Chapter4 Oscillators

BENE 2163
Electronic Systems
Dr. Kok Swee Leong
Room : F 1/8
Tel (O ) : 06-555 2157
E-mail : sweeleong@utem.edu.my
Chapter 4: Oscillators
1.1. Introduction
2.0. RC Phase Shift Oscillator
3.0. Wien Bridge Oscillator
4.0. Tuned Oscillator Circuit
4.1. Colpitts Oscillator
4.2. Hartley Oscillator
5.0. Crystal Oscillator
6.0. 555 Timers
6.1. Basic Operation 555 Timer
6.2. Monostable Multivibrator
6.3. Astable Multivibrator
1.1. Introduction
An oscillator is a device that generates a periodic,
ac output signal without any form of input
required.
The output signal is in predefined standard
waveform, such as a sinusoid, triangle, square,
which is well controlled.
The signal generation has numerous applications
in all branches of electronics, such as computer
timing, radio transmission and test equipment.
Oscillation is a form of instability caused by
feedback that regenerates, or reinforces a signal
that would otherwise die out due to energy
losses.
In order for the feedback to be regenerative, it
must satisfy certain amplitude and phase relation.
1.1. Introduction
The basic structure of a sinusoidal
oscillator consists of an amplifier or gain
block (A) and a frequency selective
feedback network ().
An input, V
IN
, is summed with the output
from the feedback network, V
o
, to
provide the input to the gain block.
In practice, V
IN
, is not necessary, however
it is useful to consider in order to
investigate the conditions necessary for
oscillation.
V
IN
Structure of Sinusoidal Oscillator
If it is assumed that the amplifier (A) and feedback network () are frequency
dependent, then the output, V
o
, can be expressed as:
V
IN
1.1. Introduction

Rearranging, gives an overall gain as,
The term A(s).(s) is called the loop gain, and if
this quantity becomes equal to unity, then the
overall gain becomes infinite.
This implies that the circuit will have a finite output for a zero input signal, ie. the
definition of an oscillator.
Under such conditions, the output from the feedback network is sufficient to
provide the necessary input to the gain block to maintain the output signal no
input is required.
V
IN
1.1. Introduction
If this expression is only true at one
particular frequency, say j
0
, then the
oscillation will be confined to this single
frequency and a true sinusoidal output will
result.
Two conditions must be satisfied to sustain
oscillation:
The total phase shift through the
amplifier and feedback network must
be N x 360 where N = 0, 1, 2, 3, .
The magnitude of the loop gain must
be unity,

1.1. Introduction

To ensure oscillation based on Barkhausen
criterion:
Both the phase of the loop gain is zero and
its magnitude is unity at
0
.
Output Oscillator
Idealized phase-shift oscillator
The requirements for oscillation are that the
loop gain, A, is greater than unity and that
the phase shift around the feedback network
is 180 (providing positive feedback).
In the present idealization, we are
considering the feedback network to be
driven by a perfect source (zero source
impedance) and the output of the feedback
network to be connected into a perfect load
(infinite load impedance).
The idealized case will allow development of
the theory behind the operation of the
phase-shift oscillator.
One of the simplest kinds of oscillator
incorporating an operational amplifier is RC
phase-shift oscillator.
The amplifier is connected in an inverting
configuration and drives three cascade (high
pass) RC sections.
The inverting amplifier causes a 180
0
phase
shift in the signal passing through it.
The purpose of the cascaded RC sections is
to introduce an additional 180
0
at some
frequency.
The output of the op-amp is fed to a three-
stage RC network which provides the needed
180
0
of phase shift.
The oscillation frequency and | are,

The minus sign confirm that the cascade
inverts the feedback at the oscillation
frequency.
The amplifier must supply a gain of -29 to
make the loop gain . Thus, the amplifier
resistor ratio must be

N RC
f
o
=
2 2
1
t
29
1
= |
R R or
R
R
f
f
29 29 = =
N = the number of RC stages.
A practical oscillator circuit such as Wien bridge uses an op-amp and RC bridge circuit,
with the oscillator frequency set by the R and C components.
Resistors R
1
and R
2
and capacitors C
1
and C
2
form the frequency-adjustment elements,
while resistors R
3
and R
4
form part of the feedback path.
The op-amp output is connected as the bridge input at points a and c.
The bridge circuit output at points b and d is the input to the op-amp.
R
1

R
2

C
1

C
2

R
3

R
4

Neglecting loading effects of the op-
amp input and output impedances,
the analysis of the bridge circuit
results in

And the oscillation frequency is
If the values R
1
= R
2
= R and C
1
= C
2
= C,
the resulting oscillator frequency is

and
Thus a ratio of R
3
to R
4
greater than 2 will provide sufficient loop
gain for the circuit to oscillate at the frequency, f
0
.
Example 1
(a) Calculate the resonant frequency
of the Wien bridge oscillator as
shown on the right.
(b) Design the RC elements of a
Wien bridge oscillator for
operation at f
o
= 10 kHz.
Solution

(a)
Example 1
(a) Calculate the resonant frequency
of the Wien bridge oscillator as
shown on the right.
(b) Design the RC elements of a
Wien bridge oscillator for
operation at f
o
= 10 kHz.
Solution

(b)
Using equal values of R and C we can select R = 100 kO
and calculate the required value of C :
A variety of circuits can be built using that
shown on the right by providing tuning in
both the input and output sections of the
circuit.
Analysis of the circuit reveals that the
following types of oscillators are obtained
when the reactance elements are as
designated:
Basic configuration of resonant
circuit oscillator
A FET Colpitts oscillator frequency can
be found to be
FET Colpitts oscillator
FET COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
where
C C
L
Transistor Colpitts oscillator
A transistor Colpitts oscillator has
similar frequency as FET Colpitts
oscillator,
TRANSISTOR COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
where
C C
L
Op-amp Colpitts oscillator
An op-amp circuit provides the basic
amplification needed while the oscillator
frequency is set by an LC feedback network of
a Colpitts configuration.
The oscillator frequency is similar to FET
Colpitts oscillator,
IC COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
where
C C
L
For the Colpitts oscillator on the right and assume
parameters of .
Determine the oscillator frequency and the
required value of transconductance factor, g
m
.

Example 2
Solution
O = = = = k R and nF C C H L 5 , 2 , 2
2 1
( )( )
nF
n n
n n
C C
C C
C
eq
1
2 2
2 2
2 1
2 1
=
+
=
+
=
( )( )
MHz
n LC
f
eq
o
56 . 3
1 2 2
1
2
1
= = =
t t

where
For the Colpitts oscillator on the right and assume
parameters of .
Determine the oscillator frequency and the
required value of transconductance factor, g
m
.

Example 2
Solution
O = = = = k R and nF C C H L 5 , 2 , 2
2 1
( )
V mA
k n
n
R C
C
g
C
C
R g
m
m
/ 2 . 0
5 2
2

1
2
1
2
=
= =
=

FET HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
L L
C
An FET Hartley oscillator circuit has inductors
L
1
and L
2
which are mutual coupling, M,
which must be taken into account in
determining the equivalent inductance for
the resonant tank circuit.
The circuit frequency of oscillation is given
approximately by,
FET Hartley oscillator
where
TRANSISTOR HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
L L
C
A transistor Hartley
oscillator has a similar
frequency as the FET
Hartley oscillator,
Transistor Hartley oscillator
where
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-
circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric
crystal as a resonant tank circuit.
The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater
stability in holding constant at whatever
frequency the crystal is originally cut to
operate.
Crystal oscillators are used whenever great
stability is required, such as in
communication transmitters and
receivers.
Electrical equivalent circuit
of a crystal
A quartz crystal exhibits the property that when
mechanical stress is applied across the faces of the
crystal, a difference of potential develops across
opposite faces of the crystal direct piezoelectric
effect.
When a voltage applied across one set of faces of
the crystal causes mechanical distortion in the
crystal shape indirect/ inverse piezoelectric
effect.
When alternating voltage is applied to a crystal,
mechanical vibrations are set upthese vibrations
having a natural resonant frequency dependent on
the crystal dimension (e.g. thickness).
Characteristics of a Quartz Crystal
of a crystal
The crystal electromechanical resonance circuit can
be represented by an equivalent electrical resonant
circuit as shown on the right.
The inductor L and capacitor C represent electrical
equivalents of crystal mass and compliance, while
resistance R is an electrical equivalent of the crystal
structures internal friction.
The shunt capacitance C
M
represents the capacitance
due to mechanical mounting of the crystal.
Because the crystal losses, represented by R, are
small, the equivalent crystal Q (quality factor) is
hightypically 20,000. Values of Q up to almost 10
6
can be achieved by using crystals.
of a crystal
Crystal has two resonant frequencies which are very
close together.
Series-resonant frequency
- Occurs when the reactance of the series RCL leg are
equal (and opposite).
- For this condition the series-resonant impedance is
very low (equal to R).
- The series-resonant frequency f
s
is
Crystal impedance versus
frequency
s
s
LC
f
t 2
1
=
Crystal has two resonant frequencies which are very
close together.
Parallel-resonant frequency (antiresonance)
- Occurs at a higher frequency when the reactance of
the series-resonant leg equals the reactance of
capacitor C
M
.
- At this frequency the crystal offers a very high
impedance to the external circuit.
- The parallel-resonant frequency f
p
is given by

Crystal impedance versus
frequency
M
p
LC
f
+
=
t 2
1
where
M
M
M
C C
C C
C
+
=
+
6.0. 555 Timers
555 timer IC
555 timer IC is made of a
combination of linear
comparators and digital
flip-flops.
The entire circuit is usually
housed in an 8-pin package.
A series connection of
three resistors sets the
reference voltage levels to
the two comparators at
2V
CC
/3 and V
CC
/3, the
output of these comparators setting or resetting the flip-flop unit.
The output of the flip-flop circuit is then brought out through an output amplifier stage.
The flip-flop circuit also operates a transistor inside the IC, the transistor collector
usually being driven low to discharge a timing capacitor.
6.0. 555 Timers
Astable Operation
Astable multivibrator
using 555 IC
One popular application of the 555 timer IC
is as an astable multivibrator or clock circuit.
An astable circuit built using an external
resistor and capacitor to set the timing
interval of the output signal.
Capacitor C charges toward V
CC
through
external resistors R
A
and R
B
.
The capacitor voltage rises until it goes above 2V
CC
/3.
This voltage is the threshold voltage at pin 6, which drives comparator 1 to trigger the
flip-flop so that the output at pin 3 goes low.
In addition, the discharge transistor is driven on, causing the output at pin 7 to discharge
the capacitor through resistor R
B
.
6.0. 555 Timers
Astable Operation
using 555 IC
The capacitor voltage then decreases until it
drops below the trigger level (V
CC
/3).
The flipflop is triggered so that the output
goes back high and the discharge transistor is
turned off, so that the capacitor can again
charge through resistors R
A
and R
B
toward
V
CC
.

Calculation of the time intervals during which the output is high and low can be made
using the relations
6.0. 555 Timers
Astable Operation
using 555 IC
The total period is,

The frequency of the astable circuit is then
calculated using,
6.0. 555 Timers
Example 1
Determine the frequency and draw the
output waveform for the circuit on the right.
Solution

6.0. 555 Timers
Example 1
Determine the frequency and draw the
output waveform for the circuit on the right.
Solution

Chapter4 Oscillators

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