CHP: 1 INTRODUCTION

Data Communication: Data communication is a vital part of the information society because it provides the infrastructure allowing the computers to communicate with one another. An airline data communication system uses data communications to link reservation offices to the computer. The space flight use data communications systems to send data to and from the rockets and command centers on Earth. The purpose of data communication system is transport of user data between and among user machines. Evolution of Data Communication: It came to existence shortly after the computer were widely used in the organizations. The 1970s and 1980s saw a merger of the fields of computer science and data communications that profoundly changed the technology, products, and companies of the now-combined computercommunications industry. Although the consequences of this revolutionary merger are still being worked out, it is safe to say that the revolution has occurred, and any investigation of the field of data communications must be made within this new context. In order to obtain the services of the computer user's simply walk to the room where the computer is located and submitted a request for the computer to perform a service. This request was called a job. The computer accepted the users job, performed its operations, and returns the results in hard copy formats. As the computers grew, it became inefficient for all users to walk to the computer room, submit their job and return to get the results. Consequently, computer based terminals
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were built and were placed in user work spaces within a building. This approach allowed users to submit their job from each office. As organizations, grew and the need for the computer grew it became necessary to share the computer with other users in different buildings. The solution was to utilize the widely used telephone system to transport these traffic. Even though the telephone system was designed for voice traffic, various techniques were employed to send data through the telephone system. This became known as remote time sharing and is still a prevalent form of data communications. Analog and Digital Communication: Analog data take on continuous values in some intervals. For example voice and video are continuously varying patterns of intensity. Similarly, digital data can be text or character strings. Character form cannot be easily stored or transmitted by data processing and communication system. Hence, such systems are designed for binary data. In a communication system, data are propagated from one point to another by means of electromagnetic signals. An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of media. A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wired medium. For example, a constant +ve voltage level may represent binary zero and a constant negative voltage level may represent binary 1. Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals without regard to their content. The signals may represent analog data (eg. voice) or digital data( eg. binary data that pass through a modem). The analog signal will become weaker after a certain distance. Amplifiers are used to

boost the energy in the signal. However, due to amplifiers the signal become more distorted in long distance transmission. Digital transmission is concerned with a content of the signal. To achieve, signal at greater distances, repeaters are used. A repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of 1s and0s and retransmits a new signal. Thus attenuation is overcome. Digital transmission is more preferred due to following reasons: 1. Digital Technology: 2. Data Integrity 3. Capacity Utilization 4. Security and Privacy 5. Integration Communication Model: SOURCE>>TRANSMITTER>>TRANSMISSION SYSTEM>>RECIEVER>>DESTINATION The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between two parties. Figure presents one particular example, which is the communication between a workstation and a server over a public telephone network. Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones over the same network. The key elements of the model are: Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are telephones and personal computers.

Transmitter: Usually, the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly in the form in which they were generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission system. For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the telephone network. Transmission System: This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and destination. Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream. Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver. Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Communication: Advantages: - It increases immunity to channel noise and external interference. - Privacy is preserved by using data encryption. - Data from voice, video and data sources may be merged and transmitted over a common digital transmission system. - Flexible operation of the system. - Easy to error detection and correction by the use of coding.
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- Long distance communication is possible due to the use of separator where noise doesn't accumulate. - Relatively inexpensive digital circuit may be used. Disadvantages: - Generally, more bandwidth is required than that of analog communication system. - Synchronization is required. - High complexity due to use of analog to digital and digital to analog.

of one or more bytes at a time. As a result, there is a speedup in parallel transmission bit rate over serial transmission bit rate. However, this speedup is a tradeoff versus cost since multiple wires cost more than a single wire, and as a parallel cable gets longer, the synchronization timing between multiple channels becomes more sensitive to distance. The timing for parallel transmission is provided by a constant clocking signal sent over a separate wire within the parallel cable; thus parallel transmission is considered synchronous. Serial Transmission: In serial transmission, bits are sent sequentially on the same channel (wire) which reduces costs for wire but also slows the speed of transmission. Also, for serial transmission, some overhead time is needed since bits must be assembled and sent as a unit and then disassembled at the receiver. Serial transmission can be either synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous transmission, groups of bits are combined into frames and frames are sent continuously with or without data to be transmitted. In asynchronous transmission, groups of bits are sent as independent units with start/stop flags and no data link synchronization, to allow for arbitrary size gaps between frames. However, start/stop bits maintain physical bit level synchronization once detected.

CHP: 2 DATA TRANSMISSION

Serial and Parallel Transmission Digital data transmission can occur in two basic modes: serial or parallel. Data within a computer system is transmitted via parallel mode on buses with the width of the parallel bus matched to the word size of the computer system. Data between computer systems is usually transmitted in bit serial mode. Consequently, it is necessary to make a parallel-to-serial conversion at a computer interface when sending data from a computer system into a network and a serial-to-parallel conversion at a computer interface when receiving information from a network. The type of transmission mode used may also depend upon distance and required data rate. Parallel Transmission: In parallel transmission, multiple bits (usually 8 bits or a byte/character) are sent simultaneously on different channels (wires, frequency channels) within the same cable, or radio path, and synchronized to a clock. Parallel devices have a wider data bus than serial devices and can therefore transfer data in words
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Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication:

Asynchronous communication utilizes a transmitter, a receiver and a wire without coordination about the timing of individual bits. There is no coordination between the two end points on just how long the transmitter leaves the signal at a certain level to represent a single digital bit. Each device uses a clock to measure out the 'length' of a bit. The transmitting

device simply transmits. The receiving device has to look at the incoming signal and figure out what it is receiving and coordinate and retime its clock to match the incoming signal. Sending data encoded into your signal requires that the sender and receiver are both using the same encoding/decoding method, and know where to look in the signal to find data. Asynchronous systems do not send separate information to indicate the encoding or clocking information. The receiver must decide the clocking of the signal on it's own. This means that the receiver must decide where to look in the signal stream to find ones and zeroes, and decide for itself where each individual bit stops and starts. This information is not in the data in the signal sent from transmitting unit. When the receiver of a signal carrying information has to derive how that signal is organized without consulting the transmitting device, it is called asynchronous communication. In short, the two ends do not always negotiate or work out the connection parameters before communicating. Asynchronous communication is more efficient when there is low loss and low error rates over the transmission medium because data is not retransmitted and no time is spent setting negotiating the connection parameters at the beginning of transmission. Asynchronous systems just transmit and let the far end station figure it out. Asynchronous is sometimes called "best effort" transmission because one side simply transmits, and the other does it's best to receive. EXAMPLES: Asynchronous communication is used on RS-232 based serial devices such as on an IBM-compatible computer's COM 1, 2, 3, 4 ports. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) also uses this means of communication. Your PS2 ports on your computer also use serial communication. This is the method is also used to
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communicate with an external modem. Asynchronous communication is also used for things like your computer's keyboard and mouse. Think of asynchronous as a faster means of connecting, but less reliable. SYNCHRONOUS Synchronous systems negotiate the communication parameters at the data link layer before communication begins. Basic synchronous systems will synchronize both clocks before transmission begins, and reset their numeric counters for errors etc. More advanced systems may negotiate things like error correction and compression. It is possible to have both sides try to synchronize the connection at the same time. Usually, there is a process to decide which end should be in control. Both sides can go through a lengthy negotiation cycle where they exchange communications parameters and status information. Once a connection is established, the transmitter sends out asignal, and the receiver sends back data regarding that transmission, and what it received. This connection negotiation process takes longer on low error-rate lines, but is highly efficient in systems where the transmission medium itself (an electric wire, radio signal or laser beam) is not particularly reliable.

Transmission Channel:
- In telecommunications and computer networking, a communication channel, or channel, refers either to a physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel.

- A channel is used to convey an information signal, for example a digital bit stream, from one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or several receivers. A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per second - In information theory, a channel refers to a theoretical channel model with certain error characteristics. - In this more general view, a storage device is also a kind of channel, which can be sent to (written) and received from (read).

- As your PC's DTE agent, it also communicates with the modem or other serial device, which, in accordance with the RS-232C standard, has a complementary interface called the Data Communications Equipment (DCE) interface.

Interface Standards:
- In telecommunications, an interface standard is a standard that describes one or more functional characteristics (such as code conversion, line assignments, or protocol compliance) or physical characteristics (such as electrical, mechanical, or optical characteristics) necessary to allow the exchange of information between two or more (usually different) systems or pieces of equipment. - An interface standard may include operational characteristics and acceptable levels of performance. - In the military community, interface standards permit command and control functions to be performed using communication and computer systems.

RS 232C:
- RS-232C is a long-established standard ("C" is the current version) that describes the physical interface and protocol for relatively low-speed serial data communication between computers and related devices. - It was defined by an industry trade group, the Electronic Industries Association (EIA), originally for teletypewriter devices. - RS-232C is the interface that your computer uses to talk to and exchange data with your modem and other serial devices. - Somewhere in your PC, typically on a Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) chip on your motherboard, the data from your computer is transmitted to an internal or external modem (or other serial device) from its Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) interface. - Since data in your computer flows along parallel circuits and serial devices can handle only one bit at a time, the UART chip converts the groups of bits in parallel to a serial stream of bits.
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CHP: 3 SIGNALS AND SYSTEM Signal:

- function of independent variables which carry certain information. - may be function of time, temperature, pressure, distance - can be voltage or current in electrical sense.

- eg. Periodic signal: Pulse Train

System:
- is a combination of elements, components which perform some task. - is a set of element which produces o/p in response to i/p - Mathematically, y(n) = f[ x(n) ]

Discrete System Classification:

1. Causal and Non-Causal: - o/p depends on the present and past value 2. Linear and Non-linear: - linear if it satisfies principle of superposition - sum of weighted i/p is same as the sum of weighted o/p 3. Time variant and invariant system: - Time invariant if the i/p o/p relationship doesnt vary with time - Shift Invariance 4. Static and Dynamic: - static or memory less if the o/p at any time depends only on the value of i/p at same time. - static if its impulse response h(n) is 0 for n != 0 x(n) = del(n) and y(n) = h(n) 5. Stable and unstable: - stable if it produces bounded o/p from every bounded i/p

Types of Signals:
1. Continuous and Discrete 2. Deterministic and non-Deterministic 3. Periodic and aperiodic 4. Even and Odd signal 5. Energy and Power signal

Energy and Power Signals:

- Energy signal has finite energy and zero average power. 0 < E < inf and P = 0 - almost all practical non- periodic signal - time limited - rectangular pulse - E = intg frm - inf to inf | x(t) |2 dt for continuous - E = sum frm n = -inf to inf | x(n) |2 dn for discrete - Power signal has finite average power and infinite energy - 0 < P < inf and E = inf - almost all practical periodic signal - can exist over infinte time
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Stability of LTI system:

- Consider an input x(n) i.e. is bounded in magnitude |x(n)| < m for allvaluse of n. - The o/p of the discrete time LTI system is found by convolution sum and is given by, - magnitude of y(n) is given by - substituting the values of |x(n-k)| <m for all values of k and n, - From above equation, we can conclude that if the impulse response h(n) is absolutely summable, then the o/p of the discrete time LTI system is bounded in magnitude and therefore the system is called Bounded Input Bounded Output (BIBO) stable. - A sufficient and necessary condition of stability of a discrete LTI system is expressed as S = sum k = - to |h(k)| <

- The minimum sampling rate or minimum sampling frequency, fs=2fm for complete specification of the continuous time signal is referred as Nyquist Rate or Nyquist Frequency. - Sampling of a continuous analog signal is the first step of transmission of analog signal over digital communication system. - The sampling theorem states that analog signal can be reproduced from an appropriate set of its sample taken at some fixed point interval of time.

Elementary signals:
1. Exponential signal: - x(t) = Aebt - Growing exponential and Decaying exponential 2. Sinusoidal signal:

Channel Capacity Theorem:

- This gives the relationship between the channel bandwidth and signal to noise ratio and the limitation that they impose on communication. - Let B be the channel bandwidth and SNR be the recived signal to Noise Ratio. - Then, the channel capacity theorem states that, B = log2(1+SNR) bit/sec C is defined as the maximum rate at which information may be transmitted without error through the channel.

3. Unit step function: - u(t) = 1 for t >= 0 0 for otherwise 4. Unit Impulse Function: - del(t) = 1 for t = 0 0 otherwise 5. Unit Ramp function: - r(t) = 0 for t < 0 t for t > 0 6. Sinc Function: - Sinc(t) = 1 for t = 0 sint/t for t != 0

Nyquist Sampling Theorem:

- Nyquist Sampling theorem states that if x(t) is band limited with no
components at frequencies greater than fm Hz then it is completely specified by samples, taken at the uniform rate fx>2fm Hz
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CHP: 5 OVERVIEW OF DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORKING

Types of Network: 1. LOCAL AREA NETWORK - A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. - A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. - A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN. Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware options also exist. - Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a local area network. - For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide a software package called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to LAN resources. 2. WIDE AREA NETWORK - A WAN spans a large geographic area, such as a state, province or country. WANs often connect multiple smaller networks, such as local area networks (LANs) or metro area networks (MANs).

- The world's most popular WAN is the Internet. Some segments of the Internet, like VPN-based extranets, are also WANs in themselves. - Finally, many WANs are corporate or research networks that utilize leased lines. - WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment than do LANs. Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame Relay, and ATM. 3. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK - A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks. - A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it serves a role similar to an ISP, but for corporate users with large LANs. There are three important features which discriminate MANs from LANs or WANS: A. The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city. B. A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organization. The MAN, its communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of users or by a single network provider who sells the service to the users. This level of service provided to each user must therefore be negotiated with the MAN operator, and some performance guarantees are normally specified. C. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources (similar to a large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.
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Network Topologies:
1. Bus Topology: - In this type of network topology, all the nodes of a network are connected to a common transmission medium having two endpoints. - All the data that travels over the network is transmitted through a common transmission medium known as the bus or the backbone of the network. - When the transmission medium has exactly two endpoints, the network topology is known by the name, linear bus topology'. In case the transmission medium, also called as the network backbone, has more than two endpoints, the network is said to have a distributed bus topology. - Bus topology is easy to handle and implement and is best suited for small networks. - But the downside of this topology is that the limited cable length limits the number of stations, thus limiting the performance to a less number of nodes. 2. Ring Topology: - In a ring topology, every node in the network is connected to two other nodes and the first and the last nodes are connected to each other. - The data that are transmitted over the network pass through each of the nodes in the ring until they reach the destination node. - In a ring network, the data and the signals that pass over the network travel in a single direction.
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- The dual ring topology varies in having two connections between each of the network nodes. - The data flow along two directions in the two rings formed thereby. - The ring topology does not require a central server to manage connectivity between the nodes and facilitates an orderly network operation. - But, the failure of a single station in the network can render the entire network inoperable. - Changes and moves in the stations forming the network affect the network operation. 3. Mesh Topology: - In a full mesh network, each network node is connected to every other node in the network. - Due to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes possible for a simultaneous transmission of signals from one node to several other nodes. - In a partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes are connected to more than one node. - This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of redundancy caused by the point-to-point links between all the nodes. - The nodes of a mesh network require possessing some kind of routing logic so that the signals and the data traveling over the network take the shortest path during each of the transmissions. 4. Star Topology: - In this type of network topology, each node of the network is connected to a central node, which is known as a hub.

- The data that is transmitted between the network nodes passes across the central hub. - A distributed star is formed by the interconnection of two or more individual star networks. - The centralized nature of a star network provides a certain amount of simplicity while also achieving isolation of each device in the network. - However, the disadvantage of a star topology is that the network transmission is largely dependent on the central hub. The failure of the central hub results in total network inoperability. 5. Tree Topology: - It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that is connected to one or more nodes of a lower hierarchy. - In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a specific fixed number of nodes connected to those at a lower level. >>> Apart from these basic types of network topologies, there are hybrid network topologies, which are composed of a combination of two or more basic topologies. - These network mappings aim at harnessing the advantages of each of the basic topologies used in them. - Network topologies are the physical arrangements of network nodes and wires. What is interesting is that the inanimate nodes and wires turn 'live' for the transmission of information!

- is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the exchange of data between systems and supports applications such a as electronic mail and file transfer. - The key features of protocol are": > syntax: concerns the format of the data blocks > semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling >Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

OSI :
- OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. - The communications concern are partitioned into hierarchical set of layers. - Each layer performs a related subset of the functions with another system. 1. Physical Layer: - A physical layers covers the physical interface between devices and the rules by which bits passed from one to another. - It relates to the physical properties of the interface to a transmission medium. - For example, connector that joins one or more circuits. - Electrical part of physical layer relates to the representation of bits. - Functional parts of physical layer specifies the function performed by individual circuits between a system and the transmission medium.

Protocol Architecture:
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- Similarly, procedural part of physical layer species the sequence of events by which bit streams are exchanged across the physical medium. 2. Data Link Layer: - Data link layer attempts to make the physical link reliable and provides the means to activate, maintain, and deactivate the link. - It provides for the reliable transfer of information across physical link. - It sends blocks with the necessary synchronization, error control and flow control. 3. Network Layer:

- It defines the format of the date to be exchanged between applications. - It defines the syntax used between application and provides for the selection and subsequent modification of the presentation used. 7. Application Layer: - Application Layer provides a means for application programs to access the OSI environment. - It contains management functions and general purpose applications such as file transfer, electronic mail and terminal access to remote computers.

Frame Relay:
- A computer system engage in the dialog with the network to specify the destination address and to request network facilities. 4. Transport Layer: - It provides the mechanism for the exchange of data between and system. - The connection oriented transport service ensures that data are delivered error free, in sequence with no loss or duplication. 5.Session Layer: - It provides the mechanism for controlling the dialog between application in and systems. 6. Presentation Layer:
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- More efficient transmission scheme than X.25 - call control signaling is carried on separate logical connection from user data. - Intermediate nodes need not to maintain state tables or process messages relating to call control - Multiplexing and switching of logical connections takes place at layer 2 instead of layer 3, eliminating one entire layer of processing. - There is no hop-by hop flow control and error control. End to end flow control and error control are the responsibility of a higher layer, if they are employed at all. - Frame relay used access speed up to 2Mbps Frame relay service at even higher data rates are now available

- Frame Relay is designed to provide efficient transmission than X.25. - The X.25 approach results in considerable overhead at each hop through the network. - The data link control protocol involves the exchange of a data frame and acknowledgement frame. - At each intermediate node, state tables must be maintained for each virtual circuit to deal with cost management and flow/error, control aspects of X.25 protocol. - All these overhead may be justified when there is significant probability of error in any of the links in the network. - Today's network employee reliable digital transmission technology over high quality reliable digital transmission technology over high quality reliable transmission links such as optical fiber. - In this environment, the overhead of X.25 is not only unnecessary but degrades the effective utilization of the available high data rates. - Frame Relay is designed to eliminate much of the overhead that X.25 imposes on end user systems.

- The LLC sub-layer acts as an interface between the Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer and the network layer. - As the Ether type in an Ethernet II framing formatted frame is used to multiplex different protocols on top of the Ethernet MAC header it can be seen as LLC identifier. - The LLC sub layer is primarily concerned with: > Multiplexing protocols transmitted over the MAC layer (when transmitting) and decoding them (when receiving). > Providing flow and error control

LLC/MAC:
- The Logical Link Control (LLC) data communication protocol layer is the upper sub-layer of the Data Link Layer (which is itself layer 2, just above the Physical Layer) in the seven-layer OSI reference model. - It provides multiplexing mechanisms that make it possible for several network protocols (IP, IPX) to coexist within a multipoint network and to be transported over the same network media, and can also provide flow control mechanisms.
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- The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known as the Medium Access Control, is a sub layer of the Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (layer 2). - It provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multi-point network, typically a local area network (LAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN). - The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a Medium Access Controller. The MAC sub-layer acts as an interface between the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub layer and the network's physical layer. - The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.

Routing:
- Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic.

- Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network (Circuit switching) , electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. - This article is concerned primarily with routing in electronic data networks using packet switching technology. - In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes, typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. - General-purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. - The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. - Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router's memory, is very important for efficient routing. - Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. - Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. - Because structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging) in large networks, and has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet, though bridging is still widely used within localized environments.

- This architecture was developed by the IEEE 802 committee and has been adopted by all organizations working on the specification of LAN standards. - It is generally referred to as IEEE 802 Reference Model working from the bottom of the lowest layer of IEEE 802 corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model and includes functions as encoding, decoding of signals, preamble generation/removal and bit transmission/reception. 1. Physical Layer: - encoding and decoding of signals - pre able generation/removal (for synchronization) - bit transmission/reception 2.MAC(Medium Access Control) - on transmission assemble data into a frame with error detection and address fields - On reception, dissemble frame and perform address recognition and error detection - Goren access to LAN transmission medium 3.LLC(Logical Link Control) - provide an interface to higher layers and perform flow and error control 4. LLC Services: - Three services are provided under LLC services:
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IEE 802 Reference Model

> Unacknowledged Connectionless Service: - It is a very simple service that does not involve any of the flow and error control mechanisms. - Delivery of data is not guaranteed. - There will be some higher layer of software that deals with reliability issues. > Connection Mode services: - A logical connection is set up between two users exchanging data and flow and error control are provided. >Acknowledged Connectionless Services: - It provides acknowledgement but no logical connection is set up.

- CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection) is the protocol used in Ethernet networks to ensure that only one network node is transmitting on the network wire at any one time. - Carrier Sense means that every Ethernet device listens to the Ethernet wire before it attempts to transmit. - If the Ethernet device senses that another device is transmitting, it will wait to transmit. - Multiple Access means that more than one Ethernet device can be sensing (listening and waiting to transmit) at a time. - Collision Detection means that when multiple Ethernet devices accidentally transmit at the same time, they are able to detect this error. How Collisions Occur under CSMA/CD: - Imagine a very simple Ethernet network with only two nodes. - Each node, independently, decides to send an Ethernet frame to the other node. - Both nodes listen to the Ethernet wire and sense that no carrier is present. - Both nodes transmit simultaneously, causing a collision. - Both nodes detect the collision and each node waits a random amount of time before transmitting again. - Collisions are normal on an Ethernet network. - A small amount of collisions are expected in the protocol design. - If too many nodes are transmitting on an Ethernet network the number of collisions can rise to an unacceptable level. - This can reduce the amount of available bandwidth on an Ethernet network because so much bandwidth is lost in retransmission.
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Ethernet CSMA-CD:
- Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs). - The name came from the physical concept of the ether. - It defines a number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI networking model as well as a common addressing format and Media Access Control at the Data Link Layer. - Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. - The combination of the twisted pair versions of Ethernet for connecting end systems to the network, along with the fiber optic versions for site backbones, is the most widespread wired LAN technology. CSMA/CD:

- Ethernet switches greatly reduce the already minor difficulties experienced with the CSMA/CD protocol.

- call control packets, used for setting up and cleaning virtual

circuits are carried on same channel and same virtual circuit as data packets - multiplexing of virtual circuits takes place at layer 3 - Both layer 2 and layer 3 include flow control and error control mechanisms

X.25:
- The X.25 protocol, adopted as a standard by the Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and Telephone (CCITT), is a commonly-used network protocol. - The X.25 protocol allows computers on different public networks (such as CompuServe, Tymnet, or a TCP/IP network) to communicate through an intermediary computer at the network layer level. - X.25's protocols correspond closely to the data-link and physical-layer protocols defined in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model. - Three levels: > Physical Layer: - physical interface between and attached station(computer terminal and Packet Switching mode. > Link Level: - provides reliable transfer of data across physical link - It is referred as Link Access protocol - Balanced(LABP) > Packet Level: - provides virtual circuit service - enables any subscriber to the network to setup logical conditions

ATM:
- Asynchronous Transfer Mode - It is a streamlined packet transfer interface. - ATM makes use of a fixed size packets called cells. - The use of fixed size and fixed formats results an efficient scheme for transmission over high speed networks. - data rate range from 25.6 Mbps to 622.08 Mbps - Physical layer specifies transmission medium and signal encoding scheme - ATM layer defines transmission of data in fixed size cells and defines the use of logical connection. - ATM adaptation layer maps higher layer information into ATM cells to be transported over an ATM network. - User plane provides user information into ATM cells to be transported over an ATM network - user plane provides user information transfer(eg. flow control, error control) - Control plane provides call control and connection control functions. - Management plane performs coordination between all the planes and layers management.

Following are the key features of X:25:

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CHP: 6 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Guided and Unguided Media: - Guided media are those that provides physical conduction from one device to another which includes twisted pairs, coaxial cables and fiber-optic cables. - Unguided Media transports electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. - This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.

Transmission Media:
- Transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and in a data transmission system. - Transmission media can be classified or unguided. In both cases, communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves. - With guided media, the waves are guided along a solid medium, such as copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and optical fiber. - The atmosphere and outer space are examples of unguided media that provide a means of transmitting Electromagnetic signals but do not guide them; this form of transmission is usually referred to as wireless transmission. - The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of the signal. - In the case of guided media, the medium itself is more important in determining the limitations of transmission.
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- For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna is more important than the medium in determining transmission characteristics. - One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is directionality. - In general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the signal propagates in all directions from the antenna. - At higher frequencies, it is possible to focus the signal into a directional beam. - In considering the design of data transmission systems, a key concern, generally, is data rate and distance: the greater the data rate and distance, the better. - A number of design factors relating to the transmission medium and to the signal determine the data rate and distance: >>Bandwidth: - All other factors remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a signal, the higher the data rate that can be achieved. >>Transmission impairments: - Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance. - For guided media, twisted pair generally suffer more impairment than coaxial cable, which in turn suffers more than optical fiber. >>Interference: - Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency bands can distort or wipe out a signal. Interference is of particular concern for unguided media, but it is also a problem with guided media.

- For guided media, interference can be caused by emanations from nearby cables. - For example, twisted pair are often bundled together, and conduits often carry multiple cables. - Interference can also be experienced from unguided transmissions. - Proper shielding of a guided medium can minimize this problem. >> Number of receivers: - A guided medium can be used to construct a point-to point link or a shared link with multiple attachments. - In the latter case, each attachment introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line, limiting distance and/or data rate.

- The wires are paired and twisted around each other to decrease certain electromagnetic problems. - The most common twisted pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted pair(UTP) cable. - STP cable(shielded Twisted Pair) has a metal foil or braidedmesh covering each pair of insulated conductors. - Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or cross-talk, it is bulkier and more expensive. >>Applications: - Twisted pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. - The line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office is most commonly unshielded twisted pair cables. - Local area networks such as 10 Base-T and 100 Base-T also use twisted pair cables.

Wired Pairs:
- Wires are described by their size. - Higher gauge number indicates thinner wire size. - The smaller the diameter of the wire, the greater is resistance to the propagation of a signal. - Increased resistance results in a decreased bit rate across the communication path. - At higher transmission frequencies, the signal tends to travel on the outside surface of the wire. - A small wire provides less total surface for the radiating signal, resulting in increased signal loss. - The local subscriber loops ( of the telephone system) and usually to 22-26 gauge wire. - Trunk and toll lines typically employ 19-gauge wires. - Several Hundred of these wires are packaged into one cables.
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Micro-waves:
- Microwave is a directed line of sight(LOS) radio transmission. - It is used for wide band communication systems and is quite common in the telephone system. - Television transmission also utilizes microwave transmission because microwave transmission is above the 1 GHz and provides the capacity required for video transmission. - The high bandwidth gives small wavelength and the smaller the wavelength, the smaller one can design the microwave antenna. - The antenna size has significant implications for distributed processing systems.

- The transmitting towers are spaced 20-30 m apart. - Transmitted radio bean is focused to the receiving antenna.

COAXIAL Cables:
- Co-axial cables carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable. - Instead of having two wires, co-axial cable has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath which in turn is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil or combination of two. - The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as a second conductor. - The whole cable is protected by a plastic cover. Applications: - The use of co-axial cable is diverse but nowadays it is shrinking due to fibre optic cable. - Co-axial cables are used in analog telephone networks and cable Tv networks.

- As the above figure, if the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle, the ray diffracts and move to closer to the surface. - If angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface and refraction occurs. - If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects and travels again in the denser substances. - Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through a channel. - A glass or plastic core is surrounded by cladding of less dense glass or plastic. - The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being reflected into it.

Propagation Modes:
a. Multimode step index: - in multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center of the edges, - A beam of light moves through these constant densities in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. - As the interface, there is an abrupt change to a lower density that alters the angle of the beam motion. - The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change. b. Multimode graded index: - A second type of fiber called multimode graded index fiber is one with varying densities. - Density is highest at center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
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Fiber optic Cables:

- A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of lights. - Lights travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. - If a ray of light travelling through one substance suddenly enters another(more or less dense the ray changes direction).

c. Single mode: - Single mode uses step index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. - The single mode fiber is manufactured with a much smaller diameter that that of multimode fiber.

- Since, electromagnetic waves doesn't need any medium to transmit the signal specially in wireless communication system we often use the atmosphere for transmission of channel. - Here, interference and propagation condition are strongly dependent upon the frequency.

Applications: - Optical fiber cable is found in backbone networks because of its wide bandwidth and is cost effective. - cable TV companies use a combination of optical fibers and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid network. Advantages: - Higher bandwidth - Less signal attenuation - Immunity to electromagnetic interference - Light weight - Resistance to corrosive materials Disadvantages: - Installation/maintenance - Unidirectional - Cost

Types of Electromagnetic waves:

a. Ground Wave Propagation: - Dominant mode of propagation for frequency below 2 mHz. - Electromagnetic waves are guided by the conducting surface of the earth, along which they are propagated. - Diffraction of the wave causes it to propagate where this propagation mode is used in AM broadcasting. - For efficient radiation, the antenna needs to be longer than 1/10 th of the wave length. b. Sky Wave Propagation: - Dominant mode of propagation for frequencies in between 2 to 30 Mhz. - Long distance coverage is obtained by the reflecting the wave at the ionosphere and at the earth boundaries. - This is caused due to reflection. c. Line of sight(LOS) or Space Wave propagation: - Dominant mode of propagation for frequencies above 30 Mhz. - Here, electromagnetic wave propagates in a straight line.
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Electromagnetic waves:
- The electromagnetic waves used e propagation characteristics of wireless channels are highly dependent on frequency.

- Very little reflection by the ionosphere, - This is used for satellite communication. - Its maximum range is limited to line of sight due to nature of propagation. Disadvantages: - For communication between two each stations, the signal path has to be above the horizon otherwise they will block the LOS path. - Thus antennas need to be placed on tall towers so that receiver antenna can see the transmitting antenna.

The Satellite - The satellite itself is also known as the space segment, and is composed of three separate units, namely the fuel system, the satellite and telemetry controls, and the transponder. - The transponder includes the receiving antenna to pick-up signals from the ground station, a broad band receiver, an input multiplexer, and a frequency converter which is used to reroute the received signals through a high powered amplifier for downlink. - The primary role of a satellite is to reflect electronic signals. - In the case of a telecom satellite, the primary task is to receive signals from a ground station and send them down to another ground station located a considerable distance away from the first. - This relay action can be two-way, as in the case of a long distance phone call. - Another use of the satellite is when, as is the case with television broadcasts, the ground station's uplink is then down linked over a wide region, so that it may be received by many different customers possessing compatible equipment. - Still another use for satellites is observation, wherein the satellite is equipped with cameras or various sensors, and it merely downlinks any information it picks up from its vantage point.

Radio waves and Microwaves:

1. 3 KHz to 1 GHz - 1 GHz to 300 GHz 2. for the most part are omnidirectional - unidirectional 3. Omnidirectional antennas are generally used - line of sight propagation, unidirectional antennas are used 4.AM,FM radio - cellular phones, satellite networks

Satellite Communications:
- Satellite communications are components: comprised of 2 main

The Ground Station: - This is the earth segment.

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- The ground station's job is two-fold. In the case of an uplink, or transmitting station, terrestrial data in the form of baseband signals, is passed through a baseband processor, an up converter, a high powered amplifier, and through a parabolic dish antenna up to an orbiting satellite. - In the case of a downlink, or receiving station, works in the reverse fashion as the uplink, ultimately converting signals received through the parabolic antenna to base band signal.

- The mobile switching center is sometimes called a mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), since it is responsible for connecting all mobiles to the PSTN via central office(CO). - Each user communicates via radio from a cellular telephone set to the cell site base station. - This base station is connected via telephone lines or microwave link to the mobile switching center. - The MSC connects the user to the called party if the called party is land based, the connection is via the central office (CO) is the terrestrial telephone network. - If the called party is mobile, the connection is made to the cellular site that covers the area in which the third party is located, using an available radio channel in the cell associated with the called party. - If more channels are needed, the existing cell sizes are decreased, and additional small cells are inserted, so that existing channels can be reused more efficiently. - The critical consideration is to design the cells for acceptable levels of a Co channel interference. - As the mobile user travels from one cell to another, the MSC automatically switches the user to an available channel in the new cell and the telephone continues un-interrupted. - The cellular concept has following advantages: > large subscriber capacity > Efficient use of the radio spectrum > Service to hand held portables, as well as vehicles. > High Quality telephone and data service to the mobile user at relatively low cost.

Cellular Telephony System:

- A cellular telephone system provides a wireless connection to the terrestrial telephone network( PSTN: Public switch Telephone Network) for any user location within the radio range of the system. - Cellular systems accommodate a large number of users over a large geographic area, within a limited frequency spectrum. - Cellular radio system provide high quality service that is often comparable to that of the landline telephone systems. - High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of each base station transmitter to a small geographic area called a cell so that the same radio channels may be reused by another base station located some distance away. - A sophisticated switching technique called a handoff enables a call to proceed uninterrupted when the user moves from one cell to another. - The basic structure of cellular system is as below: - The basic cellular system consists mobile stations, base stations and a mobile switching center(MSC).
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Transmission Modes:
Parallel Transmission: - Parallel Transmission is a method of data transmission in which the bits of a data character are transmitted simultaneously over a number of channels/ports. - In parallel transmission, coded information are transmitted via a system with multiple ports/channels. - The port 1 is used to transport the first MSB (Most Significant Bit) and the second port carries the second MSBs, so on and so forth. Serial Transmission: Synchronous and asynchronous transmission Given the problems that arise with a parallel-type connection, serial connections are normally used. However, since a single wire transports the information, the problem is how to synchronies the transmitter and receiver, in other words, the receiver can not necessarily distinguish the characters (or more generally the bit sequences) because the bits are sent one after the other. There are two types of transmission that address this problem: An asynchronous connection, in which each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example a user sending characters entered at the keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine that a single bit is transmitted during a long period of silence... the receiver will not be able to know if this is 00010000, 10000000 or 00000100...
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To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some information indicating the start of character transmission (the transmission start information is called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-transmission information (called STOP bit, there may even be several STOP bits). In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock. The receiver continuously receives (even when no bits are transmitted) the information at the same rate the transmitter send it. This is why the transmitter and receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition, supplementary information is inserted to guarantee that there are no errors during transmission. During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent successively with no separation between each character, so it is necessary to insert synchronization elements; this is called character-level synchronization. The main disadvantage of synchronous transmission is recognizing the data at the receiver, as there may be differences between the transmitter and receiver clocks. That is why each data transmission must be sustained long enough for the receiver to distinguish it. As a result, the transmission speed can not be very high in a synchronous link

Transmission Impairments:
3. Noise: - The signal received may differ from that is transmitted due to various transmission impairments. - for analog signals, these impairments can degrade the signal quality - for digital, bit errors may be introduced. - A binary 1 is transformed into binary 0 and vice versa. 1. Attenuation: - strength of a signal falls off with distance over any transmission medium. - Hence, a received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic circuitry in the receiver can detect the signal. - The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error. - Attenuation is an increasing concern of frequency. - Hence, amplifiers must be used that amplify high frequencies more than lower frequencies. 2. Delay Distortion: - occurs because of the velocity of propagation of a signal through guided medium varies with frequency. - For a band limited signal, the velocity tends to be highest near the central frequency and falls off towards the two edges of the band. - Thus, various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times resulting in phase shifts between the different frequencies. - Intersymbol Interference occurs due to delay distortion
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- unwanted man made or natural random signal that adds to the received signal and degrades the performances. - Such type of unwanted random signal is noise. > Thermal noise: - due to the thermal agitation of electrons in the conductor. > Shot Noise: - due to the flow of current at the junction of semi conductor. > Burst Noise: -due to the sudden high amplitude making the signal change its value such as lightning, electrical ignition system. > Intermodulation Noise: - due to non linearitys in the transmitter, receiver and interviewing transmission media. > Cross talk Noise: - due to coupling of nearby line. > Flicker Noise: - low frequency Noise > Transit time Noise: - High frequency Noise

DATA LINK CONTROL

Flow control:
- Flow control is a technique for assuring that a transmitting entity does not overwhelm a receiving entity with data. The receiving entity typically allocates a data buffer of some maximum length for a transfer. - When data are received, the receiver must do a certain amount of processing before passing the data to the higher-level software. - In the absence of flow control, the receiver's buffer may fill up and overflow while it is processing old data.

Stop-and-Wait Flow Control:

- The simplest form of flow control, known as stop-and-wait flow control, works as follows. - A source entity transmits a frame. After reception, the destination entity indicates its willingness to accept another frame by sending back an acknowledgment to the frame just received. - The source must wait until it receives the acknowledgment before sending the next frame. - The destination can thus stop the flow of data by simply withholding acknowledgment. - This procedure works fine and,
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indeed, can hardly be improved upon when a message is sent in a few large frames. - However, it is often the case that a source will break up a large block of data into smaller blocks and transmit the data in many frames. - This is done for the following reasons: > The buffer size of the receiver may be limited. > The longer the transmission, the more likely that there will be an error, necessitating retransmission of the entire frame. With smaller frames, errors are detected sooner, and a smaller amount of data needs to be retransmitted. > On a shared medium, such as a LAN, it is usually desirable not to permit one station to occupy the medium for an extended period, as this causes long delays at the other sending stations.

Sliding Window Flow control: - Allows multiple frames to be in transit - Receiver sends acknowledgement with sequence number of anticipated frame - Sender maintains list of sequence number of anticipated frame - Sender maintains list of sequence numbers it can send, receiver maintains list of sequence numbers it can receive. - ACk (acknowledgement) supplemented with RNR (receiver not ready)

- The essence of the problem described so far is that only one frame at a time can be in transit. - In situations where the bit length of the link is greater than the frame length (a > I), serious inefficiencies result. - Efficiency can be greatly improved by allowing multiple frames to be in transit at the same time.

> Error detection. As discussed in the preceding section. > Positive acknowledgment. The destination returns a positive acknowledgment to successfully received, error-free frames. > a Retransmission after timeout. The source retransmits a frame that has not been acknowledged after a predetermined amount of time. > Negative acknowledgment and retransmission. The destination returns a negative acknowledgment to frames in which an error is detected. - The source retransmits such frames. Collectively, these mechanisms are all referred to as automatic repeat request (ARQ); the effect of ARQ is to turn an unreliable data link into a reliable one. - Three versions of ARQ have been standardized: > Stop-and-wait ARQ > Go-back-N ARQ > Selective-reject ARQ Stop or Wait ARQ: - Stop-and-wait ARQ is based on the stop-and-wait flow-control technique - The source station transmits a single frame and then must await an acknowledgment (ACK). - No other data frames can be sent until the destination station's reply arrives at the source station.
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Error Control:
Error control refers to mechanisms to detect and correct errors that occur in the transmission of frames. - The model that we will use, which covers the typical case. - As before, data are sent as a sequence of frames; frames arrive in the same order in which they are sent; and each transmitted frame suffers an arbitrary and variable amount of delay before reception. In addition, we admit the possibility of two types of errors: > Lost frame. - A frame fails to arrive at the other side. - For example, a noise burst may damage a frame to the extent that the receiver is not aware that a frame has been transmitted. > Damaged frame: A recognizable frame does arrive, but some of the bits are in error (have been altered during transmission). - The most common techniques for error control are based on some or all of the following ingredients:

- Two sorts of errors could occur. First, the frame that arrives at the destination could be damaged; the receiver detects this by using the error detection technique referred to earlier and simply discards the frame. - To account for this possibility, the source station is equipped with a timer. - After a frame is transmitted, the source station waits for an acknowledgment. - If no acknowledgment is received by the time the timer expires, then the same frame is sent again. - Note that this method requires that the transmitter maintain a copy of a transmitted frame until an acknowledgment is received for that frame. - The second sort of error is a damaged acknowledgment.

- If the destination station detects an error in a frame, it sends a negative acknowledgment (REJ = reject) for that frame. - The destination station will discard that frame and all future incoming frames until the frame in error is correctly received. - Thus, the source station, when it receives an REJ, must retransmit the frame in error plus all succeeding frames that were transmitted in the interim.

Go back N ARQ - The form of error control based on sliding-window flow control that is most commonly used is called go-back-N ARQ. - In go-back-N ARQ, a station may send a series of frames sequentially numbered modulo some maximum value. - The number of unacknowledged frames outstanding is determined by window size, using the sliding-window flow control technique. - While no errors occur, the destination will acknowledge (RR = receive ready) incoming frames as usual.
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MULTIPLEXING AND SWITCHING Switching:

1. Circuit Switching: - Real time data transmission is provided by the direct connection - Dial up delay can be eliminated by using leased lines - Blockage can occur in which case busy signal is returned to sender - Transmissions are point to point - Once connection is established, any subsequent overload of the switch is invisible to the connected components 2. Message Switching: - Connection is not a direct physical interface as in circuit switching - Data connections use variable slots if TDM is employed - Messages are stored onto disk, tape before transmission, real time processing is usually not feasible - messages can be broadcast to all nodes in the network or subset of nodes - priorities are allowed in the message traffic 3. Packet Switching: - combination of circuit and message switching - packet contains user and control data - provides stastical multiplexing - provides fast response to all users
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- provides high availability of the network to all users.

Multiplexing:
- There are n inputs to a multiplexer. The multiplexer is connected by a single data link to a demultiplexer. - The link is able to carry n separate channels of data. - The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from the n input lines and transmits over a higher capacity data link. - The demultiplexer accepts the multiplexed data stream, separates (demultiplexer) the data according to channel, and delivers them to the appropriate output lines.

FDM(Frequency Division Multiplexing):

- FDM is possible when the useful bandwidth of the transmission medium exceeds the required bandwidth of signals to be transmitted. - A number of signals can be carried simultaneously if each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency and the carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated that the bandwidths of the signals do not overlap. - Six signal sources are fed into a multiplexer, which modulates each signal onto a different frequency (fi, . . . , f6). - Each modulated signal requires a certain bandwidth centered around its carrier frequency, referred to as a channel. - To prevent interference, the channels are separated by guard bands, which are unused portions of the spectrum.

Synchronous TDM:
- Synchronous time-division multiplexing is possible when the achievable data rate (sometimes, unfortunately, called bandwidth) of the medium exceeds the data rate of digital signals to be transmitted. Multiple digital signals (or analog signals carrying digital data) can be carried on a single transmission path by interleaving portions of each signal in time. - The interleaving can be at the bit level or in blocks of bytes or larger quantities. - For example, the multiplexer has six inputs which might each be, say, 9.6 kbps. - A single line with a capacity of at least 57.6 kbps (plus overhead capacity) could accommodate all six sources.

> Telephone trunk (multiple phone) lines that terminate at the PBX > A computer with memory that manages the switching of the calls within the PBX and in and out of it > The network of lines within the PBX > Usually a console or switchboard for a human operator - In some situations, alternatives to a PBX include centrex service (in which a pool of lines are rented at the phone company's central office), key telephone systems, and, for very small enterprises, primary rate Integrated Services Digital Network.

Switched 56/ Service:

- digital version of analog switched line - data rates up to 56 Kbps - both parties must subscribe - subscribes do not need modem - digital service unit (DSU) is needed to change the rate to 56 Kbps and encode them in the format of service providers. - supports video conferencing, multimedia etc

Private Branch Exchange:

- A PBX (private branch exchange) is a telephone system within an enterprise that switches calls between enterprise users on local lines while allowing all users to share a certain number of external phone lines. - The main purpose of a PBX is to save the cost of requiring a line for each user to the telephone company's central office. - The PBX is owned and operated by the enterprise rather than the telephone company (which may be a supplier or service provider, however). - Private branch exchanges used analog technology originally. - Today, PBXs use digital technology (digital signals are converted to analog for outside calls on the local loop using plain old telephone service). A PBX includes:
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DATA ENCODING AND MODULATION

Definition of digital signal encoding formats:
Nonreturn-to-Zero-Level (NRZ-L): 0 = high level 1 = low level Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI): 0 = no transition at beginning of interval (one bit time) 1 = transition at beginning of interval Bipolar- AM1: 0 = no line signal 1 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive ones Pseudo ternary 0 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive zeros 1 = no line signal Manchester: 0 = transition from high to low in middle of interval 1 = transition from low to high in middle of interval Differential Manchester: Always a transition in middle of interval 0 = transition at beginning of interval 1 = no transition at beginning of interval BIZS:
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Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of eight zeros is replaced by a string with two code violations

HDB3: - Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of four zeros is replaced by a string with one code violation

Encoding:
- In combining the processes of sampling and quantizing, the specification of a continuous base-band signal becomes limited to a discrete set of values but not in the form best suited for transmission over a line or a radio path or optical fiber. - To exploit the advantages of sampling and quantizing, we require the use of an encoding process to translate the discrete set of sample values to a more appropriate form of signal. - Any plan for representing each member of this discrete values as a particular arrangement of discrete elements is called encoding. - Suppose, in a binary code each code word consists of n bits. - Then using such a a code we may represent a total of 2^n distinct numbers L=2^n

Amplitude shift Keying

- The most basic form of ASK involves the process of switching the carrier on or off, in correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that constitute the information signal.

- binary digit 1 represented by the presence of a carrier and the binary digit 0 represented by the absence of a carrier. - Frequency remains fixed. s(t) = Ac cos2fct for binary 1 0 for binary 0

Delta Modulation:
- Delta Modulation is 1 bit ( or two level) version of DPCM. - In delta Modulation the difference between the original sample and its approximation is quantized in one of the two possible levels + /\ or -/\ and each level is converted in to 1 bit codeword. - Thus, the delta modulation uses only one bit to represent each sampled value. sampled i/p m(nTs)---> Sum---> 1 bit quantizer-------> DM wave sum Mq(nTs-Ts)--------------Delay Ts < ------- Mq(nTs)

Frequency Shift Keying:

- The basic form of FSK involves the process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave by choosing one of two frequencies in correspondence of digital pulses that constitute the information signal. - Two binary digits 0 and 1 are represented by two frequencies around the carrier frequency. - Amplitude remains fixed. s(t) = Ac cos2f1t for 1 Ac cos2f2t for 0

Quantization Noise in DM:

- Delta Modulation systems are subjected to two types of quantizing error: Slope over load distortion:

Phase Shift Keying:

- The most basic form of PSK involves the process of shifting the phase of a carrier wave in correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that constitute the information signal. - The two binary digits 0 and 1 are represented in which the carrier phase for each symbol is differ by 180 frequency and Amplitude remains fixed. s(t) = Ac cos2 fc t for symbol 1 Ac cos(2 fc t+ ) for symbol 0
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- If the slope of the signal is so high then the step-size may not be sufficient to follow the rate of change of the signal. - In this case, the condition is called slope overload distortion and the resulting quantizing error is called slope overload distortion or noise. - Slope Overload distortion can be reduced by filtering the signal to limit its maximum rate of changes or by increasing the step noise. - The condition for no-slope over distortion is: del/Ts >= max(d(m(t)/dt)

Granular Noise: - When the slope of the signal is low that is signal is almost constant w.r.t time and /\ step size is relatively high, the approximation starts to swing from - /\ to + /\ causing high noise level called the granular noies. - This noise can be minimized by reducing the step size /\.

2. Bandwidth: AM >> Bandwidth requirement for AM is less i.e. BW Am = 2 * fm FM >> Bandwidth requirement for FM is greater than AM i.e BW Fm = 2(beta+1) 3. Propagation: AM>> Ground Wave propagation FM >> Ground Vertical Propagation 4. SNR : AM >> Required high SNR FM >> low SNR is sufficient for transmission 6. Distance: AM>> used in long distance transmission process amplification is easier FM>> Low coverage area and LOS communication is required power amplification is difficult

Pulse code Modulation:

- PCM is an method of converting an analog signal to digital signal. - In this method, the analog message signal is sampled (sampling) and the amplitude of a each sampled signal is rounded off (quantizing) to the nearest one of the finites set of discrete levels. - This discrete signal is then converted into binary digital signalor digital codeword (encoding) - PCM is not modulation in conventional sense. - The term modulation usually refers to the variation of some characteristics of carrier waves accordance with the information bearing signal.

AM and FM
1. Quality AM >> low quality than FM and highly susceptible to noise FM >> High Quality (or good) because noise highly effect the amplitude rather than frequency so FM has high noise immunity than AM.
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MODEMS
Modems:
- The digitally oriented computers and terminals often communicate with one another through the analog telephone facilities. - Therefore the digital messages must be translated into a form suitable for transmission across the analog network. -The term modem is derived from the process of accepting digital bits and changing them into a form suitable for analog transmission and receiving the signal at other station and transforming it back to original digital representation. - i.e. first modulation and then demodulation - Modems are derived from these two words. - Modems are designed around the use of carrier frequency.

- In its simplest form, the carrier signal can be switched on or off to represent the binary state. - AM modulation is not often used by itself due to transmission power problems and sensitivity due to distortion. - However it is commonly used with phase modulation to yield a method superior to either FM or AM. Frequency Modulation: - This method changes the frequency of the carrier in accordance with the digital bit stream. - The amplitude and phase are held constant. - In its simplest form, a binary 1 is represented by a certain frequency and a binary 0 by another. Phase Modulation: - Phase modulation Modems interrupts the continuous wave form and alter the phase of the signal to represent a 1 0r 0. - the common approach today is to compare the phase of the cycle in a current time period to the phase of in a previous time period. - This approach is called differential phase shift keying(DPSK)

Digital Modulation Methods:

- Three basic modulation methods exists. - Some modems use more than one of the methods. - Each method impresses the digital data signal onto the analog carrier signal.

Amplitude Modulation:
- Amplitude Modulation alter the carrier signal amplitude in accordance with the modulating digital bit stream. - The frequency and phase of the carrier are held constant and the amplitude is raised or lowered to represent a 0 or 1.
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