Geoderma 124 (2005) 63 – 71

www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Urban soil pollution in Damascus, Syria: concentrations and

patterns of heavy metals in the soils
of the Damascus Ghouta
A. Möller a,*, H.W. Müller a, A. Abdullah b, G. Abdelgawad b, J. Utermann a
a
Division of Land use, Protection and Analysis of Soils, Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR),
Stilleweg 2, D-30655 Hannover, Germany
b
Division of Soil Science, The Arab Center for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD), Damascus, Syria
Received 8 April 2003; received in revised form 9 February 2004; accepted 2 April 2004

Available online

Abstract

The objective of the study was to assess the extent and severity of heavy metal contamination of arable soils of the
Damascus Ghouta, an area with intensive agricultural production. We examined the present degree and spatial distribution of
heavy metal concentrations in 51 soil profiles and in 22 topsoil samples in the Damascus Ghouta. The soils were digested
with aqua regia for heavy metal analysis. Pb, Cu and Zn concentrations in the topsoils exhibited anthropogenic increased
values. The major sources for the heavy metal contamination in Damascus city are most possibly emissions from vehicles.
These emissions transported by air and sewage water together with household and industrial sewage effluents have been
considered to be responsible for the increased heavy metal concentrations found in the soils of the central Barada area.
However, the values were in most cases below tolerable values of soil for agricultural use. Cr concentrations up to 1800 mg
kg 1 were found near a tannery industrial estate. Concerning the health risk of the population bioavailability and mobility of
heavy metals seems to be of minor importance, based on the soil properties found in the study area. However, direct ingestion
of soil, e.g., by children and inhalation of dust may contribute largely to the accumulation of heavy metal in human and
livestock.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Heavy metal; Effluent irrigation; Car emissions; Tanneries; Arable soils

1. Introduction ascus Ghouta is an area with intensive agricultural and

Soil pollution of agricultural areas surrounding big
cities is a major environmental problem. The Dam-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-511-6433851; fax: +49-511-
6433661.
E-mail address: andreas.moeller@bgr.de (A. Möller).
horticultural production surrounds Damascus city in
the East. It is one of the major agricultural areas of
Syria. Based on the water shortage in the area, parts of
the Ghouta are irrigated with treated but also untreated
sewage effluents from Damascus city.
Continuous urbanisation of Damascus leads to an
increased pollution of soil and water resources and

0016-7061/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.04.003
64 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71
thus a growing risk for heavy metal uptake by human
and livestock.
Atmospheric deposition reflected by high heavy
metal concentrations in urban dust (e.g., Li et al.,
2001) is one of the core sources of heavy metal
accumulation in urban soils. Key heavy metals are
thereby Pb from leaded gasoline, Cu, Zn and Cd
from car components, tyre abrasion, lubricants and
industrial and incinerator emissions (Markus and
McBratney, 1996; Thornton, 1991; Wilcke et al.,
1998).
Furthermore, tanneries and other small to large
factories are possible sources for soil pollution. These
factories discharge their effluents into the branches of
the Barada River, which is used for irrigation and
drains into the Damascus Ghouta. Chromium, for
example, has been found to accumulate at a progres-
sive rate in soils affected by sewage water from
tanneries (Davis et al., 1994; Song et al., 2000).
Especially if waste contains significant quantities of
metals in form of inorganic salt, leaching to ground-
water is more likely to be a potential problem
(Cameron et al., 1997).
Assessing the potential health risk of the popula-
tion different uptake pathways have to be considered.
Bioavailability and mobility of heavy metals which
are strongly dependent on soil pH are oft reported to
be important pathways. In some soils, e.g., Na+-rich
soils, in situ mobilization of colloid particles can be
important, if in soil solution a decrease in ionic
strength, an increase in solution pH, or a replacement
of divalent cations by monovalent cations as Na+
occurs (Gasser et al., 1994; Kretzschmar et al.,
1997). On the other hand, clayey soils with a moder-
ate alkaline pH and a high CaCo3 content are usually
considered to have a low heavy metal mobility and
bioavailability based on the high binding capacity
(e.g., Cameron et al., 1997).
Next to bioavailability and possible uptake through
water sources direct uptake pathways can be impor-
tant. Contaminated soil can be ingested directly by,
e.g., playing children, the consumption of not ade-
quately cleaned field crops and grazing animals. Most
of the metals ingested by humans and animals are
excreted and only small proportions are actually
retained in the body tissues (Cameron et al., 1997).
Depending on duration and frequency of a potential
ingestion of soil, especially at polluted sites, the
uptake of heavy metals with soil can, however, result
in serious health risks. Children at the age between
1 and 8 are of specific concern for this pathway. A
study in the USA near by an Arsenic contaminated
area revealed that children between 1 and 6 years take
up in average 117 mg/day and in the 90th percentile
277 mg/day (Walker and Griffin, 1998). The maxi-
mum was 899 mg/day. In the German legislation, it is
assumed that children with 10 kg weight take up 0.5 g
soil/day (Queitsch, 1999). The frequency of a poten-
tial uptake varies for different regions depending on
the climatic conditions and cultural habits. In Ger-
many 240 days, while in parts of the USA 365 days
are assumed. Against the background of threshold
values for a potential health interference aqua regia
extraction as a safe and common measure for the
maximum extractability of heavy metal by a human
body can be used to calculate threshold values for
soils. For Cr, for example, the value is 200 mg kg 1
soil.
A further direct pathway of heavy metal uptake is
inhalation. Especially under the dry conditions found
in Damascus city with a higher presents of dust in the
urban atmosphere this pathway can be important.
An essential prerequisite to identify and reduce
possible risks for food production and for humans in
Damascus city and the Damascus Ghouta is a sub-
stantial pool of information about soil contamination
in the area. Therefore, the objectives of the study were
to determine the concentrations and spatial distribu-
tion of heavy metals (Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn), to
assess the heavy metal contamination in the soils of
the Damascus Ghouta and to identify the risk of heavy
metal uptake by the population.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area and experimental design
The study area is part of the Damascus Ghouta, an
area surrounding Damascus city in the East with
intensive agricultural and horticultural production.
The Barada and the Ahwash are the main rivers
crossing the Ghouta. They originate from the Anti-
Lebanon-Mountains. The average precipitation is
about 225 mm/year. The main potential evapotranspi-
ration is more than 1000 mm/year.
 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71 65

Table 1 Industry in the area is widely scattered. Next to

Soil Properties of the samples (0 – 25 cm, n = 51) other located along the Barada River a tannery indus-
Clay Silt Sand EC pH- CaCO3 CEC SOC trial estate is located near Zablatani village.
(%) (%) (%) (As H2O (%) (mmolc (%)
1
cm ) kg 1)
Mean 45.6 27.3 27.1 164.9 7.3 62.4 33 3.3
2.2. Sampling and laboratory analyses
S.D.a 8.3 8.1 4.1 73.3 0.2 6.2 5.4 0.7
Minimum 22 18 18 1 6.8 48.8 22 1.6 In summer 1998, 51 soil profiles were sampled in
Maximum 58 58 34 432 7.6 75.7 44 5.2 the study area (Fig. 1). Samples were taken from each
a
Standard deviation. horizon. The ploughed horizons are 24 F 2.5 cm deep.
Additionally, 22 topsoil samples (0 –20 cm depth)
The soils in the study area are deep, heavy textured were collected downstream of the outlets of the
and moderately drained Calcaric Fluvisol, with Cal- tannery industrial estate. Because of the predominant
caric Regosol near the Quasjoun-Mountain area (FAO agricultural use of the soils in the Ghouta only
soil classification, 1997). The soils have a moderately agricultural land was sampled. The soil material was
alkaline pH, high CaCO3 concentrations up to 76%, a sieved at 2 mm prior analyses.
soil organic carbon content ranging from 2% to 4.5%, The samples were digested in aqua regia for anal-
a medium to high electrical conductivity and a low yses of heavy metals, following ISO 11466 first
Na+ saturation (Table 1). Pattern and density of the edition (1995). The extracts were measured by flame
vegetation in the Ghouta area of Damascus are char- atomic adsorption spectrometry (Varian, Germany).
acterized by seasonal changes and small scattered For European soils, the extraction efficiency of aqua
fields with a perennial cropping season. regia extraction for heavy metals range between 80%

Fig. 1. The study area with sampling points of soil profiles (n = 51). City development of the densely populated areas in Damascus and
surrounding towns between 1979 and 1994.
66 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71
and 100% and for Cr down to 50% compared with real
total concentrations. Many European and international
background values and threshold values of soil are
based on the international standard of aqua regia
extraction representing a base for the comparison with
the results achieved in this study. Additionally, the
digestion method is used in pathway related risk
assessment as measure for a maximum heavy metal
uptake by human and livestock in consequence of
ingestion.
The particle size distribution was determined by
hydrometer (Richards, 1967). Cation exchange capac-
ity was measured according to Richards (1967). Soil
organic matter was determined by the Walkley and
Black method (Page et al., 1982). Calcium carbonate
was measured volumetrically using the Scheibler ap-
paratus and Hg-manometer. Electrical conductivity
was determined in the saturation extract and pH in
H2O 1:5 (w/v) by electrode, following Jackson (1958).
2.3. Statistical analyses and mapping
Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS for
Windows 10.0.5. Data were log-transformed prior
principal component analysis to reduce the influence
of high values. Principal component analysis was
conducted using factor extraction with an eigenvalue
>1 after varimax rotation. Concentrations were pair
wise compared using a one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). If the main effects were significant at
P < 0.05, a post-hoc separation of means was done
by univariate least significance difference (LSD) test.
The basis for the attached maps was the topograph-
ic map of 1979 from the north eastern Ghouta, with a
scale 1:25 000 (Department of Survey of Syria, 1979a;
Department of Survey of Syria, 1979b) and the Land-
sat TM scene 174 – 037 from 30 July 1994.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Heavy metal concentrations
There is no information available on typical
background values for Syrian soils or heavy metal
concentrations in soils of other cities of the Arabic
peninsula. Therefore, the data were compared with
available background values (median) of European
soils (Utermann et al., submitted for publication),
threshold values provided by Eikmann and Kloke
(1993) and Kloke (1993) and heavy metal concen-
trations found in soils of cities from other regions.
The median Co, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn concentrations
are located at the upper range of background values,
while the Pb concentration is located at lower end. In
75% of the topsoils sampled the content of at least
one metal exceeds the threshold values for multi-
functional land use (Eikmann and Kloke, 1993). In
31% of the samples Cr, Ni or Pb exceed slightly the
tolerable values of soil for agricultural use (Kloke,
1993; Table 2). The threshold values may not be
directly transferable to Syrian soils, but give a first
idea of their heavy metal status. Taking into account
the high metal binding capacity of the soils the
slightly elevated heavy metal values in some areas
do not represent an immediate risk for agricultural
production.
Comparing the results with results from other
cities, especially old industrialised cities like London
(Culbard et al., 1991), Hamburg (Lux, 1986) and
Palermo (Manta et al., 2002), these cities show higher
concentrations of heavy metals in their topsoils.
Similar results with comparable or lower heavy metal
concentrations were found for younger cities like
Bangkok (Wilcke et al., 1998) or Hong Kong (Li et
al., 2001). Li et al. (2001) found a significant relation
between the Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations in the
urban park soils and the age of the parks. Although
Damascus is one of the oldest cities of the world
industrialisation and thus pollution took place at a
later stage compared to other industrialised cities.
Therefore, the today’s relatively lower concentrations
of heavy metals in the soils in Damascus could be the
result of the minor accumulation time and rate.
However, it should be mentioned that in this study
only arable soils with a sampling depth of 24 F 2.5
cm were collected, while in the other studies soils
from 0 to 5 or 0 to 10 cm with different land use were
collected. Furthermore, different extraction methods
were used (Table 2). Therefore, relative dilution,
diverging extraction efficiency depending on the ex-
traction method used, as well as sampling of soils in
more rural areas may be an additional reason for
minor concentrations of heavy metals in these soils.
A principal component analysis of metal concen-
trations allows the differentiation of metal groups with
 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71 67

Table 2
Range, mean F standard deviation (S.D.) and median of heavy metal contents in topsoils of the Damascus Ghouta ( c 0 – 25 cm, n = 51) and
literature data for comparison
1 1 1 1 1 1
Co (mg kg ) Cr (mg kg ) Cu (mg kg ) Ni (mg kg ) Pb (mg kg ) Zn (mg kg )
Range 7 – 23 12 – 116 16 – 97 24 – 58 < 5 – 108 46 – 293
Mean F S.D. 13 F 5 57 F 24 34 F 16 39 F 9 17 F 18 103 F 54
Median 10 51 30 35 10 84
Londona median – – – – 654 (294) 424 (183)
Hamburgb mean – – 23 – 168 152
Median – – 12 – 118 63
Palermoc median – 63 202 138
Bangkokd mean – 26 42 25 48 118
Median – 25 27 23 29 38
Background valuese 9 – 56 7 – 24 7 – 39 9 – 63 25 – 100
Multiple land usef 30 50 50 40 100 150
Tolerable valuesg 50 100 100 50 100 300
a
Culbard et al. (1988): garden soils and in brackets public garden soils (0 – 5 cm, n = 654 (35); concentrated HNO3 and HCLO4)).
b
Lux (1993): surface soils (0 – 5 cm, n = 977; powder X-ray diffraction).
c
Manta et al. (2002): topsoils (0 – 10 cm, n = 50; powder X-ray diffraction).
d
Wilcke et al. (1998): topsoils (0 – 5 cm, n = 30; sequential extraction (Zeien and Brümmer, 1989)).
e
Utermann et al. (2004): range of heavy metal background values (medians) of European soils from calcareous rocks and clayey materials
(aqua regia extraction).
f
Eikmann, Kloke (1993): limit values based on aqua regia extraction for multiple land use (Germany).
g
Kloke (1993): tolerable aqua regia extractable metal values for arable land (Germany).

common properties. Using the Kolmogorov – Smir- ascus Ghouta as stacked bar plot. Each site from
nov-test with Lillienfors correction of probabilities, which soil was sampled is shown by a stacked bar
the data were found to be log-normal distributed, with height proportional to concentration. The three
which is a prerequisite for the analysis. metals show similar spatial distributions within the
Fig. 2 illustrates the metal concentrations in the study area which is in agreement with a similar study
coordinate system of two principal components (PC). of Kelly et al. (1996) for urban soils in Britain. The
Three metal groups are clearly distinguished. Co and distributions of these metals clearly reveal two areas
Ni are highly loaded in PC 2. Their concentrations in with increased values. The areas are marked by circles
the soils did not differ significantly within the area
and within the profiles. This suggests that their con-
centrations in the soils are dominated by the parent
material, as anthropogenic emissions of these heavy
metals are relatively rare especially for Co. PC 1 is
highly loaded with Cu, Pb and Zn, a group of heavy
metals which are commonly found to be anthropo-
genic enriched in the topsoils of urban environments
(e.g., Culbard et al., 1991; Lux, 1986; Manta et al.,
2002). Cr is neither highly loaded in PC 1 nor in PC 2.
This reflects different anthropogenic or geogenic
sources and possible pathways of Cr accumulation
compared to Cu, Pb and Zn.

3.2. Spatial distribution of Pb, Cu and Zn

Fig. 2. Illustration of log-transformed metal concentrations in 51
Fig. 3 illustrates the spatial distribution of Pb, Cu Damascus topsoil samples in the coordinate system of two principal
and Zn concentrations, in the topsoils of the Dam- components (PC) after varimax rotation.
68 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71

Fig. 3. Aqua regia extractable concentrations of lead, copper and zinc in the topsoil from the Damascus Ghouta, Syria.

in Fig. 3: the city area of Damascus and the central gasoline, in Syria used up to now, is the major source
Barada area. The soils within the city of Damascus for Pb in the urban environment. This points out that
and also of the central Barada area show significantly traffic is most possibly the major source for the
increased concentrations compared to the rest of the
soils studied in more rural areas (Fig. 4), although the
highest concentrations were found in topsoils of
Damascus city.
Similar results were shown for the enrichment of
Pb, Cu and Zn in the topsoils compared to subsoils.
Especially, Pb was strongly enriched by a factor of
more than 3 (Fig. 5) in the Barada and city area. In the
more rural areas, the enrichment factor was 1.5, most
possibly reflecting the background of the anthropo-
genic input in the region. For Cr, Co and Ni (data not
shown) no enrichment was found.
Li et al. (2001) found higher Zn concentrations in
the street dust of Hong Kong compared to a similar
study in London (Thornton, 1991). He stated that
based on the high temperatures in the tropical envi- Fig. 4. Mean aqua regia extractable concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn
and Cr in the soils of the city area, the central Barada area and the
ronment abrasion of car tyres would be increased, as rural area (error bars represent the standard error as measure for
Zn is used as a vulcanisation agent in vehicle tyres. Cu spatial variability; letters above the bars indicate significant
is often a component in car lubricants, while leaded differences).
 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71
Fig. 5. Enrichment factors for Cu, Pb, Zn and Cr of the city area, the
Barada river area and the rural area of the median topsoil
concentrations (24 F 2.5 cm depth) compare to median concen-
trations of the third horizon in 95 F 29 to 165 F 36 cm depth.
enrichment of heavy metal in the topsoils of Dam-
ascus city.
It is interesting to note that analyses of sewage
sludge from the sewage water treatment plant of
Fig. 6. Aqua regia extractable concentration of chromium in the topsoil from the Damascus Ghouta, Syria.
69
Damascus revealed high Zn, and also Cu and Pb
concentrations with more than 2500, 460 and 230
mg kg 1 dry sludge, respectively. Other heavy
metal concentrations like Co, Ni and Cr were
relatively low. As most of the untreated effluent
from Damascus city was used for irrigation for
many years primarily in the central Barada area,
the heavy metal pollution of Damascus city is
mirrored by a significant accumulation of Pb, Cu
and Zn in the soils along the main branches of the
Barada River. Similar accumulations of heavy metal
as an effect of effluent irrigation were reported by
several authors (e.g., Cameron et al., 1997; Aboulr-
ous et al., 1988).
3.3. Spatial distribution of Cr
Fig. 6 shows a blob plot of the Cr concentration in
topsoils of the study area. Not included in the map
were the results from soils near by the tannery estate.
The spatial distribution differs considerably from
70 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71
those of Pb, Cu and Zn. There were no clear patterns
of contamination visible. In the topsoil of the central
Barada river area significantly increased Cr concen-
trations were found (Fig. 6). Contrary, no significant
enrichment of the median values of Cr in the topsoil
compared the third soil horizon could be detected
(Fig. 5). This may suggest that no significant Cr
translocation took place and that pollution occurred
more or less as point source pollution from defined
polluters.
One of these polluters has been the tannery indus-
trial estate at Zablatani east of Damascus. The un-
treated effluents of the tanneries have been directly
discharged into the Barada River and hence have been
used for irrigation. The highest Cr values with more
than 1800 mg Cr kg 1 soil were found near by the
outlets of the tanneries. None the less, the highly toxic
Cr species Cr(VI) used in some cases to treat hides
(Davis et al., 1994) was not found in the soils near by
the tannery estate.
Chaney (1980) grouped elements into 4 categories
depending on the degree of risk of plant uptake and
subsequent ingestion by humans or animals. Cr fell
into group 1, containing those metals which are so
insoluble in the soil, or in plant fibrous roots, that the
plant shoots are not a significant source of element
transfer even when the soils are highly polluted.
3.4. Heavy metal uptake
The soil properties found in the study area like
moderate alkaline pH, high clay and CaCo3 content
and low Na+ saturation do not indicate a significant
bioavailability and mobility of heavy metals, as well
as the translocation of contaminants through mobile
colloids in these soils. These indicators together with
analyses of groundwater and plant samples not show-
ing significantly increased heavy metal values (data
not shown) and the fact that no secondary enrichment
of heavy metals in subsoil horizons was found sug-
gests that mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals
in these soils is low.
Concerning the health risks of the population
other pathways of heavy metal uptake like direct
ingestion and inhalation of dust may be more im-
portant. For the area near by the tannery outlets, the
Cr concentration in the soil is clearly above thresh-
old values for the ingestion pathway at playground.
Certainly, the area is not considered to be a play-
ground; however, many children are playing near the
fields while their parents are working at fields.
Furthermore, the residues from the tanneries contain
light organic materials, which have a high potential
by inhalation to contribute largely to heavy metal
accumulation in humans and livestock, especially
during the summer month where the dispersion of
dust in the atmosphere is high.
4. Conclusions
– The results prove the anthropogenic impact on Pb,
Cu and Zn concentrations in the soils of the
Damascus Ghouta. The highest values can be
found in the city of Damascus, but also the central
Barada area shows increased Pb, Cu and Zn
concentrations due to irrigation with effluent from
Damascus city for many decades.
– Considering particularly the high metal binding
capacity of the soils, heavy metals uptake by
human and livestock in the Damascus Ghouta can
be categorized as rather marginal, except for the
tannery industrial estate. Nevertheless, further
pollution should be minimised. Traffic in Dam-
ascus as a major pollution source has a high
potential for the reduction of heavy metal pollution
in the future.
– The Cr pollution found in the soils near the tannery
industrial estate is potentially serious even taking
into account the immobility of Cr in soil.
– With regards to health risks, bioavailability and
mobility of heavy metals can be stated to be of
minor significant in these soils. Other pathways
like inhalation of dust and direct ingestion seem to
be more important for the heavy metal uptake by
the population of Damascus city.
Acknowledgements
The project was funded by the Federal Minister for
Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany.
The Authors acknowledge the contribution of The
Arab Center of the Studies of the Arid Zones and Dry
Lands and the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian
Reform of Syria to the project.
 A. Möller et al. / Geoderma 124 (2005) 63–71 71

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