THE

ART OF

ANCIENT INDIA
Buddhist, Hindu,Jain
by Susan Huntington L.
with contributions by John C. Huntington

.WEATHERHILL
New York - Tokyo

;gl;;r+l;"4

Contents

Preface Acknowledgments and Credits A Note on Pronunciaiion and Transliteration of Sanskrit Introducrion GeographicalConsideradons, xxiii , The Problem of Dating, xxu , Art and Calarq xxvi
xxnl tc111

Panr ONs. Foundationsof krdic Civilization; The Prehistoricand Protohistoric Periods Antecedents Indic Civilizatiorr of Stone Age PaintingandSculpture, . EarlyNeolithicArt, 5 . Conclusion, I 3
2

The Indus (or Harappa)Civilization (ca.z3oo to r75o B.C.) Tfie Citiesand Towns, r o . Sculpture,lz . Seah, . fon"Iy, z4 . T'l-te Y8 Eclipseof
the hrdus Civrlization, z5

The Vedic and UpanisadicPeriods (ca. r5oo to 45o B.c.) z6 The Indo-Aryans,z6.Literary Evidence:The Vedas(ca. r5oo to 8oo a.c.), 27. Literarylvidence: The Upanigads 8ooto 45on.c.), z8 . Other Literary Evidence: (ca. The Purenas Epics,3o . Mahavira, and Sakyamuni Buddha,and the Rise of Magadha, . Archaeological jj Evidence, ' Other IndigenousTrends:MegalithicRemains of .3r Southern India,j4 . Conclusion, 36

PARr Two.

Period of the Early Dynasties 41

4 The Maurya Period(ca.323to r85 n.c.) \\ Edictsand Pillars,43 . Rock-cutArchitecture, . Other Aiokan Monuments, . 46 5o
lttl

CONTENTS'

Maurya-period Sctrlpturefrom Palaliputra, 5t . Maurya-period Terra-cotta Sculpture, 54 . Conclusion, 55 5 The SufrgaPeriod and RelatedDevelopments(ca. SecondCenrury to First Century n.c.) \ ,.. . The Mafura RegionDuring the Suirga Vidi(d in the Suaga period, 6o . Period,57 period: Free-standing ,.Siiddhist Arr of the Suirga irchi Mooo-"rrts, 6r . Rock"",*J cut A_rchitecture the Suiga Period: The Westem Deccan,74 . The EasternDeccan: of The AndhraPradesh Region,f5 . Suirga-period Terra Cottas,88 . Conclusion, 89 6 Regional Developments(ca.Late First Cenrury B.c. Through First Century a.o.) The VidiSd Region:Sancr, . BuddhistRock-cutArchitecture ofthe Western 91 Deccan: Bedsa,roo . Eastem India: Khar.rdagiri/Udaya to5 . Concluson,rod giri, 7 The Sakaand Parthian Kingdoms in the Indic Sphere(ca.First Century n.c. to Mid-First Century a.o.) Introduction to the Bactro-Gandhara Region, to9.'fhe KapiSaRegion, trc.-Ihe Gandhara Region, 116. The Swat Valley (Ancient U{diyana), rr9 . Northem India (TheMathuraRegion),tzz . Conclusion, rz3 8 The Northwest and Northern Regions Under the Kuganas Late (ca. First Century to Third Century a.o.) Royal Shrines, tz6.'Ihe Ba'ctro-Gandham Region: Architectvte, 130. The Bactro_ Gandhara Region: Sct pture, r37 . Northern India: Mathura and Related Sites,rjo . Non-Buddhist Sculpture Mathura,t 59 . Concl:osion, z at fi 9 Regional Developmentsin the Deccan(ca. Secondand Third Cenruries) The WesternDeccanCaves,fi j . The Eastern Deccan:The Andhra pradeshResion Under the Later Satavthanas Ik5vakus, . Conclusion, and r74 r83

56

go

1o9

n5

163

Panr TnnEr. Dynastiesof the Middle period g/ The Gupta Period (Fourth to Sixth Cenruries) 182 ' . BuddhistArt of the Fifth CenturyI North_ Hindu Art ofthe Early GuptaPeriod,188 CentralIndia (Sdnc\, 196. Buddhist Art of the Fifth Century: North IrLdia (Mathuri and Sarnath), zoo . Buddhist Art in the Northwest, 2r5 . Hindu Temple Architectute,zo6. Brick Temples Tesa-cott^ Att, z 13 . Metal Images, rg . Conclusion, 6 and z zr The Gupta Aftermath The Disintegration the Empire, 220 . Ootgrowtll of the Gupta ldioms (ca.55oto of
220

rr

CONTENTS

7oo), zzz . EasternIndia, zz3 . Buddhist Art in the Xast,zzj . Hinda Art in the East, zz7 . Westem Indian Developrnen*, zzg . Conclusion,zj6 2jg Jz- Buddhist Cave A:qhitecture (Fifth Through Seventh Centuries). AljxtjS,zjg. Bagh, z6o ' Kenheri,z6z . Ixtangabad, 265. Ellon,268 . Conclusion,
274

Hindu Rock-cut Architecture ofthe Deccan(Kalacuri and Early Western Calukya Phases)

zZ5

The EarlyKalacuriPeiod, z75 . Caves ofthe EarlyWestem Calukyas, . Conclusion, z8z 290 Southern DevelopmentsUnder the Pallavas and the Pandyas The Pallavas, . The EarlyPandyas, . Conclusior., z9r jt9 Tzr zg1

r 5 The nady WesternCalukya and RelatedSchoolsofthe Deccan

Temples Structural ofthe Early Westem Calukyas, . The Xastern Calukyas, . ,22 337 . Conclusion,j4o The Nolambas,336
I6

jzz

Hindu Rock-cut Architecture of the Western Deccan Illora (Rastrakata j4t Phase), . Conclusion, 350

141

Panr Foun. Later Northern Schools Ka(mir and Related Schools Pre-Karkoqa Remains, 354 . The Karkola Period (ca.62J to 8jJ), j57 . The LJtpala Dynasty(ca.855 to y9), 3{ 5 . The Two LoharaDynasties and the Last Hindu Kings (Tenth to Fourteenth Centuries), j68.The 368.Kairnhi lvories and Metal Images, Art of Adjacent Regions:WesternHimdlayanFoothillsandWestemTibetan Cultural Region,374 . Conclusion, 385 "J8.' Biher and Bengal Under the Palaand SenaKings BuddhistArt, 38g; Hindt Art, 407 . Conclusion, 4r3 19 Orissaand RelatedRegions Snpura (Sirpur)and Rajim: Madhya Pradesh, . Hindu Art and Architectureof 4r5 Orissa, . BuddhistArt of Oissa,444, Conclusion, 4zr 448 20 North-Central and Northwestern India: The Art of the Rejput Clans The Gurjara-Pratiharas Kanauj(ca.73oto tozT),452, The Haihayas Kalacuris) of (or of Tripun, 462.'fhe Cand,ellas Bundelkhand, . ThePanmaras Malwa, 480. of of 466 44g j87 j5J

415

CONTENTS

The Solankis . The ofGujarat(ca.9Jo r3o4 196r-l,2441.1),483 Gahadvalas to ofVararlasi (ca.ro75to rzoo),499 . Manuscript ali\ting,500. Conclusion, P 5oz

Panr Frvr. Later Schoolsofthe Deccanand the South

2I

The Cola and RelatedSchools the Tamil South (Mid-Ninth to of Thirteenth Centuries) Conclusion, 538 Later Deccan Schools The WesternGangas ofTalakad(TenthCenrury),54r . The LaterCalukyas Kalyani of (973to . tfig), S+l . The Yadavas Devagiri(ri9i to r3rr), J48 . The Kakatiyas of of " Hanamlor.rda Warangal Mid-EleventhCenturyto ca. :.1'25), . TheHoysalas and (ca. 549 ofSouthernKarr.rataka roo6to \46), 555. Conclusion,5Tz (ca.

509

540

z3 The VijayanagarPeriod (ca. r336 to rJ6J) Conclusion,536

)/)

2+ The Nayak Period

Conclusion,6oo
25

567

The Kerala Region Conclusion, dt5 Afterword

6ot

6tr

Notes Select Bibliography Glossary List of Maps Illustration Index Index

6t9 659 715 7'33 735

ColotPlates appear t6z, 4oz, and 594. Jollouixgpages

A Noie on Fron'unciation anclTransiiteration Sansl.-rii of,

rhc sllic oi

siuplicitv

;rrr11corrsislcrcv,

-rcvcr lpproprilte. rleirv nanrcs. rcligioLrs ::.Irs, ,rncl orhur tachnit:el t.rrns hll.: L,::c]l -'n irr thc S.rnskrir (Sarrrslrra) l.rngurqc in L.ook. A Serrkrit trensliteletion lncl pro:iirtion guicle is -qiven bclrr',. Trenslitcrerioir : ,,1oLlicr Sarrsl<rilic l,rnqLreq..r\ (Hir(li. P.Liriabi. lirllorvs tlri: \xn1c systa!r1l l)r:rlirlirn l.rrr.-rs (Tenril. Melel'a1lnr, rtc.), erc rrens: rtccl lccor.ling to tlis s,vstcrn \\ llcrc\ cr ,Lble.Prorrunciation oi thcsc llnquagcs vlrir-'s :'rrlcrlbl! rLrd no :ltr:cnrIt hrs bccn nr.ir]c rroviclc e Ir1)nrnrciltion gLri.lc tol thcm. 'l :,'r' J;rrgLrlqcsPosi:rn. ibcrer. ctc.). :L:e ( rrlirr'rltctl :rccorclilg to sturrrllrrl .t stcnrs. '' ' ''"-.1 l'.' I b .'r r \.r .. , r:;

- W.rdc Cilcs ststclu iD tlrt tcrt, bnr thc ,iit rolnrniz:Ltiorr is prLr''iJcJ in prrclthcsi-s ,rr."'iugrh,-:rvor:,:L rlrc inrlcs. il .)riqinrlly JcscribcJ in i1 svstclilrti2cJ rr:uilrcr ft' thalr 2.iori ),cirr\ xqo br nncicnt Intllc :.un:rLirrns, inclLrriing the t'ell Lnot.n l'lniui lburtL ccnturv B.c.), Sirn\kri. is thc inr : ::queqc kno*n io h:rvc bccn en,rlvzerilinrlLris,,lr' ;itrcl to huvc bcclr givcrr :r mcrlrorl o1' ::lnq srricrlv besc,i on e scicntiiLc clr-scriptiorr ' .,ctue1plonunci;rrion. Cercfnl r1,'sclipiiorrof ' .nurlci.rtioDs"rs rlc'srr,rblc. lor'. ii prrr crs l cr,: :c clTc'crivc. thc prorrlrrrciatiouol rllitt nenres :,1 riru:rl ircenterions. inclLr,linq l;to-. arrrl ;rrtrrrr, lurl to bc corrcct. lirorn .i rt:ligir,rlsencL rt r' \. r' r r" r , l l ". : . L r t i r c s o u r d s o i t h c S e n s L r i ts \ r s t l r l L . r r e D L l c .t II. Lt . ,,.r .,. o. L'qrrrhncl ::of skulls" (l,qrr lairrrirr:1 lom rr.,,

.-,'.-:.' .-.'.',.

j).!,ril ,,i jL lj.

some figLrrcs ol thc Tantric tr rclition in both BLrclilhisnr and Hrn.luirru (scc Fiq. r8.rl, r tlcL:ril of u,hich :ippc:us ,rbo."-r:). AltlLorrgh tlic pronLrnci:riiorrs\.srcm lrrs rrrcn.Jcd ro pror'ic1c ' , , r 'f 4 , (, ', l.''r r j(. r- r.\.r \ " I 1 rcel]r' c--rtclcLcrLircyond thc rrLrc S:rDskritic spclkcrr ancl \,:rs probilbly lroi u'holly corrsistcut cvclr xnlong ihcal. : . r r r ' r i I r ,. . . f ' r l . 1 . . 1 i . thcrc rvcrc fir.c pllccs o{ ertir:ol:rtion oi souncl, end cl:rssificdihc -rounclsusccl irr thc lenqurgc,

,f,

A NOTE ON SANSKruT

and thereby the characters which represent bral), and dental. Today, Sanskrit is most Sanskritiystem commonly written in the Devanagari,""p;;;i *::.^:::5:::::9--r]l: mto rheiollowtng Ilf tnusgroups sounds categories: the characters arralged and trlnslteraiedin are guttural, palatal,labial, lingual (reirofex/cere- this order:
-t aole r

"true" vowels

r
att

I
"mixed vowels" ,!tl,i1 nasal "modifi er" (anusuera) aspirate "modifi er" (aisarga)

b
ka ca 1a td pa bhq cha ;hd tha lho ja da da ba

ghc jho dha dha bha

TA fia t!a n4 ma

guttural consonants palatal consonants lingual consonants dental consonants ]abial consonants semivowels

ta ha

sPrran$ aspirate [aspirate"modifier" (upadhnaniya)]

Ibl

A fuller classification the sounds the language usuallygiven thus: of of is

J.aote 2

sjv ss,
Gutturals Palatals Linguals Dentals labials

.F F-., 'N$ "F r" " ,9d x s' A\

^g,

*.#
^"C

*!
f,

^9={ A' *t.$- A'S? 9x

cghn jjhn
d4htl ddhn

,o' ^o

5$

{v 'g cy_.!ry

5A

*" s* os'
aa
e qis

r<s

^5e

d/

-r-soli---

kkh
cch

hl
J

v
r

tth
tth

I
J

rl t1 uu
o ax4

pph

Ib'l

Note: The anusuata is not traditionally included in this (tit) classifrcation sysrem. t- Viserga 3. "E' and..ai', are gutrural and palatal. z. Upadhndniya 4. "O,'and .,aa, are-labial sutt.rral. "nd

A NOTE ON SANSKRIT X'TI

for semivowels. The characters the consonants. spirants, and aspirate h are pronoutrced as syllables containing the inherent vowel sound ofa, and, asin the filst table above, are properly transliterated with an a following them. The inherent vowel is transcribed following these in characters the transliteration of whole words unlessotherwise indicated. The vowels a, i, i, u, u, e, ai, o, and ax, are pronounced as in either German or Italian. The short a is a neutral vowel and is pronounced as the a in brt- Thus, sa#zais pronounced "sutwu." In traditional Sanskrit phonetics, both e and o of.the are considereddiphthongs, and, regardless form written, are pronounced as long vowels. There is evidence that the vowel I was at one time pronounced as the er in butte/, but at least as early as the begiming of the Christian era it came to be pronounced as "ri" (as in river). lnus- llrsna rs bronounceo ltr$nna. rne vowel I was originally pronounced as the /e in bottle but is now pronounced as "lri" (as in axle-tim)_. It is rarely met with and the long vowel, f is actually a grammarian's artifact, invented for symmetly, and does not exist in the language. . The modiliers include the axusuan (ry or th) and the dsarya (l). R"th"r than representing independentsounds,thesesymbolsindicate some modification in the realization of the character with which they are written. The axusvdra indicatesa nasalizationof a preceding vowel so that, for example, sdtiNsara pronounced "sunis saru." The anusudta also often used, though is incorrecdy, to replace any of the five nasals (ir, a,4, n, n) when they are followed by consonantsof their own class.The vkarga (b), occuring at the end of a word or syllable, is a noticeable exhalation of breath, frequentlv followed with a slight echo of the preceding vowel, much like a very soft grace note at the closeof a musical phrase.Another aspirate,also transcribed as L, is known as the xpadhmaniyd; since it is a variant of the uisarga, it is often omitted from the list of characters and has beeu placedin bracketsin thesetables.(A third variant, thejihuaunhya, is not usually included in charts of the script.) Most of the consonants are pronounced much

as they are in English. However, kh, gh, th, and pl are given a noriceabJe aspirarion.in contrast to English. Tl is not pronounced as in the English word rlink but rarher as in goatherd. Ph is not as in plone but is pronounced as in stop-lim. C is pronouaced almost exactly as is the cl rt church, wbie Sanskrit ci is given an even stronger aspiration. hr early transliterations, this led to ch ar.d chh being used to represent the two letters. However, the desire for parallelism in transliteration has superseded the attempt to suggest pronunciation through Lnglish spelling. Accordingly, caxdrois prorotxrced "chundru" and Sanskrit words with clr, such as thattro, are given even more aspirarion. The distinction between the retroflexes and dentals is extremely dificult for the untrained ear to hear, and, for all plactical purposes,may be overlooked in ptonouncing words. The retroflex t and / resemble t and I in English, while the dental t and / are essentiallysimilar to the t and d in Italian. Techrically, in the pronunciation of the retroflex, the tongue touches the gums just above the teeth, while for the dental, as its name implies, the tongue squarely hirs rhe back of the teeth. The nasalsof each category, h, fi, 4, n, and m, offer no specialproblems. AI is pronounced asng in song and i is pronounced as 11 in canyon. Two spirants,g and J, were originally distina sounds,but merged in later times, The written symbols for them are sometimes used interchangeablyin inscriptions.Both are pronounced si. Thus, Sesais pronounced "Shesha." Due, in large part, to extensivepublication in English on the Indic religions, many South Asian words have made their way into Englishlanguage dictionaries. For example, abhi5eka occurs as "abhiseka" and, although the pronwrciation guide suggestshow it be spoken corectly, the likelihood is that the Inglish reader, seeing the word in context, will pronounce it without the sft sound; a more readable English spelling might have been "abhisheka." Because problems of this sort, it was decided, of for the most part, to ignore the English-language dictionaries with regard to South Asian words in this book. Thus, tech:rical terms in Sanskrit and other South Asian languageswill be treated

,fTii

A NOTE ON SANSKRIT

asforeign words.As thereare many more such words in this volume than occur in the XnslishIanguage dictionaries. this also allows lor consistencyof usage. "Karuna and, upaya as components bodhi," is jarringly inconsi.tent of and, and, of -'.'harur1a upaya as ."omponenrs bodhi," has been preferred. Moreover, this allows an emphasis the technicalwords that on are a necessary ofthe studyof SouthAsian part art and permitsusage these of words according to their meanings the lndic context,and no; in as-popuJarized limited by Englishpractices. or The notable exceptions have bein the use of Buddha (not buddha) arrd bodhisattva (not lodhisattua). Normally, we have chosento split compound Sanskrir termsinto reparare words. However, when the joined versionis more commonly seenin English,we have followed

that pattem (hence, dhermacaktahas been prefeted to dharmd cahra). When the first of iwo Sanskrit words ends in an a or a and the second in the series begins with o or a, we have joined the words to deter pronunciation of thi final and initial vowels as distinct sounds. Thus. we have given padmdsana instead of padma asana, bur dharmamkrc nudrd remains iplit. In the caseof placenamesand other geographicternrs, diacrirics have been used wiieniver possible. with. the exception of Pradesh(nor irade3a), which appears in several modern state names, When authorirative spellings couid nor be found, the rerms have been given without diacritics. No diacritics *.." or.J on the map names,nor was it possible to standardize the spellings of map_wordswhich reflect the many languages of South Asia, according to a single iystem.

Introduction

For millennia, the peoplesof South Asia have produced works of art in seemingly endless quantity and of virtually inlinite diversiry. Such of objectswere frequendy materializations their creators' highest religious and philosophical ideals,yet they could be interpreted on many of levelsby individualsat variousstages their On one level, the art spiritual development. so exDresses conceDts abstractthat the most philosophical language the world, of comple* had to be developed give them full to Sanskrit, verbal expression;at another level, the art indicative devotionalism, of conveys sirnplest the the belief that an of,ering and pure faith could

assurethe material well+eing of humankind. Through the creationof religiousbuildingsand aspects images showingbeingswho personified of the universe and its irrevocable truths, the peoples SouthAsiawereableto interactdaily of with celestialbeingsasif they were near neighbors,The art works, then, are not just aesthetic in exoressions exercises color or form but are or btought into of visualizations the transcendent, By the range of human understanding. studying to the art ofSouth Asia,it is possible gaininsight ideals that and into the ohilosoohical humanistic this sreai civilizationhasheld for millenda and continuesto hold to the presentday.

G E oc n a p n r c l r , C o w s t o E n a r r oN s The South Asian subcontinent, roughly corresponding to the area occupied by the modem nations of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,t comoriseswhat mav be called "ancient India." Althoush the influence of the Indicz culture f". beyond these limits, outlying re""t.odJ gions form the subject of what would have to be another, more extensive, survey. Yy'ithin its boundaries developed one of the wcirld's most ancient civilizations, which, unlike others of its day, still flourishes. Although it was open to contact with other cultures, such as those of China, Western Asia, Inner (or Central) Asia, and Southeast Asia, the Indic civilization alsohad an insularity that nurtured the developrnent of its unique features. This insularity was due in part to the region's natural barriers-the rugged mountains of the high Himalayas and other ranqesin the north, and the Arabian Sea,Indian Ocean, and Bay of Bengal in the south. Nonetheless,the role of these features as "6lters" of Indic culture should not be overestimated; mountain passes and searoutes easily linled the region to the world beyond throughout history. Therefore, the history of Indic art is a continual dialectic of indigenous and iniported elements. Although it was unified by broad cultural pattems, the South Asian region is by no rneans homogeneous. Archaeologists have noted that cultural pattems visible as early as prehistoric times and continuing to the modern period closely follow t}re natural geographic divisions of the subcontinent. These regions are broadly defined by mountain ranges and river systems and are characterizedby a variety of climatic condirions. The resultinggeographicunits usually are defined as the northern, central, and southern regions. The northern region extends

xxul

AFGHANIST

SOUTH ASIA
P O L I T I C AD I V I S I O N S L W I T HS E L E C T E D I T I E S C ANDAFT SIIES

n'u'"u '"',

GHINA
/to^- O - i -"-, ^-'^A'* '.. 4l n
<\

(TIBEIAN PEOPIE'S AITONOMOUS REGION]

9(TTflI^XDU

F"'%;,I'gjj
BIHAR
GUJARAT.Modham

. e " s h_ . M A D I I Y A

PRADESH

'N,"-'51ii3"""b**F.i-\^

1r

.r/ j

*"*0"'.

rr'F \'.'- i.:*::*"1"

RADES

'rl'r.

INTRODUCTION

,C'CII

ftom the northwestern lands watered by the Indus River in Pakistanand actossnorthem h&a to include the northeasternregion of the subcontinentwatered by the GangesRiver in The central region, commonly Bangladesh. as is krown generically the Deccan, in krdia alone the hill and forest zones further and includes and south,extendinginto the peninsula including regionincludes theDeccan plateau. southem The the southernmostregionsof the nation of Irrdia, primarily the lower peninsular portion of the Eachof thesedivisionsis notable subcontinent. for its variety, both physical and cultural, yet each is unified by broad linguistic, racial, and culturalassociations. While theselateral geographiczonesbroadly defile cultural patternswithin the subcontinent,

they are not inviolable.For example, along the eastem westemcoasts, and associations that exist transcend arbitrary divisionsbetweenthe northem, central, and soutlem regions. Thus, "eastem" and "westem" traits may be observed in Indic culture in addition to thoseof the three lateral zones.The story of South Asian art, then, is one of regional or local developments set againstthe broader spectrum of the culture as a whole. Regional forms may sharegeneral features with contemporaneousdevelopments elsewhere while bearing distinctive featuresthat unmistakably link them to the site of their production. This is eventrue of what have been called"pan-Indic" phases, such as the Maurya and Gupta periodscoveredin chaptersfour and ten.

Tnl Pnolrrlr

oF DATTNG

Although the Lrdic civilization has developed almost uninterruptedly from its inception to the present,it is difrcult to reconstruct a detailed history andchronology ofeventsin every period. This difrculty is due to severalfactors. Archaeological fieldwork at prehistoric and protohistoric siteshas not yet revealeda complete and developments. For pictureof earlypattems historical times, there exists an abundanceof documentation such as inscriptions, texts, and coins,but this evidenceis frequently arnbiguous, contradictory, or misleading. Further, many time wereused throughout systems ofcalculating the subcontinent's history.Most of thesedating ofindividual systems werebased the accession on lirnited region or kings and thus applied to a time span.Manv such erashave not been correlated-to the ihristian era. Thus, even when art works or written doctrments were given specificdatesby their makers,the datesdo not alwavs inform us of the time of oroduction in relation to our calendricalsystem. Because the dificulties of reconstructins of the chronologyof Indic hisroryand culture,ir is not easyto find a format for rhe presentarion

of Indic art which provides clarity, coherency, and accuracy while reflectingthe vastpanoply of SouthAsianart, This volume uses chronolosia cal approachwheneverpossible, interweaving regional, religious, and cultural trends. The chronological alrangement expresedlargely is in terms of political dynasties, most common the schemefor the periodizadonof South Asian history. This schemehas inherent limitations, for it seensto imply that art stylesroseand fell with the fortunes of specific ruling families or that the dynasty that lends its name to a phase oflndic art supported encouraged developor its ment. While thesesituationsdid occur, they are not to be inferred automaticallyfrom the politicaldesignarions. Instead. dyrustic the names usedin this volume reflectthe fact that beginning in the historic period, primarily with the Maurya dynasty,the South Asian region consisted of numerousinterrelatedbut separate kingdoms. Thesekingdoms and their interractionleft a legacy of complicatedlinguistic, racial, and cultural patternsthat are in turn refected in the impoftant artistic schoolsof the South Asian subcontinent,

,T'TII

INTRODUCTION

ART AND Currunn Religion was the major force stimulating the creationof art and archirecture ancienrLdia. in According to most systems of Indic thought, -and the phenomenal world is illusory, perceived interpreted by the senses,which yield data of a personal ra[her than o[ a universal nature. The primary illusion is the belief in a separate, egoic existence.Most Indic religions seekto eliminate this illusion and to foster the realization of universal unity and of the understandine that each seemingly separate enriry is but a minifestation of the One. Ultimate Truth is considered to be, transcendent, inrrinsically beyond our Irmrted meansol acquiring knowledge. How_ ever, a number of syrnbolic devices (which indicarethe Trurh not by revealingir bur by reternng [o it) may point toward rhe goal of realizing rhe undifferentiatedstate. Among these ^re mantras(verbal formuiae o, in."nrr] ions), yaxtras (mechanical devices such as geometric diagrams), and nurtis (images, icons, or scutDturesl. Thesi laner two devices, yantras and,murtis, comprise rhe main subjecr of this book. What we call the art of ancient India is, in fact. the reificationof certainrnetaphysical concepts, rhe purpose of which is to enable the relisious devoteeto more easilyinrernrlizerhe,rlti-n,"te Truth. Many Indic plins of buildingsand other architectural forms crearedfor religioususeare basedupon yantras, which makes them meterializations of complicated abstract ideas. The irnages (nurtis) which adom such sructures or occur in other religious contexts also express religiousconcepts. rhoscrrnfamiliar To with rhe Indic world, it_mighr be surpriringto leam rhar rhe use ot such imagesis rhoughr to be least appropriate to the Truth itself sinceirnageshave form and Truth is formJess.Nonerhelesl to rhe worshiper, an image is a useful tool that renders the abstract, transcendentrealm nrore comprehensibleand approachable. image, then. is An a kind of meraphorfor somerhingrhar can only be undersrood direffly but cannot b. troiy translated into any form, be it visual, verbai, or other. ln spite o[ the Gct rhar an imaqe is not the same as rhat which ir represents. images are believed to embody tremendous religious energy. Through the process of viewing an _ image, the devoteegainsspiritual power. InJeed, the emphasison dariana(viewing) in rhe Indic culture, which requires only seelng and being ln rne pfesenceot somethlng or someone great to gain merir. haslent the visualarts an impor_ tance never exceededelsewhere in the world. In light of these religious views, it can be easily understood why the principal aim of Indic art has never been ro captule rhe likeness of the physicalworld or its iniabitants.Systems of perspective,concem with detailed anatomical corectness, and use of naturalistic colorationas well as other arlistic devicesrhat convey rhe appearanceof the phenomenal world, are noticeably lacking in South Asian art. iadividual portraiture aimed at physical likeness is rarely encountered in ancient Indian sculptures and painring.And subjectmatter docsnot generally aim to record the daily life or customs of the Indic peoples. Often, works of art specificallv contradict the "facs" of tbe physical worlj. For example. figures are frequendy shown in hierarchical scale,measuredon the basisof their religious achievement, not thet physical size. This lack oC emphasison n"ru..lirrn do", not indicate that the Indic artist did not Dossess skill. ralenr.or creariviry.Rather, his immense ability was channeled into the expression of conceptsbeyond rhe limits of rhe phenomenal worid, Slch representarions mighr incorporate the artist's individual beliefs or perceptions,but they were not meant to reflect his personality or to serve as monuments to his individualitv. Few' names of individual artistshave survived to the present,but this is not particularly lmporraur n the Indic context, sinceiorks of -"." ,rr."rt "r. to serve in the communication of universal religious ideals and not as vehicles of eeoistic expression.Nonerheless. many arris6, ;hile working-in what today can only be recognized asparr ofa "collective" rather than "indiridual,, style! were great masters and innovators who deservethe samehonor accordedto those whose names and artistic contributions are known elsewhere the world. in

INTRODUCTION'T'T','II

For the rnost part, the Indic artist based his on visualizations the human form-its omamenation, poses, and shapes-and the translation of its familiar characteristics into the multiheaded, multilimbed beings who iniabit realms beyond Visual formulations sometimes human existence. reflected nascent religious concepts that had yet to be expressed ftrlly in words, while at other times they were based on textually elaborated doctrines. In the Indic contexq where words and visual forms were both considered to be symbols of the Truth and not the Truth ' itself, neither had any special primacy. Although religion was the single most important factor affecting art production in ancient India. it was not the sole determinant. Secular events exerted a major influence on the creation of art. A great deal of art patronage resulted from wealth gained through military and political conquests. Ancient Indic kings commonly sought to extend their domains by annexing neighboring regions. Booty obtained from expansionist campaigns was often spent on construction of religious architecture or on the enhancement of an already existing shrine. A victorious king could thereby legitimize the wealth and position he had recently acquired. Secular events also affected the transmission of art styles and iconographic patterns. Marriage alliances, brought about by attempts to consolidate empires or check an enemy's power, at times infused new life into regional art forms. Victorious monarchs returning to their capitals after military carnpaigns sometimes emulated and competed with the building achievements they had seen during military ventures in enemy ternrory. 'Works of art that at first appear to be solely religious in purpose sometimes also glorify a king or embody double meanings that incorporate events or persons from the secular sphere into the religious symbolism. In tum, kings or other secula( figures sometimes reborrowed from religious imagery, seeingtheir owrt actions and attributes as reflections of the divine. In many cases,religious ideals are expressedin military terms. The achievement of the transcendent state-the goal ofmany Indic religionsis frequently described as a victory. In both

Buddhism and Jainisrn, someone who has attained that state is described as a jina (victor). Religious attainment is often expressedin terms of the defeat of an enemy, that is, a personification of ignorance or another obstacle to the realization of Truth. Accordingly, many religious personages and deities are shown in art nampling upon a defeated foe or in combat with the obstacle-as-enemy. Many religious figures bear weaponssuch asthe discus.bow and arrow, or sword, indicating the power at their disposal and the vigor with which they pursue their goals. The materialism of human society was also incorporated into religious symbology. Jewelry, for example, is worn by nearly all figures depicted in the art, and sometimes such adornment signifies spiritual achievement. In Buddhism, transcendentknowledge is describedas a gem; the five classes omaments (crown, of gorget, anklet, bracelet, and girdle) frequently represent the five highest meditational attainments. Further, in each of the major South Asian religions, Buddhisn, Jainism, and Hinduism, personifications of wealth or gods of wealth offer material rewards along with the wealth of spiritual achievement to their propitiants. Transmissionof artistic stylesand iconographic patterns probably was effected primarily by pilgrims and merchants traveling along well established routes to different oarts of the subcontinent,helping to crearewhat sometinres becamewidesoreadartistic stvles.Thesetravele$ mav have our-chasedworks of art in the course of their trivels, which could then be seen by Dotential Datrons or artists in other locales. In particular, religious pilgrims who visited temples, shrines, holy sites, and famous teachers were instrumental in the dissemination of art forms throughout the subcontinent, for they brought back paintings, small sculptures,manuscripts, and iconographic texts to aid in their religious devotions. Craftsmen, too, may have rnoved along trade and pilgrimage routes to olaces where their services were needed to devisedby wealthy carry out the grand schemes patrorx. In these ways and others, ideas and art were disseminated widely, contributing to a

,CXliJi

INTRODUCTION

congruity in art styles and forms from region the fact of survival itself is often mislea&nq. to. region in many periods of Sourh Asian"arr, While it is sometimes true that rhe *;;;l;: while never obliteradng rhe distiactive local ponant srteswere preservedbecause the greatest characteristics that typify the various artistic care was lavishedupon-them.equallyim"portant scnools. rhe^targers desrruction by enemies. of :l.r y.t: The ffeatmenr of South Asian art in this he choice of materials might often iaue been .t volume refects the current state of knowledge based on availabiJity. cost. or aesrhedc -of appeal in the field, and hence, certain inequities rather durabiliry, which would pr.serve coverage are present. Many crucial tnem tor tuture qenerations. "dran -necessarily ar[-yretdtngslteshave never been excavared or Although the Ltanr arr monumenrs fiom ^ studied from an art hisrorical point of view South Asia may represent only a fraction of the because condnuous inhabitation or use over the totat once produced, the actual quantity of centuries has prevented the usual methods of monuments is rruly staggering.Those presented scholarly research while others remain to be hereiave beenselecred an attempr in to provide discovered by the archaeologist.If studied. the a. balance between those wo.k, ti"t mort rntormanon such sites could reveal would characteristic the period in which "r'" rh.y w.re mdoubtedly necessitate revision of aspects .of a of produced and those that wele most distinctive; the current overview of South Asian artistic between those that demonstrate the continuation developments. Similarly, whole periods and of earlier formulations and those th"t ,apr"r"rrt reglonal srylistic complexes have yet to be the vanguard of their time; berween those that studred and contextualized within Indic art were mundane but highly favored and rhoserhat hi-story. When this occurs, it is likely that some were the most exalted and ambitious 'emphasized of rheir of.the subjec* that have been time; and berween those that b"rt pr"r.*"J traditionally because of the availability "r" of S*. that.are the only knowa examples of materiak might recede ro their approiriate _","i ..,r.7p:. It is.hoped rhat togerher they will position in the overall picture. Because oi the pro!'r"dethe..beginningsof understanding of the otten provisional narure of the state of knowl_ arr o[ a civi]ization whose roots are as ancient edge in the field, it has been necessary distin_ to as any knowa and yet that is still vital today. guish clearly what is known from what is rhe arr to be considered in this volume is surmisedin the text. essentially rhat ofthe aristocracyofborh religious Even if all of tle extant art works from the and secular spheres. A major portion oi the South Asian subcontinent could be studied and rftrc_ cuttule throughour history has consisted placed in. rheir chronological and cultural of what_rnight be called the foll element, and contexts, these works must be seen as only a many of the objecrs produced in ancient India small portion of the corpus rhar once exisied. were srmpJe anicles for daily use. AJthough l nus, a specttlc example may or may not truly gr.eat progress has been made in studying tL retlect the period of its production and the folk art of the lndic regions, ir remains a sJbject general cultural trends of iis milieu. The often separatelrom the present concem, which is an repeated clich6, that works of art made in attempt to portray the artistic dimension of easily perishable rnaterials must have constituted ancienr India's highest intellectual and technical an cnormous proportion of rhe total an pro_ achrevements, Throughour the world, the pro_ duced in. any given period, is notjust a facile duction of arr. generally religious art, has excuse fabricated by art hisrorians,o h.lp ,h"* accountedfor many of the greatesrexpenditures prove or disprove certain theories. Insteid, this ot,manpower. money. and creative abiliry. The statement is a bold reminder to anyone who culrure of ancient India -a,,ro a*"ap,ior, to h3q3s to stldy the material products of any this practice. Many of the architectural and civili"ation that he has at his- disposal ody I artistic creationsintended to honor few clues,rvhich may or may ror^b" ,.p..rLr,_ tatrve. to the complex subjecr before him. Even. schemes beyond*h"r oneperion

i,di,id,"i,' ";;;#TIJ1T:'T; ;i;;,

couldiroduce

INTRODUCTION

'T'cI'C

or pay for and required a Pooling of creative Thus, while expressing and monetary resources, universal themes and truths, tle art works of concern here are not the objects of daily life

created andfor the majority of the populace; by they are the products of the skilled craftsmen, the leamed intellectuals,and the princely purses of their time.

PAI{T ONE

FOUNDATICNS OF INDIC CIVILIZATION

Periods The Prchistoricand Protohistoric

PREHISTORIC AND PROTOHISTORIC SOUTH ASIA

', I ,. ;,,-;::""ff-*::r:4"*-\ffi ",.

THAR (INDIAN) DESERT

.*. EXTENT OF HAFAPPAN CULTURE -EXTENT OF NOFTHEFN BLACKPOLISHED WAFE ..-EXTENT OF PAINIED GREY WAFE BLACK& REDWAREFOIJND THFOUGHOUT O NEOLITHIC SITES o HARAPPAN slrEs 'EABLY CITIES . EAFLy BlJDDHrsr slrEs .OTHER SITES

Detail oJ r.4c,

CHAPTER ONE

Antecedents Indic Civilization of

Sr o r . r r A c r P A I N T I N c , t r o S c u t p r : u n t

Although human beings have lived on the South Asian subcontinent for hundreds of thousandsof years, very litde is known abbut the naterial culture of the early inhabitants. The earliest preserved man-made objects in South Asia, as in other regions of the world, are the multitudes of stone tools by which archaeologistsdefine the Early, Middle, and Late Stone Ages of the subcontinent.l These, however, representonly one type of product createdby early hunans. Prior to the development of stonerrorking technology, and alongsideit, the early inhabitantsof South Asia must of have createdvast quantities material goods animal skins,grasses, made of bones,branches, materials. While the and other easilyperishable full range of such ephemeralobjectswill probstonetools ably neverbe known, the abundant themselves serve as a haunting prefiguration of in severalmillennia of artistic developments the Indic regions,for it was stonethat servedasthe

artistic rnedium for so many of the gigantic temples, excavated caves, and sculPtures of later centuries, Some stone tools, mainly from the Middle and Late Stone Ages, suggest that aesthetic consideration was given to asPectsof their creation, such as selection of stone and precision of carving facets. The survival of a few early cawings made of shell and bone also suggeststhat these early humans were concemed with more than pure utility in thei! carviug efforts. However, it is in the rock shelters associatedwith peoplesof the Middle and Late Stone Ages that the earliest significant corpora of Indic art may be found. More than a thousand rock shelters containing paintings have been identified in India proper, over halfofwhich are in the north-central region, within about a r5o-kilometer radius of Bhopal. Not all of the paintings in theseshelters belong to an early period, since the creation of rock art has been continuous in Indic culture

FOUNDATIONS OI rNDIC CffIIZATION

r . r . Pregnant cow. (Enhancedphorograph.) Rock paint_ ing at Raisen, Madhya Pradesh, India. Ca. 8ooo_zSoo

t-.:. Zebu.- (Enhancedphotograph.) Rock painring rr Khervai,MadhyaPradesh, India.Ca. 2Jor3oo B.c.

.l

even to the present day.z But the archaeological conrexts!f some of the paintings suggests-rhat they, and others executedin similar sryles.were made as long as ren thousand years ago. Clues to the sequence of styles, and hence to thcir chronology, are provided by the painrings themselves, for in many of the cave shelteis new compositions were continually ,oO.r_ imposed over older ones tluouehout the ienturies, thus preserving the order o'f their production. In paintings from Neolithic timesr and later, comparisons with contemporaneous pottery designi are also us.ful for d"ting po.poses. At least twenty sryles of rock p"intings have _ been identified on the basis of tichniqule, pigment, and subject matrer.4 Many of tLeie pictureswere made by "crayoning"s sxghql6h2n a true painting technique, since lumps of pigment were probably used to draw directly on the rock surface, although painting with water and a brushlike tool m"y a|sohave beendone. The principal rninerals identified in extant pictures include hematite and iron oxides to produce yellow, orange, red, and brown; calciurn and kaolin, white; manganese,purple; and copper, black and blue-green. Mosiof-the compositionsconsisrof animals, or sometimes humans, alone or grouped. The animals in the repertoire of theseearly artistsinclude elephants, antelopes, lions, monleys, and especially bulls and cows, to name just a few. One example, trom B.aisen,near Bhopal, rnay be among the

oldest of the.surviving rock paintings, posibly dahng lrom the penod ca. 8ooo_2Joo 8.c.6(Fig. r.r).? The animal is a pregnant cow, ,holno, i"o an outline form that becomes a solid, silhouetted shape in the depiction of the head, legs, and tail. A series of lines indicates the bone stiuctirre of the creature. This so-called "X-ray style',8 thus provides a view into the animai, revealinq its skeleton and. in this case and others wheri pregnancy is being depicted, an unbom animal within. The calf is drawn in a similar combination of solid and linear forms, although the arrangemenr of bones differs from that-of its mother. The meaning of the pregnaDtcow can o y be surmlsedrn tfus context: some relation_ ship to concepts of multiplication and fertility must be implicit. However, whether such notions had any significant bearing on the later development of.Indic religious ideas about birth and rebirth or related concepts is unl<nown. A completely different style may be seen in a re?resentation of a zebu (Bos indiar) b,a1l at Kharvai, also near Bhopal (Fig. r.z), which has been dated to the period ca. z5oo-3oo n.c.s lo this case,the form has been created by the use of white kaolin ro define the silhouemed shapeo[ the animal against the darker color of the rock wall. The suggestion of naturalism rs grearer here than in picruresin the X-ray style. since the silhouette techaique lends soliditv to the form. ln addition, the roundnessof the'animal's body and rhe swelling hump indicatea rype of ob-

ANTICIDINTS

OF INDIC

CIVIIZATION

, rrvatiotr that irnticipateslater naturalistic repre' r t J l r o ro f r n i l r ] . r 1n \ o r r t hA ' i a . \ i . bulls as subjccts Thc popularity of corvs "nd r:. early rock paintings, such asthc trvo cxan-iplcs on ::st rliscussed, sllggcsts th:rt tl-rclarcr cr-nphasrs :ovinc crcaturcs Indic culture h:rclits bcginin : ing in the Stone Agcs.Florvcver,it is dificult :-r dctemine if rhcse paintings l\'ere mcent .llply to record lili or if they servedrcliglous r megicalpurposcs s'cll. Thus, rvhilc it mey xs --.-sugacstcdthet the relationship betrveen thc ...rly depictions ancl latcr cmphasis on thc ,-rbjcct is urore than merely coincidcntal,the ,'..ecialsignificanccof cows and bulls at an reruains :.Lrl clate y spcculativc. Although paintines ir-rcavcs ancl rock shcltcrs :.re found throughout the uorlcl es lecords of r ....- .. .-: : - . U r l tA r i . rs u . l r , ,rrks miglit be said to havc specialsisnificar.rcc. art lnc of thc Dr:rjor lorms of the Indic rvorld' l - , r r . . ' r , I ' i r , c t r . r,,n . l i . , 1 , . ^ r .i .. r l r ) r an orltgro\!-tl1 o[aspccrs ofthis c:rrlyprlcticc. .,.liilc thc lctual historv of rock-cut architccture

t.3. Aniurris. "Rock-bruisnrg":rt Maski, Karnarrks, L)dix.Variousdrtes.

forn-r, sregcsting rclationships to carly rockshcltcr paintinqs (Fig. r.3). As in thc crsc of n r o \ ' r o . k - . l i , J r .1 i r r r 'r3 ' . ' l ' , . l c , i f i , r , c , i " s r , r ( i. .( .r,l. r l, i. . ll il .. l , l. i. . , l , . r \ - ' ll l. .. rl ' l , , f r r c l g l l i i l l l \ ( l l L \ . ^ l., \ . l l are clcarly distinsuishccl rncl thcrcfore idcnti) 'rr.-tlr. M.rLrr) thc schcneticrendering 1 , r " 1 . p , r l ' , 1 . r l r , p r . , , r i ' c firblc, despitc sorncwhat ,.:rtcLl necdsof an alreacly thc cxistrneanclvcry of thc forms. Thc scp:rratc subjectsiu this panel, :ong predilection. including both aniural ancl hurnln forms, r'cre Sculpturc rvas also protluceclby thc Storc not cxccutcclls e single unificcLcompositioD. -:c drvellers ancientIndia, as cviclencecl of by Insterd,thc lrrangencnt as it appears toclayis ::r'ivine cxamplcs in bonc, shcll, stonc, ud thc rcsuit of neny scparrtcincidcntsof carving ::r.-rmatcrills.Onc characteristic pc of sculptl and thc cumulativc efforts of a nutibcr of indi"rock-brirising,"r0 : e is the so-called r-hich s viduals.As in thc crsc of rock-shcltcr paintings, I . r r / l . r c r r i . r ' r r 'I r c \ r r r ' . . g r , r . , c L. o ' it is diffrcult to assess clateof any spccificexthe :.t a pxttcrn is crcatcd dr-re thc chengrng xnple;11solneof thc carvinqs this group lnay to in 'rr r ''f tlr, 'Lr'1.c,\I I '1, 'lr, r'i r,lLr.s . i bc cxtrcrncly old, rvhile others lnxy havc bccn . ,:ntially sculptural, rcsults nrlinly nvothc arc nudc only a fc$,' centr.rrics ago. Likc Stor.rc Age : ::rcnsionrlancl thcrcforc rclatcd ro printine. peirtines, such cxamplesrcilcct tirc persistence .in rock-sheltcrpaintini:s,both animalsand o{ Stonc Agc prttcms of lifc aloncsiclcthc r:r1ans shorvn in rock-bruisings. :lre bur thc mainstrcarn Incliccivilizationtlrroughoutthe of : ri co111n1o11 subjecr is cf,ttlc. A1l cr]nlplc centurics rvliile xt thc samctirlc providing some : :n Maski in northcln Karn:rtlka dcpicts insight inro possiblcsourceslor hrclic culturc lcd cattlc in both silhoucrc :rn.l c,,.,iline itsell

Eanly NEorrrHrc Anr .-.itc of tlie l'icle-rangingcvicle'ncc Stonc of : popuiationsthroughout thc Soutir Asi:rn iontincnt for tens of thousendsol- ycars, thc oligins of r'het erchacologists clcfinc as true "civilizetior" arc sornervhet clrrsivc,:rs is the d c f i r t l r n to r c i v i l . z . , r r ,i ,rr*rl t . l t t r r r . , . r . " r

FouNDATroNs oF rNDIc cwrlrzATroN range from simple monochrome or bichrome compositions to complex polychrome designs. Some levels and sites have yielded pots with geometric and abstract motifs, while others show the popularity of more naturalisric motifi, such as vegetal and animal forms. In some cases, geometric forms such as zigzags, triangles, ovals, and bandscreateabstractpattems like that seen on a shard fiom the Quetta Valley of northem Baluchistan, Pakistan (Fig. r.4a). The arrangement of such moriG sometimessuggests a scene.For example, step-pyramid forms and a band of chevrons combine to create the efect of a landscapewith mountains and a river on a pot from Mundigak in southern AQhanistan (Fig. i.ab). Animals, such as the ibex (Fig. r.4c), and vegetal morifs, such as the pipal (Fi.us rcIigiosa) (Fig. r.4d), have been recovered from later levels at Mundigak. Theselaner rwo motifs are noteworthy, for both have been identified in the same level at Mundigak and are therefore presumed to be contemporaneous,yet the ibex is associaredwith the wesrem Asiatic ootrerv cultures, while the pipal l^ter became a major syrnbol in South Asian Buddhist art. Thus, rheir joint occurrence seems to document the coexistence of ties to .western Asia and strongly indigenous developments. The meaning of these and other motifs employed on early pottery' can only be surmised.However, it is likely that some symbolism, whether conscrous or unconsclous,was Present. A very fine example of a painted pot comes from Damb Sadaat (Pl. r). Dating from around zToo-z3oo 8.c., the vesselrepresents the final stageofthe prehistoric period in the Quetta Valley. The shape of the pot, with its narrow foot, rounded bowl, and gently fladng rim, suggests both the technicalskill ofthe potter and the highly developed aesthetic principles governing the creation of pottery during this period. The painted design, which consistsof bands of black encircling the bowl arid bulls with wide arching horns, combines both abstractand naturalistic elements. While the animals are clearly identifiable and have counterparts in the natural world, the painter has embellished their forms by exaggerating the contours and adding geometric patternsto the surfaces oftheir bodies.

counts, the term implies the use of agricuhure, domestication of animals, urbanized parrems of existence,t}le evolution of a political structure and, important for our purposes, development the of specialized crafts, Because the concentrated of archaeological researchin this region, most of the known settlements that are a prelude to the complex patterns of life that characterize the civilized state have been found in the far northwest of tlre subcontinent, such as at Mundigak in southeastAfghanistan and in northern Bal0chistan in Pakistan. The recent excavations at Mehrgarh in nort!.ern Bahchisten in particular have revealed Neolithic pattems of life as early as the sixth or even seventh millenniurn r.c., that is, contemporary with the Stone Age patterns that were flourishing elsewhere in the subcontinent. Later settlements have been identified further south, in southem Balnchistan and Sind, again in Pakistan, and even later in the Pafi.jab region of Pakistan and in Rajasthan, krdia. The geographic distribution of these early setrlements has led to the supposirion that stimulus toward a settled existence was provided by contact rvith the westem Asiatic world and gradually spread southward and eastward. However, this viewpoint is not tenable in lieht of recent discoveriesin the central Ganges rJgion of northern India, where, at sites such as Koldihwa near Allahabad. settled pattems ofexistencehave been traced to the sevinrh millennium r.c.13 This suggests that further archaeological work will greatly alter our understanding of early settlement patterns and of the "origins" of civilization in South Asia. No single excavatedsite provides a complete profile of the emerging pattems of life or the artifacts produced by these early peoples. Since they createdand used pottery, however, a fuller ranse of their matedal culture is known than survivesfor rheir Stone Age counrerparts. The pottery unearthed at the northwestern sitesrevealsa variety of vesselshapesand color schemes,along with a well-defined vocabulary of abstract and geornetric designs. In general, greater re{inement in technique and design developed over the course of centuries so that the earlier, hand-built pots were gradually suoersededbv wheel-formed vessels.The wares

ANTICEDTNTS

OF INDIC

CIVIIZATION

L4. Pottcry rnotias.A) from Querta Vxlley, Norrhem Balarchisran, Pakistan;B) fron Mundigak III, Afghanistan;C, D) from Mundigak IV, Afghanisten.Prc-Flarappa phase

r.5. Figurines.From Mchi, Pakistan.Kulli Culture associarion. Ca. 2Joo rgoo B.c. Tcrra cotta. I{: ca. 5-7 cm. ArchaeologicaiSurvey of India, New Delhi.

Ierra-cotta figurines have also been un:::rhed alongside the painted pottery in carly :'.'.is of sitesin,the northwest. Tluce small male :-rrines frorn Mehi display the abstractedand :::plified body forms often characteristic of i:r pieces(Fig. r.5). Recognizable as hununs r--rre because of the upriglrt posturcs and j ..elied ornamentsthan due to verisimilitude in :.:icting body parts, the figures havc a lively : ,omewhat illogical appcarancc.Hand-formed

and often very crude, the figurincs rnay some day provide valuable clues to the development ofcultural and religious conceptsthat evcntually manifested in latcr Indic civilization. Both animal forn.rs (most commonly the bull) and hun.rans (most oftcn the fen.rale) are found widespread throughout the rcgion, although they arc notably absent&om at lcast two complexes.la Thc femaie figurines suggest sorrre type of female cult, often identified as mother-

ToUNDATIONS OF INDIC CMLIZATION

''...'-.

. .'.:.]

{ai, Zhob r.6. Bull sculptute, From Periano Ghuo. district, Northem Bahchisten, Pakistan. Ca' thitd millennium e.c. Clay. American Museum of Naturrl llstory, New Yotk.

goddessworship. While the poPularity of the female and the later importance of female and goddess imagery in Indic art might suggest such a concept, the term "rnother goddess" is perhaps too strong, since we know neither how these sculptures were used nor what they represented; we cannot say whether the female is a goddes, nor even a mother. Bull sculptures, too. Drovide a link with later Indic culture, since. as will be shown, the bull came to have important economic, symbolic, and religious meaning in the Indic world. Bull imagery also indicates a possible linl with the Stone Age dwellers for whom bovine creatures apparently had great importance. An example may be seen in a representation from the Zhob Valley (Fig. r.6).

CorcrusroN The study of the prehistoric period of tlle is SouthAsiansubcontinent still in an early stage, must not be overlooked in and vet thesephases reconstructing the region's artistic past' While the creationof rock art, terra-cotta{igurines,and painted pottery are in no way uniqle 1o the-Inii. *otld but are common signsof the earliest droughout the world, of beginnings civilization importance may be saidto havea particular they Rock art this region due to their persistence. in of perhaps provides evidence an early Predilecand in ti"n -hich culminated the monumental rock-cut cavesof the Buddhists,Hinelaborate that appearin such dus, and Jains. The subjects sculprure well as in terra-cotta as comDositions and on painted pottery of Neolithic peoples linls with later Indic thought. Bulls, are possible certain plant forms, and other motifs females, that appearin early lndic art not only Persisted but became prominent, recurring themes in later periods. One might even say that the abstract motifs so commonly representedon ear\ pottery find their counterPartslater in yaxtras and other abstract or geometric contrivances used in Indic art and religion. Such by ties are further suggested the fact that important religious sites of historic times rnay often be identified asimportant prehistoric tool sites,indicating strong continuity between the traditions.

li

D,tril ,I ,.t J.

CHAPTEN'I'!qO

Civilization The Indus(or Harappa)

( c a .z 3 o o t - or 7 5 o s . c . )

)htinctivc sctdemcntPattelnsacconPanicdby entsare rvell developrl lnd --.:lrLrrll tcchnologicai :lcumentccl from atr clrly datc in thc nordr.'.cstem rcgions of thc SorLthAsian subcontinent ::r.1havc rccently bccn iclentificrl in the Gangcs ','.r1lcy. Hou'cvcr, the carlicsr known lnclic :rmplex rvhich cln be tern-rccl"civilization"l of ::r thc strictcstscnse thc u''ord is tltc lndus, ,r. as it is:rlso called,thc Harappaciviiization. originally thouglrt tlut >incccarJyinvcstisators rc citiesand torvnsofthc cultruewcrc cruslereo 'niv ir.r the Indus Rivcr Valley of Pakistarr, it .'.'es a name u'hich calied thc lnclus civilizrtion, trr-rly dcscriptivc.For :r 1ro lonqer considcrccl . r'oscqucnttliscoveriesof sites belonging to :.ris cultnre havc cxpancled its knorvn gco' p r i . l o r r r . r itro i r r . l r r , l ., . r e . . : t u.rrrp p r , ' ' i r lltelv the size of rvestem Europc, rcaching ::onr northcrn Alghalfstan and the border :-.etrvccn Pakistan and Iran on thc rvcst, soudr corst to thc Gull'of ..long India's l\'-estern

Cambay, east into thc Gangctic hcaclwatcrs, and nortlr to the footirills of thc Hir.nalayas.It is fully expectedthat futrlrc research rvill extencl the boundaries and definitiots of this culture even further. Thc city of Harappa, rvhcrc thc civiliz:rtion r,vas first discovered,haslent its name to thc rlternatc clcsignation for this culturc. H o r v c v c r ,t ] r i r n . , n r ca l s . ,h . ' , l ' r n r r - t r o r ' '.i t r c e over one hundred fift1' sitesfror.nthis civilization l r r r c b c , n l o r r r r df.i r e o ' w h i c l r m r 1 b c , . r 1 l c d T r i t i e ,r n t l t - p r o p ( r\ c n . co f t l ' c t c r r n . 1 r u .l.l l e a city of H:rrappa not to be consiclcrccluniquc is q 1 1 6 , 1 ' Jn o r n e c L r . . , n l.y e r ro r r , t l p i c . r o f t l r c c. v l civilization as a *'hole . Althoush crtcnsivc archacologicai exploral r i o r , r n J. n r d 1l r , ' b c q nc . , r r i , .c r t - . r r H . r r . r o p a . sites for much of this century,2 infornation c , L b o r r lt r i .. . r ' . i e n, tr r l t r r r r . . r l l J i r l i r c d ':n , n i basic qucstions abor-rtthe people, thcir beliefs, and pattcrns of lile rcmain unanss'ered.Much of rvhat is surmised about tl.re civilization is

.lO

IOUNDATIONS

OT INDIC CIVIIZATION

derived from our understandingof what occurs later in South Asia (we thus "read into" Indus phenomena) or from cross-cultural analogies, primarily with the flourishing civilizations of contemporaneous Mesopotamia, with which the Indus peopleswere in contact, This latter, while comprising an importairt analytic tool, an shouldnot automaticallysuggest indebtedness of the Indus civilization to those of Mesopotamia. Because.iites showing experimental or formative stagesof development for the Indus culture have been &ficult to identify, the antecedent5 of the civilization remain elusive. ltr some cases, fooding and the rise of the water table have obscured the lowest levels of Indus sites and the early stages, which may have been the formative ones, are inaccessible.For example,

it hasbeenestimated that at Mohenjo-Daro, one of the great metropolisesof the Indus civilization, the lower third of the site is unavailable for study because ground water. It is possible of that some siteswill eventually reveal developmental stages the civilization while other sites of that do not might refect the spread of the civiliiation at an advancedstageand its superimposition on other modesof life.3 Indus-type artifacts have been found in reliably dated Mesopotamian strata ranging from approximately23oo B.c. to about r8oo r.c.4 However, based on radiocarbondatessand the evidence, culture'sr4qin other archaeological its period of forescence, mature or urban phale, is now believed to have taken place between about2roo l.c. and rTJo s.c.

T n r C r r r s s A N DT o w N s

lt
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Many cities and towns of the Indus civilization were laid out on rectilinear grids, with steets oriented on north-south and east-west axes (Fig. z.r). Such standardizationimplies a great degree of civic plaruring and organization, as would be necessaryin an urban environment where large populations lived in relatively srnall areas.The cornmon building material at Harappa sites was baked brick.e A remarkable aspect of the bricks is that they conform to specific standards of size and quality throughout the known geographical and chronological extent of the culture. This uniforrnity indicates a high degree of cenralization. as well as continuous contact between various sites. Houses varied in size. Some were probably several stories high. Most display a similar plan with a squarecourtyard surrounded by a number of rooms, a format which persiststhroughout South Asian historv and was later incorDorated into both domertic and religious atchiiecture. The walls closine off the houses from the streets were -high and apparently plain, broken only often by doorways, insuring the residents' privacy and protection. It is interestingto note that doorways Lading into domestic compounds invariably occur along small lanesor byways and are never

located along the main streets or thorougMares. It is possible that the monotony of the walls was relieved by pahting or by other decoration which has not survived. Houses had bathrooms, and the cities had sophisticated metho& of drainage. Apparendy, the urban citizen of the Harappe culture led a comfortable life, even by modern standards. In addition to private dwellings and shops, a number of large, apparently public, structures, including granaries and citadels, have been identified at various Harappt sites. At MohenjoDaro, a tank, generally called the Great Bath, we has been unearthed(Fig. z.r, left). Because know that in later Indic life and religion, bathing is essentialfor ritual cleansing, it has often been suggestedthat the Great Bath had religious significance, but there is no direct internal evidence of this. At Lothal, on the western seaboard of India, a large structure often identified as a constant-water-level dock has been excavated.If this intriguing but controversial?structureis a dock, it would represent an engineering feat of great sophistication' Further, it would provide concrete evidence of a means of sea trade between the Indus and other civilizatioru.s That Lothal miqht have

THE INDUS CIVILIZATION

I -1

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by :i1 a trading port city is further evidcncccl location of thc shops of mct:rlstriiths,bcacl: ..:ts, sl.rellrnd ivory workers, ud other :kers in cr:r{tsthcre. cvidcncc,the ::iLging lrom the rrchacoloqical - ::lcs of the Indus civilizationhavc bccn said v c e n j . l e n . , p , . , , f i r l , r i ' c c t r c c r ' r . tr [ c w . :.rrs poscd from the outsiclc.Scholarshave . . r , t . - - . , ^ , , ,. . . . - . . i , - , ; r , . r i o n , . r n J h c r rlur hlvc l:re and strcrgth of thc r,vcapons -:l tbund, but, hckine any historicaltcxrs, it :r[possible to meke an accuratestiltelDcnt of :.rrJir.rgthc rclative peecefulncss Harappa rf l l r , I n ' i r k c -I l' , r n . r g e r r r io t r . r . ' n 1f t r c ' thxt thc socrcty :::lucts clocssccrn to sLrqqcst -,:rlincd stablcovcr e long perioclof tinre, a r r . r . ) ( r j o n l ' . r ,r ' , r I r d r ,, t c . ' l t i : 1 , I c r . : r c c : irrsularit,v arrd the ability to cluicklv absorb ' r , l i l l i r r r r ( l n r ( I r r '. I l o l l ' ( . , . , , r , . , ' l r r rh. Whilc rnlny distinctions c:ur bc uradc,it :::r also be nored that in nine excevatccl lcvcls \,iohcljo-L)aro, ibr cxrmplc, no significent :,nqcs ir1 thc t1'pc lllcl charlctcr of menv ::rircts, such es brick size, occLrrs. rrrrlicaring 1or :--'iLtco1lstx11cy scvcnl ccnturicsSi]lcethis \ . ' , l . ' r ' - . . , l n ' , t . , " r r ' r o g u . r -r : r . t :-rrln D.rturcitscif, futurc rcscrrch nuv holcl 'mc important ans\\-ers. is possiblc tli:rt It ,:rrny of thc cnrbcllishrucrrLs could rlcmonthat

stretc the pcrsonxlitv of the culrure ancliDclic:rtc were mede in easilvpcrishablc grc:rtcr clillererlces matcrialsand ]rave been lost. McasrLrcrrrcrrrs oD excrvatcd skelctal renains havc shc,wrr urat at lcastfour clifcrcnt racial typcs livccl et Moheir.joD . r r . - ' .a n d r l t u . c o n , p l " t el t o t n o l c t ' e i r y r rt l r e e r not to bc crpcctecl. I11fict, archae, socicty is ologists are increasinely able to makc distincdons frorn sitc to sitc atrcl ovcr the coLlrscof r i n r L . c t . r l , . ' ' . r , . l ' , . l r l i l J : r p r ( s . i u rc i \ c n Y by the buildings an.l stnlctures of the Harappa sites is th:rt of a controllcrl, cor-iscrv:rtive. wellhonogcncous socicty r,vithl centraiized orclerecl, govcrnnlcnt, Althougli thc Great JJ:rthet Mohenjo-i)ero nray havc had sonrc ritual purposc, :inc1the cxistcncc religions of cercnrolics :rlso is suqgcsted b1 'h, li', v,ry f., [cs fir, r/r..r.'r ll., .ropr ' sitcs, the lack of :r nejor Fhrapp:i stmcture that cln bc iclcntificdpositivclv rvith relisious ccrcmonics, such as e templc, is puzzling.Surce most of latcr lndic rhought, art, rncl life is dornirurccl rclieiousconccrns,:rncl by sinccnrost othcr civilizaticus in comparlblc st:rgcs of C . \ ( ] u p r r . r i r i , l . l . r o , n t ' t , n r . t i . ^n r , r - i o L r . 'f bclicls, this is surprisiuu. Ciues to sonrc of c t l r . L u r L . p t .f L r r r d . . r ' r ll r o t l r c l l i , . r . p ( ' ' I . ( do exist, horvever, in thc scr-rlptr-rres scals ancl that have been fbund.

12

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVILIZATION

2.2. Bcardcd rnan. Fron Mohenjo-Daro, Pakisten.Mature HarH: appt period. Ce. 2roo-r7jo B.c. Lir11estollc. 19 crD. NatioDal Muscum, Karachi.

Scu LPTUTx

The sophistication and technologicai advancemcnt evidencedin the organization and structure of thc citics of the Harappa civilization arc also seen in sculptural works. Asidc ftorn sealsand terra-cotta sc[lpttrrcs, so fe$i stone ancl mcta] h s c r r l p r r r r e 'r v e c o r n c r o J i g h r i n e \ c a v . r f i o n \ (lesstl.rantwo dozen are known) that the suryiving examplesmust rcprcsentonly a tiny fiaction of thc objccts once produced. A sculptural tradition using n-roreephemeral matcrials, such as wood, must havc cxisted alongside of, and ccrtainly prior to, the use of stonc and metal. All of dre sculptures founcl thus far are small (thc largestis only about forty centimetersligh), and even those that are brokcn would not have Interestingly, there been sizabler,vhencon.rplete. considerablevaricty in the types of stonc used is even among the few surviving cxamples, suggcsting that the materials were sclcctedbecause of their intrinsic beanty, not becausethcy wcre n w i d e l y . r v . , i l . t b l ie t l r e r e g t . , t r .I n f a c t . t h e not local to northwest stonesusedgenerallyr',,erc likely that small picces India and Pakistan. It is ofdifferent stoneswere imported through trade, pcrhaps as highly covetcd raw materials.

The purposesof these small sculpturesare as unclear as thcir stylistic origins. It is not known r'herher thcy were made for sccularor religions ncccls,nor can thcir stylistic origins and prcccdcnts be determined at prescnt. In general,they do not appear to be thc tcntativc formulations onc would expect in a beginning art tradition. I{athcr, they reflect a mature stagc of artistic dcvclopr.nentin which problems of proportion, scale,rclation offorrns, and surfaceenhancemcnt are all carcfirlly worked out. While the formativc stagesremain undetermined, thcseworks can be contextualizedby comparison to Mcsopotan.rian exar.nples well as to later Indic art. as Onc sculpture rcvealing some afinities to Mesopotamian imagery is a carved limcstone fragurent shorving thc head and shoulders of a beardcd man. It was found in one of the later Harappa-pcriod lcvcls at Mohenjo-Daro (Fig. z.z). Some scholarshave suggestedthat the individual depicted might be a forcigner, perhapsa Mesopotamian,sincethe high, straight nosc whicir blends alrnost in.rperceptibly into the forehead, the full lips, and the narrow, slitlike eyes (one of which was still inlaid with

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shell when it was found) do not seem to reflect facial types characteristic of the South Asian subcontinent or that occur in later hrdic art. The treatment of the beard (itselfnot a typically Indic fashion) and hair also dif,ers from any extant examples in South Asian art in the stricdy controlled striated patterns that reveal a propensity for linear rather than sculptural forms. This linearity and abstraction is evident also in the treatment of the ear as a whorllike conliguration on the side of the head. The costume worn by the figure may betray further associationswith westem Asiatic culture. For example, the garment that covers only the left shoulder is a type commonly seen in Mesopotamian art, though the popularity ofa similar one-shouldered garment in later Buddhist costume suggests that it may reflect a purely Indic style of clothing. The trefoil design on the garment reinforces the suggestion of western Asiatic contact, for this pattem is found occasionallyin Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Minoan art, but not in late( India, although it does appear elsewhere as a motif in Haraooa art.10 In this case, the trefoil patte.tt, whiih is slightly raised ftom the surface of the sculpture, was {illed with a red paste wherr the piece was found, so that it contributed to a polychrome effect for the sculpture. The headband wom by the figure, with its ends hanging down the back of the head, is a type seenin later Indic art, but usually reserved only for "foreign" types. Together, these features, which have no known precedent on the South Asian subcontinent and do not seem to persist as lndic characteristics, suggesr some westem Asiatic associations.However, direct contact between the cultures at this time is not the onJy possible explanaton for the sharedcharacteristics. Similarities may illustrate a common debt to an uaderlying or preexisting continuum of ideaslt that was important in the formulation ofboth the Indus and Mesoootamian civilizations. The individual portrayed in this sculpture has often been called a priest, an assertionbasedon various factors. The presence of headgear, in this case a headband, suggeststhat he may be a person of ranl, for in later Indic art, the wearing of turbans, crowns, and even simpler

2.3. Seated figure. From Moherl'o-Daro, Pakistan. Mature Ha?ppe period. Ca. 2roo-r7jo B.c. Alabaster. H: z9.z cm. National Museum, Karachi.

headgearis generally associated with highranling individuals. The meaning of his oneshouldered ga(mert is unclear in the Indus contexr,but it may havehad religiousassociations as suggestedby its popularity in later Buddhism. Further, the halflclosed appearance of the slidike eyes has led to tbe-suggestion that the individual is practicing meditation, perhapsof a type Lnowa in later Indic religioustraditions.But such an identification must remain speculative rmtil a fuller picture of the Harappaculture emerges. Anothersculpture from Mohenjo-Daro, made of alabaster, further associations with .shows Mesopotamian (Fig. 2.3). This male figure art wedrs a garment that completely masks the lower portion of his body. His seatd posture, obscured the garment,seems be a crossby to legged posewitb the le{i knee dightly raisedor held high by the left hand. The body is quite thin, and the arms and handsin particularlack substance solidity. While the headis mising, and a strand fallingbehindtheright shoulder suggests long hair or a wig. At first glance,the figure indeedseems resemble numberofsculptures to a from Mesopotamia. Closerexarnination r.ueals that the rounded forms, the posture,and the treatmentof drapery and hair, while possibly predisposibased similar or common aesthetic on tions, cannot be mistakenfor Mesopotamian

I4

IOUNDATIONS

OF INDIC CIYILIZATION

2.4. Male figurc, lllree views. Fron Harapp:, pakisran. Mature Hanppt period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c. Red stone. H: 9.3 c1n. National Museum, Ne rv Dclhi.

rypes. Yet, like the previous sculpture, this carying does not suggest thc forms of later lndic rrt, either. Thus, while apparently related to western Asiatic traditions, both seem to expressan aspectof the Harappa civilization. In striking contrast, other sculptures have' been found at Harappe sites that bear no resemblance whatsoever to western Asiatic fornrs. lheseu orls. along n irlr rhe vastmajoriry of Harappa artifacts, clearly document the cultural independence of thc civiliz:rtion. Furthermore, many of thcsc objects offer intriguing evidcnce of continuiticc bcrwcen Harrppd sculpturc and later Indic art. Perhaps the besr figurative examplc showing both the independent tradition of the Harappans and its ties to later Indic art is a sraall red stone statue of a nrrde rrralcfigure rlrlr w,r. fotrnd at HarJpp.r (fig. .:.a). Un[ortun Lrcly. bec.rrrse rhe picce was not excavated under controllccl conditions, there is no archaeological proof of its carly date. Sone have claimed that it dates from a later period.12 Howcvcr, several cogent arguments for a Harappa-pedod date havc bcen put forth, inciuding thc fact that the sculpture has drillcd sockcts to rcceive dolvels for thc attachment of

the head and limbs. This feature rs not secn rn later Indic stone sculpture, but is a common Harappa terra-cotta technique. The carving relatcs styiistically to somc later Indic works, but distinctionsare also present.Thus, thc work rnay bc acceptedrvith somc certainty as a product of the Harappa civilization. Hopefully, future scientific excavationswill unearth similar picccs to verify this. Pcrhapsthe nost striking aspectof this sn.rall statlrc is its naturalism. The body is subtly nodeled and softly contourcd. Gentle transitions bctween one part of the body and another are crcated through sculptural means, rathcr than with the use of line. For example, the abdoniual and pectoral regions su'cll in a threedirncnsionalnanner and are not defined by any outlinc or linear den1:trcation. contrast to the In preccding examples of Harappa sculpturc, thcrc is a total absence linear design, abstract of pattcrns, xnd other surlace enhancement. In mr.rch of latcr Indic sculpture, whilc some \ l i r r e . ' rp r r r e r r r s r i g h r b c p r c s e n r . u c n a \ i n n drapery depictions, a major enphasis is on the forns of the body, achieved, as herc, through sculptural mcans.

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2.j. Female figure, front and back views. Frorn Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan. Mature Herappt period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c. Bronze. li[: rr.{ cm. National Museum. New Delhi.

Although from the front the figure seems static and fiontal, the asymmetry of the back suggests that the figure was meant to be sholyn as if the weight of the body was more heavily resting on one leg than on the other. This a creates Geling of implicit movement through and thus orovidesa sense anirnaof irnbalance tion that reinforcesthe overall naturalism of the
Dlece.

The unadomed nudity of this 6gure has generateda great deal of discussion,The mere fact of the nudiw and the depiction of the male i;dicate sexuality or genitalsdoesnot necessarily Grtility. The same would be true of female might be apparent. figures whose hips and breasts To not depict the sexual featuresof the human body would signify a deliberate artistic choice and a negation. To representthem is simply to describe the human form, unless, of course, undue attention is placed on their depiction. In any case,the reasonfor the nudity remainsa mystery, for in both Harappa art and later Indic art, total nudity is by far the exception rather than the normal manner of presenting the human form, although the clinging garments characteristic of manv stvles of South

Asian art almost suggest nudity. It is perhaps becauseof the nuditv. as well as the accident of having lost the limbs and head in both cases, that this figure is so often discussed in relation to the Lohenipur torso of the Maurya period, around the third century n.c. (Fig.4.rr). This comparison has been emphasizedby those who favor the view that the piece from Harappa is not a product of the Harappa civilization. The points of comparison are superficial, however, for in technique (the Maurya piece has a. characteristichighly-polished surface),the method of depicting body transitions, and the presenceof the socketsin the Harappa piece, the sculptures difer. The nudiry of the Maurya sculpture might be related to a specific religious cult. Whether this is true for the Harappa piece can only remain speculativeat this time, for we do or not know who the sculpture represents what purposeit served.In later Indic contexts,when a figure is shown without clothing, as in the case of Digambara or "Sky-clad" Jain figures, it is generally not for the purpose of glorifying the hurnan body, but rather as a symbol of world renunciation and victory over the usual needs of the physical body. It is possible that

'6

TOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

a similar reason explains this fgure's nudity. came to serve both decorative and symbolic A well-preserved statue of a female figure functions in lndic art, but wherher anything provides a rare example of metal sculpturel3 more than simple adornment is intended heri ftom the Harappa civilization. Quite different is unlcnown. As in the preceding sculpture, the in style from the red stonetorso,it alsoshows nudiry does nor necessarilyimply sexualiry or links to later Indic art (Fig. 2.5). Found at fertility, since there is no emphasis on se'xual Mohenjo-Daro in one of the later strata, this claracterisfics. (Perhaps because of her adolessmall image is probably of a date late in the centlike lanhiness, no one has suggested that history of the site. The piece is stylistically this girl is a "urother goddes.") Other features quite unlike either the westem. Asiatic-type of interest include the hair, which is tied into a forms or the more typically Indic forms thus bun at the nape of the neck in a sfyle similar to far describedin Harappa art. It may represent that wom by many South Asian women even still another strand in this early arr tradition. today, and the 6cial characteristics, includins Like the red stonefigure, the body is nude, but the heary lips and higb forehead. These physical here the bodily forms are abstracted into long, Gatures are often said to be tvpical of the thin, pipeJike elementsand have none of the Dravidians, the people who are piivalent roday so{ily modeled feshinessof the red statue.The in south Iadia and who mav have been the elongated,lanky limbs seemto show a disregard principal inhabitants of the Haiappa civilization. for natumlistic proportions, yet the overall Thus, this sculpture documents different forms effect is one of liveliness and animation. This and trends than do the stone sculptures and efect is largely achieved through the jaunty further suggests the breadrh of Harappa art. posture, with both legs bent and the left leg Numerous terra-cotta fiqures have been placed slighdy forward while the bent right recovered from Harappa sites, but these dif,er arm restson the right hip. This vitality has led considerably in style and decoration from the to the common assumption that this figure stone and metal pieces. The terra cottas are rePresentsa dancer, a suggestion colored by usually more crudely executed and, since they, attempts to interpret early Indic works in light are far more common, may representa popular of later Indic civilization. It would be of sreat art form. If, as has been suggested,stone for interest rhis figure is a dancer, tfus w;uld if for sculpture was often imported, the use of that demonstratea precedentfor the later emphasis more precious material, and of metal (which on dance in South Asia. However, such an would require a relatively sophisticatedrechnolassertion strictly speculative, it is imposible ' ogy), may have been associated is for with the elite of to determinewhether the implied movement of the society, while the ubiquitous rerra co![a the figure is that of a dance.could have served the artistic needs ofthe people Although the girl is nude, she is not unas a whole. adomed.Shewearsa necklace hasnumerous and A common subject in terra-cotta figures is bangleson her arms. While it is most unusual the Gmale. These sculptures bear little resemto find an unclothed femalein the whole ranee blance to the metal girl just described,but it is of Indic an, jewelry is almostuniversally woin important to remember that any apparent by figuies-both Gmale and male-throughout differences have not yet been correlated to the many centuriesoftraceableIndic art. In genpossible artistic developments over time and eral, it is the absence, presence, not ofjewelry from place to place within the Harappa civilithat is the more notablecondition. A lack of zation. The most common tvpe of Grnale has jewelry is often a deliberatelychosenrneansof wide hips, pelletlike breasts,iobular limbs, "nd making a statementabout an individual, such abuadant jewelry adornments including neckas, for example, the fact that he or she is a lace, girdle, earrings,and frequendy an elaborate religious mendicant. (The absenceof jewelry headdress (Fig. 2.6). Terra-cotta figures are may thi$ provide a clue to the meaning of the generally small and schematically rendered. Like red torso from Harappa.) Jewelry eventually their pre-Harappa counterparts, these are often

THE INDUSCNIUZATION
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to sites.A definite reFerence procredrionseems to be intended in a number of carvings that lepresent the phallas (linga). While some of these are abstract and may only be inferred to. represent the phallus, others are quite naturalistic (Fig. 2.7). Ring stonesbelieve<lto represent the female generative otgan (yoxi) also have been found. Since few havc been unearthed in specific associationwith a, liiga, some scholars have discredited the interpretation of these objects as liigas ar'd yonis. However, a convincing alternative hypothesis has not been offered, and becauseliigas and yoars are conrmon in later Indic art, these objects may be acceptedas early examples, A religious emphasis on prowith early creation is a phenomenon associated dependentupon the bounty agricultural societies of nature for their well-being and survival. :.6. Female figurc. From Moheqjo-Daro, Pakistan. Judging from later Indic iconography, it is also -\larure Harappa period. Ca. 2loo-r7jo B.c. Tcrre possiblethat "eternal" or "universal" symbolism ;:rra. H: ca. 15 crn. National Museum, New Delhi. is intended by such objects. The loai rnight representthe door through which one is "born again," thereby relating to the concept of "mother goddesses,"though the aptness countless rounds of rebirths (sathsAra), ;lled which --i this designation is questionable. When, as figures in later Indic thought. The litga would representthe procreative,aspectof the universe .xcasionally occurs, a small child appearson the (later, of the Hindu god Siva) and the meansby l:ip or at the breast, or a bulging abdomen which the endlesscycles of birth, death, and u:qgests pregnancy, at least the concept of =otherhood may be verified. One might even rebirth occur. The realization of nonduality, symbolized by the combination of male and :o so far as to say that implicit in every female female principles, represents one of the essential :gure is the concept of motherhood, whether :: is actual or potential. However, the assessment goals of later Buddhist and Hindu thought. -.j rhe divine nature-the goddessaspect is -supportable at this date. Perhaps it is best to ;i ume that the popularity of the Gmale as a ::bject in terra-cotta art from pre-Harappa with the ideas ;:rd Harappa times is associated :i nrotherhoodand henceGrtility. procrcation, ;:d the continuity of life, although the presence :: any divine statusis unl(nown. It is true that j---:s early emphasison the Gminine aspectmight l.e a strong basisfor the later importance placed ca women in the rnajor Indic religions, and c:Dsequently their prominence in Indic art. with female \-.netheless,the meaningsassociated ::agery at this early date remain uncertain. 2.7. Lihga. Frc'J. Mohenjo-Daro, A potential emphasison the sexuality of the Pakistan. Harappe period. Ca. ::=ales depicted in the terra cottas is reinforced 23OO-L7SO R.C. Stone. Whereabouts of original unknovn. iv other objects recovered from Harappa

1E

I]OLNDATIONS OT INDIC CIV]LIZATION

Anothcr rspect of fer:tility syn.rbolismin thc'

Har:ippa culture sccnls to exist in thc rDan!

P:rkistan Malure :.S. Bull. Frorrl Nlohcnjol)aro, Harlppa period- Cr. 2roo-17Jo R.c. Tcru co!t3. H: D.j"i. \ , r : . r | \ 1 . r ' . , r r , .\ ' n .r.7..,

?crhaps such synbolisnl grc\r' out of bclicfs as distrtg,.rishablc eerly as thc Harappe civilizatton,

bulls reprcscntations bulls. On Indus sca1s, of or-rtrumbcr a1l odrcr motifs. Bulls arc comas sc,-r1pt,-tlcs \tcii (Fig. rs monlv for,rncl jsoletccL erc highlv 2.8). Oltcr, thc rcpresentations vericticsol bovine narurllistic.Scveralclifferetrt Thcse ma,v anirll.ls are easily clistingr-rishablc. rcprcseut sonrc of the clourcsticetcd eni]n:rls th:rt \\.crc liighlr. veluctl iu society and that cemc to hlr'c qrcartecdlolnic iurportance to thcir orvncrs. The bull, as potentiirl sirc of gclrcriltions of oillpri q, nrigl-rt havc corllc tcr lvirh both rvcrlth havc l sytrbolisrr associntccl Thc in.rportauce of this alriruaj ancl lcrrilit,v. somc of nay bcst bc crpleinccl1-r1'eremininq fronr various thc seels thet h:rvc bccrrrecovercd Hrrrppa!sircs.

a,

Srars Over tlvo thousend sealsltrcl scal inprcssiotrs bave becnfound at Ilarappa sitcs.Thi: mejoritv of seals,rrc ruacleof stc:rtirctlut hes becu coetccl with an rlkrli an.l thcn firc.l to ptoducc a r,vhitc Usually. tirc scalsxre squarc Iustroussurfacc.t4 in sl-Lapc heve a pcrforete.l boss et thc beck ancl for han.llirrsanrl suspttsion(Fig. 2.9). The,varc cll srn,rl1, xvcrxginsl v. f.rr! centilllctcrs gclLcmll,v solrlctinlcs I)cspitc thcir srllll sizc, seals across. shorving:rtrilrrls, intaqiio dcsiqns heve elatror;rtc plants, .elconrctricforurs, ltrd even icctrcs rvith as humerrsor hirmenoicls, rvcll ls l ritinq. Thc sc.rls of dcciphcrrncnt the l'riting rl1)thc LlLlLrs is pcrhaps the nlost vcrinq problctn for thc intcrprctcr of this atrcicnt civilizxtioll, tbr tts dcciphcrmcnt coulcl sutriru:rrilvprovc or disthcoricsthat havr:bccn put pro\c thc'numcroLLS forth eborrr thi: culturc. Approximetclv four' lor dilTelcnt sigtrs h,rvcbcclrcateloquccl hnnJrccL script. To cliitc, Lhis ,rpplrentlv picto*lap|ic ' r " r . l ' . . b . . t t ' o . ' t r n r r r '|. . 1 . .p r c r r . r ' r . to although ruany anlLoLincenlents th.t cllirct -. . l l , . . ' - 1 . . i . rl, .'r pr l,r. l',,rr rrr.'.1 "f . t r l t . r !( u l . , r l . . r r r t . , - l \ r r lp o r r . r i L . c r l r . ' solricof tlic I lxr:lPP{irrn thc idcntirv of xt IciLst ifit rcl:Ltcs the I)r.rvi.li:in ro pcoplc.For cxaurplc, sLlpport thc conrmottly lenqulqcs, it r,r-orrlcl
hcld vicrv :lbout :r[ iurport:u]t l)rlviclilrr conrponent of thc civilizetion, tlio,rgh this rvoulcl txrt prcc1u.lc thc cxistcncc of other lingLtistic aucl cthnic groups xnrorg thc Harappl peoplcs. clccoclecl langrLagc t.riqht :Llso proviclc a kc1' to thc intcr'lrctrtiorl of the scels arrd their: dcsiqns. IIolvcvcr. thc seels nlay hrvc bcen usc.l :Lsdrc pcrsonxl rrlxrks of iclcntillcltion of thcir ol'ncrs luil ml1' conteiu otrl,vproPcr nirlncs Thc or titlcs oi itrcLividue]sr:rthcr !h;1n exPl:rnirtory nrxtcri:rl. As fir es catr bc (lcrcrrninc(l. tllc scriPt es it survivcs tlid not clcvclop ovcr thc cclrturies in rthich thc Hlrepp:r cnltrLrc llourishccl. Its origins autl clcvclopurents :Lrc thcrcfofe rs ctigrnatic rs t]rc Nords it rccorcls.lri Elcplunts. rhinoccroscs, xnd othcr aninlal\ , . . . . , . . .I ' r r l 1 r , I . r ' i r ' r t z o o ,l ". r r rnorif is e profilc rcprcscrlt:rtioll of xn eninr:rl strn,:linq in fiotrt of sfi:rt ltrs bccn crlled l ruirnqcr-(Fiq. :.ro). Sincc thc enimrl rPP!-arlog or sLrch\crls is rlcpicte.l rvith otrl-r'onc horn, it Akhotiqh hes oftcn bccn iclcrrLi ccl ls r Lr11icorl1. thc Inrlic contcrt rlocs proviclc some veliclit,v to norphic thc irLcnrillcetiotr. for e onc-honrctl crceturc (rla-irriga) is knou,ti ir thc lrtcr Jr11Ircliqion.r? drc f.icr that tlic hcad of the rnini,rl is invrriebly thlt thc two dcpictcrl ur l srrict profilc, stLgllests

THI INDUS CIVILIZATIC]N

+, 1''r!, . - r.t' ,

19

:::rs of the animal simply ovcrl.p, and that x .::::cornis not being silown at all. Indecd, thc . - , r , . . . . . l L r . . : _ l : - . r l r . riti i , . r - ', ine creaturc! rcqarcllcss any pecLrlilrity of in : - number-of horns. . " r r r n 3 . r " i , . r l ' od i r f ,' r l rr o l r r c r p r c rr.o r :' -'crsof this type havc not yct bcen lbLrncliri : : .'ric^vations Hellppa sircs.lt ney havc of . .rr uscclin religiors cereruonics slcrificcs or : ::uv silnply heve beena lccdinq trough. 1'hc - ications the doublc-ribbed of pa.1 lurncss or : .rcDtly sho\\[ acrossthc s]roLrlclcrs thc of r::',al llso unc]clr. arc,:r this scrl. thc sLrbtlety rnoclelins of anclrhe ':::omicei prccisioncviclencecl rhc bcsr sclls irr r:lcarly visiblc. Intcrcstinglv, netur:rlisrn :l; to bc rcsclvc,:l thc clrviuqs of lnimels for :: : re scels, rvhilc hnrl:ursare nornralll dcpictccl . schcmeticrnd abstrlctccl fishion. Ycr, es . cviclcnt fiorl the srnall rccl nrllc statuc, : r:r';rlism could also be e clurectcrisric thc oi :.:::r.tnfignrc, lt lcast in somt Herepp- con: .::.. Obscrvltion of natliral lorms is lirrtlicr :: in rhc cliffcrcntiatiorr of \':lrior.rs bovirlc ::::,;ls on Inclnssc:rls. lt ]clst drrcc othc.r lor : -rrrc.rlly Jetrncd n'pcs rppcrr. Thc lirsr is e
. l :-. -.'i. . t .r,rr' .l i,i,ri r',itj r', tiri-

:,v _lt -is

:IS

z . r o . S c a l r v i t h h o r r c d a n i r r r a l .f r o n Mohcnjo-Daro, Pakistxn Mrlurc Hrrrpp:r period. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo R.c. Ste:rtirc. i J.7cnl. Narional Muscunr, Nerv Dclhj. H

.ls
',n

..d
:19 it ll' to
.1rc .L? .tw

: :,:-.pe avc printirq as ncll (Fig. r.:); dic c ., :',dis l bisonlikccrclturc commonly shot'n ::-ii.'c1ing lionr a trough, though rrot in thc :: r::p1c shorvn(Fis. :. r r) ; thc t1)irdis a sclclorl .:.':cnted rypc rvith r.,'rdcspreatl, arching

: . I t . S c . t ls h o t r n q b L r J l F r o l r N { o h c n j o J ) l r o , l , r k i s t a n . . MrtLrrf llxmppr period. Ci. :Joo rTjo B-c. Stcari!.. ,lVr \, , r. H:.. .r,h lrr

20

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

tiny horns. perhapsa water bufalo' These venslcarvingsare often executedwlth great visual miLituie. indicatingthe artisti intimate of the L"tomy of tho anirnalsand f...*t"Jn. artisdcmethods ,-hJ. pori"rrionof sophisticated their fotms' of mod.ling on bovine. animals in the il.- .-if."tit may Partly be explainedin H"r"ppa "iiili""tioo agricultural society terms. An ..."lfu" -would as a have dependedheavily on such animals andas posibly meatandleather' ,our.. oi -ltn, of beasts burden. The Gmalesof the-species ol tuture z.rz. Seal showing a yogin. Ftorn Mohenjo-Daro' would be important as proPa-gators D c' Pakistan.Mature HaraPpt Period' Ca 2roo-r7Jo ,, i"'utitt of wealth's abung.n"r"tiorr, New Delhi' Steatite.H: 3.4 cm. National Museum, "od than cows are bulls ratherf,"nce. Nonerhelest' in freedepicted l"""ti"Uf" 'H"t"pp, on the sealsand sculpture' We know from ,,Jirrn the t"* Ui"taoi.ooographythatthe bull became 'Si"t gestures used within the same context While also a symbol of t ut"*r) ir "oaperhaps prowi"ndirrdual asanas and mudtds came to have the "ri;.1, *iov-.rrt. Therefore, ,ou"l specific communicative content, it is dificult .,. of th.'bull is also usedin the Harappi the simple observation that this and procreative progenitrve to go beyond contextro symbolize figures on sealsin similar or related of r"rult"nt abttndanc" the herds' "rrioth"i ol*.r, t -ih" "ndih. configur"tiois may be performing a religious between early depicpottibl" association .*"r."ir" o, ritual. Meditation and the use of tions ofiulls and later Sivaforms is strengthened with Harappa asanas arrd mudtas ate usually associated by the occurrenceof liigas in the practices Yoga, which means vosa and yogic becamean .6nr.",, fo, drc linga eventually, ii.i"ttv "to voke," reG.s in the broadestsense Also' a almost universalsign of the god Siva and practicesby which a practidoner ro belieFs Harappa number of male figures on several with rhe assoda- attemDts to "vok." ot unify himself that sealshave characteristics suggest divinJ or universal. It is a Pan-sectalian concePt posrble -virtually tionswith lat"r Sivaimagery'Thus' it is every major lndic associated with bf the beliei and practices of the ;;- ;;" Buidhism,- Jainism, and rJlgion, it for fl"r"opa .i"illt.tion servedas a foundation "lodiog apparent retelence to yoglc Thus, the Indic religion' The bestrxample Hinduism. .f f practices in the Harappa civilization does not "* been called the "Proto-5tva on ".o..lt' has of- what iecesarily signify the roots of any one specffic ur Indus seals shows a miLl-figure. "!e'aLed'- 'a ror sect; it might rePresenta common source o.tit* *i,lt thesolg'ofks feetp-ressedtogether' co.nall. It is irn'ponant to note-that tbe yogic lhe iti, Ggr ,gl"y;a-.toeach.sid:(Fig' 2'r2)'. ceots. as well as tbe use ol asandsand t udtas' frorri.lt6e-body and the ,r-r'.*,.lta pr'ob"bly ,.fl..t indigenous developments in "*"y while the fingerspoint thumbsreston !r!s!'-grqes rarher than any that can be il"r"oo, the leg position nor the do;w";d:Neither ".,. Asiatic sources'Becausethese .p6iiiion *"t,.t" m..i? is one that someone would arm when ,."^ ro o".u. in a weJl-deveiopedstage Rather,these highly formal -are in Harappd art' it must be first encountered ano ""r""fiy ".*-".may-rePresent sPecrhc 'is4ll4 a and gestures of evolution ,U", a lengthy pi;"d "seat") refers i"^"a nitdra, The retm asdflrlurerarry them or-sirtingpostures oreceded ' td the differentleg positions a few elementsof this sealsuggest In petfotming-+i:1oruliiu ,ttu-"a bi " ptrson "orrrr"r,, ,o conceptsand forms. found through.,fto .eligioi's pr"itites in later Indic iJ'it "ffini,i., out western Asia-. For example, rhe figure is rft. ,rri ^'ia refers to the hand *f,rt.

THE INDUS CIVIIZATION

21

$own either having homs (in which case, he right !s x composite, part-human, part-animal ereature) or wearing a headdress,which is compised of homs, implying the adoption of some

$'hile
:c have

c ffcult
prt this

,r:elated =:grous

:se of : rsith
trleans

*nse

riL

the
Indic and

<lncePt

-r- roglc 0:.6 not

roecfic
lw-.e for conandrds,
ln

the dais upon which the figure sits is primarily associated with later Buddhist iconography. The seat itself, and its more elaborarecounrerpart, the throne, is usedin later Indic religions to the beast's characteristics. figure might The signi$' the high rank of the person who sits a "bull-man" in concept, not in actuality, upon it. It is probably most accurateto assume if Mesopotamia, wearingof a hornedhead- that the "bull-man" and rhe accompanying the s by a ruler wasbelieved impart power or to elements of this famous seal relate to many the homs shown here may thus iniry to him; concepts found in later Indic religious systems, still another tie. even ifindirect. between including Saivism, but that these ideas are not Indus culture and ancient Mesopotamia. yet exclusive to any one of them. As such, the tripartite form seen here seems to be sealis an important document of a whole range ofconcepts fundamental to the religious outlook ; Harappan, and, as has already been horned creatures clearlv had srear clearly great of a nurlber of Indic sects. What is especiallv in Indic culture. even in pre-Harapimportanr about rhis sealis rhar, in.onir"sr ro times, in contexts like the Stone Aqe rock the individual sculptures found at Harappa paintings, which do not necessarily sites, whose meanings could only be discussed westem Asiatic contacts. Thus. it is in the most speculative terms, in this small not to overstress suchpossible concomposition, we have definite proofofHarappa or to infer from them an indebtedncss religious practices, involving perhaps an early onecultureto the other. form ofyoga and possibly identity transGrral in , A. Sbce the larer llindu god Siva is srrongly which a human takes on certain, probably iated with the bull, the horned headdress symbolic, characteristics other creatures. of r lent support to interpretations of this figure It is notable that while the designsof some of a prototype of Siva. In addition, while it is the bull seals,or those showing other animals, to discern thesefeatureson such a tiny repeat among the corpus of Indus seals,this it is possiblethat the figure has three example and others showing human-type figures is ithyphallic.and either wearsa tiger skin in which religious activity is definitely portrayed, has a tigerlike upper torso.lE Each -of these seem to have been unique. As a group, such ures again can be relared to later Siva icosealscomprise only a handful of the thousands . as can the facr rhat the figure seems of sealsthat have been unearthed at HaraDDa be involved in yogic practices. Further,the sites.Perhaps thesewere th. pe.ronalpropi.iy r animals surrounding centralfigure, an the a few high-ranking individuals in the society, of lnt, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and a, buffalo, while the others may have been a generic type been related to Siva's Paiupati aspecr.in common to whole classes oeoolc. of he is Lord of Beasts. Another seal shows a fisure-with a similar arguments for relaring the seal to tree,which occurs on pottery asa motif as eariy as the pre-Harappd period. However, while the meaning of this tree in earlier contexts is unJ<nown -it may have been depicted only becauseof the beauty and symmetry of its leaves-it might be assumed that its depiction here is more significant. fle pEal tree is one of the few identi4able plant ri?.ie, on Harappa seals. hs persrsrence a as =--. -r:i. ' ; symboJ SourhAsia,particularly Buddhism, in in wherein it became Sakyamuni Buddha's rree ofenlightenment, may not be merely accidental.

While many of these features seem provide to iconography-andindeedit probablydoes

is important to remember that many of these acteristics not exclusive the god Sivr. are to this early date, they might indicate a com-

headdress standing rli[lp.d i'*(Fig. z.r3). in " The leaves ihosi of a pipal are

,=l

be

rlese 'rshen
zi$ suiudon be

pool of religiousideasfrom which many

rhe Indic systems developed. For example, arransement of the four animals around the figure suggests mat1lala,a cosmological a r known in Saivism and other Indic ions.le The specific placement of a pair of

FggesI

:nroughn-"sre is

(oneof which hasbrokenoff) beneath

22

FOUNDATIONS

OF INDIC

CIVIIZATION

-r

...ln with figures and bull. 2.r3. Scalshowitlg cererlrony Mature Harappa period. FromMohenjo-Daro, ?akisran. Ca. 2loo rTJoB.c. Stealite. ca. 3-4 crD.National H: Muscunl, Karachi. 2.r4. Seal showing serpents figures and honoring a Pakistai. MatureHarappe /ogl,r.Fron Mohenjo-Daro, period.Ca. 2roo-r7JoB.c. Faiencc. ca.r z cm? H: Present whercabouts unknown.
I

S,rr;

trE
t !trltr@ , Ird rlt,:!r@ ,atir-l
I

Wlren used on seals,thc plpdl seemsto appear In in religious contexts.2o this seal,for example, a complex ceremony is taking place, in which a kneeling devotee propitiates the horned figure in the tree. Thc kneeling figure also wears a which suggeststhat he may horned headdress, be assuming some of the charactcristicsof the Iigure in the tree perhaps a dcity-by means of identity transferral. Bchind the kneeling figure is a bu1l, whose role here is unknown, but the bull's presence reinforces a religious association for bulls (as do the horned headdresses) the Indus context. Thc row ofstanding in figurcs along the bottom of the seal may also be participants in the events and they too wcar If elaborate headdresses. idcntity transferral, by which the devotee seeks unification with a i b d i v i n ee s s e n c c.. c r u l y i n d i c a r e d y a c o m p o s i tion such as this, this would indicate a very carly source for thc concept of union between thc individual and the universal that pcrrncates later Indic thinking. In fact, this conccPt so strongly relates to the philosophical thinking expressedin a body of texts known as the Upanisads, beiieved to have been con.rposed around 8oo-45o 8.c., that it r.night bc suggested that the Upanisadscould rcllcct the finalization of conccptsthat had bccn extallt since HaraPPtirnes.21 A small faicncc seal is also startling fo! its apparcnt relationship to latcr Itrdic concepts

(Fig. z.ra). In this case,the seatedcentral figure appears without headdress but in thc same in yogic posture described Figure z.rz. He is by two kneeling figures, one being propitiated to either side, both of whom are backed by scrpentsrising up fiom the ground like cobras about to strike. The obvious resemblalce of this in group to later Buddhist votive scenes which serpentdeities(nagas) pay homage to the Buddha has been noted.22Indeed, the parallcl is so close that the iconographic format must have continued from this early clatc to later Pedods, although the specific mcanings might have chrngcd. Another seal that poses many qucstions and ollers intriguing possibilitiesdepicts an anthropomorph and a zoomorph, each of which is a compositeof severalforms (Fig. z.r5). The zoomorph is essentiaily a homed tigcr with clearly defined facial features, felinc paws and ears, as well as stripes and a tail, while the anof tl.uopomorph seenshuman bccause its upright posture and the use of its forelimbs like arms rather than like the legs of a quadrupcd. The lowcr half of the body, including the cloven hoofs, the tail, and thc horns on the head, all appear to be bovine, resen.tblingthose features its ot' of rnlny brrlls orherre*ls.Bccatt.e gestures be interpreted as an attack uPon the might that this scene zoomorph, it has been suggested an represents cvent in the Sumerian Gilgarnesh

t:tEa i:t''|!

a,"c
tll

THX rNDUS CI!r'TLTZATION 23

epic, in which the bull-man Xnlidu attacks a beast. However, since the precise form differs ftom the motif as found in Mesopotamian art, this interpretation is unverified. Furtler, breastlike forms on the chest suggest that the figure is female, which would make the identification as Enkidu impossible. In any case, the tree at the side, along with the two composite animals, was undoubtedly carefirlly selected to communicate an event outside the normal scope of everyday experience, though its meaning is still enigmatic. Two other seals further demonstrate t}re complexities of Harappa iioriography. The f,rst shows three tisers interlinled in a circular form (Fig. 2.16), ;ih the cential shoulder miss of tlie three animals-ileveloped inio a complex pattem. That a speci{ic diagram was inten?ed may be inferred by comparing this seal with one of a number bearing abstractdesigns. The exam(Fig. 2.r7), but other ple chosenshows a szasti&c Fttems are also found in which forms radiate &om a center, like that formed by the tigers' Soulders, In later Indic art and architecture. directional and cosmic significance is attached to sch forms. The presenceof the szasri&a in is -syiibofcohiself noteworthy, since ir imorJy used by the Aryan peoples usually associated with post-Harappa times in Sourh Asia. Yet its appearance in a context prior to rhe presumeddate ofthe Indo-Aryan migrations into ancient India suggests that the motif may have been borrowed by the Aryans from Harappan usage, or more probably, that conacts between the Indo-Aryans and the Harappa.uscommenced much earlier than the dernise of the latter's civilization. Indeed, it is possible rbat lndo-Aryans were among the people gnpulating the Indus civilization. Regardless of how plausible some of the interpretations of Flarappa seals and art in gptreral might seem, without written vedfication or other substantialproof of the conrinuity between the Indus civilization and later lrrdic culrure. all of rheseirterpretations must remain ir the realm ofpossibility only. tn this discussion, i hasnot been possibleto take into account the rclative chronological position of the objects, &velopmental aspects the Indus religion and of

2.rJ. Sealshov/ing compositecreatures and tree. From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan. Marure Ha$?pe period. Ca. 2roo-r7so R.c. Steatite, H: ca. 2-4 cm? National Museum. New Delhi.

2.16. Seal with interlinked tigers. From MohenjoDaro, Pakistan. Mature Hara?paperiod. Ca. 2roo-r7Jo B.c. Steatite.H: ca. z-4 cm? National Museum, New Delhi.

2.r7, Seal with sl'astika design. From Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan.Mature Harappe period. Ca. 2roo-r7jo B.c. Faience.r.5 x r.6 cm. Department of Archaeology of Pakistan.Karachi.

24

FOUNDATIONS OF rNDrC CIVIIZATTON

people were concemed with ideas that go culture, nor even interregional ramifications of eventhough they experience L"uorrd the developments.The iange in style of tht "u.rvd"v ie"vily from ir. Theserwo -"u h"t . borrowed and/ chronological alonesugges$ sealsculptr-ries preiispositions similarly coexistin the fabric of variatjons.. geogiaphical or i"te. indic thoueht. While thiy might now of Ii ,o"*" .rr.r, such as the representations a appea!to be coitradictory, it will be shown show the bulls (l-igs. z-9.z-n), Harappeseals not. In fact, their reconciliation is ,em"rk"bi. i.qr.. of naturalismthar reflects tiit th"y "." one of the hallmarks of ancient India's artistic of closeobservatiJn the physicalworld' Other animals and philosophic creativirY. asthosedepictingcomposite such seals, (Fig. z.r5), demonstratethat the Harappe
PorrrRY

The samecomplexityand multipliciry of interof pretadonseenin th. ,.ulptut" 'nd seals the in civilization is encountered the study of indus

designsranqe from simple to complex and the motifs to tipresentatiooal. frori "brtr"-.t are often crowded into an overall Pattem on circle the surfaceof a.vessel,An intersecting (Fig.z.r8a)hadgrea-ilopuliriry.Further, design --otif in For ,pp"..otly Persists' it resurfaces th. architectureof the Maurya period monument;f in the third century B.c. (Fig.+.8), suggesting the basic continuiry of Indic civilization' Leaf the motifs, especially pilal (Fig.2'r8b), suggest pre-Harappa and later lndic forms riesto both ut"d symbolically. and mav haveb..n

painted pot' 2.18. Pottery motifs A) Intersectingcircle motif on bakistan. Harappa period B) Peintedpot fro* uol!.t;o-O".o, (black on red)-wirh pipai leafdesign'Harappaperiod'

THE INDUS CNILIZATION ltri: go THE EclrpsE or rHE INDUs Ctvrtlz,ttlott

25

fi"y
of
: f,ow ilr\ln c,:o is

r rnd r.xG
clOn

;rcle drr, r:s io

No one can say for certain what caused the demise of the Indus civilization. Most probably, scveral factors, including the natural process of cultural evolution, combined to elGct its end. Some outposts of the society outlasted others, end no single fate was responsible for the denrise of all settlements in this widespread civilization. 'While a general date of around rTio B.c. may be cited as the end of the civilization's mature or urban phase. activity at some sites, particubrly in the soutlem regions of the Harappa rohere. seems to have continued to about 8oo ic. It has been theorized that desiccationand &forestation of the lower lndus region made fre land lesshabitable, possibly causing populations to miqrate to the east and south. Whether dimatic chinges did occur and whether they were man-madeor the natural result ofgeological changes are still highly arguable points.2a At Mohenjo-Daro, flooding apparently had been a peennial problem; there, it is likely that the Sreat of continuing severe inundations heralded &e sradual abandonment of the site. Archaeological evidence reveals that the last Gw generations of inhabitants at Mohenjo-Daro srf,ered from frequent fooding. Each time, de damage' was repaired or the dwellings rebuilt in a shoddier manner, suggesting a &cline in the urbanized civilization itselfin what

has been calleda "oost-urban"ohase.za Other sites seem to have been abrupily abandoned with no obvious signsof rnaterial declineprior to desertion.A comrnonly suppliedexplanation for this phenomenonis that increasingnumbers of foreignerscameinto the area,causinga shift in oooulation distribution. S.hol"rr h",r" debated the exact nature of these rnigrating peoples, but most agree that incursions by peoplesfrom the northwest occurred around the secondquarter of the second millennium n.c., regardless whether they of contributed to the demise of the Haraooa civilizationor not. Most probably,these incursionsdid not come at once, nor did they represent a rurified effort by the newcomersor one marked by violence.z5Rather, it is believed that these shiftsin populationtook placeover a periodofseveral hundredyears, affecting various placesunequally. Of the severalethnic, racial, and linguistic groups that may have been involved in the displacementof the Harappa peoples,at least one component was made up of Aryans who probably enteredthe Indic lands from the Iranian region. The heritage of these Indo-Aryans or hrdo-Iranians26 eventually becamea dominantaspect much of subsequent of Indic civilization.

rrRlt,f

uaAata?te,t rtaamaaargfr?nrttaaak
Detail of a \g Yedt' nanl$tiPt (t 7I | ; cowtes! Btitish

CHAPTER THREE

Periods The Vedic and Upanigadic

( c a .r 5 o o t o 4 J o B . c . )

i
THn INDo-ARYANs

I
The Indo.Aryan newcomers did not come into the Indic lands all at once, nor did they settle in a single place. Within broad limits, the migrants had two lines of advance moving in successive waves, one to tlte south of the great Thar Desert, the other to the north.l While a Gw characteristics of the material culture and technology of these people may be identified, very little is known about them or the objectsthey produced. No evidence of civic planning, enduring architectural structures or art of the quality and complexity seen in the Harappa civilization has been discovered that can be linked to the Indo-Arvans of this oeriod. Some scholarshave suggested that theii apparently semi-nomadic ways were not conducive to the construction of monurnental and lasting buildings or curnbersome objects and have concluded that even archaeological excavations should not be expected to reveal significant material remains from this period. It{ore probably, important discoveries await the archaeologist. It is important to remember that before the accidental discovery of the Indus civilization, the existence of this vast, early culturewas not even suspected. Thus, the gap in our knowledge is perhapsnot permanent. Given the richness of the literature surviving from this period, afruence in material accoutrements would not be surprising. Although the contribution of the Indo-Aryans to the material culture and art of ancient India is unknown, their literature became one of the most important and enduring infuences on hrdic civilization.

z6

TI{E VEDIC AND UPANITADIC PTRIODS 27

LrrxRARy Evrlrrqcr: Tnr Vroas (ca. r5ooro 8oon.c.)

importance of the newcomers far surpasses identification as an intrusive element in Indic subcontinent. for thev are credited the composition and perpetuation of one de most important bodies oflndjc iiterature.

(Collectiorns Knowof {our VedaSathhitas

These ooetic hvmns in the Sanskrit

give linguistic, religious, historical,

rd sociological information about the people rbo composed them. More important\ for our they provide a foundation Gr many t-he religious concep* that pervade later Asian art. The Vedas are said to be divine in origin, re-

raled by Brahman, the Self-Existentand All(rss) who fnov/ind, to a group ofinspired sages
rre charged with transmitting this divine gift r others, also specially selected. On this preqrposition, the Vedas have been passed from geaeration to generation until the present day, ad accessto reading the Vedas or to hearing &cm recited has remained restricted to certain deses of people in Hindu society. In spite of fris beliel which implies that the Vedas were pesented to the rgis in a complete and un'fr.nging forn, analysis of the texts clear\ ndicates that they were not compiled all at oce nor by a shgle author. Rather, they were om.posed over long periods of time and transnined orally for many generations before they rere finalized and ulrimately given written 6rm. As a result, the chronology of the hymns ir each Veda, aswell as the relative dates ofeach o{ the Vedas, remain quite problematic. As a group, the Vedas are generally ascribedto the poiod berween r5oo and 8oo a.c.,z with the' 4g Veda uually accepted as the oldest of the 6ur. The earliest concepts contained in the Vedas nust have been formulated before the advent of de lado-Aryans into the Indic sphere. However, nme verses in the Vedas clearly recount events dat took place on Indian soil. For example, rictories over a people called the Dasas are Gequentlv mentioned, Described as "not-sacrif,cing," devoid of rites, addicted to strange vows, god-hating, and those "whose god is a

are phallus,"a Dasas generallyidentified as the the earlier inhabitantsof the regionsaccessioned by the Indo-Aryarx-in short, the Harappans.a interactions Further insight into the possible berween the Indo-Aryan newcomers and the earlierinlabitants of the Indic regionsis sugthe in gestedby verses the Vedaswhich describe Aryan perception of two separate primeval confluence.These worlds and their subsequent ideasare central to the Vedic cosmogony,that concemingthe creation is, the Vedic perceptions of the universe.sVedic texts describea sacred, primor&al world of potentiality, one that was not created simply existed.hr this realm was but by the germ of life, characterized complete, undifferentiated uniry. Associated with this A phase wasa group of gods,the qsuras. second was marked by the stagein this development birth of the god Indra outside this prirneval world. Indra actedasa catalyst on the primeval world toward the creation of the world of individual forms,6that is, the world aswe know it, of with all of the identifiably distinct categories and beingswithin it. Along with Indra objects camea hostof new gods,the /rzas-in essence, the Vedic pantheon.During repeatedstruggles between the detas and the esuias,some qsuras joined the ranksof the /eaas; while others"continued to exist beyond the pale, as a constant menaceto the existenceand coherenceof the ordered world."? This descripiion seemsto refer to the superimpositionof the hrdo-Aryan inhabitants religionupon that of the indigenous of t}renorthwestIndic lands.The oppositionof deuasand asurasis a popular theme in later Hindu religion and art. Indeed,in later Indic the term religioustexts, such as the Pura4as, asxrais usedinvariably to describea demonlike characterisa creature who personifies negative by but tic, suchasignorance, who is vanquished themes oflater Thus,one of the essential a devaHinduism, the adversarial roles of devas artd from an early interpretaax,ras,may have arisen tion of the historicalinteractionbetweentwo groupsof earlypeoples. information Asidefrom providing interesting of interminglings the Indoabout the possible

28

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CNIIIZATION

Aryans and earlier populations of the subcontinent during this period, the Vedas set forth the basic religious beliefs of the Vedic people, which have little in common with the religious ideas assumed to have been prgvalent in the Indic regions prior to their advent. Since the Vedasdo not develop a singlenarrative line when read sequentially, it is not possib.leto underofVedic stand many ofthe basicpresuppositions thought without extrapolation and analysis, Further, Vedic ideas were not frxed, but developed over the centuries and thus any true understanding of Vedic thought must eventually take chronological factors into account. The Vedas present a pantheon of "thirtythr.""s gods belonging to the terrestrial, aerial, and celestial realms. Some of these deities are prototypes of gods or aspectsof gods who are known in later Hinduism. The nature and purpose of worship is to ask boons from the gods for primarily material blessings,such as prosperity. Therefore, Vedic worship has been characterized as worldly and mercenary rather than Denitent and ascetic. An emohasis on the m"tei"l world is a logical extension of the concept of the world createdby Indra, which is, after all, a world of forms and objects, a world of differentiation, not unity. Eventually, materialism became an extremely important aspectof some of the Indic religions.eMany of the Vedic gods represent aspectsof nature and their personification, such as the sky, thunder, moon, sun, {ire, wind, water, mountains, and ri]/e$. Others represent ethical concepts, such as truth, and somemanifesta combination of nature-based and ethical ideas. Vedic deitieswere worshioed through sacrfice, prayer, and offerings.Ceremonies took place in an altar area which, in con-

cept,ultimatelyserved a source laterHinas for du temple architecture, Animals,suchasgoats, oxen, cows, rams, horses, and even humans, were sacrificed the gods.Fire,personified to as the god Agni, was the vehicle of transmission of the oferings to the gods, and was to be "fed" with grain, milk, butter,fesh, and other materials.Through fire (Agni), the sacrifice (yajia) was transportedto the gods. During the courseof a sacrifice,an elaborateritual meal to which the gods were invited might be served and hymnsofpraisewould be sung.Suchceremonies were undoubtedly a sovce for prtja, a laterHindu methodof worship,which in some ways might be described a hospitalityritual as involving the offering of foods, water, and fowers to a deity.lo The final codificationof Vedic rituals and ceremonies found in the Brahmagas, group is a of texts comDosed later than the Vedas.The Brahma4as seivedastextbooks ritual for the of piesrs (brahnan)rL who were rhe rransmirtrrs of the Vedas. Priests were believed havethe to capacityto infuence the godsdirectly andvisibly through the performance of sacrifices and ceremonies. Thus,they began assurte to influential positions societyasimportant individuals, in includingchieftains otherleaders, and musrhave sought, through the priesrs, win the gods' to favor. Secause th e impottanceof the brahmans of in the Vedic religion, it is often referred to as Brahmanisrn.Individual priests and their sons, whose future patronage depended on the eG fectiveness the hymns and ceremoniesthey of performed,developed their own ritual technologies,which theyjealously guarded from other grouPs. Pnest

L r r r r . q n y E v r n r N c r : T H E U p a N r $ A D s( c e . 8 o ot o 4 5 on . c . )

in Vedic beliefswere not universallyaccepted ancientIndia. In the Vedas.there are hints of dissentamong people who questionedtheir of authority, denied the existence the gods, and felt that religion served the ptiestly bnhnans more than anyoneelse,Theseindividuals,the

ndstikas, deniers,are contrastedto the Astikds, or or asselters,who accepted the Vedas and all they entailed. The nastikas paved the way for much of the thought found in Buddhism, Jainism, and other Indic schools that rejected the Vedic presuppositions. rnight even be said It

THE VEDIC AND UPANIIADIC PERIODS 29

cc
Ed -.te ' :f,e

Erl *-l

dat ftom a very early date, these two divergent yiewDoints, Vedic and anti- or non-Vedic, darJcterized the fabric of Indic religious 6ought, becoming the orthodox schools,which hased their authority on the Vedas, and the heterodoxy, which questioned or disregarded de Vedas as a source of knowledge. In spite of the fact that Vedic thought, or Brahmanism, came to be a very important aspectof the later Hindu religion, its dominance was eclipsed for a thousand years or more, an eclipse heralded in during the carly centuries ofthe first millerurium r,c., when another group of texts, the Upanisads, was composed. These texts replesent a reaction against the sacrilicial religion dorninated by the increasingly powerful priest group. They emphasize philosophical, speculative questions. k is likely that many of de ideas that were formulated, and perhaps first preserved,in the Upani5ads,were not new at this time. Sone may represent the resurfacing of ideas current in ore-Vedic tirnes. while others may reflect alternative views of people living during Vedic times. The heartland ofUpanigadic &ought seems to have been the Gangetic Valley, an area which was not dominated by Vedic culture. Eventually, in later Hinduism, the Upanisads, despite their anti-Brahmanical rlought, came to be consideredthe philosophical portion of the Vedas. Both the Vedas and Upanisads,in spite of their apparent contradictions, were melded into part of the textual basis ofthe Hindu religion. ln addition, the Upanigads were the fountainhead for the non-Vedic, that is, heterodox, thinking of other hrdic religions, including Buddhism and Jainism. As in the case of the Vedas, the Upanigads do not present a unified, cohesive view, nor do, they have a single date. They represent several centuries of philosophical speculation. One of the main concems of Upani5adic thinking is the relationship between the individual being and the Universal Being, between the particular and the comorehensive. Two famous and often repeatedexpressions characterizethe Upanisadic theoretical dilemma: Atman : atmafl aftd Tat tvaw asi.ln the former, Atman, or Brahman,* the Universal Principle, is eqtrted with atman,

Atman. or rhe individual being.Specifically. Brahman, is the supreme essence the universe, of which manifestsitself in the various creations of the physical world, or the individtal atmans. phrase, tvomasi,literally "that Tat In the second thou art," an identical meaning is implied. Thar is, the individual rs the Universal.The with the Universalindividual'sreintegration realization of onenesswith the Universalbecame the major concernof most Indic religions,including Hinduism,whereinit is called and Buddhism,wherein it is mok;a (release), (extinguishing). calledniruarla Unity had to be d realize and implemented, not merely intellectualized. Indic religions,the goal of uniry In sugis often pursuedthrough yoga practices, gesting ao underlying relationship between thought and the HarappacivilizaUpanisadic on tion. It is also interestingto speculate the relationship between this line of thought and accountsof the Vedas,for the cosmogeneric from the Upani;adsseemto seeka departure the material world of the Vedas(hrdra'sworld of differentiated form) and a return to the undifferentiated. nondualistic world described in the Vedas existingbeforeIndra'sadvent. as jusrified examining Tbis suggestion seems by other Upanisadic concepts, particularlythat of maya,the illusionarynatureof the phenomenal world. This concept theoretically negates Indra's that world of individualforms by asserting the differentiation perceivablein the physicalworld is contradictory to the real, ultimate truth*the realizationof the Atman : dtmaneqtation-and thus the universality of all things. Perception of the differentiatedforms of the physicalworld, then, is an impediment to the true understanding of the undifferentiatedstate. Of the many concepts found in the Upanisads, two othersare alsoimportant to an understanding of later Indic religions and religious an. These are the concepts of karma and sathsaraThe doctrine o{ hatma is explained in the B1hadarcnyaka upanisdd:"As he has acted,as he haslived, so he becomes; who has done he
*The impersonal world-.essence,not to be confused with Brahma, the Vedic and Hindu god.

,0

FoUNDATTONS rNDrC CMTZATION OF subject to finite existences and the cycle of sathstua. The desire to know, and thereby to become unified with, Brahman (Atman) became more important than improving one's material position or physical enjoyment for Upanigadic philosophers. Reintegration with the Universal became the highest and perhaps sole purpose of life. Irr Buddhist thought in pefiicnlr', maya (illusion) was seen as an obstacle to this understanding of the oneness between the individual and the Universal. In general terms, one can say that the story of Indic thought, art, and life, whether orthodox or heterodox, from Upanigadic times onward, is dominated by the goal of unity and release from the realm of sathstua-hr fact, the nexus of shared concem among the seemingly disparate hrdic religions is the theme ofextinction through reinteqration. Sectarian differences within and among the Indic religions consist to a large degreeofthe different methods and ideasapplied toward seekirs this end.

good is bom again as a good one, he who has done evil, is bom again as an evil one. lle becomesgood through good action, bad through bad action."12 Karma is predicated on the belief 'rn sahsaru, often translared as transmigration, but referring to the metempsychosis or countless rounds of rebirdrs that an individual being experiences upon each death in a potentially endless seouenceof liva. Kdrma. often translated as reuibutiorr, is more correctly the action an individual might take, especially in hope of rccompense in a future life. Thus, korme determines the form in which the individual being will be reborn. All actions and thoughts of an individual being-a term not necessarily punished or restricted to humans-whether during a particularliGtime, are taken rewarded into account in this system of justice. Thus, responsibiliry for one's thoughts and actions are thrust upon each being. Through the realiz ation of the Atrian : 6tmft, equation, an individual would cease to be

a O r H r n L r r r n a n v E y r D E N c x :T H E P U R A N A S N D E " r c s In addition to the Vedic and Upani;adic traditions, which provide some record of the history and thought of the period from about rJoo to 45o 1.c., other literary works survive that illuminate aspectsof the early periods of Indic history. These texts, mainly the early Puralras and the t'i;vo major epics, the Mqhabharata and the Ramaya4a, survive in forms that were finalized many centuries after the events they record. They ar'e being considered here as documents that provide insight into the early history of the Indic world and not as literary texts. As in the similar caseof the Vedas, it is the historicity of sometimes difiicult to assess the events as they are recorded. Most early Pura4as did uot take their present forms until the fourth or fifth century a.o. or later. Although imperGct as historical records, they provide a great deal of information about the history of the Indic world, idcluding the prehistoric periods. They record a catastrophic food as well as a king, Manu, who alone was saved ftom the inundation and thus became the progenitor of the human race.l8 From Manu issued the solar and lunar d1'nasties, as well as ofancient India, whose some ofthe royal lineages genealogies are given in the Pura4as. The Pure4as preserve what may be important historical data about early Indic heroes,including Krsna (Krishna), the cowherd who later became one of the most popular Hindu deities. Further, they describeand relate numetous storiesabout many other Hindu gods, whether historical or not, and thus serve as vital sources of iconographic information rhat aid in the inrerpretation of art. The Puranasseem to record a nonBrahmanical view of history, which may refect some of the religious beliefs current among indigenous, non-Vedic peoples. The Mahabharcta and the Ramayatla also provide glimmerings of historical information about this meagerly documented period. Like the Vedas, Upanipads,and Puranas, these texts over long periods of are compilations assembled

II

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THE VEDIC

AND

TIPANIS,ADIC

PTRIODS

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time and are known from a number of different Though the eventsrecorded in the recensions, Ramayqa took place after those o{ the Mahabharun, the surviving texts of the Rantayolta were finalizedbeforethoseo{ rhe Mahabharum' is The central event of the Mahabharata a great war which probably occurred between9oo arrd 65or.c. The war, for which little archaeological evidencehas been found as of yet and which Gtta, forms the background of the Bhagavad and was fought between the Per.rdava Kaurava clans,who, though once believedto have been pure Aryans.are now thought to have been ion-Ary*t, or perhapsmixed Aryans' The events of the Rauaya4a, mainly the story of Rama, the abduction of his wife Sita by the also and evil Rava4a, the war that ensued, seem refect the history of non-Aryanpopulations. to Both epics are popularly illustrated in later
Hrnd art.

the The early Purar.ras, Ranayaqa, and the Mahabharataare tJrerefore important to the of understanding the early periods of Indic

" history for which we have onJy a very incomplete picture based on archaeological evidence. It is. ofcourse. often &fiicult to disceln historical fact from embeliishment in these texts, as is the case when studying the Vedic materials. Nevertheless, they are vital in providing a more balanced view of this period, since they seem to record history from the non-lndo-Aryan, non-Vedic point of view. (It is notable in this regard that- the Pure{ras often place the Vedic gods in positions subordinate to other gods.) Further, the Pura4as and the epics, along with the Vedas and Upaniqads,became part of the central core of textual materials of the Hindu religion and provide important iconographic information for the interpretation of Hindu art. It is dificult to sayjust when thesevarious and often conflicting traditions merged into what is now called "Hinduism" (a date around the beginning ofthe Christian era is often suggested), but together they form the basis of the conslomerate known as Hinduism.

MaHlviRA,
E trIC

SArYeuuIqr

BuDDHA, AND THE RIsr oF MAGADHA

lXEu rI as
D.'E rle -85-

of Thus far, in the discussions the developing not been possible to Indic civilization, it has provide the name of even a single individual whose historiciry can be verified with any accuracy. Not one of the religious concePts in expressed the early religious literature can be ascribedto the authorshipofa specificindividual, nor are the names and personalitiesof any of the political leaders known in any way that can relate them to a concretecontext. However, for the late Upanisadic period, availablehistorical information is comparatively accurate and specific. The names of kings and orher persons living within the society, including a few important religious leaders,are preserved.As in the case of other early literature, many of the textual records that reGr to this period were either compiled after the events they record or have come down ro us in a version that was finalized long after the period of their concem. However, there is considerable concordance

about many of the developments during this period from texts. Thereforc, the texts may supply a relatively reliable overview. The major sources dealing with the history of this period belong to the Buddhist and.Jain canons,for it was during this period that Sakyarnuni Buddha (ca. 563-483 l.c.) and Mahavira (ca. 54o-468 r.c.), two important "perfected beings" of their respectivereligions, lived. Sinceboth Stkvamuni Buddha and Mahavira practiced their religions in Magadha, an ancient region in the Gangetic valley equivalent to oortions of the modern Bihar state,infonr.ration is -ost co-plete for this region. We leam, for example, that Magadha was one of sixteen Great Communities (Malajanapddas) and,that it qqickly assumeda leading role in the political and economic spheres of the subcontinent. The stimulus for developing these centralized Great Communities may have come from contact who had annexed with the AchaemenidPersians,

'2

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIC CIVIIZATION

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portions of the northwest region of the Indic lands in the sixth century s.c. and who had already developeda complex system ofkingship and statecraft. The rise of the Magadha kingdom in particular is also linled to economic developments resulting from demands for metal, for the region was rich with iron and copper, A network of trade routes leading to and from Magadha, including the famous uttarcpatha (northern route) that linked the region with westem Asia, began to develop. The Ganges River became a major artery unifying Magadha with other north hrdic regions from west to east. The result was that Magadha became the major economic and political center of ancient India for many centuries, particularly during the Maurya period in the third century B.c. (Chap. a), when Magadha dominated the subconuneru. The foremost historical personages of this period are Mahavua (Great Hero) and Sakyamuni (Sage of the Sakya [Clan]) Buddha (Enlightened One), both born in k5attiya (warriorcaste) families in Magadha, the heartland of Upanigadic thought. While they are often mistakenly believed to have founded their respective religions, Mahavira is accepted by Jairu as the twenty-fourth in a lir,e of jinas (victors), and Sakyamuni is numbered by Buddhists as the fourth or seventh (depending upon the tradition) of eight nanuli (mortal) Buddhas 'fhe (buddhas). ideas they propounded were not solely their individual and original creations,but rather refect concepts that had been circulating in Upanigadic society, some of which may have originated in pre-Vedic times. The striking parallels between Jainism and Buddhism refect the common intellectual milieu in which they both fourished. Mahavira and Sakyamuni are generally characterized as Upanigadic thinkers. hrdeed, many Upani5adic concepls, such as katma, saitshra, at\d maya, are central to Jain and Buddhist beliefs. The goal of Buddlrism, xirvatla, is rclease fiom the cycles of sathsdra,a goal which can be reached when the individual fully realizes his own IJniversal nature. The Jains also seek a similar end, although the Jains define their oursuit as the desire to free the individual soul

from matter so that it may become pure and enjoy eternal bliss.Both religions are heterodox, since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Both religions opposed the Vedic caste system and meaningless rituals and propounded ethical systems in which noniolence (ahitusa) was a major element. They are both nontheistic, in contrast to Vedic beliefs. Thus, Buddhists and Jains do not propitiate the gods for material boons in the Vedic sense.While it is true that later images of Sakyamuni Buddha, Mahavira, and other individuals, both historical and conceptual, important to the two religions are depicted in art, these are not representations of "gods" in the Iiteral sense. Instead,theseimages serve a vadety of purposes. For example, they often represent personifications of religious principles that are to be meditated upon or provide examples of persons or ideas to be emulated. Although Buddhism and Jainism share many features, each has a distinct history. Tainjsm seemsto have changedcomparatively litile during its long history, while Buddhism underwenr numerous significant developments, marked in the early stagesby a series of four Buddhist coulcils,l4 which were attempts to uniry schisms. In general, Buddhism is described as having three major divisions: Hnayana (Smaller Vehicle), Mahayana (Greater Vehicle), and Vajrayana (Adamantine Vehicle). None of these terms is truly descriptive of the many variant forms of Buddhism usually grouped into these three broad catesories. The term "Hinaydna" in particular, orid to reGr to a number of important rypes of Buddhism, such as Theravada,is much criricized, for it was invented by Mahayanists and has pejorative courotations. These forms of Buddhism and accounts of the lives of Sakyamuni Buddha and Mahavira will be discussed in relation to artistic developments.In this volume, greater attention will be given to Buddhist art than to Jain art, for it was not only the more dominant and popular of the two religions in South Asia, but it was widely adopted throughout Asia and became a religion of important international scope, in contrast to Jainism, which remained confrred to the Indic resion.

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TIIE VEDIC AND UPANIIADIC PERIODS 'J ARCHABoTo GrcAL Evr DxNcE

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The limited information about Indic society during Vedic and Upanisadic times thus far discussed been largely gleaned from textual has archaeologicalevidence sources.This is because for this period is scanty and incomplete. However, some verification of the pattems discemed is preserved in these meager archaeological materials. For example, two apparently distinct but parallel cultures existing in ancient India during this approximate period have been identified through pottery types. The first, characterized by a pottery known as Painted Grey 'Ware, with a late wave of seems be associated to Indo-Arvans. Some Painted Grev Ware sitesare found in northern Rajasthan, but the pottery is mainly known from sitesin the Pafijab region, Haryana, and especiallywestern Uttar Pradesh, which essentially comprises the ancient Vedic heartland.Despite the lacklustername, examples of Painted Grey Ware are often extremely beautiful (Pl. z). These fine, wheel-made vessels bear designs painted in black or brown in simple, geometric patterns such as c rs-cross These designs lines or rows of dots and dashes. may be simplifications of earlier, but by this time familiar, symbols which carried specific meamngs. The second culture is identified archaeologically by a black-and-red ware that has much wider geographic distribution and a lengthier history, for it precedes, coincides with, and outlives the periods of Painted Grey Ware production. It is found as early as the Harappa context and survives in certain parts of India up to the early historical period. Its distribution is considerablefor it has been found virtually all over the Indic regions, even alongside the Painted Grey Ware at most Painted Grey Ware sites. An examination of this type of pottery (Pl. 3) revealsthat it is flot a two-colored ware createdby two colors of dip or from painting. as the name might imply. Its coloration was produced during firing in an orygen-reduced atmosphere,creating the blackened areas,especially in the interior of the red clay pot which is inverted during firing. The widespreaddistribution of black-and-red

ware in spaceand time, has led to alternative theories, One presumes the ware represents that a "floating" techniquethat was used widely and not limited to any culture.The other, perhapsthe rnore likely, holds that it signifies an looselyassociated, identifiable,though perhaps cultural unit that is distinct from that of the Indo-Aryan groups but may be tied together and tirne throughoutthe prehistoric over space period. Thoughthe evidence still somewhat is unclear, there is, however, archaeologicalsupport for a distinctculturesexistingsideby theory of nuvo one perhaps sidewith little interaction, reflecting an intrusive people and the other largely inor groups.It is interesting digenous assimilated to note that Upanigadicthinking reachedits fullest fruition in the Gangeticregion and in Magadhain particular. This region is a distinctively black-and-red ware area, thereby thinking reinforcingthe view that Upanigadic an non-lndo-Aryan develrepresents essentially
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The rise of the kingdom of Magadha, which occurred during the late Upanigadic period, is also associated with a pottery type. This ware, Black Polished ware, began to bd the Northern used around Joo B.c. but was apparently discontinued after about 2oo B.c. The center of dispersal of the ware seemsto have been the Gangetic plains, possibly Magadha, although it is found widely, overlaying earlier pottery, throughout both the Painted Grey Ware and black-and-red ware areas. This deluxe ceramic is invariably of fine quality. Its lustrous black or blue finish (sometimes ranging to silvery brown, red, or gold) resemblesmetal. It is always found as a minority ceramic rather than the dominant type, suggestingthat it was restricted in use or that it was not rnade locally but imported (from the Gangetic region?) and was possibly costly. This latter possibility may be inferred since many excavatedexampleshad been repaired during their lifetime of use rather than discarded. This ceramic mav reDresent combination of a the Painted G.ey iv"t. and the black-and-red