (1), we have
pqr 1 + qr(p 1) + p(q 1) + q(r 1)
rearranging implies
0 1 + pq p q = (p 1)(q 1) (2 1)(2 1) = 1
a contradiction therefore G cannot be simple.
10 EXTENSION MATERIAL 49
10 Extension Material
10.1 Commutator Subgroups
Denition 10.1. Let G be a group and x, y G, dene
[x, y] = x
1
y
1
xy
to be the commutator of x and y.
Let H, K G be two subgroups, then the commutator subgroup is dened
to be
[H, K] = [h, k] [ h H, k K
For a group G its derived group is G

= [G, G].
Properties of Conjugation
(i) (xy)
g
= x
g
y
g
,
(ii) x
gh
= (x
h
)
g
,
(iii) (x
1
)
g
= (x
g
)
1
.
Properties of Commutators
(i) [x, y]
z
= [x
z
, y
z
],
(ii) [xy, z] = [x, z]
y
[y, z],
(iii) [x, yz] = [x, z][x, y]
z
,
(iv) [h, k]
1
= [k, h].
Lemma 10.2. For subgroups H, K G, then [H, K] = [K, H].
Proof. Let [h, k] [H, K], then [h, k] = [k, h]
1
. Since [k, h] [K, H], we
have [h, k] = [k, h]
1
[K, H]. Hence, the generators of [H, K] all lie in
[K, H], it follows that [H, K] [K, H]. A similar argument shows that
[K, H] [H, K], therefore [H, K] = [K, H].
10 EXTENSION MATERIAL 50
Lemma 10.3. For subgroups H, K G, then [H, K] H, K.
Proof. Let x [H, K], then x can be written x = [h
1
, k
1
][h
2
, k
2
] [h
n
, k
n
]
for some [h
i
, k
i
] [H, K], because we can write any [h
j
, k
j
]
1
= [k
j
, h
j
] in
the form [h

j
, k

j
], as [H, K] = [K, H].
Hence, for any h H, we have
[h
i
, k
i
]
h
= h
1
(h
1
i
k
1
i
h
i
k
i
)h
= h
1
h
1
i
k
1
i
h
i
(hk
i
(hk
i
)
1
)k
i
h
= [h
i
h, k
i
][k
i
, h]
= [h
i
h, k
i
][h, k
i
]
1
[H, K]
Therefore
x
h
= ([h
1
, k
1
] [h
n
, k
n
])
h
= [h
1
, k
1
]
h
[h
n
, k
n
]
h
[H, K]
So [H, K] is closed under conjugation by H.
By a similar argument, we can show [H, K] = [K, H] is closed under
conjugation by K.
Therefore, [H, K] H, K as claimed.
Theorem 10.4. If G = AB where A, B G are abelian subgroups, then
G

= 1 (meaning G

is an abelian subgroup of G).

Proof. Observe that [A, B] A, B, now G = AB so G = A, B, hence
[A, B] G.
We show G

= [A, B]. Certainly [A, B] [G, G] = G

, so suppose [g, h]
[G, G], as g, h G = AB we can write g = a
1
b
1
, h = a
2
b
2
for some a
1
, a
2
A,
b
1
, b
2
B, thus using the properties of conjugation and commutators
[g, h] = [a
1
b
1
, a
2
b
2
]
= [a
1
, a
2
b
2
]
b
1
[b
1
, a
2
b
2
]
= ([a
1
, b
2
][a
1
, a
2
]
b
2
)
b
1
[b
1
, b
2
][b
1
, a
2
]
b
2
= [a
1
, b
2
]
b
1
([a
2
, b
1
]
1
)
b
2
[A, B]
using the fact that A, B are abelian so [a
1
, a
2
] = [b
1
, b
2
] = 1, and that [A, B]
A, B. Therefore [G, G] [A, B]. We have shown G

= [A, B] and so G

G.
Let a
1
, a
2
A and b
1
, b
2
B. As AB = G certainly AB G so
AB = BA, thus we can write b
a
1
1
= a
3
b
3
and a
b
2
1
= b
4
a
4
for some a
3
, a
4
A
10 EXTENSION MATERIAL 51
and b
3
, b
4
B, thus
[a
1
, b
1
]
a
2
b
2
= [a
a
2
1
, b
a
2
1
]
b
2
= [a
1
, a
3
b
3
]
b
2
= ([a
1
, b
3
][a
1
, a
3
]
b
3
)
b
2
= [a
1
, b
3
]
b
2
= [a
b
2
1
, b
b
2
3
]
= [b
4
a
4
, b
3
]
= [b
4
, b
3
]
a
4
[a
4
, b
3
]
= [a
4
, b
3
]
Similarly, [a
1
, b
1
]
b
2
a
2
= [a
4
, b
3
], thus [a
1
, b
1
]
a
2
b
2
= [a
1
, b
1
]
b
2
a
2
, therefore
[a
1
, b
1
]
a
2
b
2
a
1
2
b
1
2
= 1
Meaning [a
2
, b
2
] = a
2
b
2
a
1
2
b
1
2
commutes with [a
1
, b
1
].
Given [
1
,
1
], [
2
,
2
], by taking a
1
=
1
, b
1
=
1
, a
2
=
1
2
and b
2
=

1
2
gives that [
1
,
1
] and [
2
,
2
] commutes. Since all such commutators
generate [A, B], it follows that G

= [A, B] is abelian. Therefore G

= 1.
10 EXTENSION MATERIAL 52
10.2 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups
We will prove the classication theorem for nitely generated abelian groups.
Lemma 10.5. Let q N, then the number of solutions to x
q
= 1 in Z
m
is
gcd(m, q).
Proof. In the context of Z
m
we have x
q
= 1 if and only if qx 0 (mod m) if
and only if m [ qx.
Hence, we nd how many integers r satisfy 0 r < m and m [ qr.
Let d = gcd(m, q) and write m = m

d and q = q

d, then gcd(m

, q

) = 1.
If m [ qr, then m

d [ q

dr, hence m

[ q

r, so m

[ r as gcd(m

, q

) = 1.
Therefore r is one of 0, m

, 2m

, . . . , (d 1)m

.
Conversely, each such r satises 0 r < m and m [ qr.
Thus, there are d choices for r, and therefore d = gcd(m, q) solutions.
Corollary 10.6. Let q N, then the number of solutions to x
q
= 1 in
H = Z
m
1
Z
m
2
Z
m
k
is gcd(m
1
, q) gcd(m
2
, q) gcd(m
k
, q).
Proof. Let x = (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
k
), then x
q
= 1 if and only if a
q
i
= 1 for all
i = 1, . . . , k.
By the previous lemma, there are gcd(m
i
, q) solutions to a
q
i
= 1 in Z
m
i
for each i = 1, . . . , k.
Therefore, there are gcd(m
1
, q) gcd(m
2
, q) gcd(m
k
, q) possibilities for
x, all solutions.
Theorem 10.7. Let G
1
= Z
m
1
Z
m
r
with m
i
[ m
i+1
(for i = 1, . . . , r1)
and G
2
= Z
n
1
Z
n
s
with n
i
[ n
i+1
(for i = 1, . . . , s 1), then G
1

= G
2
if and only if r = s and m
i
= n
i
(for i = 1, . . . , r).
Proof. Suppose G
1

= G
2
(the converse is trivial), then the number of solu-
tions to x
q
= 1 must the the same in G
1
and G
2
for all q N Without loss
of generality suppose r s.
Set q = m
1
, then we have
gcd(m
1
, m
1
) gcd(m
1
, m
r
) = gcd(m
1
, n
1
) gcd(m
1
, n
s
)
The left-hand side is m
r
1
as gcd(m
1
, m
1
) = m
1
and m
1
[ m
i
for i = 1, . . . , r,
whereas the right-hand side is at most m
s
1
. Hence, m
r
1
m
s
1
, but r s so
m
r
1
m
s
1
, therefore m
r
= m
s
and r = s.
Furthermore, as the right-hand side must then attain its maximum value
we must have gcd(m
1
, n
1
) = m
1
, thus m
1
[ n
1
.
Similarly, setting q = n
1
tells us n
1
[ m
1
, hence m
1
= n
1
.
10 EXTENSION MATERIAL 53
For induction assume m
i
= n
i
for i = 1, . . . , k1 (k < r). Setting q = m
k
gives
gcd(m
1
, m
k
) gcd(m
k1
, m
k
) gcd(m
k
, m
k
) gcd(m
k+1
, m
k
) gcd(m
r
, m
k
)
is equal to
gcd(n
1
, m
k
) gcd(n
k1
, m
k
) gcd(n
k
, m
k
) gcd(n
k+1
, m
k
) gcd(n
r
, m
k
)
We may cancel the rst k 1 factors as n
i
= m
i
for i = 1, . . . , k 1, giving
gcd(m
k
, m
k
) gcd(m
r
, m
k
) = gcd(n
k
, m
k
) gcd(n
r
, m
k
)
Now the left-hand side is exactly m
r(k1)
k
and the right-hand side is at most
m
r(k1)
k
, attaining this maximum only when n
k
= m
k
. As we know equality
holds, we can conclude n
k
= m
k
.
10 EXTENSION MATERIAL 54
10.3 A
n
is simple for n 5
Theorem 10.8. For n 5, the alternating group A
n
is simple.
Proof. We have seen that A
5
is simple, this is a base for our inductive proof.
Suppose n 6 and A
n1
is simple, and let G = A
n
and 1 ,= N G be a
normal subgroup.
Since N ,= 1, there exists a permutation N with ,= (1). Write
= (a, b, . . . , c)(. . .) as a product of disjoint cycles. Consider the cycle

1
= (a, b, . . . , c), the rst cycle of of length at least 2 (we may have b = c).
If
1
has length is greater than 3 choose d in this cycle with d , a, b, c,
otherwise choose d in one of the other cycles (such at d must exist as n 6),
then d = e for some e and in particular e ,= a.
Let = (a, b, d) G, then [, ] =
1

N as N G, now
[, ] = (
1
)

= (a, d, b)(a, d, b) = (b, e, ?)(a, d, b)

First [, ] ,= (1) as e ,= a, and secondly [, ] is a product of 3 cycles which
share a common point b, therefore [, ] can move at most 5 points. As n 6,
then [, ] must have a xed point . Hence [, ] G

.
Therefore [, ] G

N, hence G

N ,= 1. As N G it follows that
G

N G

, but G

= A
n1
which is simple by our induction hypothesis.
Thus G

= G

N N.
It follows that G

contains a 3-cycle, as N is normal in A

n
it must there-
fore contain all 3-cycles (they are conjugate in A
n
for n 5), therefore
N = G (as 3-cycles generate A
n
for n 3) and G = A
n
must be simple.
10 EXTENSION MATERIAL 55
10.4 The unique simple group of order 60
Theorem 10.9. If G is a simple group of order 60, then G

= A
5
.
Proof. Let G be a simple group of order 60, we rst show that G must contain
a subgroup of index 5.
If H G and [G : H] = n > 1, then we know [G[ [ n!, as [G[ = 60 it is
necessary that n 5 (as 60 2!, 60 3! and 60 4!).
Suppose for contradiction that G does not contain a subgroup of index 5.
As [G[ = 60 = 2
2
3 5, we have Sylow-2, Sylow-3 and Sylow-5 subgroups.
Now n
2
1, 3, 5, 15 but by our assumptions only n
p
= 15 is allowed,
similarly n
3
1, 2, 4, 10, 20 but only n
3
= 10 is allowed.
Let P
1
, P
2
Syl
2
(G) and P
1
,= P
2
. If P
1
P
2
,= 1, let x P
1
P
2
where
x ,= 1. As [P
1
[ = [P
2
[ = 2
2
has prime-squared order, P
1
, P
2
are abelian.
Hence P
1
, P
2
C
G
(x), we cannot have C
G
(x) = P
1
as then P
2
= C
G
(x) =
P
1
, so [C
g
(x)[ > 4. C
G
(g) ,= G, otherwise x G is a normal subgroup,
contradicting the fact that G is simple. So by Lagrange [C
G
(x)[ = 12 or
[C
G
(x)[ = 20, giving index 5 or index 3 respectively, both contrary to our
assumptions. Therefore P
1
P
2
= 1.
More easily, if Q
1
, Q
2
Syl
3
(G), then Q
1
Q
2
= 1, as [Q
1
[ = [Q
2
[ = 3
is prime and there can only exist the trivial proper subgroup.
So by counting distinct elements, as Sylow subgroups for dierent primes
only share the identity element, we have
60 = [G[ 15(4 1) + 10(3 1) + 1 = 66
a contradiction.
Therefore, K G such that [G : K] = 5. Hence, G

= L for some
subgroup L S
5
. Now L A
5
L since A
5
S
5
and
120 = 5! [LA
5
[ =
[L[[A
5
[
[L A
5
[
=
60
2
[L A
5
[
so we must have [L A
5
[ > 1, so L A
5
,= 1, but L

= G is simple, so
L A
5
= L. Since L = L A
5
A
5
and [L[ = 60 = [A
5
[, we must have
L = A
5
, that is G

= A
5
.