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Unit-3
Dr. K. Subrahmanyam Professor in CSE
Frequency Distribution Rel. Freq. Dist. Cum. Freq. Dist. Cum. Rel. Freq. Distribution Stem-and-Leaf Stem-andDisplay Crosstabulation
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Introduction
A table is a display of data in numerical form in the rows and columns of a matrix. A graph is a representation of data by spatial relationship in a diagram. Graphs & Tables help us to summarize data and understand relationship between variables.
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introduction
Many graphs used in research have two axes plotted at right angles to one another. The horizontal axis is called x-axis (abscissa) and the vertical axis is called y-axis (ordinate). Typically X axis represents values of independent variable and Y axis represents dependent variable. A graph may have two independent variables or no independent variables.
Numerical Numerical
(Quantitative) (Quantitative)
Categorical Categorical
(Qualitative) (Qualitative)
Discrete Discrete
Continuous Continuous
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Question to be addressed
Collect data
Organize data
Present data
Draw conclusion
Frequency distribution
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Frequency Distribution
Rating Frequency 2 Poor 3 Below Average 5 Average 9 Above Average 1 Excellent Total 20
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Relative Frequency .10 Poor .15 Below Average .25 Average .45 Above Average .05 Excellent Total 1.00 Rating
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Bar Graph
A bar graph is a graphical device for presenting qualitative data. On one axis (usually the horizontal axis), we specify the labels that are used for each of the classes. A frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency frequency, frequency, scale can be used for the other axis (usually the vertical axis). Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each class label, we extend the height appropriately. The bars are separated to emphasize the fact that each class is a separate category.
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Bar Graph
10 9 8
Frequency
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Pie Chart
The pie chart is a commonly used graphical device for presenting relative frequency distributions for qualitative data. First draw a circle; then use the relative circle; frequencies to subdivide the circle into sectors that correspond to the relative frequency for each class. Since there are 360 degrees in a circle, a class with a relative frequency of .25 would consume .25(360) = 90 degrees of the circle.
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Pie Chart
Marada Inn Quality Ratings
Excellent 5% Poor 10% Above Average 45% Below Average 15% Average 25%
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OneOne-half of the customers surveyed gave Marada a quality rating of above average or excellent (looking at the left side of the pie). This might please the manager. For each customer who gave an excellent rating, there were two customers who gave a poor rating (looking at the top of the pie). This should displease the manager.
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HistoHistogram gram
Polygon Polygon
Ogive Ogive
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91 71 104 85 62
78 69 74 97 82
93 72 62 88 98
57 89 68 68 101
75 66 97 83 79
52 75 105 68 105
99 79 77 71 79
80 75 65 69 69
97 72 80 67 62
62 76 109 74 73
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Frequency Distribution
Guidelines for Selecting Number of Classes Use between 5 and 20 classes.
Data sets with a larger number of elements usually require a larger number of classes. Smaller data sets usually require fewer classes
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Parts Relative Percent Cost ($) Frequency Frequency 50-59 50.04 4 60-69 60.26 26 2/50 .04(100) 70-79 70.32 32 80-89 80.14 14 90-99 90.14 14 100100-109 .10 10 Total 1.00 100
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30% of the parts costs are under $70. The greatest percentage (32% or almost one-third) (32% oneof the parts costs are in the $70-79 class. $7010% of the parts costs are $100 or more.
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Dot Plot
One of the simplest graphical summaries of data is a dot plot. plot. A horizontal axis shows the range of data values. Then each data value is represented by a dot placed above the axis.
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Dot Plot
TuneTune-up Parts Cost
.
50
Cost ($)
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Histogram
Another common graphical presentation of quantitative data is a histogram. histogram. The variable of interest is placed on the horizontal axis. A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with its height corresponding to the intervals frequency, frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency. frequency, frequency. Unlike a bar graph, a histogram has no natural separation between rectangles of adjacent classes.
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Histogram
TuneTune-up Parts Cost
18 16 14
Frequency
12 10 8 6 4 2
Parts
5059 6069 7079 8089 9099 100-110 Cost ($)
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Relative Frequency
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Relative Frequency
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Relative Frequency
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Relative Frequency
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Cumulative Distributions
Cumulative frequency distribution shows the number of items with values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.. Cumulative relative frequency distribution shows the proportion of items with values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class. Cumulative percent frequency distribution shows the percentage of items with values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class.
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Cumulative Distributions
Example: Example: Hudson Auto Repair Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Relative Percent Frequency Frequency Cost ($) Frequency < 59 2 .04 4 < 69 15 .30 30 < 79 31 62 2 + .62 13 15/50 .30(100) < 89 38 .76 76 < 99 45 .90 90 < 109 50 1.00 100
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exercise The heights in inches of 30 students are as follows: follows: 66, 68, 65, 70, 67, 64, 68, 64, 66, 64, 70, 72, 71, 66, 68, 65, 70, 67, 64, 68, 64, 66, 64, 70, 72, 71, 69, 69, 64, 69, 69, 64, 67, 63, 70, 71, 63, 68, 67, 65, 69, 67, 63, 70, 71, 63, 68, 67, 65, 69, 65, 67, 66, 69, 67 65, 67, 66, 69, Prepare a cumulative frequency distribution table showing cumulative relative frequency, cumulative percent frequencies. frequencies.
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Ogive
An ogive is a graph of a cumulative distribution. The data values are shown on the horizontal axis. Shown on the vertical axis are the: cumulative frequencies, or cumulative relative frequencies, or cumulative percent frequencies The frequency (one of the above) of each class is (one above) plotted as a point. The plotted points are connected by straight lines.
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Ogive
Example: Hudson Auto Repair Because the class limits for the parts-cost data are parts50-59, 60-69, and so on, there appear to be one-unit 50-59, 60-69, onegaps from 59 to 60, 69 to 70, and so on. 60, 70,
Thus, 59.5 is used for the 50-59 class, 69.5 is used 50for the 60-69 class, and so on. 60-
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100 80 60 40 20
Parts Cost ($) (89.5, 76)
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
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Frequency Distribution Table Another Example Raw Data: 24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38
Frequency 3 5 2
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Frequency Distribution Table Example (Continued) Raw Data: 24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38 24, 24, 21,
Midpoint Frequency 20 30 40 3 5 2
Boundaries
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In the first column of the above table the data were rounded to the nearest dollar. For example, $799.50 was rounded up to $800 and tailed in the second class. Any amount over $799 but under 799.50 was rounded down to $799 and included in the first class. Thus, the $600-$799 class actually includes all $600data from $599.50 inclusive up to but not including $799.50. $799.50.
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Percentage Distribution
Prop. .3 .5 .2
Cumulative Percentage Distribution Table Example (Continued) Raw Data: 24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38
Class 15 but < 25
Lower class boundary
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Tables and graphs that show the relationship between two variables
Scattergrams : A graph showing responses of a number of individuals on two variables: visual display of correlation data.
y 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 Number of Interceptions
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Scatter Diagram
A Positive Relationship
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Scatter Diagram
A Negative Relationship
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Scatter Diagram
No Apparent Relationship
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Tables and graphs that show the relationship between two variables
Tables with one independent and one dependent variable:
Median split a division of the subjects in a study into TWO groups of equal size on the basis of one of the variable. Line graphs - A graphical representation using lines to show relationships between quantitative variables. Bar graphs - A graphical representation of categorical data in which the heights of separated bars, or columns, show the relationship between variables
Bar Graph
Spanish
Mandarin
Hindi
English
0 200 400 600 800 1000
A bar graph can be used to display and compare data The scale should include all the data values and be easily divided into equal intervals.
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