American Civil War:

Organized Crime?

By William P. Litynski

From the Grassy Knoll in Washington, D.C.:

Lone Gunman or Patsy?

The Attempted Assassination of American President Andrew Jackson on Capitol Hill on January 30, 183

Im just a patsy!: Richard Lawrence, an unemployed house-painter from England and a lone gunman , attempts to assassinate !.". President #ndrew $ackson at the entrance of the !.". %apitol in Washington, &.%. on January 30, 1835. The national de t !as paid in "ull on January 8, 1835, 'ust (( days )efore the attempted assassination on #ndrew $ackson. %ongress passed the "econd %oinage #ct on $une (*, +*,-. .he Panic of +*,/ occurred on 0ay +1, +*,/ 'ust after the "econd Bank of the !nited "tates in Philadelphia )ecame a pri2ate )ank on $anuary +, +*,/. #ndrew $ackson is the only president e2er to preside o2er the 2irtual elimination of #merica3s national de)t. #merica3s national de)t has e4ceeded 5+/ trillion in (1+,.

!"y dear sir, # ha$e to thank you for four letters, all $ery interestin% & $ery welcome' The last only re(uires any answer & that # will %i$e $ery e)plicitly' *ou may rely upon it that the +ank has taken its final course and that it will ,e neither fri%htened nor ca-oled from its duty ,y any small dri$ellin% a,out relief to the country' All that you ha$e heard on that su,-ect from .ew *ork is wholly without foundation' The relief, to ,e useful or permanent, must come from Con%ress & from Con%ress alone' #f that ,ody will do its duty, relief will come if not, the +ank feels no $ocation to redress the wron%s inflicted ,y these misera,le people' /ely upon that' This worthy President thinks that e!ause he has s!al"ed #ndians and im"risoned $udges, he is to ha%e his way with the &ank. 'e is mistaken and he may as well send at once and en%a%e lod%in%s in Ara,ia ' ' '0 1 .icholas +iddle 2President of the 3econd +ank of the 4nited 3tates5, in a letter to Joseph Hopkinson 2Jud%e of the 4nited 3tates 6istrict Court for the 7astern 6istrict of Pennsyl$ania5 on 8e,ruary 91, 183:

!The atmos"here was growing tense a (ortnight later when, on $anuary )*, +,)-, General $a!kson %isited the 'ouse !ham er to attend (uneral ser%i!es (or the late .e"resentati%e Warren .. Da%is o( /outh Carolina. The urden o( the !ha"lain0s sermon was that li(e is un!ertain, "arti!ularly (or the aged. !There sat the %ray;haired president,0 wrote an 7n%lish $isitor, Harriet "artineau, !lookin% scarcely a,le to %o throu%h this ceremonial'0 The discourse finished, he filed past the casket and with the Ca,inet descended to the rotunda of the Capitol' 1 stranger o( good a""earan!e, his (a!e !o%ered y a thi!k la!k eard, was standing si2 (eet away. 3o one noti!ed him draw the small, right "istol he aimed at the 42e!uti%e, ut, as he "ressed the trigger, the re"ort rang through the stone !ham er 5like a ri(le shot.6 Calmly the man "rodu!ed another "istol. $a!kson was one o( the (irst to reali7e what was ha""ening. Clu ing his !ane he started (or the man. Crack! went the se!ond wea"on. 8ld 'i!kory lunged at his assailant, ut a young army o((i!er rea!hed the man (irst. The President was unharmed. <nly the caps of the pistols had e)ploded, the char%es failin% to %o off, althou%h the weapons had ,een properly loaded !with fine %la=ed duellin% powder and ,all'0 Jack 6onelson recapped one and s(uee=ed the tri%%er' #t fired perfectly' An e)pert on small arms calculated that the chance of two successi$e misfires was one in one hundred and twenty;fi$e thousand' /ushin% to the >hite House to con%ratulate the President on his narrowest escape from death, "artin ?an +uren found him with the 6onelson children in his lap, talkin% of somethin% else to "a-or @eneral >infield 3cott' The assailant said he was /ichard Aawrence and that Jackson had killed his father' >hen it de$eloped that Aawrence was an 7n%lishman whose parents had ne$er ,een in America, the prisoner descri,ed himself as the heir to the +ritish crown' He said that he wanted to put @eneral Jackson out of the way in order to stren%then his claims to the throne' >hen the prisoner was committed to a lunatic asylum, parti=ans on ,oth sides o,-ected to that undramatic disposition of the case, 8rank +lair hintin% that Aawrence was a tool of JacksonBs enemies and 6uff @reen that the affair had ,een de$ised to create popular sympathy for the President' #t did !reate sym"athy (or him, $ohn C. Calhoun detaining the /enate with a denial o( !om"li!ity, and $ohn 9uin!y 1dams "ro!laiming his allegian!e on the (loor o( the 'ouse. 0 1 The Life of Andrew Jackson ,y "ar(uis James, Part TwoC Portrait of a President, +ook 8i$eC The !/ei%n0, Chapter DDD?### 2The 7ti(uette of Collectin% Twenty;fi$e "illion 8rancs5, p' E8 ;E8E !:ore (ortunate in the (ield o( "u li! (inan!e, General $a!kson was a le se%en days later, on $anuary , ;, +,)-<, to "ay the (inal installment o( the national de t. 8wing no one and with a sur"lus in its Treasury, this Go%ernment en=oyed a (is!al standing uni>ue in the history o( the modern world. The fa$ora,le ,alance showed e$ery indication of increasin%, for in ei%ht months the country had passed from a depression to a state of prosperity, with $isions of o$erflowin% a,undance which 8rench war clouds failed to dispel' #n the sprin% of 183 the march of plenty crossed the line into the %reen pastures of speculation' The impetus came in part from a speculati$e wa$e in 7urope, in part from the momentum of o$er rapid reco$ery from the +iddle panic, in part from the Treasury surplus creatin% an e)cess of loana,le funds in the custody of the !pet0 ,anks' The phenomena of inflation ,e%an to appear' .ew state ,anks were chartered ,y the score, most of them ,iddin% for a share of the @o$ernment deposits, many of them %ettin% it, and all printin% their own money' +ad money dri$es out %ood' !JacksonFs yellow ,oys,0 the %old pieces minted in 183:, $anished into the hidin% places of the thrifty who knew that %old could ,e spent any day ,ut were less certain of the current flood of paper' +ank notes flew from hand to hand in fantastic transactions of purchase and sale'0 1 The Life of Andrew Jackson ,y "ar(uis James, Part TwoC Portrait of a President, +ook 8i$eC The !/ei%n0, Chapter DDD?### 2The 7ti(uette of Collectin% Twenty;fi$e "illion 8rancs5, p' EG0 !The remainder of the messa%e contained happier information' The ,est of it concerned the national de,t' As of January 1, 183 , after satisfyin% all the %o$ernmentFs operatin% o,li%ations, the national de,t would ,e totally e)tin%uished and the Treasury would carry a ,alance of H::0,000' 3o national de t. 3ot a !ent owed to anyone. What an e2traordinary a!!om"lishment. What a "roud oast. 1s .oger &. Taney had said to $a!kson =ust a (ew months earlier, 5it is # elie%e the (irst time in the history o( nations that a large "u li! de t has een entirely e2tinguished.6 Jackson himself could not help crowin% a,out this accomplishment, althou%h he ri%htly credited it to the industry and enterprise of the American people, despite the rude financial shock of last winter inflicted ,y .icholas +iddle'0 1 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 , ?olume ### ,y /o,ert ?' /emini, Chapter 1:, p' 918; 91G

!IAndrewJ Jackson placed his entire confidence in the wisdom of a $irtuous people !to arri$e at ri%ht conclusions,0 conclusions ,indin% on all their representati$es' That was the messa%e carried ,y his speeches and pu,lic pronouncements to the 6emocratic party and the electorate' #n assertin% this principle he was su,$ertin% 2consciously or not5 repu,licanism and the constitutional system as de$ised ,y the 8oundin% 8athers' 8or the percei$ed wisdom at the time insisted that a %o$ernment had ,een esta,lished ,y the Constitution which distri,uted power amon% three ,ranches of %o$ernment and pro$ided checks and ,alances to keep the ,ranches e(ual and pre$ent any one of them from dominatin% the others' The lan%ua%e of the Constitution, accordin% to this $iew, is the will of the people' Ha$in% spoken, the people are e)cluded from speakin% a%ain e)cept throu%h the difficult, if not impossi,le, process of amendin% the Constitution' The a%ency or ,ranch of %o$ernment that is %i$en the final say on the meanin% of the Constitution is the 3upreme Court' And the 3upreme Court is the most remo$ed ,ody from the people' This $iew Jackson totally re-ected' .ot only did he deny that the people may speak no more e)cept ,y amendin% the Constitution, ,ut he denied that the 3upreme Court was the final interpreter of the meanin% of the Constitution' $a!kson su s!ri ed to another %iew. 'e maintained that the "eo"le remain a!ti%e in the go%erning "ro!ess. The "eo"le are never e2!luded (rom the "ower that is theirs y right. They ne%er surrendered that right. 1nd they e2er!ise that right through the allot o2 whi!h all agen!ies o( go%ernment ?in!luding the /u"reme Court@ must o ey. 1 (orm o( go%ernment, su!h as the one "ro%ided y the Constitution, does not di%est the "eo"le o( the right to sel(Ago%ernment. #t does not %i$e the 3upreme Court, for e)ample, the ri%ht to tell them what is or is not allowed under that form' !8orms of %o$ernment,0 wrote @eor%e 3idney Camp in Democracy, a work pu,lished in 18:1 and o,$iously written under the influence of Jacksonianism, !ha$e ,een, for the most part, only so many $arious modes of tyranny' >here the people are e$erythin%, and political forms ''' nothin%, there and there only is li,erty'K That was JacksonBs philosophy precisely' The people %o$ern' Their will must ,e o,eyed' "a-ority rule constitutes the only true meanin% of li,erty' All of which su,$erts the earlier notion of repu,licanism which did indeed pro$ide for intermediate a%encies to refine and alter the popular will when it was deemed necessary, such as occurred in 189 ' The !constant cele,ration0 of the people, therefore, is ,asic to Jacksonian 6emocracy' And it was this cele,ration throu%hout JacksonBs administration 1 a cele,ration the people en-oyed and acknowled%ed that steadily ad$anced the march toward %reater democracy in the 4nited 3tates' At one point Jackson himself made a sta, at definin% Jacksonian 6emocracy and listed many of its identifyin% marks' #f the !$irtuous yeomanry of Tennessee,0 he wrote as he stru%%led with the definition, would simply ask political candidates a few ,asic (uestions, they could distin%uish true 6emocrats from !>hi%s, nullies & ,lue li%ht federalists0 ,y the answers they recei$ed' The people, said Jackson, !ou%ht to en(uire of them, are you opposed to a national +ank 1 are you in fa$or of a strict construction of the federal and 3tate constitution 1 are you in fa$or of rotation in office 1 do you su,scri,e to the repu,lican rule that the people are the so$erei%n power, the officers their a%ents, and that upon all national or %eneral su,-ects, as well as local, they ha$e a ri%ht to instruct their a%ents & representati$es, and they are ,ound to o,ey or resi%n 1 in short are they true repu,licans a%reea,le 1 to the true Jeffersonian creed'0 /o%ereign "ower resides with the "eo"le, de!lared $a!kson, and that "ower a""lies to all national and lo!al issues. :oreo%er, the "eo"le ha%e a right to 5instru!t their agents B re"resentati%es6 as to their will. #t is not enough to say that on!e the "eo"le ele!t their re"resentati%es they ha%e no (urther !ontrol o( the go%erning "ro!ess. For $a!kson, they always retain !ontrol through the do!trine o( instru!tion. He would take away from representati$es the power or ri%ht to !correctK or alter the popular will' Jackson would also deny the courts this power' +ut he made a distinction' He would allow the courts the ri%ht to re$iew and interpret the aw ,ut he would not assi%n them ultimate authority in pronouncin% Kthe true meanin% of a dou,tful clause of the ConstitutionK ,indin% on all' The ri%ht to re$iew and interpret the law may ,e Kendured,K he ar%ued, K,ecause it is su,-ect to the control of the ma-ority of the people'K +ut pronouncin% the true meanin% of the Constitution was alto%ether o,-ectiona,le ,ecause Kit claims the ri%ht to ,indK the states and the people with ,onds that no one can loose e)cept ,y amendin% the Constitution, a difficult process at ,est' To allow the 3upreme Court the ultimate authority to interpret the Constitution perpetuates an aristocratic rather than a democratic system of %o$ernment ,ecause four persons 2fi$e today5 can dictate to a nation, with or without popular consent' And that was intolera,le' As Jackson said in his +ank $eto, !The Con%ress, the 7)ecuti$e, and the Court must each for itself ,e %uided ,y its own opinion of the Constitution'0 #n a truly demo!rati! state, he argued, the "eo"le ultimately de!ide the >uestion o( !onstitutionality. 1nd they do it through the allot o2. #n sum, then, $a!kson took the "osition est arti!ulated y 1le2is de To!>ue%ille in his !lassi! work Democracy in America. 5The "eo"le reign in the 1meri!an "oliti!al world,6 wrote To!>ue%ille, 5as the Deity does in the uni%erse. They are the !ause and aim o( all thingsC e%erything !omes (rom them, and e%erything is a sor ed in them.6 1nd when 1ndrew $a!kson talked a out the 5"eo"le6 he knew "re!isely whom he meant. 8%er and o%er in his "u li! and "ri%ate statements the term 5the "eo"le6 was de(ined as Dthe (armers, me!hani!s, and la orers,D or 5the hum le mem ers o( so!iety,6 or 5those who earn their li%ing y the sweat o( their row.6 Certainly not usinessmen, mono"olists, emerging !a"italists, or any other elitist grou", as sometimes suggested y historians. 'e re"eatedly re(erred to the Dworking !lassesD o( 1meri!a as !onstituting 5the "eo"le6 and, to a %ery large e2tent, he meant la orers in the ur an areas. 0 1 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 , ?olume ### ,y /o,ert ?' /emini, p' 338;3:0

42!er"ts (rom President 1ndrew $a!kson0s Farewell 1ddress :ar!h E, +,)F

Andrew Jackson !>e ,ehold systematic efforts pu,licly made to sow the seeds of discord ,etween different parts of the 4nited 3tates and to place party di$isions directly upon %eo%raphical distinctionsL to e)cite the 3outh a%ainst the .orth and the .orth a%ainst the 3outh , and to force into the contro$ersy the most delicate and e)citin% topics;;topics upon which it is impossi,le that a lar%e portion of the 4nion can e$er speak without stron% emotion' Appeals, too, are constantly made to sectional interests in order to influence the election of the Chief "a%istrate, as if it were desired that he should fa$or a particular (uarter of the country instead of fulfillin% the duties of his station with impartial -ustice to allL and the possi,le dissolution of the 4nion has at len%th ,ecome an ordinary and familiar su,-ect of discussion' Has the warnin% $oice of >ashin%ton ,een for%otten, or ha$e desi%ns already ,een formed to se$er the 4nionM Aet it not ,e supposed that # impute to all of those who ha$e taken an acti$e part in these unwise and unprofita,le discussions a want of patriotism or of pu,lic $irtue' The honora,le feelin% of 3tate pride and local attachments finds a place in the ,osoms of the most enli%htened and pure' +ut while such men are conscious of their own inte%rity and honesty of purpose, they ou%ht ne$er to for%et that the citi=ens of other 3tates are their political ,rethren, and that howe$er mistaken they may ,e in their $iews, the %reat ,ody of them are e(ually honest and upri%ht with themsel$es' :utual sus"i!ions and re"roa!hes may in time !reate mutual hostility, and art(ul and designing men will always e (ound who are ready to (oment these (atal di%isions and to in(lame the natural =ealousies o( di((erent se!tions o( the !ountry. The history o( the world is (ull o( su!h e2am"les, and es"e!ially the history o( re"u li!s. What ha%e you to gain y di%ision and dissension? Delude not yoursel%es with the elie( that a rea!h on!e made may e a(terwards re"aired. #( the Gnion is on!e se%ered, the line o( se"aration will grow wider and wider, and the !ontro%ersies whi!h are now de ated and settled in the halls o( legislation will then e tried in (ields o( attle and determined y the sword. 3either should you de!ei%e yoursel%es with the ho"e that the (irst line o( se"aration would e the "ermanent one, and that nothing ut harmony and !on!ord would e (ound in the new asso!iations (ormed u"on the dissolution o( this Gnion. Aocal interests would still ,e found there, and unchastened am,ition' And if the recollection of common dan%ers, in which the people of these 4nited 3tates stood side ,y side a%ainst the common foe, the memory of $ictories won ,y their united $alor, the prosperity and happiness they ha$e en-oyed under the present Constitution, the proud name they ,ear as citi=ens of this %reat /epu,lic;;if all these recollections and proofs of common interest are not stron% enou%h to ,ind us to%ether as one people, what tie will hold united the new di$isions of empire when these ,onds ha$e ,een ,roken and this 4nion disse$ered M The first line of separation would not last for a sin%le %enerationL new fra%ments would ,e torn off, new leaders would sprin% up, and this %reat and %lorious /epu,lic would soon ,e ,roken into a multitude of petty 3tates, without commerce, without credit, -ealous of one another, armed for mutual a%%ression, loaded with ta)es to pay armies and leaders, seekin% aid a%ainst each other from forei%n powers, insulted and trampled upon ,y the nations of 7urope, until, harassed with conflicts and hum,led and de,ased in spirit, they would ,e ready to su,mit to the a,solute dominion of any military ad$enturer and to surrender their li,erty for the sake of repose' #t is impossi,le to look on the conse(uences that would ine$ita,ly follow the destruction of this @o$ernment and not feel indi%nant when we hear cold calculations a,out the $alue of the 4nion and ha$e so constantly ,efore us a line of conduct so well calculated to weaken its ties' There is too mu!h at stake to allow "ride or "assion to in(luen!e your de!ision. 3e%er (or a moment elie%e that the great ody o( the !iti7ens o( any /tate or /tates !an deli erately intend to do wrong. They may, under the in(luen!e o( tem"orary e2!itement or misguided o"inions, !ommit mistakesC they may e misled (or a time y the suggestions o( sel(AinterestC ut in a !ommunity so enlightened and "atrioti! as the "eo"le o( the Gnited /tates argument will soon make them sensi le o( their errors, and when !on%in!ed they will e ready to re"air them. #f they ha$e no hi%her or ,etter moti$es to %o$ern them, they will at least percei$e that their own interest re(uires them to ,e -ust to others, as they hope to recei$e -ustice at their hands'0

From the Grassy Knoll in Charleston:

Lone Gunman or Patsy?

The Assassination of 3outh Carolina politician 6a$id /amsay 2"ay E, 181 5

American historian and politician 6r' 6a$id /amsay, "'6', was shot ,y a lone %unman, an insane tailor named >illiam Ainnen, on +road 3treet in Charleston, 3outh Carolina on :ay H, +,+-L /amsay died of his wounds in Charleston on "ay 8, 181 ' 6r' 6a$id /amsay, who earned a +achelor of Arts de%ree at the Colle%e of .ew Jersey 2later Princeton 4ni$ersity5, was a "em,er of the Continental Con%ress 21N89;1N83, 1N8 ;1N8E5, a "em,er of the 3outh Carolina 3tate Ae%islature 21NNE;1N80, 1N81;1N89, 1N8:;1NG05, and a President of the South Carolina 3tate 3enate 21NG1;1NGN5'

#outh $arolina % &ulli"i'ation (and #e'ession) $risis (183*)

"outh %arolina politician $ohn %. %alhoun 6B.#. 7ale +*1-8 and his classmate $ohn 0yers 9elder 6B.#. 7ale +*1-8 ser2ed in %ongress during the early +*,1s while 2arious power)rokers in %harleston, "outh %arolina were ad2ocating nullification and secession o2er the issues of tariff and sla2ery. .he first &emocratic :ational %on2ention was held in %harleston from #pril (,, +*;1 to 0ay ,, +*;1. $ohn 0yers 9elder3s nephew $ohn <enry 9elder 6B.#. 7ale +*--, "=B +*--8 was a mem)er of "kull = Bones at 7ale !ni2ersity.

Left to right> Ro)ert 7. <ayne, $ohn %. %alhoun, #ndrew $ackson, &aniel We)ster, and $ames Louis Petigru. !.". "enator &aniel We)ster of 0assachusetts and !.". "enator Ro)ert 7. <ayne of "outh %arolina engaged in a de)ate o2er the %onstitution and the !nion in +*,1. President #ndrew $ackson, who defeated the British #rmy at the Battle of :ew ?rleans in $anuary +*+@, condemned nullification and secession in a speech he deli2ered on &ecem)er +1, +*,(. $ohn %. %alhoun, a 7ale graduate who ser2ed as #ndrew $ackson3s Aice President from +*(B to +*,(, was a strong supporter of nullification and secession. $ames Louis Petigru 6+/*B-+*;,8 was a former #ttorney Ceneral of "outh %arolina who opposed secession and remained loyal to the !nion while li2ing in %harleston during the %i2il War.

Excerpts of President Andrew Jacksons Proclamation Regarding Nullification and Secession (December 10, 1832)
5IThis right to se!ede is dedu!ed (rom the nature o( the Constitution, whi!h they say is a !om"a!t etween so%ereign /tates who ha%e "reser%ed their whole so%ereignty, and there(ore are su =e!t to no su"eriorC that e!ause they made the !om"a!t, they !an reak it when in their o"inion it has een de"arted (rom y the other /tates. Falla!ious as this !ourse o( reasoning is, it enlists /tate "ride, and (inds ad%o!ates in the honest "re=udi!es o( those who ha%e not studied the nature o( our go%ernment su((i!iently to see the radi!al error on whi!h it rests. The "eo"le o( the Gnited /tates (ormed the Constitution, a!ting through the /tate legislatures, in making the !om"a!t, to meet and dis!uss its "ro%isions, and a!ting in se"arate !on%entions when they rati(ied those "ro%isionsC ut the terms used in its !onstru!tion show it to e a go%ernment in whi!h the "eo"le o( all the /tates !olle!ti%ely are re"resented. We are 834 P48PL4 in the !hoi!e o( the President and Ji!e President. 'ere the /tates ha%e no other agen!y than to dire!t the mode in whi!h the %ote shall e gi%en. The !andidates ha%ing the ma=ority o( all the %otes are !hosen. The ele!tors o( a ma=ority o( /tates may ha%e gi%en their %otes (or one !andidate, and yet another may e !hosen. The "eo"le, then, and not the /tates, are re"resented in the e2e!uti%e ran!h... The Constitution o( the Gnited /tates, then, (orms a go%ernment, not a league, and whether it e (ormed y !om"a!t etween the /tates, or in any other manner, its !hara!ter is the same. #t is a go%ernment in whi!h all the "eo"le are re"resented, whi!h o"erates dire!tly on the "eo"le indi%idually, not u"on the /tatesC they retained all the "ower they did not grant. &ut ea!h /tate ha%ing e2"ressly "arted with so many "owers as to !onstitute =ointly with the other /tates a single nation, !annot (rom that "eriod "ossess any right to se!ede, e!ause su!h se!ession does not reak a league, ut destroys the unity o( a nation, and any in=ury to that unity is not only a rea!h whi!h would result (rom the !ontra%ention o( a !om"a!t, ut it is an o((ense against the whole Gnion. To say that any /tate may at "leasure se!ede (rom the Gnion, is to say that the Gnited /tates are not a nation e!ause it would e a sole!ism to !ontend that any "art o( a nation might dissol%e its !onne!tion with the other "arts, to their in=ury or ruin, without !ommitting any o((ense. /e!ession, like any other re%olutionary a!t, may e morally =usti(ied y the e2tremity o( o""ressionC ut to !all it a !onstitutional right, is !on(ounding the meaning o( terms, and !an only e done through gross error, or to de!ei%e those who are willing to assert a right, ut would "ause e(ore they made a re%olution, or in!ur the "enalties !onse>uent u"on a (ailure. &e!ause the Gnion was (ormed y !om"a!t, it is said the "arties to that !om"a!t may, when they (eel themsel%es aggrie%ed, de"art (rom itC ut it is "re!isely e!ause it is a !om"a!t that they !annot. 1 !om"a!t is an agreement or inding o ligation. #t may y its terms ha%e a san!tion or "enalty (or its rea!h, or it may not. #( it !ontains no san!tion, it may e roken with no other !onse>uen!e than moral guiltC i( it ha%e a san!tion, then the rea!h in!urs the designated or im"lied "enalty. 1 league etween inde"endent nations, generally, has no san!tion other than a moral oneC or i( it should !ontain a "enalty, as there is no !ommon su"erior, it !annot e en(or!ed. 1 go%ernment, on the !ontrary, always has a san!tion, e2"ress or im"liedC and, in our !ase, it is oth ne!essarily im"lied and e2"ressly gi%en. 1n attem"t y (or!e o( arms to destroy a go%ernment is an o((ense, y whate%er means the !onstitutional !om"a!t may ha%e een (ormedC and su!h go%ernment has the right, y the law o( sel(A de(ense, to "ass a!ts (or "unishing the o((ender, unless that right is modi(ied, restrained, or resumed y the !onstitutional a!t. #n our system, although it is modi(ied in the !ase o( treason, yet authority is e2"ressly gi%en to "ass all laws ne!essary to !arry its "owers into e((e!t, and under this grant "ro%ision has een made (or "unishing a!ts whi!h o stru!t the due administration o( the lawsI The /tates se%erally ha%e not retained their entire so%ereignty. #t has een shown that in e!oming "arts o( a nation, not mem ers o( a league, they surrendered many o( their essential "arts o( so%ereignty. The right to make treaties, de!lare war, le%y ta2es, e2er!ise e2!lusi%e =udi!ial and legislati%e "owers, were all (un!tions o( so%ereign "ower. The /tates, then, (or all these im"ortant "ur"oses, were no longer so%ereign. The allegian!e o( their !iti7ens was trans(erred in the (irst instan!e to the go%ernment o( the Gnited /tatesC they e!ame 1meri!an !iti7ens, and owed o edien!e to the Constitution o( the Gnited /tates, and to laws made in !on(ormity with the "owers %ested in Congress. This last "osition has not een, and !annot e, denied. 'ow then, !an that /tate e said to e so%ereign and inde"endent whose !iti7ens owe o edien!e to laws not made y it, and whose magistrates are sworn to disregard those laws, when they !ome in !on(li!t with those "assed y another? What shows !on!lusi%ely that the /tates !annot e said to ha%e reser%ed an undi%ided so%ereignty, is that they e2"ressly !eded the right to "unish treasonAnot treason against their se"arate "ower, ut treason against the Gnited /tates. Treason is an o((ense against so%ereignty, and so%ereignty must reside with the "ower to "unish it. &ut the reser%ed rights o( the /tates are not less sa!red e!ause they ha%e (or their !ommon interest made the general go%ernment the de"ository o( these "owers. The unity o( our "oliti!al !hara!ter ?as has een shown (or another "ur"ose@ !ommen!ed with its %ery e2isten!e. Gnder the royal go%ernment we had no se"arate !hara!terC our o""osition to its o""ression egan as G3#T4D C8L83#4/. We were the G3#T4D /T1T4/ under the Con(ederation, and the name was "er"etuated and the Gnion rendered more "er(e!t y the (ederal Constitution. #n none o( these stages did we !onsider oursel%es in any other light than as (orming one nation. Treaties and allian!es were made in the name o( all. Troo"s were raised (or the =oint de(ense. 'ow, then, with all these "roo(s, that under all

!hanges o( our "osition we had, (or designated "ur"oses and with de(ined "owers, !reated national go%ernmentsAhow is it that the most "er(e!t o( these se%eral modes o( union should now e !onsidered as a mere league that may e dissol%ed at "leasure ? #t is (rom an a use o( terms. Com"a!t is used as synonymous with league, although the true term is not em"loyed, e!ause it would at on!e show the (alla!y o( the reasoning. #t would not do to say that our Constitution was only a league, ut it is la ored to "ro%e it a !om"a!t ?whi!h, in one sense, it is@, and then to argue that as a league is a !om"a!t, e%ery !om"a!t etween nations must, o( !ourse, e a league, and that (rom su!h an engagement e%ery so%ereign "ower has a right to re!ede. &ut it has een shown that in this sense the /tates are not so%ereign, and that e%en i( they were, and the national Constitution had een (ormed y !om"a!t, there would e no right in any one /tate to e2onerate itsel( (rom the o ligation. /o o %ious are the reasons whi!h (or id this se!ession, that it is ne!essary only to allude to them. The Gnion was (ormed (or the ene(it o( all. #t was "rodu!ed y mutual sa!ri(i!e o( interest and o"inions. Can those sa!ri(i!es e re!alled? Can the /tates, who magnanimously surrendered their title to the territories o( the West, re!all the grant? Will the inha itants o( the inland /tates agree to "ay the duties that may e im"osed without their assent y those on the 1tlanti! or the Gul(, (or their own ene(it? /hall there e a (ree "ort in one /tate, and enormous duties in another? 3o one elie%es that any right e2ists in a single /tate to in%ol%e all the others in these and !ountless other e%ils, !ontrary to engagements solemnly made. 4%eryone must see that the other /tates, in sel(Ade(ense, must o""ose it at all ha7ardsI # ha%e urged you to look a!k to the means that were used to urly you on to the "osition you ha%e now assumed, and (orward to the !onse>uen!es they will "rodu!e. /omething more is ne!essary. Contem"late the !ondition o( that !ountry o( whi!h you still (orm an im"ortant "artC !onsider its go%ernment uniting in one ond o( !ommon interest and general "rote!tion so many di((erent /tatesAgi%ing to all their inha itants the "roud title o( 1:4.#C13 C#T#K43A"rote!ting their !ommer!eAse!uring their literature and artsA(a!ilitating their inter!ommuni!ationAAde(ending their (rontiersAand making their name res"e!ted in the remotest "arts o( the earthL Consider the e2tent o( its territory its in!reasing and ha""y "o"ulation, its ad%an!e in arts, whi!h render li(e agreea le, and the s!ien!es whi!h ele%ate the mindL /ee edu!ation s"reading the lights o( religion, morality, and general in(ormation into e%ery !ottage in this wide e2tent o( our Territories and /tatesL &ehold it as the asylum where the wret!hed and the o""ressed (ind a re(uge and su""ortL Look on this "i!ture o( ha""iness and honor, and say, W4 T88, 1.4 C#T#K43/ 8F 1:4.#C1AACarolina is one o( these "roud /tates her arms ha%e de(endedAher est lood has !emented this ha""y GnionL 1nd then add, i( you !an, without horror and remorse this ha""y Gnion we will dissol%eAthis "i!ture o( "ea!e and "ros"erity we will de(a!eAthis (ree inter!ourse we will interru"tA these (ertile (ields we will deluge with loodAthe "rote!tion o( that glorious (lag we renoun!eAthe %ery name o( 1meri!ans we dis!ard. 1nd (or what, mistaken menL For what do you throw away these inestima le lessingsA(or what would you e2!hange your share in the ad%antages and honor o( the Gnion? For the dream o( a se"arate inde"enden!eAa dream interru"ted y loody !on(li!ts with your neigh ors, and a %ile de"enden!e on a (oreign "ower. #( your leaders !ould su!!eed in esta lishing a se"aration, what would e your situation? 1re you united at homeAare you (ree (rom the a""rehension o( !i%il dis!ord, with all its (ear(ul !onse>uen!es? Do our neigh oring re"u li!s, e%ery day su((ering some new re%olution or !ontending with some new insurre!tionA do they e2!ite your en%y? &ut the di!tates o( a high duty o lige me solemnly to announ!e that you !annot su!!eed. The laws o( the Gnited /tates must e e2e!uted. # ha%e no dis!retionary "ower on the su =e!tAmy duty is em"hati!ally "ronoun!ed in the Constitution. Those who told you that you might "ea!ea ly "re%ent their e2e!ution, de!ei%ed youAthey !ould not ha%e een de!ei%ed themsel%es. They know that a (or!i le o""osition !ould alone "re%ent the e2e!ution o( the laws, and they know that su!h o""osition must e re"elled. Their o =e!t is disunion, ut e not de!ei%ed y namesC disunion, y armed (or!e, is T.41/83. 1re you really ready to in!ur its guilt?6

3ourceC httpCOOa$alon'law'yale'eduO1GthPcenturyO-ack01'asp

!The nullifiers in the south intend to ,low up a storm on the sla$e (uestion ' ' 'they will try to arouse the 3outhern people on this false tale' This ou%ht to ,e met, for ,e assured these men would do any act to destroy this union and form a southern confederacy ,ounded, north, ,y the Potomac ri$er'0 1 Andrew Jackson, in a letter to John Coffee on April G, 1833

!$ohn C. Calhoun: the s"oiler, the agitator, the traitor. That was how President $a!kson saw the /outh Carolinian. That was how $a!ksonMs ad%isers and !losest (riends also saw him. They s"oke o( the (ormer Ji!e President as 5the most wi!ked and the most des"i!a le o( 1meri!an statesmen.6 They re!koned his nulli(i!ation theory and his !ons"ira!y to disru"t the Gnion as the !onse>uen!es o( a disa""ointed am ition. D'e stro%e, s!hemed, dreamed, li%ed, only (or the "residen!y,D they !ontended. And when he failed to attain that office ,y Khonora,le means,K he scram,led to rise upon the ruins of his country' That was JacksonBs final -ud%ment of the tormented southerner' He Kli$ed and died in this opinion'K 8n his death ed, while re(le!ting u"on his two terms as President, $a!kson e2"ressed his regret that he had not e2e!uted Calhoun (or treason. D:y !ountry,D he said, Dwould ha%e sustained me in the a!t, and his (ate would ha%e een a warning to traitors in all time to !ome.D There was another spoiler, another disappointed and mischie$ous malcontentC John Quincy Adams' The former President had returned to Con%ress as a mem,er of the House of /epresentati$es from his district in "assachusetts, and he was itchin% to create trou,le' Anythin% to disrupt the councils of the nation' KHe seems to carry within him a smothered fire,K commented 8rank +lair, editor of the >ashin%ton ! o"e, the mouthpiece of the administration, Kthat e$er and anon, ,reaks forth like a $olcano, accompanied ,y a stream of red hot la$a '' '' His inspiration is fury and his ener%y that of a scoldin% old lady'K .othin% would deli%ht him more than to see discord and ha$oc attend the administration of his successor' He would e$en try to introduce in the House a de,ate on sla$ery;sla$ery no lessR; to achie$e his %oal, not that he cared two fi%s for the ,lack man' K*ou will ha$e seen that "r' Adams, some days a%o,K reported one con%ressman, !offered a resolution, callin% on the President to communicate to the House a copy of ' ' ' the 3outh Carolina <rdinance' This was an incendiary mo$ement; had discussion ,een permitted, his resolution would ha$e ,een a fire;,rand' "r' A' is a most mischie$ous old man 1 in a ,ad humour with the world'0 8ortunately, the House refused to consider the resolution ,y a $ote of 10E to E ' +ut if e$er this Kmischie$ous old manK %ot hold of a really e)plosi$e issue and forced it to de,ate, he would shake the 4nion into a hundred fra%ments' As a matter of fact, not many years later, in 183E, Adams did find such an issue 1 the K%a%K resolution, which was a proposal to lay all antisla$ery petitions to the House on the ta,le;and almost fulfilled the prophecy' #t was typical of Jackson to $iew the nullification contro$ersy as a conspiracy of am,itious men' He always personali=ed (uarrels' +ut in this instance, more than mere thwarted am,ition was in$ol$ed' The southern outra%e o$er the tariff was real' They re%arded it as a %rie$ous impediment to their economic health' They reckoned the decline in cotton prices as one of the more disastrous results of tariff le%islation' They ar%ued that it was unconstitutional for the federal %o$ernment to raise import duties to pro$ide economic ,enefit to one section of the country at the e)pense of another' They felt wron%ed and pro$oked ,y such le%islation which, they said, northerners deli,erately and repeatedly rammed down their throats' "any southerners and westerners 2includin% Jackson5 fre(uently railed at the east and north for supposed wron%s' There was a mountin% alienation ,etween the sections of the country o$er mostly economic issues that had ,e%un decades ,efore, and the tariff dispute only intensified it' +y the 1830s the alienation was deep;rooted' As children, said 6a$y Crockett, Kwe ha$e always ,een tau%ht to look upon the people of .ew 7n%land as a selfish, cunnin% set of fellows, that '''called cheatery mother;witL that hun% on to political power ,ecause they had num,ersL that raised up manufacturers to keep down the 3outh and >est'K And there was another %rowin% cause of complaint ,etween the sectionsC sla$ery' .ot that it tri%%ered the nullification contro$ersy at this time or was directly in$ol$ed in the e$ents leadin% to the confrontation, e$en thou%h it was essential to the southern economy' Perha"s $ohn 9uin!y 1dams and $ohn C. Calhoun might ha%e hungered to raise it in order to (oment (urther dis!ord throughout the nation, ut it did not !ome into serious dis!ussion at this moment. #n the early +,)*s res"onsi le o((i!ials generally understood and a!!e"ted the (a!t that any attem"t y the (ederal go%ernment to inter(ere with sla%ery would !onstitute a (rontal assault u"on the (reedom and "ro"erty rights o( those who were "artners in the so!ial !om"a!t. #t has sometimes een suggested that the Demo!rati! "arty in the +,)*s was "rosla%ery. That is nonsense. The Demo!rats sim"ly re!ogni7ed that the >uestion o( sla%ery was not something they !ould (reely de!ide one way or another. 3ot i( they %alued the Gnion. 3till the sla$ery issue lurked constantly in the ,ack%round, as thou%h waitin% for the propitious moment to emer%e from the shadows' 8rom time to time a few malcontents tried to dra% it into national attention ,ut they were uni$ersally condemned as trou,lemakers' The central (uestion of the nullification contro$ersy, raised ,y the tariff dispute, was whether the states had the ri%ht to declare federal law in$alid within their ,oundaries 2and, if necessary, to secede from the 4nion5 in order to protect their ri%hts, particularly their property ri%hts' And Con%ress could not pro$ide the answer' The sense of the mem,ers as a %roup was unclear and ine)act' There were three distinct $iewpointsC one class of politician contended for the Kinaliena,le & indefensi,le ri%ht of a state to secede at pleasureL;another class, that there is no such ri%ht, consistent with the constitution, or theory of the @o$ernment;and a third class seem disposed to admit the ri%ht to secede, ,ut maintain the ri%ht of the other states, on the first principle of self;preser$ation, to whip the secedin% states into su,mission'K Andrew Jackson had an a,solutely clear conception of his position on this (uestion' #t was simple, direct, and lo%ical' #t may not ha$e ,een historically accurate, ,ut he sincerely ,elie$ed it to ,e so' "ost important, it proceeded from his commitment to democratic principles' The federal %o$ernment, he said, was K,ased on a confederation of perpetual unionK ,y an act of the people' A state may ne$er secede, and that was final' "oreo$er, the people, not the states, %ranted so$erei%nty to the federal %o$ernment throu%h the Constitution' They called the 4nion into e)istence, they created the federal %o$ernment, and they %ranted federal power' These actions, he insisted, were taken ,y the people at con$entions that ratified the Constitution' And in ratifyin% the Constitution the people automatically amended their state constitutions to accord with the new arran%ement' Jackson felt totally comforta,le with this position' He ,elie$ed it to ,e the only one %uaranteed to safe%uard the li,erty and ri%hts of all' And he was sure the American electorate supported his $iew' <ne day he was $isited ,y an old army comrade, @eneral 3am 6ale' The nullification contro$ersy clearly trou,led the President, and

he e)pressed his concern o$er what mi%ht happen if his theory of %o$ernment did not in fact command popular support' +ut the dou,tin% thou%ht was instantly dismissed' K@eneral 6ale,K Jackson said, Kif this thin% %oes on, our country will ,e like a ,a% of meal with ,oth ends open' Pick it up in the middle or endwise, and it will run out' # must tie the ,a% and sa$e the country'K 6ale tried to reassure him ,y e)pressin% the hope that thin%s e$entually would %o ri%ht' KThey 3HAAA %o ri%ht, sir,K Jackson cried' And he reacted so passionately that he shi$ered his pipe upon the ta,le' To make thin%s K%o ri%ht,K Jackson prepared for immediate e)ecuti$e action' KAs soon as it can ,e had in authentic form,K he wrote in a pri$ate memorandum, referrin% to the <rdinance of .ullification, Kmeet it with a proclamation'K A presidential proclamation to the people of 3outh Carolina was what he had in mind' A ,old, forthri%ht statement of what nullification entailed in terms of ine$ita,le ,loodshed and ci$il war' "ore than that, the proclamation was meant to %enerate a Kmoral forceK in the country to counteract the forces of disunionL it was meant to reach out to all Americans 1 not simply 3outh Carolinians 1 and rally them to the defense of the 4nion and the Constitution'0 1 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 , ?olume ### ,y /o,ert ?' /emini, p' 1:; 1N !As he ali%hted from his carria%e at the >hite House on 8riday e$enin%, <cto,er 1G, 1839, after his lon% trip from the Hermita%e in Tennessee, and prepared to face some of the pro,lems %enerated ,y this restless, e$ol$in%, K@o AheadK society, President Jackson looked weary and som,er' The deepenin% lines on his face re%istered his %rowin% concern o$er the pro,lem of nullification with 3outh Carolina' His a%itation was palpa,le, for he sensed he was nearin% a crisis in national affairs' And it was a crisis on which hun% the fate of the 4nion' >H7.7?7/ <A6 H#CS</* 67C#676 upon a course of action, he pursued it with total commitment and with all the dri$e at his command; which was enormous' 4pon his arri$al in >ashin%ton he had hoped to address the pro,lem of the +ank of the 4nited 3tates, now that the people had Kno,ly = triumphantly ousted IitsJ corrupt influenceK ,y reelectin% him to the presidency, ,ut he was forced to confront the more fri%htenin% specter of disunion upon his return, the determination of 3outh Carolina throu%h nullification and the threat of secession to compel the federal %o$ernment to accede to its demands to lower the tariffR .ullificationR That wretched doctrine proposed ,y John C' Calhoun, that Ka,omina,leK claim that any state had a ri%ht to declare federal law null and $oid within its ,oundaries whene$er it deemed such law 2like the tariff5 unconstitutional' And, if the federal %o$ernment attempted to enforce the law, the state reser$ed the ri%ht to withdraw from the 4nion' The President paced the floor of his study, mutterin% under his ,reath as he pondered his possi,le courses of action' <ne serious complication that trou,led him was the situation in @eor%ia' The state was prepared to defy the 3upreme CourtBs decision in the >orcester case o$er Cherokee #ndian ri%hts, and if Jackson enforced the courtBs decision, @eor%ia was certain to -oin 3outh Carolina in support of nullification' +loody conflict would surely ensue' 8ortunately, JacksonBs o$erwhelmin% $ictory in the presidential election dampened the hopes of the #ndians and their allies in Con%ress a,out challen%in% JacksonBs determination to remo$e the #ndians west of the "ississippi /i$er' 8aced with the defiance of 3outh Carolina and @eor%ia, these con%ressmen understood the seriousness of the dan%er threatenin% the 4nion' >ith hardly a second thou%ht they a,andoned the Cherokees' They (uietly informed the chiefs that the K,est %oodK of the tri,e lay in si%nin% a treaty of remo$al with the 4nited 3tates %o$ernment' As Jackson e)amined the options open to him to meet this fast;de$elopin% crisis, he was o,li%ed to consider the use of military force as a real possi,ility' He did not shrink from it' +ut that possi,ility in$ol$ed the necessity of askin% Con%ress for the appropriate le%islation, and once a%ain that opened up the pro,lem of @eor%ia' 8or if Jackson re(uested a force ,ill to coerce 3outh Carolina, surely he could o,tain similar authority to ,rin% @eor%ia into line' K# can ne$er consent to sustain him a%ainst 3outh Carolina,K insisted one con%ressman, Kwhile @eor%ia maintains the attitude she does'K The one predicament $irtually in$ited attention to the other' +ecause of the seriousness of nullification and his own sympathy with @eor%iaBs position on the #ndian (uestion, Jackson directed his attention to isolatin% 3outh Carolina ,y placatin% @eor%ia' >hat he did was masterful' He worked 2and ultimately succeeded5 at winnin% the freedom of >orcester and +utler, the two missionaries whose $iolation of @eor%ian law had precipitated the conflict ,etween the 3upreme Court and the state' At the same time he assumed a posture of resistance a%ainst 3outh Carolina, knowin% that it would attract the support in Con%ress of many .ational /epu,licans;the opposition party;either out of their concern for the safety of the 4nion or their desire to pre$ent any harm ,efallin% the tariff' Thus, simultaneously, Jackson prepared for a showdown with 3outh Carolina, in$ol$in% possi,le military action, and maneu$ered to ease @eor%ia out of the line of fire' The ominous situation encoura%ed some men to assess the political opportunities' Amos Sendall, the fourth auditor at the Treasury and an important mem,er of JacksonBs Sitchen Ca,inet, con-ectured that the !.ational /epu,lican party will ,e dissol$edK and that its leaders will immediately cast a,out for a new com,ination' KAll men of all parties in the northern, middle and western states,K he contended, Kmay ,e united upon the (uestion of the #nion a$ainst %u ification, and an immense ma-ority, of the 3outh may ,e rallied in the same cause' <n this ,asis the .ational /epu,licans in the northern and middle states may ,e willin% to unite with the friends of the administration'K They will find, he added, that the measures of the administration and the 6emocratic party Kare not so ,ad as in their e)citement they had supposed'K #f they know that they will not ,e Krepulsed,K they mi%ht ,e induced to Karray themsel$es under the repu,lican ,anner'K >hat Jackson hoped mi%ht result from such a reshufflin% of political alle%iances was the creation of a Kmoral forceK throu%hout the country stron% enou%h to demonstrate to the nullifiers a total support of the administration in its efforts to preser$e the 4nion'N 3uch a demonstration mi%ht fri%hten the hotheads of 3outh Carolina from precipitous action that could lead to ,loodshed' JacksonBs position was stated precisely ,y one of his closest ad$isersC KThe %reatest solicitude # feel is, that so stron% a moral force shall ,e arrayed on the side of the administration, that the incipient treason of the 3outh shall ,e

awed into o,edience without the sheddin% of one drop of American ,lood'K <$er the ne)t se$eral months 1 and these were the months ,etween his reelection to the presidency and his inau%uration for a second term;Jackson encoura%ed $arious leaders of the .ational /epu,lican party to -oin him in presentin% a united front a%ainst the !nullies,0 and he e$en ,riefly considered the formation of a new party to accommodate a re$ised coalition' >ith Con%ress a,out to recon$ene in 6ecem,er, Jackson would ha$e many opportunities to ,rid%e the %ap ,etween the 6emocratic and .ational /epu,lican parties, pro$ided he displayed understandin%, tolerance, and compassion' The creation of a !moral force0 in the country to com,at the forces of disunion was un(uestiona,ly the ,est solution to the present crisis and Jackson, more than anyone else in the country, had the resources, talents, and charisma to ,rin% it a,out' And the more he worked at sol$in% the pro,lem throu%h the application of moral force, the more he won the appro$al and admiration of the electorate' >ith each new crisis, wrote a .ew *ork politician, K@enl' Jackson ' ' ' disco$ers his %reatness'K 7$eryone;e$en the PresidentBs enemies;could see it' KThose who ,ut yesterday opposed your re;election with ferocity,K the @eneral was told, Know loudly profess their reliance on your sa$in% the 4nion'K The first pu,lic indication of JacksonBs future direction came with his fourth annual messa%e to Con%ress on the 3tate of the 4nion' #n referrin% to the crisis in 3outh Carolina, he planned at first to soft;pedal it as much as possi,le, at least until he had a clearer idea of the stateBs intention' KAs to nullification in the south,K he ad$ised his newly elected ?ice President, "artin ?an +uren, K # mean to pass it ,arely in re$iew, as a mere ,u,le, $iew the e)istin% laws as competent to check and put it down, and ask merely a %eneral pro$ision to ,e enacted, to authori=e the Collector ' '' to demand of all $essels ''' where a state ' ' ' resist the collection of the re$enue, the duty to ,e paid in cash'K As he maneu$ered to isolate 3outh Carolina in the country, so too Jackson pondered ways to isolate the nullifiers within Con%ress' He spoke to his Sitchen Ca,inet a,out it and held se$eral lon% con$ersations with his Tennessee friend "a-or >illiam +' Aewis' #n these talks, said Aewis, K# infer he will stron%ly ad$iseK the Con%ress to reduce the tariff still further' K# fear he will lea$e Calhoun and his nullifyin% s(uad no %round to stand upon, if he %oes on reducin% the Tariff' #t will ,e a pitty, as they will ha$e no &rete't e(en to dissol$e the 4nionRK Jackson had his fourth annual messa%e ready to present to Con%ress when the two houses con$ened on 6ecem,er 3 to ,e%in the second 2short5 session of the Twenty;second Con%ress' The followin% day he sent it down' #n it he e)uded -ustifia,le pride in the Khi%hly prosperous stateK of the nationBs economy and predicted that the national de,t would ,e Ke)tin%uished within the year 1833'K He con%ratulated the Con%ress and the people for this Kmemora,le and happy e$entK and took a small measure of credit in ,rin%in% it a,out' #n $iew of this pleasin% situation, he continued, and in -ustice to the interest of the $arious states, not to mention Kthe preser$ation of the 4nion itself,K he recommended the %radual diminution of the tariff rates' He was now willin% to acknowled%e that the protecti$e system tended to foster in the minds of the American people Ka spirit of discontent and -ealousy dan%erous to the sta,ility of the 4nion'K >hat it had done to 3outh Carolina in particular had ,rou%ht the nation to the ,rink of catastrophe' This seemin% alteration in his tariff policy was actually (uite consistent with JacksonBs minimal;%o$ernment, reform;centered philosophy' He had now arri$ed at the opinion that protection e)ploited the people, ,oth worker and planter, concentrated wealth in the hands of the few, and produced Kthe %erms of dependence and $iceK so characteristic of monopolies and Kso destructi$e of li,erty and the %eneral %ood'K He had a,ided the system, he said, in order to collect enou%h re$enue to pay the national de,t' .ow Kthe sta,ility of the 4nionK dictated another course' K#t is my painful duty to state,K he went on, that opposition to the re$enue laws had risen to such a hei%ht as to threaten Kif not to endan%er the inte%rity of the 4nion'K He hoped that a peaceful solution to the pro,lem could ,e found throu%h the prudence and patriotism of the people and officials of 3outh Carolina' 3hould moderation and %ood sense fail, howe$er, Jackson promised to return to Con%ress with su%%estions as to the ,est measures necessary to settle the matter once and for all' Then he turned to other mattersC the +ank of the 4nited 3tates, pu,lic lands, internal impro$ements, and #ndian remo$al' His last para%raph reiterated his ,asic philosophy of %o$ernmentC maintain peace at home and a,road, and prescri,e laws on Ka few su,-ects of %eneral interestK not calculated to restrict indi$idual freedom ,ut to enforce human ri%hts' KThis @o$ernment will find its stren%th and its %lory in the faithful dischar%e of these plain and simple duties,K he concluded' Althou%h Jackson fer$ently hoped that his annual messa%e would not e)acer,ate the crisis with 3outh Carolina, he did not minimi=e the dan%er' #n a pri$ate memorandum which he entitled K.ullification in the 3outh to ,e carefully watched,K the President recorded the e$ents that had occurred to dateC how, Kafter playin% off the farce for se$eral years, Calhoun = Co at len%thK succeeded in forcin% 3outh Carolina to adopt the doctrine of nullification and declare the tariff laws unconstitutional' He then noted some of his own responsesC how instructions had %one out to the collector of the Charleston port in 3outh Carolina that the re$enue laws were to ,e e)ecutedL how two companies of re%ular army troops had ,een ordered to reinforce the %arrisons in the portL and how @eor%e +reathitt of Sentucky had ,een sent to 3outh Carolina with instructions from the President to find the means to ,rin% the crisis under control' #ndeed, e$ents in 3outh Carolina had mo$ed $ery swiftly durin% the last few weeks' <n <cto,er 99, three days after JacksonBs return to the >hite House, a special session of the 3outh Carolina le%islature met at the re(uest of @o$ernor James Hamilton, Jr' #t su,se(uently called for a con$ention to meet at Colum,ia on .o$em,er 1G, 1839, to respond to the action of Con%ress in passin% the Tariff of 1839' #n turn, this con$ention, after it met, passed an <rdinance of .ullification on .o$em,er 9:, ,y a $ote of 13E to 9E, which declared the tariff laws of 1898 and 1839 Knull, $oid, and no law, nor ,indin%K upon 3outh Carolina, its officers or citi=ens' After 8e,ruary 1, 1833, the <rdinance continued, Kit shall not ,e lawful ''' to enforce the payment of duties '' ' within the limits of this 3tate'K >e are determined, said the mem,ers, to maintain this <rdinance Kat e$ery ha=ardK and Kwill not su,mit to the application of force ''' to reduce this 3tate to o,edience'K #f force is used, then the people of 3outh Carolina K will thenceforth hold themsel$es a,sol$ed from all further o,li%ation to maintain or preser$e their political conne)ion with the people of the other 3tates, and will forthwith proceed to or%ani=e a separate @o$ernment'K .ews of the action of the .ullification Con$ention shot up to >ashin%ton and around the

country with record speed' The defiance shocked and infuriated the President' As he prowled the corridors of the >hite House, he uttered all kinds of sa$a%e threats, ,ut at no time did he allow his feelin%s to color his -ud%ment or influence his actions' #n moments of crisis he e)ercised a,solute control o$er his normally $olatile emotions' Joel Poinsett, a 3outh Carolina unionist who pro$ided the President with relia,le information on de$elopin% e$ents in his state, immediately reported on the proceedin%s of the Con$ention' He also %a$e Jackson an account of the condition of the se$eral military forts in the Charleston Har,or;-ust in case' 8ort "oultrie, he said, was Kin a $ery dilapidated stateK ,ut Castle Pinckney was Kin fine order'K 8ortunately, JacksonBs pre$ious actions had pre$ented the sei=ure of these forts' Poinsett estimated that possi,ly 00 to 1 ,000 unionists could ,e mustered, pro$ided they could ,e armed, ,ut predicted that no $iolence was likely until 8e,ruary 1' After that date anythin% mi%ht happen' #n the stron%est possi,le terms, he reassured the President of the loyalty and dependa,ility of the union men in 3outh Carolina' K>e had rather die,K he wrote, Kthan su,mit to the tyranny of such an oli%archy as J' C' Calhoun, James Hamilton, /o,t' *' Hayne and I@eor%eJ "c6uffie and we implore our sister states and the federal %o$t' to rescue us from these lawless and reckless men'0 Jackson responded immediately' K# fully concur with you in your $iews of .ullification,K he told Poinsett' K#t leads directly to ci$il war and ,loodshed and deser$es the e)ecration of e$ery friend of the country'K He said he had already anticipated some of the Kprecautionary measuresK ad$ised ,y Poinsett' 8i$e hundred stand of muskets, for e)ample, with Kcorrespondin% e(uipments,K had ,een ordered to Castle Pinckney, and a sloop of war with a smaller $essel had ,een dispatched to Charleston and would reach the city momentarily' @eneral >infield 3cott had ,een directed to take command of the entire operation' #n addition, the commandin% officer at Castle Pinckney would ,e instructed ,y the secretary of war to deli$er the arms to the unionists in the state' 3hould circumstances so dictate, additional ordnance would ,e pro$ided' KThe 4nion must ,e preser$ed,K Jackson reiterated, Kand its laws duly e)ecuted, ,ut ,y proper means'K >e must act, he went on, as Kthe instruments of the law'K Poinsett was to tell the unionists Kthat perpetuity is stamped upon the constitution ,y the ,lood of our 8athers'K .othin% could dissol$e the 4nion' .othin%' Constitutional amendment was the process pro$ided to secure needed chan%es or impro$e Kour system of free @o$ernment'K 8or this reason a state may not secede, much less Kha=ardK the 4nion' 53ulli(i!ation there(ore means insurre!tion and warC and the other states ha%e a right to "ut it down.D #t is important to notice how careful Jackson was to act within the limits of the law' He talked tou%h ,ut he had made up his mind to use force only if a,solutely necessary and with e)treme caution' He would ,luster and threaten, ,ut he mo$ed slowly and carefully' He operated within the law, and, as one historian later commented, this was to ,e Kthe hallmark of his statesmanship durin% the .ullification Crisis'K 8or e)ample, he %a$e orders that the citadel on the mainland in Charleston was to ,e relin(uished upon demand' 3ince 3outh Carolina owned the ,uildin%, prompt compliance would pre$ent an incident and head off any criticism that the federal authorities acted ille%ally' +esides, remo$al of these troops and their concentration at the forts would stren%then the military stance of the federal armed forces in Charleston' >hen in fact the 3outh Carolina le%islature demanded federal withdrawal from the ,uildin% in early 6ecem,er, the troops (uietly mo$ed to the forts in the har,or and completely separated themsel$es from the 3outh Carolina mainland' 7$ents in 3outh Carolina then ,e%an to mo$e at a fri%htenin% clip toward confrontation with the federal %o$ernment and possi,le ci$il war' The people of the state seemed to accept the <rdinance of .ullification with no percepti,le concern' The union party, thou%h respecta,le in character, was o$erwhelmed in the fall elections ,y an Kimmense, an almost silencin% ma-ority,K completely sympathetic to the nullifiers' /o,ert *' Hayne resi%ned as 4nited 3tates senator and John C' Calhoun resi%ned as ?ice President of the 4nited 3tates' Hayne was elected to succeed James Hamilton, Jr', as %o$ernor' A new le%islature, composed mainly of nullifiers, elected Calhoun to take HayneBs seat in the 4nited 3tates 3enate and then proceeded to pass the necessary le%islation to carry the <rdinance into practical effect' 8or e)ample, it authori=ed the %o$ernor to accept $olunteers in case of in$asion' 3aid @o$ernor Hayne in his inau%ural addressC K#f the sacred soil of Carolina should ,e polluted ,y the footsteps of an in$ader, or ,e stained with the ,lood of her citi=ens, shed in her defense, #' trust in Almi%hty @od that no son of hers '''who has ,een nourished at her ,osom'''will ,e found raisin% a parricidal arm a%ainst our common mother' And e$en should she stand AA<.7 in this %reat stru%%le for constitutional li,erty ' ' ' that there will not ,e found, in the wide limits of the 3tate, one recreant son who will not fly to the rescue, and ,e ready to lay down his life in her defense'K /outh Carolina rang with the re el yell. &lue !o!kades with a "almetto utton at the !enter a""eared e%erywhere, on 5hats, onnets and osoms.6 Then e%ents turned ominous, (or medals were stru!k earing the ins!ri"tion: N$ohn C. Calhoun, First President o( the /outhern Con(edera!y.00 1 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 , ?olume ### ,y /o,ert ?' /emini, p' N; 1:

!<pposition presses which had applauded, al,eit %rud%in%ly, the PresidentBs K8ederal 4nionK toast uttered %ra$e warnin%s' KThe 4nion is in dan%er' @en' Jackson must sustain the Court'K 8riendly -ournals remained silent or offered lame e)cuses' 3outh Carolina .ullifiers welcomed @eor%ia as an ally, -u,ilantly proclaimin% the KusurpationsK of 8ederal power !,ra$ely metK ,y a sister state' >hen an)ious mem,ers of the 4nion Party in 3outh Carolina planned a demonstration of stren%th in Charleston on July :, the .ullifiers started to %et up a counter demonstration' Jackson recei$ed an in$itation from the 4nionists' He sent a letter e)pressin% the hope that the Kdeclarations inconsistent with an attachment for the 4nionK reflected nothin% more serious than Kmomentary e)citement'K +ut should the case pro$e otherwise, he promised to sustain the 4nion Kat all ha=ards'0 ?e)in% their ,rains for an answerin% stroke, the .ullifiers turned to John C' Calhoun' The ?ice President was summerin% in his nati$e 3tate, his mind a maelstrom of dou,t and indecision' #n a Kfe$erishK con$ersation with a friend, Khe spoke of the three %reat interests of the .ation, The .orth, the 3outh and the >est' ''' He thou%ht the period was approachin% that was to determine whether they could ,e reconciled or not so as to perpetuate the 4nion'K 8or three years the $iews of the 3outh Carolinian had ,een in a state of transition' Co$ertly he had %uided the .ullifiers without repudiatin% the support of his nationalist friends' The time was at hand when he must march under the one ,anner or the other' 3outh as well as north, nationalists implored the ?ice President not to desert them' >ith no $iew to affordin% Kpleasure to friends of @enFl Jackson,K a distin%uished @eor%ian warned "r' Calhoun that @eor%ia would oppose 3outh CarolinaBs ,rand of nullification' K# could not desire my enemy a worse employment than to appear ,efore the people on this su,-ect'K The @eor%ian followed e)actly the reasonin% of JacksonBs 8ourth of July letter' K.ullification ' ' ' destroys not the ItariffJ law ,ut the %o$ernment' And for whatM 8or e$ils a thousand fold ma%nified, ' ' ' Ci$il >ar'K 6uff @reen had rushed off to .ew *ork in an effort to ,eat up manifestations of friendly northern sentiment calculated to di$ert the ?ice President from an open espousal of the state so$erei%nty cause' @reen wrote to the @o$ernor of 3outh Carolina that at one swoop the .ullifiers were placin% the stron%est possi,le cards in JacksonBs hands and snuffin% out the career of their first citi=en as a national statesman' KIHe asksJ,K related the @o$ernor, %i$in% a di%est of the letter, Kif we were all cra=y, ''' if we intended to start open re,ellion and insure the empire of the whore of >ashin%ton 2"rs' 7' # suppose5'K The @o$ernor was unmo$ed, Kto these ci$il thin%s my /eply was ' ' ' that whether we decreed perpetual empire to the >; of >ashin%ton or not, or started into re,ellion, we would a,ate not one -ot our =eal ''' for .ullification'K The fire;eaters pre$ailed' Three weeks after JacksonBs messa%e was read in Charleston, John C' Calhoun pu,lished a len%thy Address, takin% the leadership of the nullification mo$ement' #n this way the challen%in% nationalist of 189: at last stepped down from his pedestal to marshal the forces of sectionalism, thou%h not without an eye to some com,ination of elements in the unpredicta,le panorama ,y which he mi%ht reascend to power' 7m,oldened ,y this adhesion, the nullificationist ma-ority in the Ae%islature surpassed that of @eor%ia ,y sin%lin% out Jackson for attack' K#s this ' ' ' I,odyJ to le%islate under the sword of the Commander;in;ChiefMK 3ecession was declared a ri%ht of any state, and it was defended as ,ein% neither treason nor insurrection' +ut unlike @eor%ia, 3outh Carolina did not suit action to the word' Andrew Jackson smoked his pipe and waited' 6espite an almost irretrie$a,le reputation for actin% on impulse, <ld Hickory could ,e $ery %ood at waitin%' 3tran%e it is how comparati$ely few persons o,ser$ed that as he %rew older much that passed for impulsi$eness had ,een thou%ht out ahead' +efore the Ae%islature at Colum,ia had finished its ,rimstonin%, the President pri$ately assured a northern friendC KThe 4nion will ,e preser$edRB0 1 The Life of Andrew Jackson ,y "ar(uis James, Part TwoC Portrait of a President, +ook 8i$eC The !/ei%n0, Chapter DDD## 2"artin ?an +urenFs "asterpiece5, p' 81; 89 !>hile yieldin% to the %reed of the whites, Jackson endea$ored to o,tain a measure of practical -ustice for the #ndians' Ai,eral terms were held out to them to remo$e peacea,ly ,eyond the "ississippi' The Creeks %a$e in and si%ned a treaty of e$acuation' The Chickasaws si%ned a second treaty, so that ,y the end of 1839 only the Cherokees persisted in the stru%%le to retain the soil of their fathers' These happenin%s ,olstered the ,lustery confidence of the 3outh Carolina .ullifiers, led now ,y the ?ice President of the 4nited 3tates' #n 8e,ruary a con$ention adopted menacin% resolutions' KThe 3tate looks to her sons to defend her in whate$er form she may proclaim her purpose to )esist'K 3outh Carolina 4nionists pinned their hope of a$ertin% a crisis to an effort to modify the tariff' 6espite the preoccupation of Con%ress with the ,ank and presidential politics, an act was passed which Jackson si%ned the day after the ,ank $eto was sustained' Thou%h far short of what the radicals demanded, the new schedules certainly afforded a ,asis for amica,le parley' +ut the .ullifiers rode ,oldly on' At the close of the e$entful session in mid;July, 1839, /o,ert *' Hayne and a ma-ority of the 3outh Carolina dele%ation issued an Address, callin% upon their constituents as the Kso$erei%n powerK of the commonwealth to determine whether their li,erties should ,e Ktamely surrendered without a stru%%le or transmitted undiminished to posterity'K Jackson took notice of the declaration in his partin% words to a 3outh Carolina con%ressman who was settin% out for home' KTell'''Ithe .ullifiersJ from me that they can talk and write resolutions and print threats to their heartsB content' +ut if one drop of ,lood ,e shed there in defiance of the laws of the 4nited 3tates # will han% the first man of them # can %et my hands on to the first tree # can find'K #n +entonBs hearin%, 3outh CarolinaBs senior 3enator e)pressed a dou,t as to whether the President would %o that far' K# tell you, Hayne,K the "issourian replied, Kwhen Jackson ,e%ins to talk a,out han%in%, they can ,e%in to look for the ropes'0 1 The Life of Andrew Jackson ,y "ar(uis James, Part TwoC Portrait of a President, +ook 8i$eC The !/ei%n0, Chapter DDD#? 2A 3word A%ainst 6isunion5, p' E0:

!.or was the President especially aroused ,y the warnin% that K.ullification continues to rum,le like distant thunder in the south'K DCalhoun is "rostrate,D $a!kson re"lied. D# heard one o( his est (ormer (riends say ... he ought to e hung.D "oreo$er, this KfriendK had offered to march with ten thousand $olunteers a%ainst the .ullifiers' KThese,K o,ser$ed <ld Hickory, Kare and must ,e the sentiments of all honest men'K That they were not the pre$ailin% sentiments in Charleston, @eneral Jackson was soon to learn' He acted instantly' KTo the 3ecretary of the .a$y, Confidential' ' ' ' 7fforts ha$e ,een made, and perhaps not without success ''' to disaffect the <fficer of the .a$y in command at charlston IsicJ' ' ' ' The idea is ''' to pre$ent a ,lockade' This must ,e %uarded a%ainstRB The s(uadron at .orfolk was ordered ready for sea' #n 3eptem,er the .ullifiers swept the 3tate elections in 3outh Carolina' <n the heels of this, word reached the Hermita%e that officers in command of the /e%ular troops at Charleston were prepared to surrender the har,or forts' <rderin% the %arrisons replaced ,y detachments of un(uestioned loyalty, Jackson left post haste for >ashin%tonT<minous tidin%s awaited the President at the capitalC 3outh Carolina hopelessly in the hands of the e)tremistsL the staffs of the customs houses corruptedL a call out for a con$ention to proclaim nullification of the re$enue lawsL demands for troops to KdefendK the 3tate a%ainst 8ederal Ka%%ression'K +ut the .a$y was ready, the Charleston %arrisons had ,een chan%ed, and "a-or @eneral >infield 3cott hurried south to command them' KThe 3ecretary of >ar,K further directed the President, Kwill cause secrete orders to ,e #ssued to the officers commandin% the 8orts in the har,our of Charleston 3o Carolina ''' to pre$ent a surprise in the ni%ht or ,y day The attempt will ,e made ''' ,y the militia, and must ,e' ' ' repelled with prompt and e)emplary punishment'K0 1 The Life of Andrew Jackson ,y "ar(uis James, Part TwoC Portrait of a President, +ook 8i$eC The !/ei%n0, Chapter DDD#? 2A 3word A%ainst 6isunion5, p' E0N;E08 !/outh Carolina mo%ed swi(tly to "re!i"itate a !risis e(ore Congress should assem le. 8n 3o%em er OE, +,)O, the tari(( a!ts were "ro!laimed %oid and not 5 inding u"on this /tate or its !iti7ens,6 a(ter Fe ruary +, +,)). The tru!ulent /tate de!lared that the use o( (or!e in an attem"t to !olle!t the duties a(ter that date would e met y se!ession. Jackson -otted down a memorandum for his own eye' !3outh Carolina has passed her ordinance' ''' As soon as it can ,e had in authentic form, meet it with a proclamation' .ullification has taken deep root in ?ir%inia, it must ,e arrested ' ' ' ,y a full appeal ''' to the %ood sense of the people'0 #n the case of 3outh Carolina, the President continued his preparations to supplement this pro-ected mode of persuasion' 3e$en re$enue cutters and a ship of war were sent to Charleston' They anchored off the +attery, their %uns commandin% the fashiona,le waterfront lined with the homes and ,rick;walled %ardens of the cityFs elect' @eneral 3cott stren%thened har,or defenses a%ainst attack from the land side' >ith the Charleston post office in the hands of .ullifiers, a courier ser$ice was esta,lished to keep Jackson in constant touch with Joel Poinsett' K.o state or states,0 the President wrote the leader of the 4nionists, Khas a ri%ht to secede' ' ' ' 3ulli(i!ation there(ore means insurre!tion and warL and other states ha$e a ri%ht to put it down'' ' ' I#n this positionJ # am assured ,y all the mem,ers with whom # ha$e con$ersed that # will ,e sustained ,y con%ress' #f so, # will meet it at the threshold, and ha$e the leaders arrested and arrai%ned for treason' #n forty days # can ha$e within the limits of 3o' Carolina fifty thousand men, and in forty days more another fifty thousand'K 7lsewhere than in 3outh Carolina an)ious eyes turned toward Andrew Jackson' KThose who ,ut yesterday,K said 3enator @eor%e "' 6allas of Pennsyl$ania, Kopposed your re;election with ferocity now loudly profess their reliance on your sa$in% the 4nion'K Con%ress con$ened amid %reat e)citement, which the PresidentBs messa%e did little to allay' This document seemed poor company for the martial alarms and e$en more threatenin% pri$ate assertions of @eneral Jackson' #ts tone was conciliatory' 8urther tariff reductions were recommended and nothin% said of resistin% nullification ,y force' KThe messa%e,K remarked John Quincy Adams, K%oes to dissol$e the 4nion ' ' ' and is a complete surrender to the nullifiers'K <thers asked if the intention were to permit 3outh Carolina to emulate @eor%iaBs successful defiance of the 8ederal @o$ernment' .ullifiers took heart' That scarred kni%ht of the state so$erei%nty cause, /andolph of /oanoke, proffered the ser$ice of his lance to 3outh Carolina and insinuatin%ly wrote the PresidentC K*ou are now in a situation to recede with dIi%nityJ'K There was no recession' <n the day the messa%e was read to Con%ress, 7dward Ai$in%ston was en%a%ed on JacksonBs answer to the countryBs (uestion, with <ld Hickory peerin% o$er the 3ecretaryBs shoulder as he worked' K# su,mit the a,o$e as the conclusion of the proclamation,K prompted the President' KAet it recei$e your ,est fli%ht of elo(uence The 4nion must ,e preser$ed, without ,lood if this ,e possi,le, ,ut it must ,e preser$ed at all ha=ards and at any price'K The Proclamation on .ullification was %i$en to the world on 6ecem,er 10, 1839' The words are Ai$in%stonBs, the initiati$e, the thou%ht and the spirit JacksonBs, comprisin% in all the %reatest state paper of the spacious Jacksonian 7poch and one of the %reatest to ,ear the name of an American president' +y skillful ,lendin% of ar%ument, entreaty and warnin% the 7)ecuti$e addressed himself to the intelli%ence, the pride, the interests and the fears of the citi=ens of 3outh CarolinaL and he sou%ht to unite the rest of the nation a%ainst the recalcitrant 3tate' .ullification was ,randed an Kimpractical a,surdity'00 1 The Life of Andrew Jackson ,y "ar(uis James, Part TwoC Portrait of a President, +ook 8i$eC The !/ei%n0, Chapter DDD#? 2A 3word A%ainst 6isunion5, p' E10;E11

!+onfires ,la=ed, ,ells ran%, men paraded' "ilitary $olunteers offered themsel$es, state le%islatures denounced nullification' John Quincy Adams and 6aniel >e,ster -oined the President promptly and cordially' 7m,ittered Henry ClayBs ton%ue fell silent' #n #llinois a $illa%e lawyer and captain of $olunteers, lately returned from participation in a detail of #ndian swindlin% which history o,scures ,ehind the respecta,le name of the +lack Hawk >ar, pored o$er the proclamation' #n 18E1 A,raham Aincoln was to read it a%ain ,efore composin% his inau%ural address' The story in 3outh Carolina was different' K@en JacksonBs e)traordinary proclamation has -ust reached me,K wrote James H' Hammond, an editor of Colum,ia, to /o,ert *' Hayne, who had resi%ned his 3enate seat for the %o$ernorship of the em,attled 3tate' K4pon the timid and i%norant of our party # fear it will ha$e %reat influence'K 3o did Hayne, who splashed his si%nature upon a counter;proclamation in which the @o$ernor promised to maintain the so$erei%nty of 3outh Carolina or perish K,eneath its ruins'K Proffers of military ser$ice poured upon the state 7)ecuti$eL calls for commissions, for pistols, sa,ers, powder and ,allL for HoytBs Tactics and an !FA,stract for the "anoeu$res of #nfantryF adopted ,y the last Ae%islature'K Hayne concentrated on the or%ani=ation of K"ounted "inute "enK to ena,le him to throw K9, 00 of the elite of the whole state upon a %i$en point in three or four days The uniform of my staff will ,e the same as my Predecessors e)cept under ,oots and a short yellow crane Plume' Palmetto +uttons of a ,eautiful pattern may ,e had at /ocheFs Charleston' 4nion men refused to ,e o$erawed' K@od and <ld Hickory are with us'K 7ither would ha$e sufficed Poinsett who continued to arm his men and to drill them at ni%ht' John C' Calhoun (uit these tense scenes to start north with the intention of resi%nin% the $ice presidency and takin% the place in the 3enate $acated ,y Hayne' The -ourney re(uired coura%e' 8riends of yearsB standin% turned their ,acks' The curious %athered at e$ery sta%e stop to stare at the man who, rumor said, would enter >ashin%ton a prisoner under char%e of treasonL and it seems more than pro,a,le that only the a,sence of an armed clash ,etween the opposin% forces in 3outh Carolina a$erted this' Pale ,ut determined, the 3outh Carolinian walked into the 3enate cham,er on January :, 1833, and swore to uphold and defend the Constitution of the 4nited 3tates' Jackson charted a direct course' K# am now waitin%,K he appri=ed ?an +uren, Kfor the IofficialJ information from the assem,ly of 3o' Carolina of their ha$in% passed their laws for raisin% an army to resist the e)ecution of the laws, which will ,e a le$yin% of war, and # will make a communication to Con%ress ' ' ' askIin%J power to call upon $olunteers to ser$e as a posse commitatus of the ci$il authority' ''' #f the Assem,ly authorises twel$e thousand men to resist the law, # will order thirty thousand to e)ecute IitJK' Leaders o( nulli(i!ation would e sei7ed where%er (ound Dregardless o( the (or!e that surrounds them, ;and< deli%er;ed< into the hands o( the =udi!ial authority o( the Gnited /tatesD to e tried (or treason. The President was already scrutini=in% an in$entory of infantry, ca$alry and artillery weapons in the custody of the >ar 6epartment'0 1 The Life of Andrew Jackson ,y "ar(uis James, Part TwoC Portrait of a President, +ook 8i$eC The !/ei%n0, Chapter DDD#? 2A 3word A%ainst 6isunion5, p' E19;E13

4'3' 3upreme Court Case *ar"ury (+ *adison 28e,ruary 9:, 18035

Aeft to ri%htC plaintiff >illiam "ar,ury, Chief Justice John "arshall, and defendant 4'3' 3ecretary of 3tate James "adison

!The >uestion, whether an a!t, re"ugnant to the !onstitution, !an e!ome the law o( the land, is a >uestion dee"ly interesting to the Gnited /tatesL ,ut, happily, not of an intricacy proportioned to its interest' #t seems only necessary to reco%nise certain principles, supposed to ha$e ,een lon% and well esta,lished, to decide it' That the people ha$e an ori%inal ri%ht to esta,lish, for their future %o$ernment, such principles as, in their opinion, shall most conduce to their own happiness, is the ,asis on which the whole American fa,ric has ,een erected' The e)ercise of this ori%inal ri%ht is a $ery %reat e)ertionL nor can it nor ou%ht it to ,e fre(uently repeated' The principles, therefore, so esta,lished are deemed fundamental' And as the authority, from which they proceed, is supreme, and can seldom act, they are desi%ned to ,e permanent' This ori%inal and supreme will or%ani=es the %o$ernment, and assi%ns to different departments their respecti$e powers' #t may either stop hereL or esta,lish certain limits not to ,e transcended ,y those departments' The %o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates is of the latter description' The "owers o( the legislature are de(ined and limitedC and that those limits may not e mistaken or (orgotten, the !onstitution is written. To what "ur"ose are "owers limited, and to what "ur"ose is that limitation !ommitted to writingC if these limits may, at any time, ,e passed ,y those intended to ,e restrainedM The distinction ,etween a %o$ernment with limited and unlimited powers is a,olished, if those limits do not confine the persons on whom they are imposed, and if acts prohi,ited and acts allowed are of e(ual o,li%ation' #t is a proposition too plain to ,e contested, that the constitution controls any le%islati$e act repu%nant to itL or, that the le%islature may alter the constitution ,y an ordinary actTCertainly all those who ha$e framed written constitutions contemplate them as formin% the fundamental and paramount law of the nation, and !onse>uently the theory o( e%ery su!h go%ernment must e, that an a!t o( the legislature re"ugnant to the !onstitution is %oid T#f an act of the le%islature, repu%nant to the constitution, is $oid, does it, notwithstandin% its in$alidity, ,ind the courts and o,li%e them to %i$e it effectM <r, in other words, thou%h it ,e not law, does it constitute a rule as operati$e as if it was a lawM This would ,e to o$erthrow in fact what was esta,lished in theoryL and would seem, at first $iew, an a,surdity too %ross to ,e insisted on' #t shall, howe$er, recei$e a more attenti$e consideration' #t is em"hati!ally the "ro%in!e and duty o( the =udi!ial de"artment to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule to particular cases, must of necessity e)pound and interpret that rule' #f two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide on the operation of each' 3o if a law ,e in opposition to the constitutionC if ,oth the law and the constitution apply to a particular case, so that the court must either decide that case conforma,ly to the law, disre%ardin% the constitutionL or conforma,ly to the constitution, disre%ardin% the lawC the court must determine which of these conflictin% rules %o$erns the case' This is of the $ery essence of -udicial dutyTThus, the particular phraseolo%y of the constitution of the 4nited 3tates confirms and stren%thens the principle, supposed to ,e essential to all written constitutions, that a law re"ugnant to the !onstitution is %oid, and that !ourts, as well as other de"artments, are ound y that instrument. The rule must ,e dischar%ed' 0 1 John "arshall, Chief Justice of the 4'3' 3upreme Court 21801;183 5, on 8e,ruary 9:, 1803

7)cerpts from @eor% >ilhelm 8riedrich He%elFs ,hi oso&hy of )i$ht 218915
!The state, which is the reali=ed su,stanti$e will, ha$in% its reality in the particular self;consciousness raised to the plane of the uni$ersal, is a,solutely rational' This su,stanti$e unity is its own moti$e and a,solute end' #n this end freedom attains its hi%hest ri%ht' This end has the highest right o%er the indi%idual, whose highest duty in turn is to e a mem er o( the state. 0 1 @eor% >ilhelm 8riedrich He%el, ,hi oso&hy of )i$ht, Para%raph 9 8 !>ere the state to ,e considered as e)chan%ea,le with the ci$ic society, and were its decisi$e features to ,e re%arded as the security and protection of property and personal freedom, the interest of the indi$idual as such would ,e the ultimate purpose of the social union' #t would then ,e at oneFs option to ,e a mem,er of the state'U+ut the state has a totally different relation to the indi$idual' #t is the o,-ecti$e spirit, and he has his truth, real e)istence, and ethical status only in ,ein% a mem,er of it' 4nion, as such, is itself the true content and end, since the indi$idual is intended to pass a uni$ersal life' His particular satisfactions, acti$ities, and way of life ha$e in this authenticated su,stanti$e principle their ori%in and resultTThe idea of the state is not concerned with the historical ori%in of either the state in %eneral or of any particular state with its special ri%hts and characters' Hence, it is indifferent whether the state arose out of the patriarchal condition, out of fear or confidence, or out of the corporation' #t does not care whether the ,asis of state ri%hts is declared to ,e in the di$ine, or in positi$e ri%ht, or contract, or custom' >hen we are dealin% simply with the science of the state, these thin%s are mere appearances, and ,elon% to history' The causes or %rounds of the authority of an actual state, in so far as they are re(uired at all, must ,e deri$ed from the forms of ri%ht, which ha$e $alidity in the state'0 1 @eor% >ilhelm 8riedrich He%el, ,hi oso&hy of )i$ht, Para%raph 9 8 !The state as a completed reality is the ethical whole and the actuali=ation of freedom' #t is the a,solute purpose of reason that freedom should ,e actuali=ed' The state is the spirit, which a,ides in the and there reali=es itself consciouslyL while in nature it is reali=ed only as the other of itself or the sleepin% spirit' <nly when it is present in consciousness, knowin% itself as an e)istin% o,-ect, is it the state' #n thinkin% of freedom we must not take our departure from indi$iduality or the indi$idualFs self; consciousness, ,ut from the essence of self;consciousness' Aet man ,e aware of it or not, this essence reali=es itself as an independent power, in which particular persons are only phases' The state is the mar!h o( God in the worldC its ground or !ause is the "ower o( reason reali7ing itsel( as will. When thinking o( the idea o( the state, we must not ha%e in our mind any "arti!ular state, or "arti!ular institution, ut must rather !ontem"late the idea, this a!tual God, y itsel(. 1lthough a state may e de!lared to %iolate right "rin!i"les and to e de(e!ti%e in %arious ways, it always !ontains the essential moments o( its e2isten!e, i(, that is to say, it elongs to the (ull (ormed states o( our own time. &ut as it is more easy to dete!t shortA!omings than to gras" the "ositi%e meaning, one easily (alls into the mistake o( dwelling so mu!h u"on s"e!ial as"e!ts o( the state as to o%erlook its inner organi! eing. The state is not a work o( art. #t is in the world, in the s"here o( !a"ri!e, a!!ident, and error. 4%il eha%ior !an dou tless dis(igure it in many ways, ut the ugliest man, the !riminal, the in%alid, the !ri""le, are li%ing men. The "ositi%e thing, the li(e, is "resent in s"ite o( de(e!ts, and it is with this a((irmati%e that we ha%e here to deal. 0 1 @eor% >ilhelm 8riedrich He%el, ,hi oso&hy of )i$ht, Para%raph 9 8 !These kin%doms are ,ased upon the distinction, which has now won the form of a,solute anta%onism, and yet at the same time are rooted in a sin%le unity and idea' #n the o,durate stru%%le, which thus ensues, the spiritual has to lower its hea$en to the le$el of an earthly and temporal condition, to common worldliness, and to ordinary life and thou%ht' <n the other hand the a,stract actuality of the worldly is e)alted to thou%ht, to the principle of rational ,ein% and knowin%, and to the rationality of ri%ht and law' As a result of these two tendencies, the contradiction has ,ecome a marrowless phantasm' The "resent has stri""ed o(( its ar arism and its lawless !a"ri!e, and truth has stri""ed o(( its eyond and its !asualness. The true atonement and re!on!iliation has e!ome o =e!ti%e, and un(olds the state as the image and reality o( reason. #n the state, sel(A !ons!iousness (inds the organi! de%elo"ment o( its real su stanti%e knowing and will, in religion it (inds in the (orm o( ideal essen!e the (eeling and the %ision o( this its truth, and in s!ien!e it (inds the (ree !on!ei%ed knowledge o( this truth, seeing it to e one and the same in all its mutually !om"leting mani(estations, namely, the state, nature, and the ideal world.0 1 @eor% >ilhelm 8riedrich He%el, ,hi oso&hy of )i$ht, Para%raph 3E0

The 8rench Army under the command of .apoleon +onaparte cele,rates in +erlin ne)t to the +randen,ur% @ate on <cto,er 9N, 180EL the 8rench Army defeated the Prussian army at Jena on <cto,er 1:, 180E' The Sin%dom of Prussia lost half of its territory in a treaty the followin% year and was o,li%ated to -oin a military alliance with 8rance durin% the .apoleonic >ars' The Sin%dom of Prussia ,ecame a re%ional superpower followin% the .apoleonic >ars and implemented political reforms such as compulsory education'

AeftC @eor% >ilhelm 8riedrich He%el 2Au%ust 9N, 1NN0;.o$em,er 1:, 18315, @erman professor of philosophy at 4ni$ersity of +erlin /i%htC @eneral Carl Philipp @ottfried $on Clausewit= 21N80;18315, Prussian army officer and military strate%ist

5War is nothing ut a duel on an e2tensi%e s!aleIWar there(ore is an a!t o( %iolen!e to !om"el our o""onent to (ul(ill our will.6 1 @eneral Carl $on Clausewit=, -n .ar, +ook 1, Chapter 1, Para%raph 9

American Civil War: Organized Crime?

!8( all the enemies to "u li! li erty war is, "erha"s, the most to e dreaded, e!ause it !om"rises and de%elo"s the germ o( e%ery other. War is the "arent o( armiesC (rom these "ro!eed de ts and ta2esL and armies, and de,ts, and ta)es are the known instruments for ,rin%in% the many under the domination of the few' #n war, too, the discretionary power of the 7)ecuti$e is e)tendedL its influence in dealin% out offices, honors, and emoluments is multipliedL and all the means of seducin% the minds, are added to those of su,duin% the force, of the people' The same mali%nant aspect in repu,licanism may ,e traced in the ine(uality of fortunes, and the opportunities of fraud, %rowin% out of a state of war, and in the de%eneracy of manners and of morals en%endered ,y ,oth' 3o nation !ould "reser%e its (reedom in the midst o( !ontinual war(are. 0 1 4'3' Con%ressman James "adison, from ,o itica -"ser(ations, April 90, 1NG !+ut the safety of the people of America a%ainst dan%ers from forei$n force depends not only on their for,earin% to %i$e /ust causes of war to other nations, ,ut also on their placin% and continuin% themsel$es in such a situation as not to in(ite hostility or insultL for it need not ,e o,ser$ed that there are &retended as well as -ust causes of war' #t is too true, howe$er dis%raceful it may ,e to human nature, that nations in %eneral will make war whene$er they ha$e a prospect of %ettin% anythin% ,y itL nay, a,solute monarchs will often make war when their nations are to %et nothin% ,y it, ,ut for the purposes and o,-ects merely personal, such as thirst for military %lory, re$en%e for personal affronts, am,ition, or pri$ate compacts to a%%randi=e or support their particular families or partisans' These and a $ariety of other moti$es, which affect only the mind of the so$erei%n, often lead him to en%a%e in wars not sanctified ,y -ustice or the $oice and interests of his people'0 1 John Jay, 0edera ist .o' : !>A/ is a racket' #t always has ,een' #t is possi,ly the oldest, easily the most profita,le, surely the most $icious' #t is the only one international in scope' #t is the only one in which the profits are reckoned in dollars and the losses in li$es' A racket is ,est descri,ed, # ,elie$e, as somethin% that is not what it seems to the ma-ority of the people' <nly a small !inside0 %roup knows what it is a,out' #t is conducted for the ,enefit of the $ery few, at the e)pense of the $ery many' <ut of war a few people make hu%e fortunes'0 1 3medley 6' +utler, /etired "a-or @eneral of the 4'3' "arine Corps, .ar is a )acket

James "adison

John Jay

@en' 3medley 6' +utler !>hy, of course the people donFt want war' >hy would some poor slo, on a farm want to risk his life in a war when the ,est that he can %et out of it is to come ,ack to his farm in one pieceM .aturally, the common people donFt want warL neither in /ussia nor in 7n%land, nor in America, nor for that matter in @ermany' That is understood' +ut, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to dra% the people alon% whether itBs a democracy, a fascist dictatorship, a parliament, or a communist dictatorship' T,ut $oice or no $oice, the people can always ,e ,rou%ht to the ,iddin% of the leaders' That is easy' All you ha$e to do is tell them they are ,ein% attacked, and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and e)posin% the country to dan%er' #t works the same way in any country'0 1 Hermann @oerin%, in a con$ersation with 4'3' Army Captain @usta$e @il,ert in a prison cell durin% the .urem,er% trials, on April 18, 1G:E' from .urem,er% 6iary, ,y @usta$e "' @il,ert !>ar is at ,est ,ar,arismT # am tired and sick of war' #ts %lory is all moonshine' #t is only those who ha$e neither fired a shot, nor heard the shrieks and %roans of the wounded who cry aloud for ,lood, more $en%eance, more desolation' >ar is hell'0 1 4'3' Army @en' >illiam Tecumseh 3herman, Commandin% @eneral of the 4nited 3tates Army 218EG;18835, in an address to the "ichi%an "ilitary Academy on June 1G, 18NG

Hermann @oerin%

@en' >illiam 3herman

3kull & +ones at *ale 4ni$ersityC 3ecret 3ociety or Criminal 3yndicateM

.he ?rder of "kull = Bones is a secret society at 7ale !ni2ersity. .he ?rder of "kull = Bones is also known as the Brotherhood of &eath. .he num)er ,(( is a mysterious num)er known only to mem)ers of .he ?rder of "kull = Bones. "kull = Bones initiation rituals allegedly include indi2idual mem)ers of "kull = Bones resting naked in a coffin and re2ealing their se4 life to +fellow Bonesmen. ?2er ;11,111 #mericans died from )attlefield wounds, diseases, or star2ation during the #merican %i2il War. 6"ource> Secrets of the Tomb: Skull and Bones, the Ivy League, and the Hidden Paths of Power )y #le4andra Ro))ins8

.he .om), official headDuarters of .he ?rder of "kull = Bones, is located at 7ale !ni2ersity on <igh "treet in :ew <a2en, %onnecticut. .he ?rder of "kull = Bones, also known as Russell .rust #ssociation, was founded in +*,(E #ndrew $ackson was President of the !.". in +*,(.

%o-9ounders of "kull = Bones> #lphonso .aft 6left8, President !.". Crant3s "ecretary of War and !.". #ttorney Ceneral, and William <untington Russell 6right8, the grand-nephew of "amuel <untington. "amuel <untington was a signer of the &eclaration of Fndependence, President of the %ontinental %ongress 6+//B-+/*+8, and Co2ernor of %onnecticut 6+/*;-+/B;8.

In politi's, nothin+ happens y a''ident, I" it happens, you 'an et it !as planned that !ay, - .ran/lin 0elano 1oose2elt

+odies of dead /e,el soldiers killed in @ettys,ur%, Pennsyl$ania, 4'3'A' on July 1, 18E3, collected near the "cPherson woods 2PhotoC Ai,rary of Con%ressO httpCOOwww'sonofthesouth'netOleefoundationO%ettys,ur%Odead;confederate;soldier'htm5

# )urial party appears on the )attlefield of %old <ar)or near Richmond, Airginia in #pril +*;@. 6Photo> #le4ander CardnerGLi)rary of %ongress8

5War is at est ar arismI # am tired and si!k o( war. #ts glory is all moonshine. #t is only those who ha%e neither (ired a shot, nor heard the shrieks and groans o( the wounded who !ry aloud (or lood, more %engean!e, more desolation. War is hell.6 1 4'3' Army @en' >illiam Tecumseh 3herman, Commandin% @eneral of the 4nited 3tates Army 218EG;18835, in an address to the "ichi%an "ilitary Academy on June 1G, 18NG

Amon% the estimated E00,000 Americans who died durin% the Ci$il >ar were Paul Joseph /e$ere, the grandson o( 1meri!an "atriot and re%olutionary Paul .e%ere, and 3idney Coolid%e, the greatAgrandson o( (ormer G./. President Thomas $e((erson' Paul Joseph /e$ere, a Colonel in the 90th /e%iment "assachusetts ?olunteer #nfantry 24nion Army5, was killed in action at the +attle of @ettys,ur% 2Pennsyl$ania5 on July :, 18E3' 3idney Coolid%e, a "a-or in the 1Eth 4nited 3tates #nfantry 24nion Army5, was killed in action at the +attle of Chickamau%a 2@eor%ia5 on 3eptem,er 1G, 18E3'

The 3keleton SreweC 3kull & +ones in the American Ci$il >ar

William 0. E2arts B.#. 7ale +*,/ "pecial &iplomatic En2oy to Creat Britain and 9rance

William Barrett Wash)urn B.#. 7ale +*-!.". %ongressman 6R-0ass., +*;,-+*/+8

<enry %. &eming B.#. 7ale +*,; !.". %ongressman 6R-%onn., +*;,-+*;/8

#ugustus Brandegee B.#. 7ale +*-B !.". %ongressman 6R-%onn., +*;,-+*;/8

Rensselaer R. :elson B.#. 7ale +*-; $udge of the !.". &istrict %ourt for the &istrict of 0innesota 6+*@*-+*B;8

$ohn #ndrew Peters B.#. 7ale +*-( #ttorney Ceneral of 0aine 6+*;--+*;;8

&wight 9oster B.#. 7ale +*-* #ttorney Ceneral of 0assachusetts 6+*;+-+*;-8

%hauncey 0. &epew B.#. 7ale +*@; "ecretary of "tate of :ew 7ork 6+*;--+*;@8

William <. Russell B.#. 7ale +*,, 0a'or-Ceneral in the 0ilitia of the "tate of %onnecticut 6+*;(-+*/18

?rris "anford 9erry B.#. 7ale +*-Brigadier Ceneral, !.". #rmyE !.". %ongressman 6R-%onn., +*@B-+*;+8

Richard .aylor B.#. 7ale +*-@ Lieutenant Ceneral, Re)el armyE Louisiana "tate "enator 6+*@;-+*;+8

<enry Rootes $ackson B.#. 7ale +*,B 0a'or Ceneral, Re)el army !.". 0inister to #ustrian Empire 6+*@--+*@*8

William Preston $ohnston B.#. 7ale +*@( %olonel, Re)el armyE #ide-de-camp to President $efferson &a2is

Burton :or2ell <arrison B.#. 7ale +*@B Pri2ate "ecretary to President $efferson &a2is

$ohn .homas %ro4ton B.#. 7ale +*@/ 0a'or Ceneral, !.". #rmy

The 3keleton SreweC 3kull & +ones in the American Ci$il >ar
Re)el 6%onfederate8 Bonesmen Richard .aylor 6"=B +*-@8 H Lieutenant Ceneral in the %onfederate #rmyE %ommander of the &epartment of #la)ama, 0ississippi, and East Louisiana 6+*;--+*;@8E %ommander of the I%onfederateJ #rmy of .ennessee 6+*;@8E "urrendered to the !nion #rmy near 0o)ile, #la)ama on 0ay -, +*;@E son of former !.". President Kachary .aylorE %onfederate President $efferson &a2is3s )rother-in-law <enry Rootes $ackson 6"=B +*,B8 H 0a'or Ceneral in the %onfederate #rmyE delegate to the &emocratic Presidential %on2ention at %harleston, "outh %arolina in +*;1E ser2ed as a prisoner-of-war after surrendering to the !nion #rmy at the Battle of :ash2ille in &ecem)er +*;William Preston $ohnston 6"=B +*@(8 H %olonel in the %onfederate #rmyE $efferson &a2is3s aide-de-campE captured )y the !nion #rmy along with $efferson &a2is in Frwins2ille, Ceorgia on 0ay +1, +*;@E ser2ed as a pall)earer at Cen. Ro)ert E. Lee3s funeralE President of .ulane !ni2ersity 6+**--+*BB8E son of %onfederate Brigadier Ceneral #l)ert "idney $ohnston, former "ecretary of War of the Repu)lic of .e4as $ohn Perkins $r. 6"=B +*-18 H 0em)er of the %onfederate <ouse of Representati2es for Louisiana I"econd %ongressJ 6+*;--+*;@8E &elegate to the %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 6+*;+-+*;(8 William ..". Barry 6"=B +*-+8 H %hairman of the 0ississippi "ecession %on2ention in +*;+E &elegate to the %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress 6+*;+-+*;(8E "igner of the %onfederate %onstitutionE %olonel in command of the ,@th 0ississippi FnfantryE captured at 0o)ile, #la)ama on #pril +(, +*;@ Burton :or2ell <arrison 6"=B +*@B8 H Pri2ate "ecretary to %onfederate President $efferson &a2isE captured )y the !nion #rmy along with $efferson &a2is in Frwins2ille, Ceorgia on 0ay +1, +*;@E father of former !.". %ongressman 9rancis Burton <arrison 6"=B +*B@8 <ugh White "heffey 6"=B +*,@8 H "peaker of the Airginia <ouse of &elegates 6+*;+-+*;@8 William 9rierson %ooper 6"=B +*,*8 H $ustice of "upreme %ourt of .ennessee 6+*;+-+*;(, +*/*-+**;8 .homas L. Bayne 6"=B +*-/8 H %olonelE %hief of the Bureau of 9oreign "upplies in the %onfederate War &epartmentE married to 0ary Cayle, the daughter of former Co2ernor of #la)ama $ohn Cayle .homas 0cLinney $ack 6"=B +*@,8 H %olonelE #d'utant Ceneral of the &epartment of .e4as, %onfederate #rmy 6+*;--+*;@8E #ide-decamp to %onfederate Brigadier Ceneral #l)ert "idney $ohnston until Cen. $ohnston3s death at Battle of "hilohE son of William <. $ack, former "ecretary of "tate of the Repu)lic of .e4as Aincent 0armaduke 6"=B +*@(8 H %olonel, %onfederate #rmyE son of former Co2ernor of 0issouri 0eredith 0iles 0armaduke #le4ander Porter Root 6"=B +*;+8 H 0a'orE #ssistant #d'utant-Ceneral on the staff of %onfederate Brigadier Ceneral .homas &rayton $ames :. Brickell 6"=B +*-@8 H 9irst Lieutenant, ?rdnance ?fficer for the %onfederate #rmy in Louisiana William 9eli4 #le4ander 6"=B +*@+8 H #ssistant to %onfederate Cen. #.R. Lawton, the Muartermaster-Ceneral of the %onfederate #rmy <enry Williams 6"=B +*,/8 H Lieutenant of the Frish Aolunteers from "a2annah, Ceorgia 6%onfederate #rmy8 Edwin #le4ander #nderson 6"=B +*,@8 H "urgeon, %onfederate #rmy "tuart Wilkins 9isk 6"=B +*-18 H %olonel, Fnfantry, %onfederate #rmy <enry <unter Raymond 6"=B +*-+8 H 0a'or, %onfederate #rmyE lawyer in %harleston, "outh %arolina William Crey Woolfolk 6"=B +*-+8 H ser2ed in the %onfederate #rmy William &a2ison <enen 6"=B +*-(8 H 0a'or, %onfederate #rmy %harles :icholas Cachet 6"=B +*-,8 H ser2ed in the %onfederate #rmy $ohn <enry 9elder 6"=B +*--8 H +st Lieutenant, Fnfantry, %onfederate #rmyE 0em)er of "outh %arolina "tate Legislature 6+*@(-+*;+8 $oseph Lo2ell 6"=B +*--8 H 9irst Lieutenant, #ide-de-%amp Lemuel Parker %onner 6"=B +*-@8 H 0a'or, %onfederate #rmy William Custine %onner 6"=B +*-@8 H 0a'or, %onfederate #rmyE killed in action at the Battle of Cettys)urg on $uly ,, +*;, ?rrick 0etcalfe 6"=B +*-@8 H "urgeon, %onfederate #rmy $ohn &onnell "mith 6"=B +*-/8 H %aptain, %onfederate #rmy <enry Laurens 0etcalfe 6"=B +*-B8 H ser2ed in the %onfederate #rmy Walker Richardson 6"=B +*-B8 H ser2ed in the %onfederate #rmy <enry &eWitt Beman 6"=B +*@+8 H ser2ed in the %onfederate #rmy #ndrew $ackson "pring 6"=B +*@@8 H "ergeant 0a'or, %onfederate #rmy #rthur &ickinson 6"=B +*@;8 H %ommissary &epartment, %onfederate #rmy $ames Payne Creen 6"=B +*@/8 H Lieutenant, %a2alry, %onfederate #rmy Ceorge Boardman 0acLellan 6"=B +*@*8 H #ssistant Engineer, %onfederate #rmy

9ederal 6!nion8 Bonesmen William 0. E2arts 6"=B +*,/8 H "pecial &iplomatic En2oy to Creat Britain and 9rance under President #)raham Lincoln Creen %lay 6"=B +*@B8 H "ecretary of the !.". Legation at "t. Peters)urg, Russia 6+*;+8E "ecretary of the !.". Legation at .urin and 9lorence 6+*;(-+*;*8E %olonel, !nion #rmyE son of former !.". %ongressman Brutus $unius %lay %onstantine %. Esty 6"=B +*-@8 H #ssessor of Fnternal Re2enue 6+*;(-+*;;E +*;/-+*/(8 William <untington Russell 6"=B +*,,8 H 0a'or-Ceneral in the 0ilitia of the "tate of %onnecticut 6+*;(-+*/18 ?rris "anford 9erry 6"=B +*--8 H Brigadier Ceneral in the !nited "tates Aolunteers 6+*;(-+*;@8 $oseph %ooke $ackson 6"=B +*@/8 H )re2etted Brigadier Ceneral in the ;th :ew $ersey Aolunteers $ohn .homas %ro4ton 6"=B +*@/8 H 0a'or Ceneral, !nion #rmyE %ommander of 0ilitary &istrict of "outhwest Ceorgia at 0acon, Ca. 6+*;@8 William "eward Pierson 6"=B +*,;8 H )re2etted Brigadier Ceneral, !nion #rmyE selected as 0ayor of "andusky, ?hio in +*;+ .homas 0arshall Ley 6"=B +*,*8 H %olonelE $udge #d2ocate on the staff of !nion #rmy Cen. Ceorge B. 0c%lellan .haddeus 9oote 6"=B +*--8 H %olonel in +1th 0ichigan %a2alry <enry 0c%ormick 6"=B +*@(8 H %olonel in the 9irst Regiment of Pennsyl2ania 0ilitia Rufus %owles %rampton 6"=B +*@+8 H Lieutenant %olonel of the +-@th Fllinois Aolunteers Edward Payson :ettleton 6"=B +*@;8 H Lieutenant %olonel in ,+st 0assachusetts FnfantryE )re2etted %olonel <enry <itchcock 6"=B +*-*8 H )re2etted Lieutenant %olonelE #ssistant #d'utant Ceneral, !.". AolunteersE "er2ed as $udge #d2ocate on the personal staff of !nion #rmy Ceneral William .. "hermanE son of <enry <. <itchcock, former %hief $ustice of the "upreme %ourt of #la)ama &aniel <enry %ham)erlain 6"=B +*;(8 H %aptain in @th 0assachusetts %olored Fnfantry 6+*;--+*;@8 <enry Aarnum 9reeman 6"=B +*;B8 H %aptain in +(th !.". %olored Fnfantry 6+*;,-+*;@8 :ewton "paulding 0anross 6"=B +*@18 H %aptain in +;th Regiment of %onnecticut AolunteersE died at Battle of #ntietam on "ept. +/, +*;( .homas <edge 6"=B +*;/8 H "econd Lieutenant in %ompany C, +1;th Regiment of :ew 7ork Aolunteer Fnfantry 6+*;--+*;@8 Leonard Eugene Wales 6"=B +*-@8 H "econd Lieutenant in 9irst &elaware Aolunteers in +*;+ Edward 9oster Blake 6"=B +*@*8 H #d'utant in the @th Regiment of %onnecticut AolunteersE killed in action in Airginia on #ugust B, +*;( &iodate %ushman <annahs 6"=B +*@B8 H %aptain in the ;th :ew 7ork %a2alryE killed in action in Airginia on "eptem)er +1, +*;( &aniel <e)ard 6"=B +*;18 H #ssistant #d'utant-Ceneral of Aolunteers Iof ?hioJE died on #ugust /, +*;( Ceorge %oit Ripley 6"=B +*;(8 H +st LieutenantE .enth %onnecticut Regiment, %ompany #E #ide-de-camp to Cen. ?rris ". 9erry 6"=B +*--8 in +*;@ %harles 0iller Bliss 6"=B +*@(8 H (nd LieutenantE "econd Aermont Fnfantry during the %i2il War "amuel <enshaw Bates 6"=B +*,,8 H ser2ed as a pri2ate in the (-th Regiment of 0assachusetts Aolunteers during %i2il War William Baldwin Ross 6"=B +*@(8 H mem)er of the "e2enth Regiment :ew 7ork "tate Cuard during the %i2il War $aco) %ooper 6"=B +*@(8 H %haplain of the .hird Lentucky Regiment, !.". Aolunteers %harles 0ellen .yler 6"=B +*@@8 H %haplain of the ((nd 0assachusetts Fnfantry 9rancis Eugene Butler 6"=B +*@/8 H %haplain of the (@th Regiment of :ew $ersey AolunteersE died at "uffolk, Airginia on 0ay -, +*;, William Littredge <all 6"=B +*@B8 H %haplain of the +/th %onnecticut Fnfantry Edward Brown 9ur)ish 6"=B +*;18 H %haplain of the (@th 0aine Aolunteers William %urtis $ohnston 6"=B +*;18 H %haplain of the +,th !.". Lentucky AolunteersE died of pneumonia in Lentucky on &ecem)er ,, +*;( $ohn Walcott Wetherell 6"=B +*--8 H %olonel, !nion #rmy $ohn %oon 6"=B +*-/8 H Paymaster in the #rmy of the %um)erland 6!nion #rmy8 6+*;+-+*;@8 William E2es 0oore 6"=B +*-/8 H (nd Lieutenant, !nion #rmy <enry 0artyn &echert 6"=B +*@18 H +st Lieutenant, Fnfantry, !nion #rmy :athaniel Willis Bumstead 6"=B +*@@8 H %aptain, Fnfantry, !nion #rmy William Wheeler 6"=B +*@@8 H %aptain, !nion #rmy "tanley Woodward 6"=B +*@@8 H %aptain, !nion #rmy $ohn 0ason Brown 6"=B +*@;8 H %a2alry, !nion #rmy .homas #l)ert Perkins 6"=B +*@*8 H "ergeant, !nion #rmy E)en Creenough "cott 6"=B +*@*8 H +st Lieutenant, !nion #rmy William 9owler 6"=B +*;18 H %aptain, Fnfantry, !nion #rmy Luther 0aynard $ones 6"=B +*;18 H ser2ed in the !nion #rmy %harles <unter ?wen 6"=B +*;18 H %aptain, <ea2y #rtillery, !nion #rmy <u)ert "anford Brown 6"=B +*;+8 H Lieutenant %olonel, !nion #rmy Ro)ert Linton %ham)erlain 6"=B +*;+8 H Pri2ate, Fnfantry, !nion #rmy Ralph ?msted Williams 6"=B +*;+8 H ser2ed in the !nion #rmy "her)urne Blake Eaton 6"=B +*;(8 H %aptain, !nion #rmy #nthony <iggins 6"=B +*;+8 H ser2ed in the !nion #rmy in +*;-E former !.". "enator <enry Phelps $ohnston 6"=B +*;(8 H (nd Lieutenant, !nion #rmy %ornelius Ladd Litchel 6"=B +*;(8 H Pri2ate, !nion #rmy Walter #llen 6"=B +*;,8 H #cting #ssistant Paymaster, !.". :a2y %harles $esup #rms 6"=B +*;,8 H %aptain, !nion #rmy %ornelius Wade Bull 6"=B +*;,8 H #cting #ssistant Paymaster, !.". :a2y $ohn <askell Butler 6"=B +*;,8 H ser2ed in the !.". :a2y Leander .. %ham)erlain 6"=B +*;,8 H $udge #d2ocate, !.". :a2yE )rother of "outh %arolina Co2ernor &aniel <. %ham)erlain 6"=B +*;(8 <orace We)ster 9owler 6"=B +*;,8 H %aptain, #rtillery, !nion #rmy Payson 0errill 6"=B +*;@8 H ser2ed in the !nion #rmy %harles Edgar "mith 6"=B +*;@8 H Pri2ate, !nion #rmy $ames Brand 6"=B +*;;8 H "ergeant, !nion #rmy $ohn Lewis 6"=B +*;*8 H ser2ed in the !nion #rmy William #llison 0cLinney 6"=B +*;*8 H ser2ed in the !nion #rmy Edward <eaton 6"=B +*;B8 H Lieutenant, #rtillery, !nion #rmy Rufus Byam Richardson 6"=B +*;B8 H %orporal, Fnfantry, !nion #rmy %harles Ben'amin Ramsdell 6"=B +*/(8 H ser2ed in the !nion #rmy

The 3keleton SreweC 3kull & +ones durin% /econstruction 218E ;18NN5
Co2ernment ?fficials> &aniel <. %ham)erlain 6"=B +*;(8 H Co2ernor of "outh %arolina 6Repu)lican, +*/--+*/;8E #ttorney Ceneral of "outh %arolina 6+*;*-+*/(8 <enry %hampion &eming 6"=B +*,;8 H Pro2isional 0ayor of :ew ?rleans under !nion 0artial Law 6?cto)er +*;(-9e)ruary +*;,8 Creen %lay 6"=B +*@B8 H 0em)er of 0ississippi "tate Legislature during Reconstruction <enry Waterman Warren 6"=B +*;@8 H 0em)er of 0ississippi "tate Legislature 6+*/1-+*/@8 <ugh White "heffey 6"=B +*,@8 H $udge of the "uperior %ourt of Airginia 6+*;@-+*;B8 $ohn .homas %ro4ton 6"=B +*@/8 H 0a'or Ceneral in the !.". #rmyE %ommander of the 0ilitary &istrict of "outhwest Ceorgia at 0acon, Ceorgia 6+*;@8E !.". 0inister to Boli2ia 6+*/,-+*/-8 0orrison R. Waite 6"=B +*,/8 H %hief $ustice of the !.". "upreme %ourt 6+*/--+***8 William 0. E2arts 6"=B +*,/8 H !.". #ttorney Ceneral 6+*;*-+*;B8E !.". "ecretary of "tate 6+*//-+**+8 #lphonso .aft 6"=B +*,,8 H "ecretary of War 6+*/;8E !.". #ttorney Ceneral 6+*/;-+*//8E $udge of "uperior %ourt of %incinnati 6+*;@-+*/(8 ?rris "anford 9erry 6"=B +*--8 H !.". "enator 6Repu)lican Party-%onnecticut, +*;/-+*/@8 William Barrett Wash)urn 6"=B +*--8 H !.". "enator 6Repu)lican Party-0assachusetts, +*/--+*/@8E !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party0assachusetts, +*;,-+*/+8E Co2ernor of 0assachusetts 6Repu)lican, +*/(-+*/-8 <enry %hampion &eming 6"=B +*,;8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-%onnecticut, +*;,-+*;/8E !.". %ollector of Fnternal Re2enue 6+*;B-+*/(8 #ugustus Brandegee 6"=B +*-B8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-%onnecticut, +*;,-+*;/8 Roswell <art 6"=B +*-,8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-:ew 7ork, +*;@-+*;/8 Richard &udley <u))ard 6"=B +*,B8 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocratic Party-%onnecticut, +*;/-+*;B8 $ohn #ndrew Peters 6"=B +*-(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-0aine, +*;/-+*/,8E #ttorney Ceneral of 0aine 6+*;--+*;;8 Richard $. <aldeman 6"=B +*@+8 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocratic Party-Pennsyl2ania, +*;B-+*/,8 "tephen W. Lellogg 6"=B +*-;8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-%onnecticut, +*;B-+*/@8 $ohn Edward "eeley 6"=B +*,@8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-:ew 7ork, +*/+-+*/,8 Ellis <enry Ro)erts 6"=B +*@18 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-:ew 7ork, +*/+-+*/@8E 0em)er of :ew 7ork "tate #ssem)ly 6+*;;8 Ben'amin .ucker Eames 6"=B +*-,8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-Rhode Fsland, +*/+-+*/B8 %onstantine %. Esty 6"=B +*-@8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-0assachusetts, +*/(-+*/,8E #ssessor of Fnternal Re2enue 6+*;(+*;;E +*;/-+*/(8 William Walter Phelps 6"=B +*;18 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-:ew $ersey, +*/,-+*/@, +**,-+**B8 William Wallace %rapo 6"=B +*@(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-0assachusetts, +*/@-+**,8 William Law Learned 6"=B +*-+8 H Presiding $ustice of the "upreme %ourt of :ew 7ork 6+*/@-+*B(8 $ohn Wallace <ouston 6"=B +*,-8 H #ssociate $ustice of the "uperior %ourt of &elaware 6+*@@-+*B,8 Leonard Eugene Wales 6"=B +*-@8 H $ustice of the "uperior %ourt of &elaware 6+*;--+**-8 &wight 9oster 6"=B +*-*8 H $ustice of 0assachusetts "upreme %ourt 6+*;;-+*;B8 Ceorge C. "ill 6"=B +*@(8 H Lieutenant Co2ernor of %onnecticut 6+*/,-+*//8 %olleges> #ndrew &. White 6"=B +*@,8 H inaugural President of %ornell !ni2ersity 6+*;;-+**@8 &aniel %. Cilman 6"=B +*@(8 H inaugural President of $ohns <opkins !ni2ersity 6+*/@-+B1+8E President of !ni2ersity of %alifornia at Berkeley 6+*/(-+*/@8E "ecretary of %onnecticut "tate Board of Education 6+*;@-+*;;8 %harles $aneway "tille 6"=B +*,B8 H Pro2ost of !ni2ersity of Pennsyl2ania 6+*;*-+**18 %arroll %utler 6"=B +*@-8 H President of I%aseJ Western Reser2e !ni2ersity 6+*/+-+**;8 William %hau2enet 6"=B +*-18 H %hancellor of Washington !ni2ersity in "t. Louis 6+*;(-+*;B8 <enry <itchcock 6"=B +*-*8 H &ean of the "t. Louis Law "chool at Washington !ni2ersity in "t. Louis 6+*;/-+*/1, +*/*-+**+8 <enry %oit Lingsley 6"=B +*,-8 H .reasurer of 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*;(-+**;8 William Preston $ohnston 6"=B +*@(8 H Professor of English Literature, <istory, and Political Economy at Washington and Lee !ni2ersity 6+*;/-+*//8 Ben'amin "illiman $r. 6"=B +*,/8 H Professor of %hemistry at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*@--+*/18 .imothy &wight 6"=B +*-B8 H Professor of "acred Literature at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*@B-+**;8 %yrus :orthrop 6"=B +*@/8 H Professor of English at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*;,-+**-8 "imeon E)en Baldwin 6"=B +*;+8 H Professor of Law at 7ale Law "chool 6+*;B-+B+B8 %hurches> %harles 9. Ro)ertson 6"=B +*@B8 H Protestant Episcopal Bishop for the Episcopal &iocese of 0issouri 6+*;*-+**;8 $oseph Parish .hompson 6"=B +*,*8 H Pastor of the Broadway .a)ernacle in :ew 7ork %ity 6+*-@-+*/+8 $oseph #ugustine Benton 6"=B +*-(8 H Pastor of Plymouth %ongregational %hurch in "an 9rancisco 6+*;,-+*;B8 Edward &. 0orris 6"=B +*-B8 H Pastor of the "econd Pres)yterian %hurch of %olum)us, ?hio 6+*@@-+*;/8 $ames Cardiner Aose 6"=B +*@+8 H Pastor of the Beneficent %hurch in Pro2idence, Rhode Fsland 6+*;;-+B1+8 William <enry 9enn 6"=B +*@-8 H Pastor of <igh "treet %ongregational %hurch of Portland, 0aine 6+*;;-+B1-8 #le4ander ". .wom)ly 6"=B +*@-8 H Pastor of Winthrop 6%ongregational8 %hurch in Boston 6+*/(-+*B+8 ?thers> William %. Whitney 6"=B +*;,8 H %orporation %ounsel of :ew 7ork %ity 6+*/@-+**(8 $ohn William "terling 6"=B +*;-8 H %o-9ounder and 0em)er of "hearman = "terling Ilaw firm in :ew 7ork %ityJ 6+*/,-+B+*8 .homas .hacher 6"=B +*/+8 H %o-9ounder and 0em)er of "impson, .hacher = Bartlett Ilaw firm in :ew 7ork %ityJ 6+*/@-+B+B8 William 0. E2arts 6"=B +*,/8 H President of the :ew 7ork %ity Bar #ssociation 6+*/1-+*/B8 .homas #nthony .hacher 6"=B +*,@8 H 0em)er of the %onnecticut "tate Board of Education 6+*;@-+*//8 $oseph Bur)een Walker 6"=B +*--8 H 0em)er of the Board of Education of %oncord, :ew <ampshire 6+*@B-+*/18

Prominent "kull = Bones mem)ers during Reconstruction, from left to right> William B. Wash)urn, &aniel <. %ham)erlain, William 0a4well E2arts, 0orrison R. Waite, <enry %. &eming. William B. Wash)urn 2oted 7ea on the +,th, +-th, and +@th #mendments. <enry %. &eming 2oted 7ea on the +,th and +-th #mendments.
:ote> William 0. E2arts 6"=B +*,/8 was a &elegate to the %hicago :ational %on2ention in +*;1 which nominated #)raham Lincoln for President of the !.". <e was employed )y the !.". go2ernment during the %i2il War in many important legal cases, among them in the prosecution of $efferson &a2is. E2arts ser2ed as a "pecial &iplomatic En2oy under President Lincoln, 2isited Creat Britain and 9rance in a semi-official capacity, and pre2ented intended assistance to the Re)els 6%onfederacy8. E2arts was the leading counsel for President #ndrew $ohnson during the Fmpeachment .rial in +*;*. E2arts was the leading counsel of the Repu)lican Party )efore the !.". Electoral %ommission in +*//, whose decision placed Rutherford B. <ayes as President of the !.". William 0. E2arts was the grandson of %onstitution signer Roger "herman.

3nte ellum 3meri'an .ederal and #tate 4o2ernment 5""i'ials

9ederal Co2ernment ?fficials> William <enry Washington 6"=B +*,-8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig Party-:orth %arolina, +*-+-+*-,8 $ohn Wallace <ouston 6"=B +*,-8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig Party-&elaware, +*-@-+*@+8 #llen 9erdinand ?wen 6"=B +*,/8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig Party-Ceorgia, +*-B-+*@+8E %onsul in <a2ana, %u)a I"painJ 6+*@+8 $ohn Perkins $r. 6"=B +*-18 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocratic Party-Louisiana, +*@,-+*@@8 William .aylor "ulli2an Berry 6"=B +*-+8 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocratic Party-0ississippi, +*@,-+*@@8 ?rris "anford 9erry 6"=B +*--8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican Party-%onnecticut, +*@B-+*;+8 <enry Rootes $ackson 6"=B +*,B8 H !.". 0inister to the #ustrian Empire 6+*@--+*@*8 "tate Co2ernment ?fficials 6"outhern8> $ames :. Lea 6"=B +*,-8 H #ssociate $ustice of Louisiana "upreme %ourt 6+*@@-+*;,8 <ugh White "heffey 6"=B +*,@8 H 0em)er of the Ceneral #ssem)ly of the "tate of Airginia 6+*-;-+*@-8 #llen 9erdinand ?wen 6"=B +*,/8 H 0em)er of Ceorgia "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-,-+*-/8 %urtis 9ield Burnham 6"=B +*-18 H 0em)er of Lentucky <ouse of Representati2es 6+*@+, +*@B-+*;,8 William .aylor "ulli2an Berry 6"=B +*-+8 H 0em)er of 0ississippi "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-B-+*@+, +*@@8 $ohn <enry 9elder 6"=B +*--8 H 0em)er of "outh %arolina "tate Legislature 6+*@(-+*;+8 Richard .aylor 6"=B +*-@8 H Louisiana "tate "enator 6+*@;-+*;+8 .homas 0cLinney $ack 6"=B +*@,8 H 0em)er of .e4as "tate Legislature 6+*@B8 "tate Co2ernment ?fficials 6:orthern8> $ohn Wallace <ouston 6"=B +*,-8 H #ssociate $ustice of the "uperior %ourt of &elaware 6+*@@-+*B,8 <enry %. &eming 6"=B +*,;8 H 0em)er of %onnecticut "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-B-+*@1, +*@B-+*;+8 .homas 0arshall Ley 6"=B +*,*8 H ?hio "tate "enator 6+*@*-+*;+8 Ben'amin .ucker Eames 6"=B +*-,8 H Rhode Fsland "tate "enator 6+*@--+*@/8E 0em)er of Rhode Fsland <ouse of Rep. 6+*@B-+*;18 William Barrett Wash)urn 6"=B +*--8 H 0em)er of 0assachusetts "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*@,-+*@@8 %onstantine %. Esty 6"=B +*-@8 H 0assachusetts "tate "enator 6+*@/-+*@*8 <enry B. <arrison 6"=B +*-;8 H %onnecticut "tate "enator 6+*@--+*@;8 #ugustus Brandegee 6"=B +*-B8 H 0em)er of %onnecticut "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*@--+*@/, +*@B-+*;+8

3meri'an #tate 4o2ernment 5""i'ials durin+ the 3meri'an $i2il 6ar

&wight 9oster 6"=B +*-*8 H #ttorney Ceneral of 0assachusetts 6+*;+-+*;-8 $ohn #ndrew Peters 6"=B +*-(8 H #ttorney Ceneral of 0aine 6+*;--+*;;8E 0aine "tate "enator 6+*;(-+*;,8 %hauncey 0. &epew 6"=B +*@;8 H "ecretary of "tate of :ew 7ork 6+*;--+*;@8E 0em)er of :ew 7ork "tate #ssem)ly 6+*;+-+*;,8 <enry %hampion &eming 6"=B +*,;8 H 0ayor of <artford, %onnecticut 6+*@--+*@*, +*;1-+*;(8 William 9rierson %ooper 6"=B +*,*8 H $ustice of .ennessee "upreme %ourt 6+*;+-+*;(, +*//-+**;8 $ohn Wallace <ouston 6"=B +*,-8 H #ssociate $ustice of the "uperior %ourt of &elaware 6+*@@-+*B,8 Leonard Eugene Wales 6"=B +*-@8 H $ustice of the "uperior %ourt of &elaware 6+*;--+**-8 #ndrew &. White 6"=B +*@,8 H :ew 7ork "tate "enator 6+*;-8 William <enry Cleason 6"=B +*@,8 H 0em)er of :ew 7ork "tate #ssem)ly 6+*;--+*;@8 %harles 0. .yler 6"=B +*@@8 H 0em)er of 0assachusetts <ouse of Representati2es 6+*;(8 Ben'amin .ucker Eames 6"=B +*-,8 H Rhode Fsland "tate "enator 6+*;,-+*;-8 #l2yn P. <yde 6"=B +*-@8 H 0em)er of %onnecticut "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*@-, +*@*, +*;,8 Ceorge Pratt 6"=B +*@/8 H 0em)er of %onnecticut <ouse of Representati2es 6+*;1, +*;--+*;@, +*;B8 $ohn Ball Bris)rin 6"=B +*-;8 H 0em)er of 0innesota "tate Legislature 6+*@*-+*;-8

7ast 7oliti'al 1e ellions: #hays 1e ellion and 6his/ey 1e ellion

3haysF /e,ellion was led ,y former Captain 6aniel 3hays, a $eteran of the /e$olutionary >ar' 6aniel 3hays and his men en%a%ed in a re,ellion to protest foreclosure of their homes and endless de,t' 3haysF /e,ellion lasted from Au%ust 1N8E to "arch 1N8N' @eor%e >ashin%ton opposed 3haysF /e,ellion and called for the esta,lishment of a more competent and effecti$e %o$ernment' As a result of the failed 3haysF /e,ellion, the 8oundin% 8athers met in Philadelphia from "ay 9 ;3eptem,er 1N, 1N8N to create a new %o$ernment and replaced the Articles of Confederation with the new Constitution' The +ritish creditors 2,ankers and usurers5 wanted access to American courts in an attempt to collect their de,ts, usually paid in %old or sil$er, a commodity that the former colonists rarely possessed'

.he 9ounding 9athers meet at Fndependence <all in Philadelphia on "eptem)er +/, +/*/ during the "igning of the %onstitution of the !nited "tates. Ben'amin 9ranklin is seated in the center. #le4ander <amilton was the author of many essays in the 9ederalist Papers that was instrumental in the ratification of the new %onstitution. 6Painting )y <oward %handler %hristy8

Ceorge Washington takes the inaugural oath of office at 9ederal <all ad'acent from Wall "treet in :ew 7ork %ity, :ew 7ork on #pril ,1, +/*B. .he 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates, #merica3s first central )ank, was promoted )y #le4ander <amilton, President Ceorge Washington3s "ecretary of the .reasury. .he 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates was chartered )y %ongress on 9e)ruary (@, +/B+. 6:ational #rchi2es8

!.". "ecretary of "tate .homas $efferson 6left8 and .reasury "ecretary #le4ander <amilton 6center8 confer with President Ceorge Washington in circa +/B1-+/B,. 6?il mural, +*/1-/,, )y %onstantino Brumidi, in the "enate Reception Room !.". %apitol, #rchitect of the %apitol8

%ontemporary artist Frwin "mith imagined the first meeting in :ew 7ork %ity of the !nited "tates "upreme %ourt in +/B1 and +/B+. 9rom left to right, William %ushing, %hief $ustice $ohn $ay, $ohn Blair, and $ames Wilson. .hey did not hear a case until +/B(.

# commercial treaty with Creat Britain, also known as $ay .reaty 6left8, was ratified )y the !.". "enate in Philadelphia in $une +/B@, despite angry protests )y many #mericans 6right8, most of whom were sympathetic to 9rance and the ongoing 9rench Re2olution.

President and %ommander-in-%hief Ceorge Washington re2iews the army in %arlisle, Pennsyl2ania on ?cto)er +1, +/B- as it departs to suppress the Whiskey Re)ellion in western Pennsyl2ania. &isgruntled farmers in western Pennsyl2ania re)elled against a federal e4cise ta4 imposed on whiskey. # total of +(,B@1 troops led )y Co2ernor of Airginia <enry Lighthorse <arry Lee, the father of %onfederate Cen. Ro)ert E. Lee, marched into western Pennsyl2ania to suppress the Whiskey Re)ellion. .he militias of Airginia, 0aryland, :ew $ersey, and Pennsyl2ania participated in the suppression of the Whiskey Re)ellion. .homas $efferson eliminated the ta4 on whiskey when he was the President of the !nited "tates. 6Painting> http>GGwww.gallon.comGproddetail.aspNprodOgl-pr-++@8

.he Airginia Resolution, pu)lished in &ecem)er +/B*, condemn the #lien and "edition #cts passed )y %ongress in $uly +/B*. President $ohn #dams waged a guerilla na2al war with 9rance from +/B* to +*11, commonly known as the Muasi War . #lthough the Airginia and Lentucky Resolutions promoted nullification, neither resolution promoted secession. .he Airginia Resolution supported a warm attachment to the !nion of the "tates .

Left painting> !.". Aice President #aron Burr $r. and former "ecretary of the .reasury #le4ander <amilton prepare for a duel on $uly ++, +*1-. .he duel was held near Weehawken, :ew $ersey, located across from 0anhattan Fsland 6:ew 7ork %ity8. #le4ander <amilton was mortally wounded and died the ne4t day. #aron Burr $r. was arrested and tried for treason in +*1/ )ut was acDuitted. 6Painting )y $. 0und8 Right painting> .he .reason .rial of #aron Burr $r. in +*1/. #aron Burr $r. was acDuitted )y !.". "upreme %ourt %hief $ustice $ohn 0arshall. President .homas $efferson ordered the arrest of Burr after Burr was in2ol2ed in a plot to con2ert most of Louisiana territory into a separate nation .

8an/ o" the 9nited #tates: 3 .austian 8ar+ain:

.he 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates in Philadelphia. .homas $efferson opposed the esta)lishment of the 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates while #le4ander <amilton was in fa2or of the new central )ank. Philadelphia was the capital of the !nited "tates of #merica from +/B1 to +*11E :ew 7ork %ity was the capital of the !nited "tates of #merica in +/*B.

3meri'an &ational 0e t "rom 1;<1 to 18==

January 1, 1NG1 ; HN ,:E3,:NE' 9 January 1, 1818 ; H103,:EE,E33'83 July 1, 18:3 ; H 39,N:9,G99'00 January 1, 1NG9 ; HNN,99N,G9:'EE January 1, 181G ; HG , 9G,E:8'98 July 1, 18:: ; H 93,:E1,E 9' 0 January 1, 1NG3 ; H80,3 8,E3:'0: January 1, 1890 ; HG1,01 , EE'1 July 1, 18: ; H 1 ,G9 ,303'01 January 1, 1NG: ; HN8,:9N,:0:'NN January 1, 1891 ; H8G,G8N,:9N'EE $uly +, +,EH A P +-,--*,O*O.QF January 1, 1NG ; H80,N:N, 8N'3G January 1, 1899 ; HG3, :E,ENE'G8 $uly +, +,EF A P ),,,OH,-)E.FF January 1, 1NGE ; H83,NE9,1N9'0N January 1, 1893 ; HG0,8N ,8NN'98 $uly +, +,E, A P EF,*EE,,HO.O) January 1, 1NGN ; H89,0E:,:NG'33 January 1, 189: ; HG0,9EG,NNN'NN $uly +, +,EQ A P H),*H+,,-,.HQ January 1, 1NG8 ; HNG,998, 9G'19 January 1, 189 ; H83,N88,:39'N1 July 1, 18 0 ; H E3,: 9,NN3' January 1, 1NGG ; HN8,:08,EEG'NN January 1, 189E ; H81,0 :,0 G'GG July 1, 18 1 ; H E8,30:,NGE'09 January 1, 1800 ; H89,GNE,9G:'3 January 1, 189N ; HN3,G8N,3 N'90 July 1, 18 9 ; H EE,1GG,3:1'N1 January 1, 1801 ; H83,038,0 0'80 January 1, 1898 ; HEN,:N ,0:3'8N July 1, 18 3 ; H G,803,11N'N0 January 1, 1809 ; H80,N19,E39'9 January 1, 189G ; H 8,:91,:13'EN July 1, 18 : ; H :9,9:9,999':9 January 1, 1803 ; HNN,0 :,E8E':0 January 1, 1830 ; H:8, E ,:0E' 0 July 1, 18 ; H 3 , 8E,G E' E January 1, 180: ; H8E,:9N,190'88 January 1, 1831 ; H3G,193,1G1'E8 July 1, 18 E ; H 31,GN9, 3N'G0 January 1, 180 ; H89,319,1 0' 0 January 1, 1839 ; H9:,399,93 '18 July 1, 18 N ; H 98,EGG,831'8 January 1, 180E ; HN ,N93,9N0'EE January 1, 1833 ; H N,001,EG8'83 July 1, 18 8 ; H ::,G11,881'03 January 1, 180N ; HEG,918,3G8'E: January 1, 183: ; H :,NE0,089'08 July 1, 18 G ; H 8,:GE,83N'88 January 1, 1808 ; HE ,1GE,31N'GN January 1, 183 ; H 33,N33'0 July 1, 18E0 ; H E:,8:9,98N'88 January 1, 180G ; H N,093,1G9'0G $anuary +, +,)H A P )F,-+).*$uly +, +,H+ A P Q*,-,*,,F).FO January 1, 1810 ; H 3,1N3,91N' 9 $anuary +, +,)F A P ))H,Q-F.,) $uly +, +,HO A P -OE,+FH,E+O.+) January 1, 1811 ; H:8,00 , 8N'NE $anuary +, +,), A P ),)*,,+OE.*F $uly +, +,H) A P+,++Q,FFO,+),.H) January 1, 1819 ; H: ,90G,N3N'G0 $anuary +, +,)Q A P+*,E)E,OO+.+E $uly +, +,HE A P+,,+-,F,E,)F*.-F $anuary +, +,+) A P--,QHO,,OF.-F $anuary +, +,E* A P ),-F),)E).,O $uly +, +,H- A PO,H,*,HEF,,HQ.FE $anuary +, +,+E A P,+,E,F,,EH.OE $anuary +, +,E+ A P -,O-*,,F-.-E July 1, 18EE ; H9,NN3,93E,1N3'EG $anuary +, +,+- A PQQ,,)),HH*.+$anuary +, +,EO A P+),-QE,E,*.F) $anuary +, +,+H A P+OF,))E,Q)).FE $anuary +, +,E) A PO*,O*+,OOH.OF January 1, 181N ; H193,:G1,GE '1E .oteC >ar of 1819 21819;181:5, 3eminole >ar 2183 ;18:95, "e)ican >ar 218:E;18:85, American Ci$il >ar 218E1;18E 5 3ourceC httpCOOwww'treasurydirect'%o$O%o$tOreportsOpdOhistde,tOhistde,tPhisto3'htm

The >sta lishment o" the (.irst) 8an/ o" the 9nited #tates

4'3' 3ecretary of 3tate Thomas Jefferson 2left5 and Treasury 3ecretary Ale)ander Hamilton 2center5 confer with President @eor%e >ashin%ton in Philadelphia circa 1NG0;1NG3' 2<il mural, 18N0;N3, ,y Constantino +rumidi, in the 3enate /eception /oom 4'3' Capitol, Architect of the Capitol5 The 4'3' 3enate $oted in fa$or of esta,lishin% the 8irst +ank of the 4nited 3tates on January 90, 1NG1' The 4'3' House of /epresentati$es $oted to esta,lish the 8irst +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,y a $ote of 3G to 90 2with E politicians a,sent5 on 8e,ruary 8, 1NG1' @eor%e >ashin%ton re(uested that Thomas Jefferson and Ale)ander Hamilton su,mit their opinions on the +ank of the 4nited 3tates in 8e,ruary 1NG1L after re$iewin% their opinions, President >ashin%ton a%reed with HamiltonFs opinion on the +ank of the 4nited 3tates and si%ned the +ank ,ill into law on 8e,ruary 9 , 1NG1'

?eas and &ays in the 9,#, @ouse o" 1epresentati2es on .e ruary 8, 1;<1

El)ridge .. Cerry B.#. <ar2ard +/;( !.". %ongressman 6#nti-#dministration0ass., +/*B-+/B,8 ?ea

Roger "herman !.". %ongressman 6Pro-#dministration%onnecticut, +/*B-+/B+8 ?ea

$onathan .rum)ull $r. B.#. <ar2ard +/@B !.". %ongressman 69ederalist-%onnecticut, +/*B-+/B@8 ?ea

#)raham Baldwin B.#. 7ale +//( !.". %ongressman 6&emocratic Repu)licanCeorgia, +/*B-+/BB8 &ay

$ames 0adison #.B. Princeton +//+ !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican-Airginia, +/*B-+/B/8 &ay

?eas and &ays in the 9,#, #enate on January *0, 1;<1

.ristram &alton B.#. <ar2ard +/@@ !.". "enator 6Pro-#dministration0assachusetts, +/*B+/B+8 ?ea

%ale) "trong B.#. <ar2ard +/;!.". "enator 6Pro-#dministration0assachusetts, +/*B+/B;8 ?ea

Paine Wingate B.#. <ar2ard +/@B !.". "enator 6#nti-#dministration, :ew <ampshire, +/*B-+/B,8 ?ea

Rufus Ling B.#. <ar2ard +/// !.". "enator 69ederalist:ew 7ork, +/*B-+/B;E +*+,-+*(@8E !.". 0inister to Creat Britain 6+/B;+*1,, +*(@-+*(;8 ?ea

William "amuel $ohnson B.#. 7ale +/-!.". "enator 69ederalist-%onnecticut, +/*B-+/B+8E President of %olum)ia !ni2ersity 6+/*/-+*118 ?ea

?li2er Ellsworth #.B. Princeton +/;; !.". "enator 69ederalist%onnecticut, +/*B-+/B;8 ?ea

.heodore 9oster #.B. Brown +//1 !.". "enator 69ederalist-Rhode Fsland, +/B1-+*1,8 ?ea

Ro)ert 0orris !.". "enator 6Pro-#dministrationPennsyl2ania, +/*B-+/B@8 ?ea

$ames 0onroe !.". "enator 6#nti-#dministrationAirginia, +/B1-+/B-8 &ay

William 9ew !.". "enator 6#nti-#dministration Ceorgia, +/*B-+/B,8 &ay

.oteC /o,ert "orris was the national superintendent of finance 21N81;1N8:5 and was in$ol$ed in the esta,lishment of the +ank of .orth America, a pri$ate ,ank in Philadelphia' /o,ert "orris, informally known as the !financier of the American /e$olution0, was one of the richest men in America' /o,ert "orris was imprisoned for de,t from 1NG8 to 1801 due to his in$ol$ement in unsuccessful land speculations' .oteC >illiam 8ew mo$ed to .ew *ork City in 1NGG and ser$ed as a "em,er of the .ew *ork 3tate Assem,ly 21809;180 5, .ew *ork 3tate prison inspector 21809;18105, 4nited 3tates Commissioner of Aoans 2180:5, director of the "anhattan +ank 2180:;181:5, President of the "anhattan +ank 2181:5, and Alderman of .ew *ork City 21813;181:5' >illiam 8ew ser$ed as a "em,er of the Continental Con%ress 21N80;1N89, 1N8E;1N885'

James "adison, The +ank +ill, House of /epresentati$es

2 Feb. 1791 Papers 13:376--78

The third clause is that which %i$es the power to pass all laws necessary and proper to e)ecute the specified powers' >hate$er meanin% this clause may ha$e, none can ,e admitted, that would %i$e an unlimited discretion to Con%ress' #ts meanin% must, accordin% to the natural and o,$ious force of the terms and the conte)t, ,e limited to means necessary to the end, and incident to the nature of the specified powers' The clause is in fact merely declaratory of what would ha$e resulted ,y una$oida,le implication, as the appropriate, and as it were, technical means of e)ecutin% those powers' #n this sense it had ,een e)plained ,y the friends of the constitution, and ratified ,y the state con$entions' The essential characteristic of the %o$ernment, as composed of limited and enumerated powers, would ,e destroyedC #f instead of direct and incidental means, any means could ,e used, which in the lan%ua%e of the pream,le to the ,ill, Kmi%ht ,e concei$ed to ,e conduci$e to the successful conductin% of the financesL or mi%ht ,e concei(ed to tend to %i$e faci ity to the o,tainin% of loans'K He ur%ed an attention to the diffuse and ductile terms which had ,een found re(uisite to co$er the stretch of power contained in the ,ill' He compared them with the terms necessary and &ro&er, used in the Constitution, and asked whether it was possi,le to $iew the two descriptions as synonimous, or the one as a fair and safe commentary on the other' #f, proceeded he, Con%ress, ,y $irtue of the power to ,orrow, can create the means of lendin%, and in pursuance of these means, can incorporate a +ank, they may do any thin% whate$er creati$e of like means' The 7ast;#ndia company has ,een a lender to the +ritish %o$ernment, as well as the +ank, and the 3outh;3ea company is a %reater creditor than either' Con%ress then may incorporate similar companies in the 4nited 3tates, and that too not under the idea of re%ulatin% trade, ,ut under that of ,orrowin% money' Pri$ate capitals are the chief resources for loans to the +ritish %o$ernment' >hate$er then may ,e concei$ed to fa$or the accumulation of capitals may ,e done ,y Con%ress' They may incorporate manufacturers' They may %i$e monopolies in e$ery ,ranch of domestic industry' #f, a%ain, Con%ress ,y $irtue of the power to ,orrow money, can create the a,ility to lend, they may ,y $irtue of the power to le$y money, create the a,ility to pay it' The a,ility to pay ta)es depends on the %eneral wealth of the society, and this, on the %eneral prosperity of a%riculture, manufactures and commerce' Con%ress then may %i$e ,ounties and make re%ulations on all of these o,-ects' The 3tates ha$e, it is allowed on all hands, a concurrent ri%ht to lay and collect ta)es' This power is secured to them not ,y its ,ein% e)pressly reser$ed, ,ut ,y its not ,ein% ceded ,y the constitution' The reasons for the ,ill cannot ,e admitted, ,ecause they would in$alidate that ri%htL why may it not ,e concei(ed ,y Con%ress, that an uniform and e)clusi$e imposition of ta)es, would not less than the proposed +anks K,e conduci(e to the successful conductin% of the national finances, and tend to $i(e faci ity to the o,tainin% of re$enue, for the use of the %o$ernmentMK The doctrine of implication is always a tender one' The dan%er of it has ,een felt in other %o$ernments' The delicacy was felt in the adoption of our ownL the dan%er may also ,e felt, if we do not keep close to our chartered authorities' "ark the reasonin% on which the $alidity of the ,ill depends' To ,orrow money is made the end and the accumulation of capitals, im& ied as the means' The accumulation of capitals is then the end, and a ,ank im& ied as the means' The ,ank is then the end, and a charter of incorporation, a monopoly, capital punishments, &c' im& ied as the means' #f implications, thus remote and thus multiplied, can ,e linked to%ether, a chain may ,e formed that will reach e$ery o,-ect of le%islation, e$ery o,-ect within the whole compass of political economy' The latitude of interpretation re(uired ,y the ,ill is condemned ,y the rule furnished ,y the constitution itself' Con%ress ha$e power Kto re%ulate the $alue of moneyKL yet it is e)pressly added not left to ,e implied, that counterfeitors may ,e punished'

They ha$e the power Kto declare war,K to which armies are more incident, than incorporated +anks, to ,orrowin%L yet is e)pressly added, the power Kto raise and support armiesKL and to this a%ain, the e)press power Kto make rules and re%ulations for the %o$ernment of armiesKL a like remark is applica,le to the powers as to a na$y' The re%ulation and callin% out of the militia are more appurtenant to war, than the proposed ,ank, to ,orrowin%L yet the former is not left to construction' The $ery power to ,orrow money is a less remote implication from the power of war, than an incorporated monopoly ,ank, from the power of ,orrowin%;;yet the power to ,orrow is not left to implication' #t is not pretended that e$ery insertion or omission in the constitution is the effect of systematic attention' This is not the character of any human work, particularly the work of a ,ody of men' The e)amples cited, with others that mi%ht ,e added, sufficiently inculcate ne$ertheless a rule of interpretation, $ery different from that on which the ,ill rests' They condemn the e)ercise of any power, particularly a %reat and important power, which is not e$idently and necessarily in$ol$ed in an e)press power' #t cannot ,e denied that the power proposed to ,e e)ercised is an important power' As a charter of incorporation the ,ill creates an artificial person pre$iously not e)istin% in law' #t confers important ci$il ri%hts and attri,utes, which could not otherwise ,e claimed' #t is, thou%h not precisely similar, at least e(ui$alent, to the naturali=ation of an alien, ,y which certain new ci$il characters are ac(uired ,y him' >ould Con%ress ha$e had the power to naturali=e, if it had not ,een e)pressly %i$enM #n the power to make ,ye laws, the ,ill dele%ated a sort of le%islati$e power, which is un(uestiona,ly an act of a hi%h and important nature' He took notice of the only restraint on the ,ye laws, that they were not to ,e contrary to the law and the constitution of the ,ankL and asked what law was intendedL if the law of the 4nited 3tates, the scantiness of their code would %i$e a power, ne$er ,efore %i$en to a corporation;;and o,no)ious to the 3tates, whose laws would then ,e superceded not only ,y the laws of Con%ress, ,ut ,y the ,ye laws of a corporation within their own -urisdiction' #f the law intended, was the law of the 3tate, then the 3tate mi%ht make laws that would destroy an institution of the 4nited 3tates' The ,ill %i$es a power to purchase and hold landsL Con%ress themsel$es could not purchase lands within a 3tate Kwithout the consent of its le%islature'K How could they dele%ate a power to others which they did not possess themsel$esM #t takes from our successors, who ha$e e(ual ri%hts with oursel$es, and with the aid of e)perience will ,e more capa,le of decidin% on the su,-ect, an opportunity of e)ercisin% that ri%ht, for an immoderate term' #t takes from our constituents the opportunity of deli,eratin% on the untried measure, althou%h their hands are also to ,e tied ,y it for the same term' #t in$ol$es a monopoly, which affects the e(ual ri%hts of e$ery citi=en' #t leads to a penal re%ulation, perhaps capital punishments, one of the most solemn acts of so$erei%n authority' 8rom this $iew of the power of incorporation e)ercised in the ,ill, it could ne$er ,e deemed an accessary or su,altern power, to ,e deduced ,y implication, as a means of e)ecutin% another powerL it was in its nature a distinct, an independent and su,stanti$e prero%ati$e, which not ,ein% enumerated in the constitution could ne$er ha$e ,een meant to ,e included in it, and not ,ein% included could ne$er ,e ri%htfully e)ercised' He here ad$erted to a distinction, which he said had not ,een sufficiently kept in $iew, ,etween a power necessary and proper for the %o$ernment or union, and a power necessary and proper for e)ecutin% the enumerated powers' #n the latter case, the powers included in each of the enumerated powers were not e)pressed, ,ut to ,e drawn from the nature of each' #n the former, the powers composin% the %o$ernment were e)pressly enumerated' This constituted the peculiar nature of the %o$ernment, no power therefore not enumerated, could ,e inferred from the %eneral nature of %o$ernment' Had the power of makin% treaties, for e)ample, ,een omitted, howe$er necessary it mi%ht ha$e ,een, the defect could only ha$e ,een lamented, or supplied ,y an amendment of the constitution'

+ut the proposed ,ank could not e$en ,e called necessary to the %o$ernmentL at most it could ,e ,ut con$enient' #ts uses to the %o$ernment could ,e supplied ,y keepin% the ta)es a little in ad$ance;;,y loans from indi$iduals;;,y the other ,anks, o$er which the %o$ernment would ha$e e(ual commandL nay %reater, as it may %rant or refuse to these the pri$ile%e, made a free and irre$oca,le %ift to the proposed ,ank, of usin% their notes in the federal re$enue' The Founders' Constitution ?olume 3, Article 1, 3ection 8, Clause 18, 6ocument G httpCOOpress;pu,s'uchica%o'eduOfoundersOdocumentsOa1P8P18sG'html The 4ni$ersity of Chica%o Press The ,a&ers of James *adison' 7dited ,y >illiam T' Hutchinson et al' Chica%o and AondonC 4ni$ersity of Chica%o Press, 1GE9;;NN 2$ols' 1;;105L Charlottes$illeC 4ni$ersity Press of ?ir%inia, 1GNN;;2$ols' 11;;5' 3ourceC httpCOOpress;pu,s'uchica%o'eduOfoundersOdocumentsOa1P8P18sG'html

5#0m =ust a "atsyL6: Aaron +urr, the ?ice President of the 4nited 3tates, assassinates Ale)ander Hamilton, former 3ecretary of the Treasury, in a duel at >eehawken, .ew Jersey on July 11, 180:' Ale)ander Hamilton died in .ew *ork City on July 19, 180:'

Thomas $e((erson, 8"inion on the Constitutionality o( the &ill (or 4sta lishing a 3ational &ank
15 Feb. 1791 Papers 19:275--80 The ,ill for esta,lishin% a .ational +ank undertakes, amon% other thin%s 1' to form the su,scri,ers into a Corporation' 9' to ena,le them, in their corporate capacities to recei$e %rants of landL and so far is a%ainst the laws of *ortmain'1 3' to make a ien su,scri,ers capa,le of holdin% lands, and so far is a%ainst the laws of A iena$e' :' to transmit these lands, on the death of a proprietor, to a certain line of successorsC and so far chan%es the course of Descents' ' to put the lands out of the reach of forfeiture or escheat and so far is a%ainst the laws of 0orfeiture and 1scheat' E' to transmit personal chattels to successors in a certain lineC and so far is a%ainst the laws of Distri"ution' N' to %i$e them the sole and e)clusi$e ri%ht of ,ankin% under the national authorityC and so far is a%ainst the laws of *ono&o y' 8' to communicate to them a power to make laws paramount to the laws of the statesC for so they must ,e construed, to protect the institution from the controul of the state le%islaturesL and so, pro,a,ly they will ,e construed' # consider the foundation of the Constitution as laid on this %round that Kall powers not dele%ated to the 4'3' ,y the Constitution, not prohi,ited ,y it to the states, are reser$ed to the states or to the peopleK ID##th' Amendmt'J' To take a sin%le step ,eyond the ,oundaries thus specially drawn around the powers of Con%ress, is to take possession of a ,oundless feild of power, no lon%er suscepti,le of any definition' The incorporation of a ,ank, and other powers assumed ,y this ,ill ha$e not, in my opinion, ,een dele%ated to the 4'3' ,y the Constitution' #' They are not amon% the powers specially enumerated, for these are 1' A power to ay ta'es for the purpose of payin% the de,ts of the 4'3' +ut no de,t is paid ,y this ,ill, nor any ta) laid' >ere it a ,ill to raise money, itBs ori%ination in the 3enate would condemn it ,y the constitution' 9' Kto ,orrow money'K +ut this ,ill neither ,orrows money, nor ensures the ,orrowin% it' The proprietors of the ,ank will ,e -ust as free as any other money holders, to lend or not to lend their money to the pu,lic' The operation proposed in the ,ill, first to lend them two millions, and then ,orrow them ,ack a%ain, cannot chan%e the nature of the latter act, which will still ,e a payment, and not a loan, call it ,y what name you please' 3' Kto re%ulate commerce with forei%n nations, and amon% the states, and with the #ndian tri,es'K To erect a ,ank, and to re%ulate commerce, are $ery different acts' He who erects a ,ank creates a su,-ect of commerce in itBs ,illsC so does he who makes a ,ushel of wheat, or di%s a dollar out of the mines' *et neither of these persons re%ulates commerce there,y' To erect a thin% which may ,e ,ou%ht and sold, is not to prescri,e re%ulations for ,uyin% and sellin%' +esidesL if this was an e)ercise of the power of re%ulatin% commerce, it would ,e $oid, as e)tendin% as much to the internal commerce of e$ery state, as to itBs e)ternal' 8or the power %i$en to Con%ress ,y the Constitution, does not e)tend to the internal re%ulation of the commerce of a state 2that is to say of the commerce ,etween citi=en and citi=en5 which remains e)clusi$ely with itBs own le%islatureL ,ut to itBs e)ternal commerce only, that is to say, itBs commerce with another state, or with forei%n nations or with the #ndian tri,es' Accordin%ly the ,ill does not propose the measure as a Kre%ulation of trade,K ,ut as Kproducti$e of considera,le ad$anta%e to trade'K 3till less are these powers co$ered ,y any other of the special enumerations' ##' .or are they within either of the %eneral phrases, which are the two followin%' 1' KTo lay ta)es to pro$ide for the %eneral welfare of the 4'3'K that is to say Kto lay ta)es for the &ur&ose of pro$idin% for the %eneral welfare'K 8or the layin% of ta)es is the &ower and the %eneral welfare the &ur&ose for which the power is to ,e e)ercised'

They are not to lay ta)es ad li,itum for any &ur&ose they & ease2 ,ut only to &ay the de"ts or &ro(ide for the we fare of the #nion' #n like manner they are not to do anythin$ they & ease to pro$ide for the %eneral welfare, ,ut only to ay ta'es for that purpose' To consider the latter phrase, not as descri,in% the purpose of the first, ,ut as %i$in% a distinct and independent power to do any act they please, which mi%ht ,e for the %ood of the 4nion, would render all the precedin% and su,se(uent enumerations of power completely useless' #t would reduce the whole instrument to a sin%le phrase, that of institutin% a Con%ress with power to do whate$er would ,e for the %ood of the 4'3' and as they would ,e the sole -ud%es of the %ood or e$il, it would ,e also a power to do whate$er e$il they pleased' #t is an esta,lished rule of construction, where a phrase will ,ear either of two meanin%s, to %i$e it that which will allow some meanin% to the other parts of the instrument, and not that which would render all the others useless' Certainly no such uni$ersal power was meant to ,e %i$en them' #t was intended to lace them up straitly within the enumerated powers, and those without which, as means, these powers could not ,e ,e carried into effect' #t is known that the $ery power now proposed as a means, was re-ected as an end, ,y the Con$ention which formed the constitution' A proposition was made to them to authori=e Con%ress to open canals, and an amendatory one to empower them to incorporate' +ut the whole was re-ected, and one of the reasons of re-ection ur%ed in de,ate was that then they would ha$e a power to erect a ,ank, which would render the %reat cities, where there were pre-udices and -ealousies on that su,-ect ad$erse to the reception of the constitution' 9' The second %eneral phrase is Kto make all laws necessary and proper for carryin% into e)ecution the enumerated powers'K +ut they can all ,e carried into e)ecution without a ,ank' A ,ank therefore is not necessary, and conse(uently not authorised ,y this phrase' #t has ,een much ur%ed that a ,ank will %i$e %reat facility, or con$enience in the collection of ta)es' 3uppose this were trueC yet the constitution allows only the means which are KnecessaryK not those which are merely Kcon$enientK for effectin% the enumerated powers' #f such a latitude of construction ,e allowed to this phrase as to %i$e any non;enumerated power, it will %o to e$ery one, for IthereJ is no one which in%enuity may not torture into a con(enience, in some way or other, to some one of so lon% a list of enumerated powers' #t would swallow up all the dele%ated powers, and reduce the whole to one phrase as ,efore o,ser$ed' Therefore it was that the constitution restrained them to the necessary means, that is to say, to those means without which the %rant of the power would ,e nu%atory' +ut let us e)amine this con(enience, and see what it is' The report on this su,-ect, pa%e 3' states the only $enera con$enience to ,e the pre$entin% the transportation and re;transportation of money ,etween the states and the treasury' 28or # pass o$er the increase of circulatin% medium ascri,ed to it as a merit, and which, accordin% to my ideas of paper money is clearly a demerit'5 7$ery state will ha$e to pay a sum of ta);money into the treasuryC and the treasury will ha$e to pay, in e$ery state, a part of the interest on the pu,lic de,t, and salaries to the officers of %o$ernment resident in that state' #n most of the states there will still ,e a surplus of ta);money to come up to the seat of %o$ernment for the officers residin% there' The payments of interest and salary in each state may ,e made ,y treasury;orders on the state collector' This will take up the %reater part of the money he has collected in his state, and conse(uently pre$ent the %reat mass of it from ,ein% drawn out of the state' #f there ,e a ,alance of commerce in fa$our of that state a%ainst the one in which the %o$ernment resides, the surplus of ta)es will ,e remitted ,y the ,ills of e)chan%e drawn for that commercial ,alance' And so it must ,e if there was a ,ank' +ut if there ,e no ,alance of commerce, either direct or circuitous, all the ,anks in the world could not ,rin% up the surplus of ta)es ,ut in the form of money' Treasury orders then and ,ills of e)chan%e may pre$ent the displacement of the main mass of the money collected, without the aid of any ,ankC and where these fail, it cannot ,e pre$ented e$en with that aid' Perhaps indeed ,ank ,ills may ,e a more con(enient $ehicle than treasury orders' +ut a little difference in the de%ree of con(enience, cannot constitute the necessity which the constitution makes the %round for assumin% any non;enumerated power' +esidesL the e)istin% ,anks will without a dou,t, enter into arran%ements for lendin% their a%encyC and the more fa$oura,le, as there will ,e a competition amon% them for itC whereas the ,ill deli$ers us up ,ound to the national ,ank, who are free to refuse all arran%ement, ,ut on their own terms, and the pu,lic not free, on such refusal, to employ any other ,ank' That of Philadelphia, # ,elie$e, now does this ,usiness, ,y their post;notes, which ,y an arran%ement with the treasury, are paid ,y any state collector to whom they are presented' This e)pedient alone suffices to pre$ent the e)istence of that necessity which may -ustify the assumption of a non;enumerated power as a means for carryin% into effect an enumerated one' The thin% may ,e done, and has ,een done, and well done without this assumptionL therefore it does not stand on that de%ree of necessity which can honestly -ustify it' #t may ,e said that a ,ank, whose ,ills would ha$e a currency all o$er the states, would ,e more con$enient than one whose currency is limited to a sin%le state' 3o it would ,e still more con$enient that there should ,e a ,ank whose ,ills should ha$e a currency all o$er the world' +ut it does not follow from this superior con$eniency that there e)ists anywhere a power to esta,lish such a ,ankL or that the world may not %o on $ery well without it'

Can it ,e thou%ht that the Constitution intended that for a shade or two of con(enience, more or less, Con%ress should ,e authorised to ,reak down the most antient and fundamental laws of the se$eral states, such as those a%ainst "ortmain, the laws of aliena%e, the rules of descent, the acts of distri,ution, the laws of escheat and forfeiture, the laws of monopolyM .othin% ,ut a necessity in$inci,le ,y any other means, can -ustify such a prostration of laws which constitute the pillars of our whole system of -urisprudence' >ill Con%ress ,e too strait;laced to carry the constitution into honest effect, unless they may pass o$er the foundation;laws of the state;%o$ernments for the sli%htest con$enience to theirsM The .e%ati$e of the President is the shield pro$ided ,y the constitution to protect a%ainst the in$asions of the le%islature 1' the ri%hts of the 7)ecuti$e 9' of the Judiciary 3' of the states and state le%islatures' The present is the case of a ri%ht remainin% e)clusi$ely with the states and is conse(uently one of those intended ,y the constitution to ,e placed under his protection' #t must ,e added howe$er, that unless the PresidentBs mind on a $iew of e$ery thin% which is ur%ed for and a%ainst this ,ill, is tolera,ly clear that it is unauthorised ,y the constitution, if the pro and the con han% so e$en as to ,alance his -ud%ment, a -ust respect for the wisdom of the le%islature would naturally decide the ,alance in fa$our of their opinion' #t is chiefly for cases where they are clearly misled ,y error, am,ition, or interest, that the constitution has placed a check in the ne%ati$e of the President' 1' Thou%h the constitution controuls the laws of "ortmain so far as to permit Con%ress itself to hold lands for certain purposes, yet not so far as to permit them to communicate a similar ri%ht to other corporate ,odies' The Founders' Constitution ?olume 3, Article 1, 3ection 8, Clause 18, 6ocument 10 httpCOOpress;pu,s'uchica%o'eduOfoundersOdocumentsOa1P8P18s10'html The 4ni$ersity of Chica%o Press The ,a&ers of Thomas Jefferson' 7dited ,y Julian P' +oyd et al' PrincetonC Princeton 4ni$ersity Press, 1G 0;;' 3ourceC httpCOOpress;pu,s'uchica%o'eduOfoundersOdocumentsOa1P8P18s10'html

1le2ander 'amilton, 8"inion on the Constitutionality o( the &ank

23 Feb. 1791 Papers 8:97--106 The 3ecretary of the Treasury ha$in% perused with attention the papers containin% the opinions of the 3ecretary of 3tate and Attorney @eneral concernin% the constitutionality of the ,ill for esta,lishin% a .ational +ank proceeds accordin% to the order of the President to su,mit the reasons which ha$e induced him to entertain a different opinion' #t will naturally ha$e ,een anticipated that, in performin% this task he would feel uncommon solicitude' Personal considerations alone arisin% from the reflection that the measure ori%inated with him would ,e sufficient to produce it' The sense which he has manifested of the %reat importance of such an institution to the successful administration of the department under his particular care, and an e)pectation of serious ill conse(uences to result from a failure of the measure, do not permit him to ,e without an)iety on pu,lic accounts' +ut the chief solicitude arises from a firm persuasion, that principles of construction like those espoused ,y the 3ecretary of 3tate and the Attorney @eneral would ,e fatal to the -ust and indispensa,le authority of the 4nited 3tates' #n enterin% upon the ar%ument it ou%ht to ,e premised, that the o,-ections of the 3ecretary of 3tate and Attorney @eneral are founded on a %eneral denial of the authority of the 4nited 3tates to erect corporations' The latter indeed e)pressly admits, that if there ,e anythin% in the ,ill which is not warranted ,y the constitution, it is the clause of incorporation' .ow it appears to the 3ecretary of the Treasury, that this $enera &rinci& e is inherent in the $ery definition of !o(ernment and essentia to e$ery step of the pro%ress to ,e made ,y that of the 4nited 3tates, namely;;that e$ery power $ested in a @o$ernment is in its nature so(erei$n, and includes ,y force of the term, a ri%ht to employ all the means re(uisite, and fairly a&& ica" e to the attainment of the ends of such powerL and which are not precluded ,y restrictions and e)ceptions specified in the constitution, or not immoral, or not contrary to the essential ends of political society' This principle in its application to @o$ernment in %eneral would ,e admitted as an a)iom' And it will ,e incum,ent upon those, who may incline to deny it, to &ro(e a distinction and to shew that a rule which in the %eneral system of thin%s is essential to the preser$ation of the social order, is inapplica,le to the 4nited 3tates' The circumstances that the powers of so$erei%nty are in this country di$ided ,etween the .ational and 3tate @o$ernments, does not afford the distinction re(uired' #t does not follow from this, that each of the &ortions of powers dele%ated to the one or to the other is not so$erei%n with re$ard to its &ro&er o"/ects' #t will only fo ow from it, that each has so$erei%n power as to certain thin$s, and not as to other thin$s' To deny that the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates has so$erei%n power as to its declared purposes and trusts, ,ecause its power does not e)tend to all cases, would ,e e(ually to deny, that the 3tate @o$ernments ha$e so$erei%n power in any caseL ,ecause their power does not e)tend to e$ery case' The tenth section of the first article of the constitution e)hi,its a lon% list of $ery important thin%s which they may not do' And thus the 4nited 3tates would furnish the sin%ular spectacle of a &o itica society without so(erei$nty, or of a people $o(erned without $o(ernment' #f it would ,e necessary to ,rin% proof to a proposition so clear as that which affirms that the powers of the federal @o$ernment, as to its o"/ects, are so$erei%n, there is a clause of its constitution which would ,e decisi$e' #t is that which declares, that the constitution and the laws of the 4nited 3tates made in pursuance of it, and all treaties made or which shall ,e made under their authority shall ,e the supreme law of the land' The power which can create the 3u&reme aw of the land, in any case, is dou,tless so$erei%n as to such case' This %eneral and indisputa,le principle puts at once an end to the a"stract (uestion' >hether the 4nited 3tates ha$e power to erect a cor&oration4 that is to say, to %i$e a e$a or artificia ca&acity to one or more persons, distinct from the natural' 8or it is un(uestiona,ly incident to so(erei$n &ower to erect corporations, and conse(uently to that of the 4nited 3tates, in re ation to the o"/ects intrusted to the mana%ement of the %o$ernment' The difference is this;;where the authority of the %o$ernment is %eneral, it can create corporations in a cases2 where it is confined to certain ,ranches of le%islation, it can create corporations only in those cases' Here then as far as concerns the reasonin%s of the 3ecretary of 3tate and the Attorney @eneral, the affirmati$e of the constitutionality of the ,ill mi%ht ,e permitted to rest' #t will occur to the President that the principle here ad$anced has ,een untouched ,y either of them' 8or a more complete elucidation of the point ne$ertheless, the ar%uments which they had used a%ainst the power of the %o$ernment to erect corporations, howe$er forei%n they are to the %reat and fundamental rule which has ,een stated, shall ,e

particularly e)amined' And after shewin% that they do not tend to impair its force, it shall also ,e shewn that the power of incorporation incident to the %o$ernment in certain cases, does fairly e)tend to the particular case which is the o,-ect of the ,ill' The first of these ar%uments is, that the foundation of the constitution is laid on this %round Kthat all powers not dele%ated to the 4nited 3tates ,y the Constitution, nor prohi,ited ,y it to the 3tates are reser$ed to the 3tates or to the people,K whence it is meant to ,e inferred, that con%ress can in no case e)ercise any power not included in those enumerated in the constitution' And it is affirmed that the power of erectin% a corporation is not included in any of the enumerated powers' The main proposition here laid down, in its true si%nification is not to ,e (uestioned' #t is nothin% more than a conse(uence of this repu,lican ma)im, that all %o$ernment is a dele%ation of power' +ut how much is dele%ated in each case, is a (uestion of fact to ,e made out ,y fair reasonin% and construction, upon the particular pro$isions of the constitution;;takin% as %uides the %eneral principles and %eneral ends of %o$ernment' #t is not denied, that there are im& ied, as well as e'&ress &owers, and that the former are as effectually dele%ated as the latter' And for the sake of accuracy it shall ,e mentioned, that there is another class of powers, which may ,e properly denominated resu tin$ powers' #t will not ,e dou,ted that if the 4nited 3tates should make a con(uest of any of the territories of its nei%h,ours, they would possess so$erei%n -urisdiction o$er the con(uered territory' This would rather ,e a result from the whole mass of the powers of the %o$ernment and from the nature of political society, than a conse(uence of either of the powers specially enumerated' +ut ,e this as it may, it furnishes a strikin% illustration of the %eneral doctrine contended for' #t shows an e)tensi$e case, in which a power of erectin% corporations is either implied in, or would result from some or all of the powers, $ested in the .ational @o$ernment' The -urisdiction ac(uired o$er such con(uered territory would certainly ,e competent to e$ery species of le%islation' To return;;#t is conceded, that implied powers are to ,e considered as dele%ated e(ually with e)press ones' Then it follows, that as a power of erectin% a corporation may as well ,e im& ied as any other thin%L it may as well ,e employed as an instrument or means of carryin% into e)ecution any of the specified powers, as any other instrument or mean whate$er' The only (uestion must ,e, in this as in e$ery other case, whether the mean to ,e employed, or in this instance the corporation to ,e erected, has a natural relation to any of the acknowled%ed o,-ects or lawful ends of the %o$ernment' Thus a corporation may not ,e erected ,y con%ress, for superintendin% the police of the city of Philadelphia ,ecause they are not authori=ed to re$u ate the &o ice of that cityL ,ut one may ,e erected in relation to the collection of ta)es, or to the trade with forei%n countries, or to the trade ,etween the 3tates, or with the #ndian Tri,es, ,ecause it is the pro$ince of the federal %o$ernment to re$u ate those o"/ects and ,ecause it is incident to a %eneral so(erei$n or e$is ati(e &ower to re$u ate a thin%, to employ all the means which relate to its re%ulation to the "est and $reatest ad(anta$e' A stran%e fallacy seems to ha$e crept into the manner of thinkin% and reasonin% upon this su,-ect' #ma%ination appears to ha$e ,een unusually ,usy concernin% it' An incorporation seems to ha$e ,een re%arded as some %reat, independent, su,stanti$e thin%;;as a political end of peculiar ma%nitude and momentL whereas it is truly to ,e considered as a 5ua ity, ca&acity, or means to an end' Thus a mercantile company is formed with a certain capital for the purpose of carryin% on a particular ,ranch of ,usiness' Here the ,usiness to ,e prosecuted is the end2 the association in order to form the re(uisite capital is the primary mean' 3uppose than an incorporation were added to thisL it would only ,e to add a new 5ua ity to that associationL to %i$e it an artificial capacity ,y which it would ,e ena,led to prosecute the ,usiness with more safety and con$enience' That the importance of the power of incorporation has ,een e)a%%erated, leadin% to erroneous conclusions, will further appear from tracin% it to its ori%in' The roman law is the source of it, accordin% to which a (o untary association of indi$iduals at any time or for any &ur&ose was capa,le of producin% it' #n 7n%land, whence our notions of it are immediately ,orrowed, it forms a part of the e)ecuti$e authority, and the e)ercise of it has ,een often de e$ated ,y that authority' >hence therefore the %round of the supposition, that it lies ,eyond the reach of all those $ery important portions of so$erei%n power, le%islati$e as well as e)ecuti$e, which ,elon% to the %o$ernment of the 4nited 3tatesM To this mode of reasonin% respectin% the ri%ht of employin% all the means re(uisite to the e)ecution of the specified powers of the @o$ernment, it is o,-ected that none ,ut necessary and proper means are to ,e employed, and the 3ecretary of 3tate maintains, that no means are to ,e considered as necessary, ,ut those without which the %rant of the power would ,e nu$atory' .ay so far does he %o in his restricti$e interpretation of the word, as e$en to make the case of necessity which shall warrant the constitutional e)ercise of the power to depend on casua and tem&orary circumstancesL an idea which alone refutes the

construction' The e'&ediency of e)ercisin% a particular power, at a particular time, must indeed depend on circumstances2 ,ut the constitutional ri%ht of e)ercisin% it must ,e uniform and in$aria,le;;the same to day as to morrow' All the ar%uments therefore a%ainst the constitutionality of the ,ill deri$ed from the accidental e)istence of certain 3tate ,anks;; institutions which ha&&en to e)ist today, and, for ou%ht that concerns the %o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates, may disappear tomorrow, must not only ,e re-ected as falacious, ,ut must ,e $iewed as demonstrati$e, that there is a radica source of error in the reasonin%' #t is essential to the ,ein% of the .ational %o$ernment, that so erroneous a conception of the meanin% of the word necessary, should ,e e)ploded' #t is certain, that neither the %rammatical nor popular sense of the term re(uires that construction' Accordin% to ,oth, necessary often means no more than needfu , re5uisite, incidenta , usefu , or conducti(e to' #t is a common mode of e)pression to say, that it is necessary for a %o$ernment or a person to do this or that thin%, when nothin% more is intended or understood, than that the interests of the %o$ernment or person re(uire, or will ,e promoted, ,y the doin% of this or that thin%' The ima%ination can ,e at no loss for e)emplifications of the use of the word in this sense' And it is the true one in which it is to ,e understood as used in the constitution' The whole turn of the clause containin% it indicates, that it was the intent of the con$ention, ,y that clause to %i$e a li,eral latitude to the e)ercise of the specified powers' The e)pressions ha$e peculiar comprehensi$eness' They are, Kto make a aws, necessary and proper for carryin$ into e'ecution the fore%oin% powers and a other &owers $ested ,y the constitution in the $o(ernment of the 4nited 3tates, or in any de&artment or officer thereof'K To understand the word as the 3ecretary of 3tate does, would ,e to depart from its o,$ious and popular sense, and to %i$e it a restricti(e operationL an idea ne$er ,efore entertained' #t would ,e to %i$e it the same force as if the word a"so ute y or indis&ensa" y had ,een prefi)ed to it' 3uch a construction would ,e%et endless uncertainty and em,arrassment' The cases must ,e palpa,le and e)treme in which it could ,e pronounced with certainty that a measure was a,solutely necessary, or one without which the e)ercise of a %i$en power would ,e nu%atory' There are few measures of any %o$ernment, which would stand so se$ere a test' To insist upon it, would ,e to make the criterion of the e)ercise of any implied power a case of e'treme necessity2 which is rather a rule to -ustify the o$erleapin% of the ,ounds of constitutional authority, than to %o$ern the ordinary e)ercise of it' #t may ,e truly said of e$ery %o$ernment, as well as of that of the 4nited 3tates, that it has only a ri%ht, to pass such laws as are necessary and proper to accomplish the o,-ects intrusted to it' 8or no %o$ernment has a ri%ht to do mere y what it & eases' Hence ,y a process of reasonin% similar to that of the 3ecretary of 3tate, it mi%ht ,e pro$ed, that neither of the 3tate %o$ernments has the ri%ht to incorporate a ,ank' #t mi%ht ,e shown, that all the pu,lic ,usiness of the 3tate, could ,e performed without a ,ank, and inferrin% thence that it was unnecessary it mi%ht ,e ar%ued that it could not ,e done, ,ecause it is a%ainst the rule which has ,een -ust mentioned' A like mode of reasonin% would pro$e, that there was no power to incorporate the #nha,itants of a town, with a $iew to a more perfect police' 8or it is certain, that an incorporation may ,e dispensed with, thou%h it is ,etter to ha$e one' #t is to ,e remem,ered that there is no e'&ress power in any 3tate constitution to erect corporations' The de$ree in which a measure is necessary, can ne$er ,e a test of the e$a ri%ht to adopt it' That must ,e a matter of opinionL and can only ,e a test of e)pediency' The re ation ,etween the measure and the end, ,etween the nature of the mean employed towards the e)ecution of a power and the o,-ect of that power, must ,e the criterion of constitutionality not the more or less of necessity or uti ity' The practice of the %o$ernment is a%ainst the rule of construction ad$ocated ,y the 3ecretary of 3tate' <f this the act concernin% li%ht houses, ,eacons, ,uoys and pu,lic piers, is a decisi$e e)ample' This dou,tless must ,e referred to the power of re%ulatin% trade, and is fairly relati$e to it' +ut it cannot ,e affirmed, that the e)ercise of that power, in this instance, was strictly necessary, or that the power itself would ,e nu$atory without that of re%ulatin% esta,lishments of this nature' This restricti$e interpretation of the word necessary is also contrary to this sound ma)im of constructionL namely, that the powers contained in a constitution of %o$ernment, especially those which concern the %eneral administration of the affairs of a country, its finances, trade, defence etc' ou%ht to ,e construed li,erally, in ad$ancement of the pu,lic %ood' This rule does not depend on the particular form of a %o$ernment or on the particular demarkation of the ,oundaries of its powers, ,ut on the nature and o,-ects of %o$ernment itself' The means ,y which national e)i%encies are to ,e pro$ided for, national incon$eniences o,$iated, national prosperity promoted, are of such infinite $ariety, e)tent and comple)ity that there must, of necessity ,e %reat latitude of discretion in the selection and application of those means' Hence conse(uently, the necessity and propriety of e)ercisin% the authorities intrusted to a %o$ernment on principles of li,eral construction'

The Attorney @eneral admits the ru e, ,ut takes a distinction ,etween a 3tate, and the federal constitution' The latter, he thinks, ou%ht to ,e construed with %reat strictness, ,ecause there is more dan%er of error in definin% partial than %eneral powers' +ut the reason of the ru e for,ids such a distinction' This reason is;;the $ariety and e)tent of pu,lic e)i%encies, a far %reater proportion of which and of a far more critical kind are o,-ects of national than of 3tate administration' The %reater dan%er of error, as far as it is supposa,le, may ,e a prudential reason for caution in practice, ,ut it cannot ,e a rule of restricti$e interpretation' #n re%ard to the clause of the constitution immediately under consideration, it is admitted ,y the Attorney @eneral, that no restricti(e effect can ,e ascri,ed to it' He defines the word necessary thusC KTo ,e necessary is to ,e incidenta , and may ,e denominated the natural means of e)ecutin% a power'K +ut while on the one hand, the construction of the 3ecretary of 3tate is deemed inadmissa,le, it will not ,e contended on the other, that the clause in (uestion %i$es any new or inde&endent power' +ut it %i$es an e)plicit sanction to the doctrine of im& ied powers, and is e(ui$alent to an admission of the proposition, that the %o$ernment, as to its s&ecified &owers and o"/ects, has plenary and so$erei%n authority, in some cases paramount to that of the 3tates in others co;ordinate with it' 8or such is the plain import of the declaration, that it may pass all aws necessary and proper to carry into e)ecution those powers' #t is no $alid o,-ection to the doctrine to say, that it is calculated to e)tend the powers of the %eneral %o$ernment throu%hout the entire sphere of 3tate le%islation' The same thin% has ,een said, and may ,e said with re%ard to e$ery e)ercise of power ,y im& ication or construction' The moment the literal meanin% is departed from there is a chance of error and a,use' And yet an adherence to the letter of its powers would at once arrest the motions of the %o$ernment' #t is not only a%reed, on all hands, that the e)ercise of constructi$e powers is indispensa,le, ,ut e$ery act which has ,een passed is more or less an e)emplification of it' <ne has ,een already mentioned, that relatin% to li%ht houses etc' That which declares the power of the President to remo$e officers at pleasure, acknowled%es the same truth in another, and a si%nal instance' The truth is, that difficulties on this point are inherent in the nature of the federal constitution' They result ine$ita,ly from a di$ision of the le%islati$e power' The conse(uence of this di$ision is, that there will ,e cases clearly within the power of the .ational @o$ernmentL others clearly without its powersL and a third class, which will lea$e room for contro$ersy and difference of opinion, and concernin% which a reasona,le latitude of -ud%ment must ,e allowed' +ut the doctrine which is contended for is not char%ea,le with the conse(uence imputed to it' #t does not affirm that the .ational %o$ernment is so$erei%n in all respects, ,ut that it is so$erei%n to a certain e)tentC that is, to the e'tent of the o,-ects of its specified powers' #t lea$es therefore a criterion of what is constitutional, and of what is not so' This criterion is the end, to which the measure relates as a mean' #f the end ,e clearly comprehended within any of the specified powers, and if the measure ha$e an o,$ious relation to that end, and is not for,idden ,y any particular pro$ision of the constitution;;it may safely ,e deemed to come within the compass of the national authority' There is also this further criterion which may materially assist the decisionC 6oes the proposed measure a,rid%e a pre;e)istin% ri%ht of any 3tate, or of any indi$idualM #f it does not, there is a stron% presumption in fa$our of its constitutionalityL and sli%hter relations to any declared o,-ect of the constitution may ,e permitted to turn the scale' The Founders' Constitution ?olume 3, Article 1, 3ection 8, Clause 18, 6ocument 11 httpCOOpress;pu,s'uchica%o'eduOfoundersOdocumentsOa1P8P18s11'html The 4ni$ersity of Chica%o Press The ,a&ers of A e'ander 6ami ton' 7dited ,y Harold C' 3yrett et al' 9E $ols' .ew *ork and AondonC Colum,ia 4ni$ersity Press, 1GE1;;NG' 3ee a so7 8ederalist 3ourceC httpCOOpress;pu,s'uchica%o'eduOfoundersOdocumentsOa1P8P18s11'html

The First &ank o( the Gnited /tates

By &a2id %owen 8irth o" the 8an/ Fn 9e)ruary +/B+, the 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates 6+/B+-+*++8 recei2ed a uniDue national charter for twenty years. #le4ander <amiltonPs )rainchild, a semi-pu)lic national )ank, was a crucial component in the )uilding of the early !.". economy. .he Bank prospered for twenty years and performed traditional )anking functions in e4emplary fashion. With a main office in Philadelphia and eight )ranches nationwide to ser2e its customers, the BankPs influence stretched along the entire #tlantic sea)oard from Boston to %harleston and "a2annah and westward along the Culf %oast to :ew ?rleans. @amiltonAs 8road >'onomi' 7lan When the .reasury &epartment was created )y an #ct of %ongress in "eptem)er +/*B, President Ceorge Washington rewarded <amilton with the post of "ecretary. <amilton Duickly )ecame the nationPs leading economic figure. When %ongress asked <amilton to su)mit an economic plan for the country, he was well prepared. .he "ecretary deli2ered se2eral monumental state papers that forged the financial system for the nation> .he e!ort on Public "redit 6$anuary B, +/B18, The e!ort on the Bank 6&ecem)er +,, +/B18, The #stablishment of a $int 6$anuary, +/B+8, and The e!ort on $anufactures 6&ecem)er @, +/B+8. <amiltonPs reports outlined the strategies that were part of a comprehensi2e 9ederalist economic and financial program. .hey included a sinking fund to e4tinguish the national de)t and an e4cise ta4 to )e collected on all distilled liDuors. # key component of <amiltonPs economic plan for the country was the national Bank, an institution that would safeguard all pecuniary transactions. .he Bank would not only stimulate the economy )ut also enhance the shaky credit of the go2ernment. .he English financial system, particularly the Bank of England, pro2ided an important model for <amilton. The 8an/As .undin+ and 7ri2ile+es The e!ort on the Bank e4plained that the national Bank would )e chartered for twenty years, during which time the %ongress would agree not to esta)lish another national )ank. .he seed capital would )e 5+1 million> 5* million from pri2ate sources, and 5( million from the go2ernment. .he Bank would ha2e the right to issue notes or currency up to 5+1 million. .he go2ernment would also pledge that the notes of the Bank would )e uniDue in that they were 2alid for payments to the !nited "tates. Fn short, the notes would )e suita)le for payment of ta4es, a feature that would pro2ide the Bank with a strong ad2antage o2er its competitors. .he national Bank would confer many )enefits on the go2ernment including a ready source of loans, a principal depository for federal monies that were transfera)le from city to city without charge, and a clearing agent for payments on the national de)t. .he go2ernment, as the largest stockholder, would share in the profits, )ut ha2e no direct participation in the management. 0e ate o2er >sta lishment o" the 8an/ .he Bank )ill was introduced into %ongress on &ecem)er +,, +/B1, passed the "enate on $anuary (1, +/B+, the <ouse on 9e)ruary *, +/B+, and therefore was forwarded to President Washington for his signature. Ft was unclear whether Washington would sign the )ill into law. Powerful forces led )y $ames 0adison, .homas $efferson and the #ttorney Ceneral, Edmund Randolph, argued to Washington that the %onstitution had not granted the go2ernment the power to incorporate a Bank and therefore he should not sign the )ill. 6ashin+ton 3''epts @amiltonAs Bie! on Implied 7o!ers Washington showed <amilton the oppositionPs argument and asked him to prepare a document e4plaining why he should sign the )ill. .he pressure was therefore on <amilton to produce a flawless retort. <is reply to Washington has )een christened as the )enchmark of a )road interpretation of the %onstitution. <amilton turned the ta)les on his opposition. Ff .homas $efferson, $ames 0adison and Edmund Randolph argued that the power to incorporate was not a2aila)le unless e4plicitly prescri)ed )y the %onstitution, then #le4ander <amilton retorted that a power was not una2aila)le unless so stated in the %onstitution. Washington accepted <amiltonPs logic and signed the )ill on 9e)ruary (@, +/B+ to create the national Bank. 0ost important, howe2er, was not the political infighting, )ut rather that <amiltonPs 2iew holding that implied go2ernmental powers were a 2ia)le part of the %onstitution had carried the day. <amilton had accomplished his aim> his detractors defeatedE his economic approach adopted. Fn the ensuing years the Bank of the !nited "tates occupied center stage of the #merican financial system. Life of the Bank Initial #to'/ 5""erin+ ?n $uly -, +/B+, in the largest initial stock offering the country had e2er witnessed, in2estors displayed confidence in the new funding system )y scooping up 5* million in Bank of !nited "tates stock with unprecedented alacrity. 0any nota)le mem)ers of the %ongress were purchasers. Prices of receipts for the right to )uy stock 6i.e. not the stock itself8, know as scripts, were dri2en from an initial offering price of 5(@ to the unsustaina)le height of o2er 5,11, and then tum)led to 5+@1 within days, causing alarm in the markets. "ecretary <amilton calmed the storm much as a modern central )anker would ha2e )y using pu)lic money to directly purchase go2ernment securities. <owe2er, the script )u))le led many to )lame the Bank for such ra)id speculations.

8an/ 8ran'hes Fn the fall of +/B+ the new stockholders met in Philadelphia to choose )oard mem)ers and decide on rules and regulations. While the Bank would )e headDuartered in Philadelphia, the stockholders clamored for and recei2ed )ranches, with four opening in Baltimore, Boston, %harleston, and :ew 7ork in +/B(, and e2entually four more in :orfolk 6+*118, Washington 6+*1(8, "a2annah 6+*1(8 and :ew ?rleans 6+*1@8. .he )ranches were of great concern to the e4isting state )anks, which 2iewed the national Bank as a competiti2e threat. The 8an/As .irst 7resident and $ashiers .homas Willing accepted the title of president of the Bank and remained in that position until +*1/. Willing possessed strong credentials as he had )een president of the Bank of :orth #merica, 0ayor of Philadelphia, the "ecretary to the %ongress of delegates at #l)any, and a $udge of the "upreme court of Pennsyl2ania. #s the day-to- day manager, the role of )ank cashier was also important. #t the head office in Philadelphia, $ohn Lean was appointed the cashierE howe2er, the most noteworthy was Ceorge "impson, who held the post from +/B@-+*++. The 8an/As 1oles in the >'onomy ?n &ecem)er +(, +/B+, the Bank opened for )usiness in Philadelphia. .he customers were merchants, politicians, manufacturers, landowners, and most importantly, the go2ernment of the !nited "tates. .he Banks notes circulated countrywide and therefore infused a safe medium of paper money into the economy for )usiness transactions. .he sheer 2olume of deposits, loans, transfers and payments conducted )y the Bank throughout the country made it far and away the single largest enterprise in the fledgling nation. Profits, howe2er, were moderate during the operation of the Bank )ecause its directors opted for sta)ility o2er risk taking. The 8an/ and the C7ani' o" 1;<*C .he Bank had an enormous impact on the economy within two months of opening its doors for )usiness )y flooding the market with its discounts 6loans8 and )anknotes and then sharply re2ersing course and calling in many of the loans. #lthough the added liDuidity initially helped push a rising securities market higher, the su)seDuent drain caused the 2ery first !.". securities market crash )y forcing speculators to sell their stocks. .he largest speculator caught in the financial crisis was William &uer. When he went insol2ent in 0arch +/B(, the markets were temporarily paralyQed. .his so-called RPanic of +/B(R was short li2ed as again "ecretary <amilton 6as in the pre2ious year during the script )u))le8 in'ected funds )y )uying securities directly and on )ehalf of the sinking fund. 7et incidents like the Panic of +/B( and the script )u))le would )e remem)ered for many years )y opponents of the Bank who were still in steadfast opposition to the <amilton inspired institution. The 8an/As 8usiness !ith the &ational 4o2ernment .he rest of Bank years were ne2er as tumultuous as the e2ents surrounding the Panic of +/B(. Rather during its twenty-year lifespan the Bank performed many mundane pecuniary functions for its customers. .he largest customer, the go2ernment, had many nota)le interactions with the Bank. ?ne of the highlights of the relationship was the BankPs efficient managing of the go2ernmentPs fiscal affairs with respect to the Louisiana Purchase in +*1,. Fn its earlier days, the Bank had lent hea2ily to its largest customer. By the end of +/B@ the Bank had lent the go2ernment o2er 5; million, or ;1S of its capital. #t this point Willing and the other directors )ecame alarmed and demanded the Co2ernment repay part of its loan. "ince Co2ernment credit was still weak, the .reasury resorted to selling shares of its Bank stock. .he sales )egan in +/B; and ended in +*1(. With the proceeds from the sales of stock, the go2ernment repaid the Bank. $entral 8an/in+ .un'tions o" the 8an/ .he Bank performed certain functions that today are associated with central )anking. 9irst, the Bank attempted to regulate state )anks )y curtailing those that had o2erissued their )ank notes. "econd, the Bank, in coordination with the .reasury department, discussed economic conditions and attempted to promote the safety of the entire credit system. .hird, while the Philadelphia )oard ga2e each )ranch autonomy respecting lending to indi2iduals, the Bank tried to coordinate aggregate policy changes, whether a loosening or tightening of lending credit, across the entire network of )ranches. 0eath o" the 8an/ .he anti-Bank forces had remained steadfast in their opposition to the Bank since its inception in +/B+. By the time of the renewal de)ate in %ongress, the 9ederalists were no longer in control. .he &emocrats now held the ma'ority and were ready to act against the 9ederalist concei2ed institution. .he opponents of the Bank included <enry %lay, William Branch Ciles and AicePresident Ceorge %linton. .he 9ederalists supported renewal and were 'oined )y two nota)le &emocrats who crossed party lines, .reasury "ecretary #l)ert Callatin, who )elie2ed in the usefulness of the institution, and then President 0adison, who had switched camps with respect to the Bank issue )ecause he )elie2ed the matter had )een settled )y precedent. $omplaints a out the 8an/ .he opponents charged that )ecause three-fourths of the ownership of the stock was held )y foreigners, that the Bank was under their direct influence. .he charge was false, as foreigners were prohi)ited from electing directors. .he opposition also charged that the Bank was concealing profits, operating in a mysterious fashion, unconstitutional, and simply a tool for loaning money to the Co2ernment. 1e'harterin+ #u""ers a &arro! 0e"eat in $on+ress

#lthough the charter did not e4pire until 0arch -, +*++, the renewal process commenced in the <ouse on 0arch (*, +*1* and in the "enate on #pril (1, +*1*. .he matter de2eloped slowly and was referred to "ecretary Callatin for an opinion. ?n 0arch ,, +*1B Callatin communicated his )eliefs to the <ouse that the Bank charter should )e renewed. .he matter returned to the <ouse on $anuary (B, +*+1 for %ommittee de)ate. ?n 9e)ruary +Bth, the committee recommended in fa2or of renewing the charter and sent the )ill to the floor of the <ouse. 9loor de)ate opened on #pril +,th, and the )ill was stopped dead in its tracks. "tockholders resu)mitted the )ill on &ecem)er +1th, and despite an intense three-month de)ate, the )ill was killed. .he 2ote in each section of the %ongress was incredi)ly close. .he )ill was defeated in the <ouse )y a ;@ to ;- margin on $anuary (-, +*++, and in the "enate was deadlocked at +/ on 9e)ruary (1th )efore Aice-President %linton, an enemy of )oth 0adison and Callatin, )roke the tie with a negati2e 2ote. .he Bank of the !nited "tates closed its doors on 0arch ,, +*++. The 8an/ and the 0e ate o2er $entral 4o2ernment 7o!er .he reason the Bank lost its charter had precious little to do with )anking. When charter renewal de)ate transpired in +*++ )anking on the whole was flourishing. .he Bank was )orn, li2ed, and e2entually died a 2ictim of politics. .he Bank has )een remem)ered not for what occurred during its operation -- stimulating )usiness, infusing safe paper money into the economy, supporting the credit of the country and national go2ernment, and with the .reasury department regulating the financial arena -)ut rather for what occurred during the stormy de)ates at its )irth and death. .he death of the Bank was another chapter in an ongoing de)ate )etween the early leaders of the country who were split )etween those who preferred a weak central go2ernment on the one hand and those who desired a strong central go2ernment on the other. .he chartering of a national economic institution, a Bank of the !nited "tates, marks the take-off of the 9ederalist financial re2olution that )egan se2eral years earlier with the signing of the %onstitution. .he political die of the !nited "tates was cast with that document, and )y +/B( the economic )ase of 9ederalism was in place, first with the 9ederal funding of national and state war de)ts, and second, with a sound national Bank in place to gi2e coherence to the de2eloping !.". financial system. 9urther Reading> Bowling, Lenneth R. R.he Bank Bill, the %apital %ity and President Washington.R "a!ital Studies +, no. + 6+B/(8. %owen, &a2id $. R.he 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates and the "ecurities 0arket %rash of +/B(.R %ournal of #conomic History ;1, no. - 6(1118. %owen, &a2id $. T.he ?rigins and Economic Fmpact of the 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates, +/B+-+/B/T. :ew 7ork> Carland Pu)lishing, (111. &ewey, &a2is Rich and $ohn .hom <oldsworth. The &irst and Second Banks of the 'nited States. Washington, &.%.> Co2ernment Printing ?ffice, +B+1. <ammond, Bray. Banks and Politics in (merica: &rom the evolution to the "ivil )ar* Princeton> Princeton !ni2ersity Press, +B@/. Llu)es, Ben'amin. R.he 9irst 9ederal %ongress and the 9irst :ational Bank> # %ase "tudy in %onstitutional <istory.R %ournal of the #arly (merican e!ublic+1 6+BB18. 0c&onald, 9orrest. R.he %onstitution and <amiltonian %apitalism.R Fn How "a!italistic is the "onstitutionN Edited )y Ro)ert #. Coldwin and William #. "cham)ra. :ew 7ork> #merican Enterprise Fnstitute for Pu)lic Policy Research, +B*(. Perkins, Edwin. (merican Public &inance and &inancial Services +,--.+/+0 %olum)us> ?hio "tate !ni2ersity Press, +BB-. Redlich, 9ritQ. The $olding of (merican Banking. :ew 7ork> $ohnson Reprint %orporation, +B;*. "t. %lair %larke, 0. and &. #. <all. Legislative and 1ocumentary History of the Bank of 'nited States . Washington, &.%.> Cales and "eaton, +*,(. Reprint. :ew 7ork> #ugustus 0. Lelley Pu)lishers, +B;/. "ylla, Richard. R!.". "ecurities 0arkets and the Banking "ystem, +/B1-+*-1.R &ederal eserve Bank of St* Louis eview *1, no. , 6+BB*8. "yrett, <arold, editor. The Pa!ers of (le2ander Hamilton. :ew 7ork> %olum)ia !ni2ersity Press, +B;+-*/. Wettereau, $ames ?. RBranches of the 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates.R %ournal of #conomic History ( 6+B-(8. Wettereau, $ames ?. R:ew Light on the 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates.R Pennsylvania $aga3ine of History and Biogra!hy ;+ 6+B,/8. Wettereau, $ames ?. Statistical ecords of the &irst Bank of the 'nited States . :ew 7ork> Carland Pu)lishing, +B*@.

Wettereau, $ames ?. R.he ?ldest Bank Building in the !nited "tates.R Transactions of the (merican Philoso!hical Society -,, part +, +B@,. Wright, Ro)ert. 4rigins of "ommercial Banking in (merica, +,0-.+/--. Lanham, 0&> Rowman = Littlefield, (11+. Wright, Ro)ert. The )ealth of 5ations ediscovered: Integration and #2!ansion of the '*S* &inancial Sector, +,/-.+/0- . :ew 7ork> %am)ridge !ni2ersity Press, (11(. Wright, Ro)ert. R.homas Willing 6+/,+-+*(+8> Philadelphia 9inancier and 9orgotten 9ounding 9ather.R Pennsylvania History, 9all, +BB;. Citation: "owen, 1avid* 6&irst Bank of the 'nited States6* #H*5et #ncyclo!edia, edited by obert )ha!les* $arch +7, 8--/* ' L htt!:99eh*net9encyclo!edia9article9cowen*banking*first:bank*us

3ourceC httpCOOeh'netOencyclopediaOarticleOcowen',ankin%'firstP,ank'us

A promissory note issued ,y the 3econd +ank of the 4nited 3tates, 6ecem,er 1 , 18:0, for the amount of H1,000'
Timeline of the +ank of the 4nited 3tatesC January 90, 1NG1C The 4'3' 3enate $otes in fa$or of esta,lishin% the 8irst +ank of the 4nited 3tates' 8e,ruary 8, 1NG1C The 4'3' House of /epresentati$es passes the 8irst +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,ill 23G *eas, 90 .ays, E A,sent5' 8e,ruary 1 , 1NG1C Thomas Jefferson issues his -&inion on the Constitutiona ity of the 8i for 1sta" ishin$ a %ationa 8ank 8e,ruary 93, 1NG1C Ale)ander Hamilton issues his -&inion on the Constitutiona ity of the 8ank 8e,ruary 9 , 1NG1C President @eor%e >ashin%ton si%ns the +ank ,ill into law in Philadelphia' 1801;180 C 8irst +ar,ary >ar January 9:, 1811C The 4'3' House of /epresentati$es postpones e)tension of the +ank of the 4nited 3tates 2E *eas, E: .ays5' 8e,ruary 90, 1811C The 4'3' 3enate is split on the proposed e)tension of the +ank of the 4nited 3tates 21N *eas, 1N .ays5' ?ice President @eor%e Clinton casts the decidin% $ote and $otes a%ainst the e)tension 2a !*ea0 $ote5' "arch 3, 1811C 28irst5 +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,ecomes a pri$ate ,ank and the charter for the +ank of the 4nited 3tates e)pires 1819;181 C >ar of 1819 "arch 1:, 181EC The 4'3' House of /epresentati$es passes the 3econd +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,ill 280 *eas, N1 .ays, 13 A,sent5' April 3, 181EC The 4'3' 3enate passes the 3econd +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,ill 299 *eas, 19 .ays, 1 A,sent5' April 10, 181EC President James "adison si%ns the 3econd +ank of the 4nited 3tates into law 181GC Panic of 181G June 11, 1839C The 4'3' 3enate passes the ,ill e)tendin% the 3econd +ank of the 4nited 3tates 298 *eas, 90 .ays5' July 3, 1839C The 4'3' House of /epresentati$es passes a ,ill e)tendin% the 3econd +ank of the 4'3' 210E *eas, 8: .ays, 1 A,sent5' July 10, 1839C President Andrew Jackson $etoes the 3econd +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,ill 6ecem,er 31, 183EC 23econd5 +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,ecomes a pri$ate ,ank 24nited 3tates +ank of Pennsyl$ania5 183 ;18:3C Panic of 183N 2183N;18:35L 3econd 3eminole >ar 2183 ;18:95L <pium >ar 2183G;18:95

3enators and Con%ressmen who $oted !.ay0 2<pposin% the Postponement5 on the +ank of the 4'3' ,ill in 1811

"tephen R. Bradley B.#. 7ale +//@ !.". "enator 6&em. Rep.-Aermont, +/B+-+/B@E +*1+-+*+,8

"amuel W. &ana B.#. 7ale +//@ !.". "enator 69ederalist-%onn., +*+1-+*(+8

%hauncey Coodrich B.#. 7ale +//; !.". "enator 69ederalist%onnecticut, +*1/-+*+,8

.imothy Pickering B.#. <ar2ard +/;, !.". "enator 69-0ass., +*1,-+*++8

%hristopher C. %hamplin B.#. <ar2ard +/*; !.". "enator 69ederalistRhode Fsland, +*1B-+*++8

$ames #. Bayard "r. #.B. Princeton +/*!.". "enator 69ederalist&elaware, +*1--+*+,8

$ohn .aylor #.B. Princeton +/B1 !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-"outh %arolina, +*+1-+*+;8

Ben'amin .allmadge B.#. 7ale +//, !.". %ongressman 69-%onn., +*1+-+*+/8

$osiah Muincy B.#. <ar2ard +/B1 !.". %ongressman 69-0ass., +*1@-+*+,8

La)an Wheaton B.#. <ar2ard +//!.". %ongressman 69-0ass., +*1B-+*+/8

7ea 6"upporting the Postponement8 6+/ &emocratic Repu)licans8> $oseph Fnslee #nderson H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-.ennessee, +/B/-+*+@8 #le4ander %amp)ell H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-?hio, +*1B-+*+,8 <enry %lay H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Lentucky, +*1;-+*1/E $anuary -, +*+1-0arch ,, +*++E +*,+-+*-(E +*-B-+*@(8 %harles %utts 6B.#. <ar2ard +/*B8 H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:ew <ampshire, +*+1-+*+,8 $esse 9ranklin H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:orth %arolina, +/BB-+*1@, +*1/-+*+,8 $ohn Caillard H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-"outh %arolina, +*1--+*(;8 ?)adiah Cerman H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:ew 7ork, +*1B-+*+@8 William Branch Ciles 6#.B. Princeton +/*+8 H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Airginia, +*1--+*+@8 #ndrew Cregg H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Pennsyl2ania, +*1/-+*+,8 $ohn Lam)ert H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:ew $ersey, +*1B-+*+@8 0ichael Lei) H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Pennsyl2ania, +*1B-+*+-8 Elisha 0athewson H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Rhode Fsland, +*1/-+*++8 Philip Reed H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-0aryland, +*1;-+*+,8 $onathan Ro)inson H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Aermont, +*1/-+*+@8 "amuel "mith H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-0aryland, +*1,-+*+@, +*((-+*,,8 $enkin Whiteside H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-.ennessee, +*1B-+*++8 .homas Worthington H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-?hio, +*1,-+*1/E +*+1-+*+-8 :ay 6?pposing the Postponement8 6+1 &emocratic Repu)licans, / 9ederalists8> $ames #. Bayard "r. 6#.B. Princeton +/*-8 H !.". "enator 69ederalist-&elaware, +*1--+*+,8 "tephen R. Bradley 6B.#. 7ale +//@8 H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Aermont, +/B+-+/B@E +*1+-+*+,8 Richard Brent H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Airginia, +*1B-+*+-8 %hristopher C. %hamplin 6B.#. <ar2ard +/*;8 H !.". "enator 69ederalist-Rhode Fsland, +*1B-+*++8 $ohn %ondit H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:ew $ersey, +*1,-+*1B, +*1B-+*+/8 William <arris %rawford H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Ceorgia, +*1/-+*+,8 "amuel W. &ana 6B.#. 7ale +//@8 H !.". "enator 69ederalist-%onnecticut, +*+1-+*(+8 :icholas Cilman H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:ew <ampshire, +*1@-+*+-8 %hauncey Coodrich 6B.#. 7ale +//;8 H !.". "enator 69ederalist-%onnecticut, +*1/-+*+,8 ?uter)ridge <orsey H !.". "enator 69ederalist-&elaware, +*+1-+*(+8 $ames Lloyd 6B.#. <ar2ard +/*/8 H !.". "enator 69ederalist-0assachusetts, +*1*-+*+,, +*((-+*(;8 .imothy Pickering 6B.#. <ar2ard +/;,8 H !.". "enator 69ederalist-0assachusetts, +*1,-+*++8 $ohn Pope H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Lentucky, +*1/-+*+,8 $ohn "mith H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:ew 7ork, +*1--+*+,8 %harles .ait H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Ceorgia, +*1B-+*+B8 $ohn .aylor 6#.B. Princeton +/B18 H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-"outh %arolina, +*+1-+*+;8 $ames .urner H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-:orth %arolina, +*1@-+*+;8

Ale)ander Hamilton 2left5, <li$er >olcott Jr' 2center5, and @eor%e Clinton 2ri%ht5
Ale)ander Hamilton 2+'A' Colum,ia 1NN:5, the inau%ural 3ecretary of the Treasury 23eptem,er 11, 1N8G;January 31, 1NG 5 and co; author of the 8ederalist Papers, supported the esta,lishment of the 28irst5 +ank of the 4nited 3tates, a pri$ately owned central ,ank, in 1NG1' Ale)ander Hamilton was a director of the +ank of .ew *ork 2located in .ew *ork City5 from 1N8: to 1N88' <li$er >olcott Jr', who ser$ed as 3ecretary of the Treasury 28e,ruary 3, 1NG 1 6ecem,er 31, 18005 and Comptroller of the Treasury 21NG1;1NG 5 under President @eor%e >ashin%ton, was a director of the +ank of the 4nited 3tates from 1810 to 1811' <li$er >olcott Jr' %raduated from *ale 4ni$ersity and was in$ol$ed in the lucrati$e China trade in the early 1800s' @eor%e Clinton, the ?ice President of the 4nited 3tates from "arch :, 180 to April 90, 1819, cast the tie;,reakin% $ote on the +ank ,ill in the 4'3' 3enate on 8e,ruary 90, 1811' ClintonFs decidin% $ote in the 4'3' 3enate would terminate the e)tension of the charter of the 8irst +ank of the 4nited 3tates and forced the directors of the 28irst5 +ank of the 4nited 3tates to end the ,ankFs operation as a central ,ank on "arch 3, 1811'

+ank of the 4nited 3tates in Philadelphia in the early 1800s' +oth houses of Con%ress failed to renew the charter of the +ank of the 4nited 3tates ,y one $ote durin% a session in early 1811' "em,ers of the 4'3' House of /epresentati$es $oted E ;E: for postponin% indefinitely on renewin% the charter of the +ank of the 4nited 3tates on January 9:, 1811' "em,ers of the 4'3' 3enate $oted 1N;1N for postponin% indefinitely on renewin% the charter of the +ank of the 4nited 3tates on 8e,ruary 90, 1811L ?ice President @eor%e Clinton ,roke the deadlock in the 4'3' 3enate ,y $otin% a%ainst the renewal of the ,ankBs charter' The 28irst5 +ank of the 4nited 3tates in Philadelphia was closed on "arch 3, 1811' American and +ritish merchants owned stocks in the pri$ately;owned +ank of the 4nited 3tates'

#e'ond 8an/ o" the 9nited #tates

.he "econd Bank of the !nited "tates in Philadelphia operated from +*+; to +*,;. .he "econd Bank of the !nited "tates, which was renamed !nited "tates Bank of Pennsyl2ania in +*,/, )ecame a pri2ate )ank until the )ank failed in +*-+. President #ndrew $ackson 2etoed the renewal of the Bank on $uly +1, +*,(. :icholas Biddle was arrested for fraud in Philadelphia in +*-+E howe2er, Biddle was ne2er tried in court and was e2entually released from prison.

7residents o" the 8an/ o" the 9nited #tates (1;<1D1811, 181=D183=)

.homas Willing President of the Bank of the !nited "tates 6+/B+-+*1/8E 0ayor of Philadelphia 6+/;,-+/;-8

William $ones President of the Bank of the !nited "tates 6+*+;-+*+B8E "ecretary of the :a2y 6+*+,-+*+-8

Langdon %he2es President of the Bank of the !nited "tates 6+*+B-+*((8E "peaker of the !.". <ouse of Representati2es 6+*+--+*+@8

:icholas Biddle President of the Bank of the !nited "tates 6+*(,-+*,;8E President of the !nited "tates Bank of Pennsyl2ania 6+*,/-+*,B8

!The +ank, "r' ?an +uren, is tryin% to kill me, ,ut # will kill it'0 1 President Andrew Jackson, to "artin ?an +uren, 1839

/13 $8/R /T1T4 G3#J4./#TS 4C838:#C/ D4P1.T:43T Thayer Watkins

The &ank o( the Gnited /tates

The .irst 8an/ o" the 9nited #tates (1;<1D1811) .he #merican Repu)lic had considera)le financial pro)lems in its early days. .he first #merican )ank was organiQed )y Ro)ert 0orris in +/*+. .his was a pri2ate )ank )ut it helped in financing the Re2olutionary War, which did not end until +/*,. #le4ander <amilton, a ma'or organiQational inno2ator in the Repu)lic, argued for the creation of a central )ank, a )ankersP )ank which would )e the lender of last resort. "uch a central )ank would sta)iliQe the financial system and issue )anknotes to supplement the gold and sil2er in circulation. <amilton saw lending funds to the 9ederal Co2ernment as a ma'or function of such a central )ank. "hortly after <amilton proposed the creation of a :ational Bank for the !.". a )ill was introduced into %ongress to accomplish <amiltonPs proposal. .here was ma'or opposition to the )ill on the grounds that creation of such a )ank with a monopoly on issuing money was unconstitutional. .he )ill passed and was signed into law in +/B+ )ut it pro2ided only a twenty charter for a Bank of the !nited "tates. .he charter would need to )e renewed in +*++. .he Bank of the !nited "tates sol2ed many of the monetary pro)lems that trou)led the country )efore +/B+. But the Bank of the !nited "tates was a pri2ate institution and foreign )uyers purchased ownership shares of the )ank until the /1 percent of the )ank was owned )y foreigners. .he was worrisome to #merican politicians )ut this high share of foreign ownership was not unusual in the #merican financial system. Britain had )een supplying capital to the !.". economy for some time. But these concerns and politics resulted in a 2ery close 2ote on the )ill for renewing the charter. Fn the <ouse of Representati2e the 2ote was ;@ to ;- for postponing indefinitely the rechartering. Fn the "enate the 2ote was a +/-+/ tie which allowed the Aice President to cast the deciding 2ote. .he Aice President, Ceorge %linton, 2oted against the renewal of the )ankPs charter. .he War of +*+( re2ealed the weakness of the #merican financial system so in +*+; the charter of the Bank of the !nited "tates was rechartered. "upport for the second Bank of the !nited "tates came from political figures such as President $ames 0onroe and "enator $ohn %. %alhoun who were concerned with the low credit and financial sol2ency of the 9ederal go2ernment, as re2ealed )y the difficulties financing the costs of the War of +*+(. "upport also came from )usiness leaders such as $ohn $aco) #stor who were concerned with the financial chaos of the time. The #e'ond 8an/ o" the 9nited #tates (181=D183=) .he charter called for capital of 5,@ million, of which 5/ million was to supplied )y the !.". go2ernment. .he Bank was controlled )y a )oard of twenty directors, +@ elected )y the pri2ate stockholders and @ appointed )y the President of the !nited "tates. .he Bank was to pay the !.". go2ernment 5+.@ million per year for its franchise. "ome political figures, e.g. &aniel We)ster and $ohn Randolph, opposed this mi4ing of pri2ate and pu)lic power )ut the #ct of %ongress was passed and President $onroe EerrorF GadisonH signed it into law on #pril +1, +*+;. But the charter was again limited to twenty years. .he first president of the "econd Bank was William $ones. $ones had )een "ecretary of the :a2y and later #cting "ecretary of the .reasury during the War of +*+(. <is tenure as "ecretary of the .reasury was marked )y mismanagement of finances and there was no reason to )elie2e that he would )e any more competent in managing the Bank of the !nited "tates. !nder $ones the Bank opened )ranches in many other cities and e4panded operations. Ft is important to note that while the Bank of the !nited "tates functioned as a central )ank for the !nited "tates it was also a commercial )ank in2ol2ed in making loans. ?ther )anks resented the competition from this 9ederally supported institution. Ft was taking )usiness away from them. .wo state go2ernments tried to prohi)it the esta)lishment of )ranches of the Bank of the !nited "tates in their states and si4 others tried to le2y prohi)iti2e ta4es on these )ranches to discourage their operation. Ft took a ruling )y the !.". "upreme %ourt to pre2ent these restriction on the Bank of the !nited "tates. %hief $ustice $ohn 0arshall in +*+B ruled that the Bank of the !nited "tates was a proper and necessary instrument of the !nited "tates Co2ernment for carrying out its fiscal operations. ?ne can clearly see the perple4ity of mi4ing pu)lic and pri2ate institutions. .he Bank of the !nited "tates may ha2e )een a necessary instrument for fiscal operations of the !.". go2ernment )ut it was also a pri2ate commercial )ank. .he )ranches of the "econd Bank were not closely controlled )y the main Philadelphia institution and the Baltimore )ranch came under the control of indi2iduals who looted it of a million dollars )efore they were caught. .he Baltimore )ranch went into recei2ership and the whole Bank was close to )ankruptcy. William $ones resigned in $anuary of +*+B. .he presidency of the "econd Bank of the !nited "tates went to Langdon %he2es of "outh %arolina. %he2es cut )ack operation, reducing the )ank loans from 5-+ million to 5,+ million and cut the amount of )ank notes in circulation from 5* million to 5,.@ million. %he2esP policies )rought sta)ility to the "econd Bank )ut he was not without critics for these policies. .he pri2ate stockholders resented the reduction in di2idends. .he pri2ate )anks which criticiQed the e4pansion of the "econd Bank also criticiQed its contraction )ecause the reduction in credit 'eopardiQed the sol2encies of some )usinesses which were also de)tors of those same pri2ate )anks. Fn +B(, %he2es resigned and :icholas Biddle of Philadelphia )ecame president. W#.LF:" <?0E P#CE

"ource> http>GGwww.s'su.eduGfacultyGwatkinsGBof!".htm

Left photo> President $ames 0adison signed the "econd Bank of the !nited "tates )ill into law in #pril +*+; after the !.". "enate passed the )ill on #pril ,, +*+;. $ames 0adison, during his ser2ice as a %ongressman from Airginia, 2oted against a )ill esta)lishing the 9irst Bank of the !nited "tates in +/B+. Right photo> $ohn 0arshall, %hief $ustice of the !.". "upreme %ourt 6+*1+-+*,@8, presided o2er $c"ulloch v* $aryland in +*+B, declaring that %ongress has power to incorporate a )ank .

%orporate sponsors of the "econd Bank of the !nited "tates in +*+;> $ohn $aco) #stor 6left, )orn in Cermany, +/;,-+*-*8 and "tephen Cirard 6right, )orn in 9rance, +/@1-+*,+8 $ohn $aco) #stor was reportedly the wealthiest man in #merica at the time of his death in +*-*.

!4pon this %eneral $iew of the su,-ect it is o,$ious that there is only wantin% to the fiscal prosperity of the @o$ernment the restoration of an uniform medium of e)chan%e' The resources and the faith of the nation, displayed in the system which Con%ress has esta,lished, insure respect and confidence ,oth at home and a,road' The local accumulations of the re$enue ha$e already ena,led the Treasury to meet the pu,lic en%a%ements in the local currency of most of the 3tates, and it is e)pected that the same cause will produce the same effect throu%hout the 4nionL ,ut for the interests of the community at lar%e, as well as for the purposes of the Treasury, it is essential that the nation should "ossess a !urren!y o( e>ual %alue, !redit, and use where%er it may !ir!ulate. The Constitution has intrusted Congress e2!lusi%ely with the "ower o( !reating and regulating a !urren!y o( that des!ri"tion, and the measures whi!h were taken during the last session in e2e!ution o( the "ower gi%e e%ery "romise o( su!!ess. The &ank o( the Gnited /tates has een organi7ed under aus"i!es the most (a%ora le, and !an not (ail to e an im"ortant au2iliary to those measures. 0 1 4'3' President James "adison, 7i%hth Annual "essa%e to Con%ress 23tate of the 4nion Address5, 6ecem,er 3, 181E

Gem ers o" $on+ress !ho 2oted ?ea on ill esta lishin+ the #e'ond 8an/ o" the 9nited #tates in 181=

$ohn .aylor #.B. Princeton +/B1 !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-"outh %arolina, +*+1-+*+;8

&a2id &aggett B.#. 7ale +/*, !.". "enator 69ederalist%onnecticut, +*+,-+*+B8

$ohn %. %alhoun B.#. 7ale +*1!.". %ongressman 6&emocratic Repu)lican"outh %arolina, +*++-+*+/8

$eremiah Brown <owell #.B. Brown +/*B !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-Rhode Fsland, +*++-+*+/8

William <unter #.B. Brown +/B+ !.". "enator 69ederalistRhode Fsland, +*++-+*(+8

Gem ers o" $on+ress !ho 2oted &ay on ill esta lishin+ the #e'ond 8an/ o" the 9nited #tates in 181=

Ben'amin .allmadge B.#. 7ale +//, !.". %ongressman 69-%onn., +*1+-+*+/8

"amuel W. &ana B.#. 7ale +//@ !.". "enator 69-%onn., +*+1-+*(+8

.imothy Pickering B.#. <ar2ard +/;, !.". %ongressman 69-0ass., +*+,-+*+/8

Rufus Ling B.#. <ar2ard +/// !.". "enator 69ederalist-:ew 7ork, +/*B-+/B;E +*+,-+*(@8

&aniel We)ster #.B. &artmouth +*1+ !.". %ongressman 69ederalist-:ew <ampshire, +*+,-+*+/8

President $ames 0onroe is seen discussing with his ad2isors the policy later known as the 0onroe &octrine. 9rom left to right> "ecretary of "tate $ohn Muincy #dams, "ecretary of the .reasury William <. %rawford, #ttorney Ceneral William Wirt, President 0onroe 6standing8, "ecretary of War $ohn %. %alhoun, "ecretary of the :a2y "amuel "outhard, and Postmaster Ceneral $ohn 0cLean.

G./. /enate .oll Call on the /e!ond &ank o( the Gnited /tates on $une ++, +,)O
7ea 6(* "enators8> "amuel Bell 6#.B. &artmouth +/B,8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(,-+*,@8 #le4ander Buckner H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-0issouri, +*,+-+*,,8 EQekiel 9orman %ham)ers H !.". "enator 6#nti-$ackson-0aryland, +*(;-+*,-8 <enry %lay H !.". "enator 6Whig-Lentucky, +*1;-+*1/E +*+1-+*++E +*,+-+*-(E +*-B-+*@(8E !.". "ecretary of "tate 6+*(@-+*(B8 $ohn 0. %layton 6B.#. 7ale +*+@8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-&elaware, +*(B-+*,;E +*-@-+*-BE +*@,-+*@;8 Ceorge 0. &allas 6#.B. Princeton +*+18 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,,8E Aice President of the !.". 6+*-@-+*-B8 .homas Ewing H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-?hio, +*,+-+*,/E +*@1-+*@+8E "ec. of the .reasury 6+*-+8E "ec. of the Fnterior 6+*-B-+*@18 "amuel #ugustus 9oot 6B.#. 7ale +/B/8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(/-+*,,8 .heodore 9relinghuysen 6#.B. Princeton +*1-8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*(B-+*,@8 William <endricks H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-Fndiana, +*(@-+*,/8E Co2ernor of Fndiana 6+*((-+*(@8 $ohn <olmes 6#.B. Brown +/B;8 H !.". "enator 6#dams Repu)lican-0aine, +*(1-+*(/, +*(B-+*,,8 $osiah "toddard $ohnston H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-Louisiana, +*(--+*,,8 :ehemiah Rice Lnight H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-Rhode Fsland, +*(+-+*-+8E Co2ernor of Rhode Fsland 6+*+/-+*(+8 #rnold :audain 6#.B. Princeton +*1;8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-&elaware, +*,1-+*,;8 Ceorge Poinde4ter H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-0ississippi, +*,1-+*,@8E Co2ernor of 0ississippi 6+*+B-+*((8 "amuel Prentiss H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-Aermont, +*,+-+*-(8E $udge of the !.". &istrict %ourt of Aermont 6+*-(-+*@/8 #sher Ro))ins 6B.#. 7ale +/*(8 H !.". "enator 6Whig-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,B8 $ohn 0c%racken Ro)inson H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Fllinois, +*,1-+*-+8 Ben'amin Ruggles H !.". "enator 6&emocratic Repu)lican-?hio, +*+@-+*,,8E Aoted :ay on the "econd Bank of the !.". )ill in +*+; <oratio "eymour 6B.#. 7ale +/B/8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-Aermont, +*(+-+*,,8 :athaniel "ils)ee H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*(;-+*(BE +*(B-+*,@8 "amuel "mith H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-0aryland, +*1,-+*+@E +*((-+*,,8E 0ayor of Baltimore, 0aryland 6+*,@-+*,*8 Peleg "prague 6B.#. <ar2ard +*+(8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-0aine, +*(B-+*,@8 $ohn .ipton H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Fndiana, +*,(-+*,B8 Cideon .omlinson 6B.#. 7ale +*1(8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*,+-+*,/8 Ceorge #ugustus Waggaman H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-Louisiana, +*,+-+*,@8 &aniel We)ster 6#.B. &artmouth +*1+8 H !.". "enator 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(/-+*-+, +*-@-+*@18 William Wilkins H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,-8 :ay 6(1 "enators8> .homas <art Benton H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-0issouri, +*(+-+*@+8 Ceorge 0. Bi)) 6#.B. Princeton +/B(8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Lentucky, +*++-+*+-, +*(B-+*,@8 Bedford Brown H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*(B-+*-18 0ahlon &ickerson 6#.B. Princeton +/*B8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*+/-+*,,8 %harles Edward &udley H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*(B-+*,,8E 0ayor of #l)any, :ew 7ork 6+*(+-+*(-, +*(*-+*(B8 Powhatan Ellis H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-0ississippi +*(@-+*(;E +*(/-+*,(8E !.". 0inister to 0e4ico 6+*,B-+*-(8 $ohn 9orsyth 6#.B. Princeton +/BB8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, +*+*-+*+B, +*(B-+*,-8 9eli4 Crundy H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(B-+*,*E +*,B-+*-18E !.". #ttorney Ceneral 6+*,*-+*,B8 Ro)ert 7oung <ayne H !.". "enator 6:ullifer-"outh %arolina, 0arch -, +*(,-&ecem)er +,, +*,(8E Co2ernor of "outh %arolina 6+*,(-+*,-8 Fsaac <ill H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*,+-+*,;8E Co2ernor of :ew <ampshire 6+*,;-+*,B8 Elias Lent Lane 6B.#. 7ale +*+,8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Fllinois, +*(@-+*,@8 William Rufus de Aane Ling H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-#la)ama, +*+B-+*--E +*-*-+*@(8E !.". 0inister to 9rance 6+*---+*-;8 Willie Person 0angum H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*,+-+*,;E +*-1-+*@,8 William Learned 0arcy 6#.B. Brown +*1*8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8E Co2ernor of :ew 7ork 6+*,,-+*,*8 "tephen &ecatur 0iller H !.". "enator 6:ullifer-"outh %arolina, +*,+-+*,,8E Co2ernor of "outh %arolina 6+*(*-+*,18 Ca)riel 0oore H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-#la)ama, +*,+-+*,/8E Co2ernor of #la)ama 6+*(B-+*,+8 Littleton Waller .aQewell H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Airginia, &ecem)er /, +*(--$uly +;, +*,(8E Co2ernor of Airginia 6+*,--+*,;8 Ceorge 0. .roup 6#.B. Princeton +/B/8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, +*+;-+*+*, +*(B-+*,,8 $ohn .yler 6#.B. William and 0ary +*1/8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*(/-+*,;8E President of the !.". 6+*-+-+*-@8 <ugh Lawson White H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(@-+*-18 :ote> William Learned 0arcy 6#.B. Brown +*1*8 ser2ed as !.". "ecretary of War 6+*-@-+*-B8 and !.". "ecretary of "tate 6+*@,-+*@/8. :ote> :ehemiah Rice Lnight ser2ed as President of the Roger Williams Bank in Pro2idence, Rhode Fsland 6+*+/-+*@-8.

G./. 'ouse o( .e"resentati%es .oll Call on the /e!ond &ank o( the Gnited /tates on $uly ), +,)O
?ea Botes (10= ?eas): $ohn Muincy #dams 6B.#. <ar2ard +/*/8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*,+-+*-*8E President of the !.". 6+*(@-+*(B8 %hilton #llan H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Lentucky, +*,+-+*,/8 <eman #llen H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Aermont, +*,+-+*,B8 Ro)ert #llison H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+- +*,,8 :athan #ppleton H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*,+-+*,,, +*-(8 William #rmstrong H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Airginia, +*(@-+*,,8 .homas &. #rnold H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-.ennessee, +*,+-+*,,, +*-+-+*-,8 William <enry #shley H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0issouri, ?cto)er ,+, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,/8 William Ba)cock H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 $ohn Banks H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,;8 :oyes Bar)er H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(+-+*,@8 $ohn ". Bar)our 6B.#. William and 0ary +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*(,-+*,,8 &aniel L. Barringer H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*(;-+*,@8 Camaliel <enry Barstow H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 Fsaac %hapman Bates 6B.#. 7ale +*1(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(/-+*,@8 Ceorge :i4on Briggs H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*,+-+*-,8E Co2ernor of 0assachusetts 6+*---+*@+8 $ohn %onrad Bucher H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 <enry #dams Bullard 6B.#. <ar2ard +*1/8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Louisiana, +*,+-+*,-E Whig-Louisiana, +*@1-+*@+8 Ceorge Burd H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,@8 .ristam Burges 6#.B. Brown +/B;8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,@8 Rufus %hoate 6#.B. &artmouth +*+B8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*,+-+*,-8 $ohn #llen %ollier H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 Lewis %ondict 6!ni2ersity of Pennsyl2ania +/B-8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican-:ew $ersey, +*++-+*+/, +*(+-+*,,8 "ilas %ondit 6#.B. Princeton +/B@8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*,+-+*,,8 Bates %ooke H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 Eleutheros %ooke H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-?hio, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 Richard 0. %ooper H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*(B-+*,,8E Pres., "tate Bank of :ew $ersey at %amden 6+*+,--(8 .homas %orwin H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-?hio, +*,+-+*-18E Co2ernor of ?hio 6+*-1-+*-(8E "ecretary of the .reasury 6+*@1-+*@,8 Richard %oulter H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, 0arch -, +*(/-0arch ,, +*,@8 Ro)ert %raig H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*(B-+*,,, +*,@-+*-+8 $oseph <. %rane H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-?hio, 0arch -, +*(B-0arch ,, +*,/8 .homas <artley %rawford 6#.B. Princeton +*1-8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,,8 William %reighton $r. H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican-?hio, 0ay -, +*+,-0arch ,, +*+/, +*(/-+*(*, +*(B-+*,,8 <enry &aniel H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Lentucky, 0arch -, +*(/-0arch ,, +*,,8 $ohn &a2is 6B.#. 7ale +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(@-+*,-8E Co2ernor of 0assachusetts 6+*,--+*,@, +*-+-+*-,8 <enry #le4ander "cammell &ear)orn 6B.#. William and 0ary +*1,8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*,+-+*,,8 <armar &enny H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Pennsyl2ania, &ecem)er +@, +*(B-0arch ,, +*,/8 Lewis &ewart H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 Philip &oddridge H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Airginia, 0arch -, +*(B-:o2em)er +B, +*,(8 William &rayton H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-"outh %arolina, 0ay +/, +*(@-0arch ,, +*,,8 William Wolcott Ellsworth 6B.#. 7ale +*+18 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,-8E Co2. of %onnecticut 6+*,*-+*-(8 Ceorge E2ans 6B.#. Bowdoin %ollege +*+@8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0aine, +*(B-+*-+8E !.". "enator 6+*-+-+*-/8 $oshua E2ans $r. H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,,8 Edward E2erett 6B.#. <ar2ard +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(@-+*,@8 <orace E2erett 6#.B. Brown +/B/8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-Aermont, +*(B-+*-,8 $ames 9ord H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,,8 $ohn Cilmore H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,,8 Ceorge Crennell $r. 6#.B. &artmouth +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(B-+*,B8 William <iester H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,/8 $ames Leonard <odges H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*(/-+*,,8 <enry <orn H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,,8 .homas <urst <ughes H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*(B- +*,,8 $a)eQ Williams <untington 6B.#. 7ale +*1;8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,-8 Peter Fhrie $r. H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,,8 Ralph F. Fngersoll 6B.#. 7ale +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(@-+*,,8E !.". 0inister to Russia 6+*-;-+*-*8 William W. Fr2in H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-?hio, +*(B-+*,,8 $aco) %. Fsacks H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(,-+*,,8 &aniel $enifer H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0aryland, +*,+-+*,,, +*,@-+*-+8E !.". 0inister to #ustria 6+*-+- +*-@8 $oseph C. Lendall 6B.#. <ar2ard +*+18 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*(B-+*,,8 $ohn L. Lerr H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0aryland, +*(@-+*(B, +*,+-+*,,8E !.". "enator 60aryland, +*-+-+*-,8 <enry Ling H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,@8 Ro)ert Perkins Letcher H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Lentucky, +*(,-+*,,, +*,--+*,@8E Co2ernor of Lentucky 6+*-1-+*--8 $oel Leith 0ann H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,@8 .homas #le4ander 0arshall 6B.#. 7ale +*+@8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Lentucky, +*,+-+*,@8 Lewis 0a4well H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Airginia, +*(/-+*,,8 William 0c%oy H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*++-+*,,8 Ceorge 0c&uffie H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-"outh %arolina, +*(+-+*,-8E Co2ernor of "outh %arolina 6+*,--+*,;8 .homas 0cLean .hompson 0cLennan H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,B, +*-(-+*-,8E "ec. of the Fnterior 6+*@18 %harles 9enton 0ercer 6#.B. Princeton +/B/8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-Airginia, +*+/-+*,B8

$ohn $ones 0illigan H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-&elaware, +*,+-+*,B8 .homas :ewton $r. H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican-Airginia, +*1+-+*(B, +*(B-+*,1, +*,+-+*,,8 &utee $erauld Pearce 6#.B. Brown +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,/8 Edmund <. Pendleton 6B.#. %olum)ia +*1@8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 :athaniel Pitcher H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*+B-+*(,, +*,+-+*,,8 &a2id Potts $r. H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,B8 $ames 9itQ Randolph H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*(*-+*,,8E !nited "tates collector of internal re2enue 6+*+@-+*-;8 $ohn Reed 6#.B. Brown +*1,8 H !.". %ongressman 69ederalistGWhig-0assachusetts, +*+,-+*+/, +*(+-+*-+8 Erastus Root 6#.B. &artmouth +/B,8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*1,-+*1@, +*1B-+*++, +*+@-+*+/, +*,+-+*,,8 William Russell H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-?hio, +*(/-+*,,, +*-+-+*-,8 Benedict $oseph "emmes H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0aryland, +*(B-+*,,8 William Biddle "hepard H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*(B-+*,/8 #ugustine <enry "hepperd H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*(/-+*,B, +*-+-+*-,, +*-/-+*@+8 William "lade H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Aermont, :o2em)er +, +*,+-0arch ,, +*-,8E Co2ernor of Aermont 6+*---+*-;8 "amuel #. "mith H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, ?cto)er +,, +*(B-0arch ,, +*,,8 Fsaac "outhard H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*,+-+*,,8 $ohn "el)y "pence H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0aryland, +*(,-+*(@, +*,+-+*,,8E !.". "enator 60aryland, +*,;-+*-18 William "tan)ery H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-?hio, ?cto)er B, +*(/-0arch ,, +*,,8 Philander "tephens H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,,8 #ndrew "tewart H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-Pennsyl2ania, +*(+-+*(B, +*,+-+*,@, +*-,-+*-B8 William L. "torrs 6B.#. 7ale +*+-8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,,, +*,B-+*-18 $oel Barlow "utherland 6B.#. !ni2ersity of Pennsyl2ania +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(/-+*,/8 $ohn W. .aylor 6#.B. !nion %ollege +*1,8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican-:ew 7ork, +*+,-+*,,8 Philemon .homas H !.". %ongressman 6Louisiana, +*,+-+*,@8 %hristopher .ompkins H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Lentucky, +*,+-+*,@8 Phineas Lyman .racy 6B.#. 7ale +*1;8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, +*(/-+*,,8 $oseph Aance H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-?hio, +*(+-+*,@, +*-,-+*-/8E Co2ernor of ?hio 6+*,;-+*,*8 Culian %. Aerplanck 6B.#. %olum)ia +*1+8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork +*(@-+*,,8 "amuel 9inley Ainton 6B.#. Williams %ollege +*+-8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-?hio, +*(,-+*,/, +*-,-+*@+8 Ceorge %or)in Washington H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0aryland, +*(/-+*,,, +*,@-+*,/8 $ohn Coddard Watmough H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,@8 Edward &ouglass White H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-Louisiana, +*(B-+*,-, +*,B-+*-,8E Co2ernor of Louisiana 6+*,--+*,*8 Elisha Whittlesey H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-?hio, +*(,-+*,*8E 9irst %omptroller of the .reasury 6+*-B-+*@/, +*;+-+*;,8 9rederick Whittlesey 6B.#. 7ale +*+*8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,@8 %harles #. Wickliffe H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Lentucky, +*(,-+*,,, +*;+-+*;,8E Postmaster Ceneral of the !.". 6+*-+-+*-@8 Lewis Williams 6B.#. !ni2. of :orth %arolina +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican-:orth %arolina, +*+@-+*-(8 E)eneQer 7oung 6B.#. 7ale +*1;8 H !.". %ongressman 6%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,@8 &ay Botes (8* &ays, * Gissin+): $ohn #dair H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Lentucky, +*,+-+*,,8E Co2ernor of Lentucky 6+*(1-+*(-8 0ark #le4ander 6B.#. !ni2ersity of :orth %arolina +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*+B-+*,,8 $ohn #nderson 6B.#. Bowdoin %ollege +*+,8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, +*(@-+*,,8 William ". #rcher 6B.#. William and 0ary +*1;8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-Airginia, +*(1-+*,@8E !.". "enator 6Whig-Airginia, +*-+-+*-/8 $ames Bates H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, +*,+-+*,,8 "amuel Beardsley H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,;, +*-,-+*--8E #ttorney Ceneral of :ew 7ork 6+*,;-+*,*8 $ohn Bell H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(/-+*-+8E !.". "enator 6Whig-.ennessee, +*-/-+*@B8 $ohn .. Bergen H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 Lauchlin Bethune H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 $ames Blair H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-"outh %arolina, +*(+-+*((, +*(B-+*,-8 $ohn Blair H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(,-+*,@8 $oseph Bouck H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 .homas .yler Bouldin H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*(B-+*,,, +*,,-+*,-8 $ohn Branch H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*,+-+*,,8E !.". "enator 6+*(,-+*(B8E "ecretary of the :a2y 6+*(B-+*,+8 %hurchill %. %am)releng H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*(+-+*,B8E !.". 0inister to Russia 6+*-1-+*-+8 $ohn %arr H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Fndiana, +*,+-+*,/, +*,B-+*-+8 .homas %handler H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(B-+*,,8 $oseph William %hinn 6B.#. !nion %ollege +*+B8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*,+-+*,@8 :athaniel <er)ert %lai)orne H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*(@-+*,/8 %lement %omer %lay H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-#la)ama, +*(B-+*,@8E Co2ernor of #la)ama 6+*,;-+*,/8 #ugustin "mith %layton H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, $anuary (+, +*,(-0arch ,, +*,@8 Richard %oke $r. H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*(B-+*,,8 <enry William %onnor H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*(+-+*-+8 Warren Ransom &a2is H !.". %ongressman 6:ullifier-"outh %arolina, +*(/-+*,@8 %harles &ayan H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 !lysses 9reeman &ou)leday H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,, +*,@-+*,/8 $ohn 0yers 9elder 6B.#. 7ale +*1-8 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-"outh %arolina, +*,+-+*,@8 William 9itQgerald H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*,+-+*,,8 .homas 9lournoy 9oster H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, +*(B-+*,@, +*-+-+*-,8 :athan Caither H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Lentucky, +*(B-+*,,8 William 9itQhugh Cordon H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, $anuary (@, +*,1-0arch ,, +*,@8 $ohn Ling Criffin H !.". %ongressman 6:ullifier-"outh %arolina, +*,+-+*-+8 .homas <. <all H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*+/-+*(@, +*(/-+*,@8

William <all H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8E Co2ernor of .ennessee 6+*(B8 $oseph <ammons H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, 0arch -, +*(B-0arch ,, +*,,8 $oseph 0orrill <arper H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,@8 #l)ert Callatin <awes H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Lentucky, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,/8 0ica'ah .homas <awkins H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, &ecem)er +@, +*,+-0arch ,, +*-+8 0ichael <offman H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*(@-+*,,8 William <ogan 6B.#. %olum)ia +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 %ornelius <olland H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, &ecem)er ;, +*,1-0arch ,, +*,,8 Ben'amin %. <oward 6#.B. Princeton +*1B8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aryland, +*(B-+*,,, +*,@-+*,B8 <enry <u))ard 6#.B. &artmouth +*1,8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(B-+*,@8 Leonard $ar2is 6B.#. <ar2ard +*118 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, +*(B-+*,/8 %a2e $ohnson H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(B-+*,/, +*,B-+*-@8E Postmaster Ceneral of the !nited "tates 6+*-@-+*-B8 Edward La2anagh H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, +*,+-+*,@8E !.". %hargU d3#ffaires to Portugal 6+*,@-+*-+8 William Lennon "r. H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-?hio, +*(B-+*,,, +*,@-+*,/8 #dam Ling H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(/-+*,,8 $ohn Ling H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 <enry Cray)ill Lamar H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, &ecem)er /, +*(B-0arch ,, +*,,8 <umphrey <owe Lea2itt H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-?hio, +*,1-+*,-8E $udge of !.". &istrict %ourt for the &istrict of ?hio 6+*,--+*/+8 $oseph Lecompte H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Lentucky, 6+*(@-+*,,8 &i4on <all Lewis H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-#la)ama, +*(B-+*--8E !.". "enator 6#la)ama, +*---+*-*8 %hittenden Lyon H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Lentucky, +*(/-+*,@8 "amuel Wright 0ardis H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-#la)ama, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,@8 $ohn 7oung 0ason H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*,+-+*,/8E "ecretary of the :a2y 6+*---+*-@, +*-;-+*-B8 $ohnathan 0c%arty H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Fndiana, +*,+-+*,/8 Rufus 0cFntire 6#.B. &artmouth +*1B8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, +*(/-+*,@8 $ames F2er 0cLay H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*-B8 .homas R. 0itchell 6B.#. <ar2ard +*1(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)licanG$acksonian-"outh %arolina, +*(+-+*(,, +*(@-+*(B, +*,+-+*,,8 &aniel :ewnan H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 William .hompson :uckolls H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-"outh %arolina, +*(/-+*,,8 $ohn 0ercer Patton H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, :o2em)er (@, +*,1-#pril /, +*,*8 $o) Pierson 6B.#. Williams %ollege +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,@8 $ames L. Polk H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(@-+*,B8E President of the !nited "tates 6+*-@-+*-B8 Edward %. Reed 6#.B. &artmouth +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 #)raham Rencher H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*(B-+*,B, +*-+-+*-,8E !.". 0inister to Portugal 6+*-,-+*-/8 $ohn $ones Roane H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 :athan "oule H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 $esse "peight H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-:orth %arolina, +*(B-+*,/8E !.". "enator 6&emocrat-0ississippi, +*-@-+*-/8 $ames Fsrael "tandifer H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-.ennessee, +*(,-+*(@, +*(B-+*,/8 9rancis .homas H !.". %ongressman 6$ackson-0aryland, +*,+-+*-+, +*;+-+*;B8E Co2ernor of 0aryland 6+*-+-+*--8 Wiley .hompson H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, 0arch -, +*(+-0arch ,, +*,,8 $ohn .homson H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-?hio, +*(@-+*(/, +*(B-+*,/8 #aron Ward H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*(@-+*(B, +*,+-+*,/, +*-+-+*-,8 &aniel Wardwell 6#.B. Brown +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,/8 $ames 0oore Wayne 6#.B. Princeton +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, +*(B-+*,@8 $ohn Wingate Weeks H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(B-+*,,8 Crattan <enry Wheeler H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 %amp)ell Patrick White H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*(B-+*,@8 Richard <enry Wilde H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)lican-Ceorgia, +*+@-+*+/, +*(@, +*(/-+*,@8 $ohn ..<. Worthington H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aryland, +*,+-+*,,, +*,/-+*-+8 #)sent> William C. #ngel H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*(@-+*(/, +*(B-+*,,8 Ratliff Boon H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Fndiana, +*(@-+*(/, +*(B-+*,B8 $ohn Brodhead H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(B-+*,,8 $ohn %urtis Brodhead H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,, +*,/-+*,B8 "amuel Price %arson H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:orth %arolina, +*(@-+*,,8E "ecretary of "tate of the Repu)lic of .e4as 6+*,;-+*,*8 $oseph &uncan H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Fllinois, +*(/-+*,-8E Co2ernor of Fllinois 6+*,--+*,*8 9ree)orn Carrettson $ewett H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 Cerrit 7ates Lansing 6B.#. !nion %ollege +*118 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,/8 $ames Lent H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, 0arch -, +*(B-9e)ruary ((, +*,,8 Ro)ert 0c%oy H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, :o2em)er ((, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,,8 <enry #ugustus Philip 0uhlen)erg H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,*8E !.". 0inister to #ustria 6+*,*-+*-18 $eremiah :elson 6#.B. &artmouth +/B18 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*1@-+*1/, +*+@-+*(@, +*,+-+*,,8 9ranklin E. Plummer H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0ississippi, 0arch -, +*,+-0arch ,, +*,@8 #ndrew "te2enson H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Airginia, +*(+-+*,-8E "peaker of the <ouse of Representati2es 6+*(/-+*,-8E !.". 0inister to Creat Britain 6+*,;-+*-+8 "amuel $. Wilkin 6#.B. Princeton +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 :ote> #n attempt was made )y 0organ #. <eard to assassinate !.". %ongressman .homas &. #rnold 6#nti-$acksonian-.ennessee8 on 0ay +-, +*,(, as he descended the west steps of the !.". %apitol in Washington, &.%., !.".#. :ote> !.". %ongressman %harles %lement $ohnston 6$acksonian-Airginia8 died in office on $une +/, +*,(. :ote> !.". %ongressman Ceorge Edward 0itchell 6$acksonian-0aryland8 died in office in Washington, &.%. on $une (*, +*,(.

#%y League Politi!ians and Their Jote on the /e!ond &ank o( the Gnited /tates in +,)O
?ea Botes: !.". "enators> $ohn 0. %layton 6B.#. 7ale +*+@8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-&elaware, +*(B-+*,;E Whig-&elaware, +*-@-+*-BE +*@,-+*@;8 "amuel #ugustus 9oot 6B.#. 7ale +/B/8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(/-+*,,8 #sher Ro))ins 6B.#. 7ale +/*(8 H !.". "enator 6Whig-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,B8 <oratio "eymour 6B.#. 7ale +/B/8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-Aermont, +*(+-+*,,8 Cideon .omlinson 6B.#. 7ale +*1(8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*,+-+*,/8 Peleg "prague 6B.#. <ar2ard +*+(8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-0aine, +*(B-+*,@8 .heodore 9relinghuysen 6#.B. Princeton +*1-8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*(B-+*,@8 #rnold :audain 6#.B. Princeton +*1;8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-&elaware, +*,1-+*,;8 Ceorge 0. &allas 6#.B. Princeton +*+18 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,,8 "amuel Bell 6#.B. &artmouth +/B,8 H !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(,-+*,@8 &aniel We)ster 6#.B. &artmouth +*1+8 H !.". "enator 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(/-+*-+, +*-@-+*@18 $ohn <olmes 6#.B. Brown +/B;8 H !.". "enator 6#dams Repu)lican-0aine, +*(1-+*(/, +*(B-+*,,8 0em)ers of the !.". <ouse of Representati2es> Fsaac %hapman Bates 6B.#. 7ale +*1(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(/-+*,@8 $ohn &a2is 6B.#. 7ale +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(@-+*,-8 William Wolcott Ellsworth 6B.#. 7ale +*+18 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,-8 $a)eQ Williams <untington 6B.#. 7ale +*1;8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,-8 Ralph F. Fngersoll 6B.#. 7ale +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-%onnecticut, +*(@-+*,,8 .homas #le4ander 0arshall 6B.#. 7ale +*+@8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Lentucky, +*,+-+*,@8 William L. "torrs 6B.#. 7ale +*+-8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,,, +*,B-+*-18 Phineas Lyman .racy 6B.#. 7ale +*1;8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, +*(/-+*,,8 9rederick Whittlesey 6B.#. 7ale +*+*8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-0asonic-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,@8 E)eneQer 7oung 6B.#. 7ale +*1;8 H !.". %ongressman 6%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,@8 $ohn Muincy #dams 6B.#. <ar2ard +/*/8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*,+-+*-*8E President of the !.". 6+*(@-+*(B8 <enry #dams Bullard 6B.#. <ar2ard +*1/8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Louisiana, +*,+-+*,-E Whig-Louisiana, +*@1-+*@+8 Edward E2erett 6B.#. <ar2ard +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(@-+*,@8 $oseph C. Lendall 6B.#. <ar2ard +*+18 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*(B-+*,,8 "ilas %ondit 6#.B. Princeton +/B@8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*,+-+*,,8 .homas <artley %rawford 6#.B. Princeton +*1-8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(B-+*,,8 %harles 9enton 0ercer 6#.B. Princeton +/B/8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-Airginia, +*+/-+*,B8 Rufus %hoate 6#.B. &artmouth +*+B8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*,+-+*,-8 Ceorge Crennell $r. 6#.B. &artmouth +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(B-+*,B8 Erastus Root 6#.B. &artmouth +/B,8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*1,-+*1@, +*1B-+*++, +*+@-+*+/, +*,+-+*,,8 .ristam Burges 6#.B. Brown +/B;8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,@8 <orace E2erett 6#.B. Brown +/B/8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig-Aermont, +*(B-+*-,8 &utee $erauld Pearce 6#.B. Brown +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,/8 $ohn Reed 6#.B. Brown +*1,8 H !.". %ongressman 69ederalistGWhig-0assachusetts, +*+,-+*+/, +*(+-+*-+8 Edmund <. Pendleton 6B.#. %olum)ia +*1@8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 Culian %. Aerplanck 6B.#. %olum)ia +*1+8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork +*(@-+*,,8 $oel Barlow "utherland 6B.#. !ni2ersity of Pennsyl2ania +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Pennsyl2ania, +*(/-+*,/8 &ay Botes: !.". "enators> Elias Lent Lane 6B.#. 7ale +*+,8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Fllinois, +*(@-+*,@8 William Learned 0arcy 6#.B. Brown +*1*8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 Ceorge 0. Bi)) 6#.B. Princeton +/B(8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Lentucky, +*++-+*+-, +*(B-+*,@8 0ahlon &ickerson 6#.B. Princeton +/*B8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*+/-+*,,8 $ohn 9orsyth 6#.B. Princeton +/BB8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, +*+*-+*+B, +*(B-+*,-8 Ceorge 0. .roup 6#.B. Princeton +/B/8 H !.". "enator 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, +*+;-+*+*, +*(B-+*,,8 0em)ers of the !.". <ouse of Representati2es> $ohn 0yers 9elder 6B.#. 7ale +*1-8 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-"outh %arolina, +*,+-+*,@8 Leonard $ar2is 6B.#. <ar2ard +*118 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, +*(B-+*,/8 .homas R. 0itchell 6B.#. <ar2ard +*1(8 H !.". %ongressman 6Repu)licanG$acksonian-"outh %arolina, +*(+-+*(,, +*(@-+*(B, +*,+-+*,,8 Ben'amin %. <oward 6#.B. Princeton +*1B8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonianG&emocrat-0aryland, +*(B-+*,,, +*,@-+*,B8 $ames 0oore Wayne 6#.B. Princeton +*1*8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-Ceorgia, +*(B-+*,@8 <enry <u))ard 6#.B. &artmouth +*1,8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(B-+*,@8 Rufus 0cFntire 6#.B. &artmouth +*1B8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-0aine, +*(/-+*,@8 Edward %. Reed 6#.B. &artmouth +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 &aniel Wardwell 6#.B. Brown +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,/8 William <ogan 6B.#. %olum)ia +*++8 H !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8 3 sent: Ro)ert Woodward Barnwell 6B.#. <ar2ard +*(+8 H !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-"outh %arolina, +*(B-+*,,8 $eremiah :elson 6#.B. &artmouth +/B18 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-0assachusetts, +*1@-+*1/, +*+@-+*(@, +*,+-+*,,8 "amuel $. Wilkin 6#.B. Princeton +*+(8 H !.". %ongressman 6#nti-$acksonian-:ew 7ork, +*,+-+*,,8

#%y League Politi!ians who %oted 5Sea6 on the /e!ond &ank o( the Gnited /tates in +,)O

$ohn 0. %layton B.#. 7ale +*+@ !.". "enator 6#$&elaware, +*(B-+*,;E W&elaware, +*-@-+*-BE ?&elaware +*@,-+*@;8

"amuel #ugustus 9oot B.#. 7ale +/B/ !.". "enator 6#$%onnecticut, +*(/-+*,,8

#sher Ro))ins B.#. 7ale +/*( !.". "enator 6Whig-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,B8

<oratio "eymour B.#. 7ale +/B/ !.". "enator 6#$Aermont, +*(+-+*,,8

Cideon .omlinson B.#. 7ale +*1( !.". "enator 6#$%onnecticut, +*,+-+*,/8

$ohn Muincy #dams B.#. <ar2ard +/*/ !.". %ongressman 6Whig0ass., +*,+-+*-*8E ?2erseer of <ar2ard !ni2ersity 6+*,1-+*-*8

Edward E2erett B.#. <ar2ard +*++ Ph.&. Cottingen +*+/ !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(@-+*,@8

Peleg "prague B.#. <ar2ard +*+( !.". "enator 6#nti$acksonian-0aine, +*(B-+*,@8

&aniel We)ster #.B. &artmouth +*1+ !.". "enator 6Whig-0ass., +*(/-+*-+, +*-@-+*@18

"amuel Bell #.B. &artmouth +/B, !.". "enator 6#nti$acksonian-:ew <ampshire, +*(,-+*,@8

Fsaac %hapman Bates B.#. 7ale +*1( !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*(/-+*,@8

$ohn &a2is B.#. 7ale +*+( !.". %ongressman 6Whig0assachusetts, +*(@+*,-8

William Wolcott Ellsworth B.#. 7ale +*+1 !.". %ongressman 6#nti$acksonian-%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,-8

$a)eQ W. <untington B.#. 7ale +*1; !.". %ongressman 6Whig%onnecticut, +*(B-+*,-8

Rufus %hoate #.B. &artmouth +*+B !.". %ongressman 6Whig0assachusetts, +*,+-+*,-8

.heodore 9relinghuysen #.B. Princeton +*1!.". "enator 6#nti$acksonian-:ew $ersey, +*(B-+*,@8

#rnold :audain #.B. Princeton +*1; !.". "enator 6#nti-$acksonian&elaware, +*,1-+*,;8

Ceorge 0. &allas #.B. Princeton +*+1 !.". "enator 6$acksonianPennsyl2ania, +*,+-+*,,8

$ohn <olmes #.B. Brown +/B; !.". "enator 6#dams Repu)lican-0aine, +*(1+*(/, +*(B-+*,,8

Culian %. Aerplanck B.#. %olum)ia +*1+ !.". %ongressman 6$acksonian-:ew 7ork +*(@-+*,,8

President $ackson3s Aeto 0essage Regarding the "econd Bank of the !nited "tates
W#"<F:C.?:, $uly +1, +*,(. .o the "enate. .he )ill to modify and continue the act entitled #n act to incorporate the su)scri)ers to the Bank of the !nited "tates was presented to me on the -th $uly instant. <a2ing considered it with that solemn regard to the principles of the %onstitution which the day was calculated to inspire, and come to the conclusion that it ought not to )ecome a law, F herewith return it to the "enate, in which it originated, with my o)'ections. # )ank of the !nited "tates is in many respects con2enient for the Co2ernment and useful to the people. Entertaining this opinion, and deeply impressed with the )elief that some of the powers and pri2ileges possessed )y the e4isting )ank are unauthoriQed )y the %onstitution, su)2ersi2e of the rights of the "tates, and dangerous to the li)erties of the people, F felt it my duty at an early period of my #dministration to call the attention of %ongress to the practica)ility of organiQing an institution com)ining all its ad2antages and o)2iating these o)'ections. F sincerely regret that in the act )efore me F can percei2e none of those modifications of the )ank charter which are necessary, in my opinion, to make it compati)le with 'ustice, with sound policy, or with the %onstitution of our country. .he present corporate )ody, denominated the president, directors, and company of the Bank of the !nited "tates, will ha2e e4isted at the time this act is intended to take effect twenty years. Ft en'oys an e4clusi2e pri2ilege of )anking under the authority of the Ceneral Co2ernment, a monopoly of its fa2or and support, and, as a necessary conseDuence, almost a monopoly of the foreign and domestic e4change. .he powers, pri2ileges, and fa2ors )estowed upon it in the original charter, )y increasing the 2alue of the stock far a)o2e its par 2alue, operated as a gratuity of many millions to the stockholders. #n apology may )e found for the failure to guard against this result in the consideration that the effect of the original act of incorporation could not )e certainly foreseen at the time of its passage. .he act )efore me proposes another gratuity to the holders of the same stock, and in many cases to the same men, of at least se2en millions more. .his donation finds no apology in any uncertainty as to the effect of the act. ?n all hands it is conceded that its passage will increase at least so or ,1 per cent more the market price of the stock, su)'ect to the payment of the annuity of 5(11,111 per year secured )y the act, thus adding in a moment one-fourth to its par 2alue. Ft is not our own citiQens only who are to recei2e the )ounty of our Co2ernment. 0ore than eight millions of the stock of this )ank are held )y foreigners. By this act the #merican Repu)lic proposes 2irtually to make them a present of some millions of dollars. 9or these gratuities to foreigners and to some of our own opulent citiQens the act secures no eDui2alent whate2er. .hey are the certain gains of the present stockholders under the operation of this act, after making full allowance for the payment of the )onus. E2ery monopoly and all e4clusi2e pri2ileges are granted at the e4pense of the pu)lic, which ought to recei2e a fair eDui2alent. .he many millions which this act proposes to )estow on the stockholders of the e4isting )ank must come directly or indirectly out of the earnings of the #merican people. Ft is due to them, therefore, if their Co2ernment sell monopolies and e4clusi2e pri2ileges, that they should at least e4act for them as much as they are worth in open market. .he 2alue of the monopoly in this case may )e correctly ascertained. .he twenty-eight millions of stock would pro)a)ly )e at an ad2ance of @1 per cent, and command in market at least 5-(,111,111, su)'ect to the payment of the present )onus. .he present 2alue of the monopoly, therefore, is 5+/,111,111, and this the act proposes to sell for three millions, paya)le in fifteen annual installments of 5(11,111 each. Ft is not concei2a)le how the present stockholders can ha2e any claim to the special fa2or of the Co2ernment. .he present corporation has en'oyed its monopoly during the period stipulated in the original contract. Ff we must ha2e such a corporation, why should not the Co2ernment sell out the whole stock and thus secure to the people the full market 2alue of the pri2ileges grantedN Why should not %ongress create and sell twenty-eight millions of stock, incorporating the purchasers with all the powers and pri2ileges secured in this act and putting the premium upon the sales into the .reasuryN But this act does not permit competition in the purchase of this monopoly. Ft seems to )e predicated on the erroneous idea that the present stockholders ha2e a prescripti2e right not only to the fa2or )ut to the )ounty of Co2ernment. Ft appears that more than a fourth part of the stock is held )y foreigners and the residue is held )y a few hundred of our own citiQens, chiefly of the richest class. 9or their )enefit does this act e4clude the whole #merican people from competition in the purchase of this monopoly and dispose of it for many millions less than it is worth. .his seems the less e4cusa)le )ecause some of our citiQens not now stockholders petitioned that the door of competition might )e opened, and offered to take a charter on terms much more fa2ora)le to the Co2ernment and country. But this proposition, although made )y men whose aggregate wealth is )elie2ed to )e eDual to all the pri2ate stock in the e4isting )ank, has )een set aside, and the )ounty of our Co2ernment is proposed to )e again )estowed on the few who ha2e )een fortunate enough to secure the stock and at this moment wield the power of the e4isting institution. F can not percei2e the 'ustice or policy of this course. Ff our Co2ernment must sell monopolies, it would seem to )e its duty to take nothing less than their full 2alue, and if gratuities must )e made once in fifteen or twenty years let them not )e )estowed on the su)'ects of a foreign go2ernment nor upon a designated and fa2ored class of men in our own country. Ft is )ut 'ustice and good policy, as far as the nature of the case will admit, to confine our fa2ors to our own fellow-citiQens, and let each in his turn en'oy an opportunity to profit )y our )ounty. Fn the )earings of the act )efore me upon these points F find ample reasons why it should not )ecome a law. Ft has )een urged as an argument in fa2or of rechartering the present )ank that the calling in its loans will produce great em)arrassment and distress. .he time allowed to close its concerns is ample, and if it has )een well managed its pressure will )e light, and hea2y only in case its management has )een )ad. Ff, therefore, it shall produce distress, the fault will )e its own, and it would furnish a reason against renewing a power which has )een so o)2iously a)used. But will there e2er )e a time when this reason will )e less powerfulN .o acknowledge its force is

to admit that the )ank ought to )e perpetual, and as a conseDuence the present stockholders and those inheriting their rights as successors )e esta)lished a pri2ileged order, clothed )oth with great political power and en'oying immense pecuniary ad2antages from their connection with the Co2ernment. .he modifications of the e4isting charter proposed )y this act are not such, in my 2iew, as make it consistent with the rights of the "tates or the li)erties of the people. .he Dualification of the right of the )ank to hold real estate, the limitation of its power to esta)lish )ranches, and the power reser2ed to %ongress to for)id the circulation of small notes are restrictions comparati2ely of little 2alue or importance. #ll the o)'ectiona)le principles of the e4isting corporation, and most of its odious features, are retained without alle2iation. .he fourth section pro2ides that the notes or )ills of the said corporation, although the same )e, on the faces thereof, respecti2ely made paya)le at one place only, shall ne2ertheless )e recei2ed )y the said corporation at the )ank or at any of the offices of discount and deposit thereof if tendered in liDuidation or payment of any )alance or )alances due to said corporation or to such office of discount and deposit from any other incorporated )ank. .his pro2ision secures to the "tate )anks a legal pri2ilege in the Bank of the !nited "tates which is withheld from all pri2ate citiQens. Ff a "tate )ank in Philadelphia owe the Bank of the !nited "tates and ha2e notes issued )y the "t. Louis )ranch, it can pay the de)t with those notes, )ut if a merchant, mechanic, or other pri2ate citiQen )e in like circumstances he can not )y law pay his de)t with those notes, )ut must sell them at a discount or send them to "t. Louis to )e cashed. .his )oon conceded to the "tate )anks, though not un'ust in itself, is most odious )ecause it does not measure out eDual 'ustice to the high and the low, the rich and the poor. .o the e4tent of its practical effect it is a )ond of union among the )anking esta)lishments of the nation, erecting them into an interest separate from that of the people, and its necessary tendency is to unite the Bank of the !nited "tates and the "tate )anks in any measure which may )e thought conduci2e to their common interest. .he ninth section of the act recogniQes principles of worse tendency than any pro2ision of the present charter. Ft enacts that the cashier of the )ank shall annually report to the "ecretary of the .reasury the names of all stockholders who are not resident citiQens of the !nited "tates, and on the application of the treasurer of any "tate shall make out and transmit to such treasurer a list of stockholders residing in or citiQens of such "tate, with the amount of stock owned )y each. #lthough this pro2ision, taken in connection with a decision of the "upreme %ourt, surrenders, )y its silence, the right of the "tates to ta4 the )anking institutions created )y this corporation under the name of )ranches throughout the !nion, it is e2idently intended to )e construed as a concession of their right to ta4 that portion of the stock which may )e held )y their own citiQens and residents. Fn this light, if the act )ecomes a law, it will )e understood )y the "tates, who will pro)a)ly proceed to le2y a ta4 eDual to that paid upon the stock of )anks incorporated )y themsel2es. Fn some "tates that ta4 is now F per cent, either on the capital or on the shares, and that may )e assumed as the amount which all citiQen or resident stockholders would )e ta4ed under the operation of this act. #s it is only the stock held in the "tates and not that employed within them which would )e su)'ect to ta4ation, and as the names of foreign stockholders are not to )e reported to the treasurers of the "tates, it is o)2ious that the stock held )y them will )e e4empt from this )urden. .heir annual profits will therefore )e F per cent more than the citiQen stockholders, and as the annual di2idends of the )ank may )e safely estimated at / per cent, the stock will )e worth +1 or +@ per cent more to foreigners than to citiQens of the !nited "tates. .o appreciate the effects which this state of things will produce, we must take a )rief re2iew of the operations and present condition of the Bank of the !nited "tates. By documents su)mitted to %ongress at the present session it appears that on the +st of $anuary, +*,(, of the twenty-eight millions of pri2ate stock in the corporation, 5*,-1@,@11 were held )y foreigners, mostly of Creat Britain. .he amount of stock held in the nine Western and "outhwestern "tates is 5+-1,(11, and in the four "outhern "tates is 5@,;(,,+11, and in the 0iddle and Eastern "tates is a)out 5+,,@((,111. .he profits of the )ank in +*,+, as shown in a statement to %ongress, were a)out 5,,-@@,@B*E of this there accrued in the nine western "tates a)out 5+,;-1,1-*E in the four "outhern "tates a)out 5,@(,@1/, and in the 0iddle and Eastern "tates a)out 5+,-;,,1-+. #s little stock is held in the West, it is o)2ious that the de)t of the people in that section to the )ank is principally a de)t to the Eastern and foreign stockholdersE that the interest they pay upon it is carried into the Eastern "tates and into Europe, and that it is a )urden upon their industry and a drain of their currency, which no country can )ear without incon2enience and occasional distress. .o meet this )urden and eDualiQe the e4change operations of the )ank, the amount of specie drawn from those "tates through its )ranches within the last two years, as shown )y its official reports, was a)out 5;,111,111. 0ore than half a million of this amount does not stop in the Eastern "tates, )ut passes on to Europe to pay the di2idends of the foreign stockholders. Fn the principle of ta4ation recogniQed )y this act the Western "tates find no adeDuate compensation for this perpetual )urden on their industry and drain of their currency. .he )ranch )ank at 0o)ile made last year 5B@,+-1, yet under the pro2isions of this act the "tate of #la)ama can raise no re2enue from these profita)le operations, )ecause not a share of the stock is held )y any of her citiQens. 0ississippi and 0issouri are in the same condition in relation to the )ranches at :atcheQ and "t. Louis, and such, in a greater or less degree, is the condition of e2ery Western "tate. .he tendency of the plan of ta4ation which this act proposes will )e to place the whole !nited "tates in the same relation to foreign countries which the Western "tates now )ear to the Eastern. When )y a ta4 on resident stockholders the stock of this )ank is made worth +1 or +@ per cent more to foreigners than to residents, most of it will ine2ita)ly lea2e the country. .hus will this pro2ision in its practical effect depri2e the Eastern as well as the "outhern and Western "tates of the means of raising a re2enue from the e4tension of )usiness and great profits of this institution. Ft will make the #merican people de)tors to aliens in nearly the whole amount due to this )ank, and send across the #tlantic from two to fi2e millions of specie e2ery year to pay the )ank di2idends. Fn another of its )earings this pro2ision is fraught with danger. ?f the twenty-fi2e directors of this )ank fi2e are chosen )y the Co2ernment and twenty )y the citiQen stockholders. 9rom all 2oice in these elections the foreign stockholders are e4cluded )y the charter. Fn proportion, therefore, as the stock is transferred to foreign holders the e4tent of suffrage in the choice of directors is curtailed. #lready is almost a third of the stock in foreign hands and not represented in elections. Ft is constantly passing out of the country, and this act will accelerate its departure. .he entire control of the institution would necessarily fall into the hands of a few citiQen stockholders, and the ease with which the o)'ect would )e accomplished would )e a temptation to designing men to secure that control in their own hands )y monopoliQing the remaining stock. .here is danger that a president and directors would then )e a)le to elect themsel2es from year to year, and without responsi)ility or control manage the whole concerns of the )ank during the e4istence of its charter. Ft is easy to concei2e that great e2ils to our country and its institutions millet flow from such a concentration of power in the hands of a few men irresponsi)le to the people.

Fs there no danger to our li)erty and independence in a )ank that in its nature has so little to )ind it to our countryN .he president of the )ank has told us that most of the "tate )anks e4ist )y its for)earance. "hould its influence )ecome concentered, as it may under the operation of such an act as this, in the hands of a self-elected directory whose interests are identified with those of the foreign stockholders, will there not )e cause to trem)le for the purity of our elections in peace and for the independence of our country in warN .heir power would )e great whene2er they might choose to e4ert itE )ut if this monopoly were regularly renewed e2ery fifteen or twenty years on terms proposed )y themsel2es, they might seldom in peace put forth their strength to influence elections or control the affairs of the nation. But if any pri2ate citiQen or pu)lic functionary should interpose to curtail its powers or pre2ent a renewal of its pri2ileges, it can not )e dou)ted that he would )e made to feel its influence. "hould the stock of the )ank principally pass into the hands of the su)'ects of a foreign country, and we should unfortunately )ecome in2ol2ed in a war with that country, what would )e our conditionN ?f the course which would )e pursued )y a )ank almost wholly owned )y the su)'ects of a foreign power, and managed )y those whose interests, if not affections, would run in the same direction there can )e no dou)t. #ll its operations within would )e in aid of the hostile fleets and armies without. %ontrolling our currency, recei2ing our pu)lic moneys, and holding thousands of our citiQens in dependence, it would )e more formida)le and dangerous than the na2al and military power of the enemy. Ff we must ha2e a )ank with pri2ate stockholders, e2ery consideration of sound policy and e2ery impulse of #merican feeling admonishes that it should )e !urely (merican. Fts stockholders should )e composed e4clusi2ely of our own citiQens, who at least ought to )e friendly to our Co2ernment and willing to support it in times of difficulty and danger. "o a)undant is domestic capital that competition in su)scri)ing for the stock of local )anks has recently led almost to riots. .o a )ank e4clusi2ely of #merican stockholders, possessing the powers and pri2ileges granted )y this act, su)scriptions for 5(11,111,111 could )e readily o)tained. Fnstead of sending a)road the stock of the )ank in which the Co2ernment must deposit its funds and on which it must rely to sustain its credit in times of emergency, it would rather seem to )e e4pedient to prohi)it its sale to aliens under penalty of a)solute forfeiture. Ft is maintained )y the ad2ocates of the )ank that its constitutionality in all its features ought to )e considered as settled )y precedent and )y the decision of the "upreme %ourt. .o this conclusion F can not assent. 0ere precedent is a dangerous source of authority, and should not )e regarded as deciding Duestions of constitutional power e4cept where the acDuiescence of the people and the "tates can )e considered as well settled. "o far from this )eing the case on this su)'ect, an argument against the )ank might )e )ased on precedent. ?ne %ongress, in +/B+, decided in fa2or of a )ankE another, in +*++, decided against it. ?ne %ongress, in +*+@, decided against a )ankE another, in +*+;, decided in its fa2or. Prior to the present %ongress, therefore, the precedents drawn from that source were eDual. Ff we resort to the "tates, the e4pressions of legislati2e, 'udicial, and e4ecuti2e opinions against the )ank ha2e )een pro)a)ly to those in its fa2or as - to +. .here is nothing in precedent, therefore, which, if its authority were admitted, ought to weigh in fa2or of the act )efore me. Ff the opinion of the "upreme %ourt co2ered the whole ground of this act, it ought not to control the coordinate authorities of this Co2ernment. .he %ongress, the E4ecuti2e, and the %ourt must each for itself )e guided )y its own opinion of the %onstitution. Each pu)lic officer who takes an oath to support the %onstitution swears that he will support it as he understands it, and not as it is understood )y others. Ft is as much the duty of the <ouse of Representati2es, of the "enate, and of the President to decide upon the constitutionality of any )ill or resolution which may )e presented to them for passage or appro2al as it is of the supreme 'udges when it may )e )rought )efore them for 'udicial decision. .he opinion of the 'udges has no more authority o2er %ongress than the opinion of %ongress has o2er the 'udges, and on that point the President is independent of )oth. .he authority of the "upreme %ourt must not, therefore, )e permitted to control the %ongress or the E4ecuti2e when acting in their legislati2e capacities, )ut to ha2e only such influence as the force of their reasoning may deser2e. But in the case relied upon the "upreme %ourt ha2e not decided that all the features of this corporation are compati)le with the %onstitution. Ft is true that the court ha2e said that the law incorporating the )ank is a constitutional e4ercise of power )y %ongressE )ut taking into 2iew the whole opinion of the court and the reasoning )y which they ha2e come to that conclusion, F understand them to ha2e decided that inasmuch as a )ank is an appropriate means for carrying into effect the enumerated powers of the Ceneral Co2ernment, therefore the law incorporating it is in accordance with that pro2ision of the %onstitution which declares that %ongress shall ha2e power to make all laws which shall )e necessary and proper for carrying those powers into e4ecution. <a2ing satisfied themsel2es that the word ;necessary< in the %onstitution means ;needful,< ;re=uisite,< ;essential,< ;conducive to,< and that a )ank is a con2enient, a useful, and essential instrument in the prosecution of the Co2ernmentPs fiscal operations, they conclude that to use one must )e within the discretion of %ongress and that the act to incorporate the Bank of the !nited "tates is a law made in pursuance of the %onstitutionE )ut, say they, ;where the law is not !rohibited and is really calculated to effect any of the ob>ects intrusted to the ?overnment, to undertake here to in=uire into the degree of its necessity would be to !ass the line which circumscribes the >udicial de!artment and to tread on legislative ground*< .he principle here affirmed is that the degree of its necessity, in2ol2ing all the details of a )anking institution, is a Duestion e4clusi2ely for legislati2e consideration. # )ank is constitutional, )ut it is the pro2ince of the Legislature to determine whether this or that particular power, pri2ilege, or e4emption is necessary and proper to ena)le the )ank to discharge its duties to the Co2ernment, and from their decision there is no appeal to the courts of 'ustice. !nder the decision of the "upreme %ourt, therefore, it is the e4clusi2e pro2ince of %ongress and the President to decide whether the particular features of this act are necessary and !ro!er in order to ena)le the )ank to perform con2eniently and efficiently the pu)lic duties assigned to it as a fiscal agent, and therefore constitutional, or unnecessary and im!ro!er, and therefore unconstitutional. Without commenting on the general principle affirmed )y the "upreme %ourt, let us e4amine the details of this act in accordance with the rule of legislati2e action which they ha2e laid down. Ft will )e found that many of the powers and pri2ileges conferred on it can not )e supposed necessary for the purpose for which it is proposed to )e created, and are not, therefore, means necessary to attain the end in 2iew, and conseDuently not 'ustified )y the %onstitution. .he original act of incorporation, section (F, enacts that no other )ank shall )e esta)lished )y any future law of the !nited "tates during the continuance of the corporation here)y created, for which the faith of the !nited "tates is here)y pledged> Provided, %ongress may renew e4isting charters for )anks within the &istrict of %olum)ia not increasing the capital thereof, and may also esta)lish any other )ank or )anks in

said &istrict with capitals not e4ceeding in the whole 5;,111,111 if they shall deem it e4pedient. .his pro2ision is continued in force )y the act )efore me fifteen years from the ad of 0arch, +*,;. Ff %ongress possessed the power to esta)lish one )ank, they had power to esta)lish more than one if in their opinion two or more )anks had )een necessary to facilitate the e4ecution of the powers delegated to them in the %onstitution. Ff they possessed the power to esta)lish a second )ank, it was a power deri2ed from the %onstitution to )e e4ercised from time to time, and at any time when the interests of the country or the emergencies of the Co2ernment might make it e4pedient. Ft was possessed )y one %ongress as well as another, and )y all %ongresses alike, and alike at e2ery session. But the %ongress of +*+; ha2e taken it away from their successors for twenty years, and the %ongress of +*,( proposes to a)olish it for fifteen years more. Ft can not )e ;necessary< or ;!ro!er< for %ongress to )arter away or di2est themsel2es of any of the powers 2ested in them )y the %onstitution to )e e4ercised for the pu)lic good. Ft is not necessary to the efficiency of the )ank, nor is it ;!ro!er< in relation to themsel2es and their successors. .hey may !ro!erly use the discretion 2ested in them, )ut they may not limit the discretion of their successors. .his restriction on themsel2es and grant of a monopoly to the )ank is therefore unconstitutional. Fn another point of 2iew this pro2ision is a palpa)le attempt to amend the %onstitution )y an act of legislation. .he %onstitution declares that the %ongress shall ha2e power to e4ercise e4clusi2e legislation in all cases whatsoe2er o2er the &istrict of %olum)ia. Fts constitutional power, therefore, to esta)lish )anks in the &istrict of %olum)ia and increase their capital at will is unlimited and uncontrolla)le )y any other power than that which ga2e authority to the %onstitution. 7et this act declares that %ongress shall not increase the capital of e4isting )anks, nor create other )anks with capitals e4ceeding in the whole 5;,111,111. .he %onstitution declares that %ongress shall ha2e power to e4ercise e4clusi2e legislation o2er this &istrict ;in all cases whatsoever,< and this act declares they shall not. Which is the supreme law of the landN .his pro2ision can not )e ;necessary< or ;!ro!er< or constitutional unless the a)surdity )e admitted that whene2er it )e necessary and proper in the opinion of %ongress they ha2e a right to )arter away one portion of the powers 2ested in them )y the %onstitution as a means of e4ecuting the rest. ?n two su)'ects only does the %onstitution recogniQe in %ongress the power to grant e4clusi2e pri2ileges or monopolies. Ft declares that %ongress shall ha2e power to promote the progress of science and useful arts )y securing for limited times to authors and in2entors the e4clusi2e right to their respecti2e writings and disco2eries. ?ut of this e4press delegation of power ha2e grown our laws of patents and copyrights. #s the %onstitution e4pressly delegates to %ongress the power to grant e4clusi2e pri2ileges in these cases as the means of e4ecuting the su)stanti2e power to promote the progress of science and useful arts, it is consistent with the fair rules of construction to conclude that such a power was not intended to )e granted as a means of accomplishing any other end. ?n e2ery other su)'ect which comes within the scope of %ongressional power there is an e2er-li2ing discretion in the use of proper means, which can not )e restricted or a)olished without an amendment of the %onstitution. E2ery act of %ongress, therefore, which attempts )y grants of monopolies or sale of e4clusi2e pri2ileges for a limited time, or a time without limit, to restrict or e4tinguish its own discretion in the choice of means to e4ecute its delegated powers is eDui2alent to a legislati2e amendment of the %onstitution, and palpa)ly unconstitutional. .his act authoriQes and encourages transfers of its stock to foreigners and grants them an e4emption from all "tate and national ta4ation. "o far from )eing ;necessary and !ro!er< that the )ank should possess this power to make it a safe and efficient agent of the Co2ernment in its fiscal operations, it is calculated to con2ert the Bank of the !nited "tates into a foreign )ank, to impo2erish our people in time of peace, to disseminate a foreign influence through e2ery section of the Repu)lic, and in war to endanger our independence. .he se2eral "tates reser2ed the power at the formation of the %onstitution to regulate and control titles and transfers of real property, and most, if not all, of them ha2e laws disDualifying aliens from acDuiring or holding lands within their limits. But this act, in disregard of the undou)ted right of the "tates to prescri)e such disDualifications, gi2es to aliens stockholders in this )ank an interest and title, as mem)ers of the corporation, to all the real property it may acDuire within any of the "tates of this !nion. .his pri2ilege granted to aliens is not ;necessary< to ena)le the )ank to perform its pu)lic duties, nor in any sense ;!ro!er,< )ecause it is 2itally su)2ersi2e of the rights of the "tates. .he Co2ernment of the !nited "tates ha2e no constitutional power to purchase lands within the "tates e4cept for the erection of forts, magaQines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful )uildings, and e2en for these o)'ects only )y the consent of the legislature of the "tate in which the same shall )e. By making themsel2es stockholders in the )ank and granting to the corporation the power to purchase lands for other purposes they assume a power not granted in the %onstitution and grant to others what they do not themsel2es possess. Ft is not necessary to the recei2ing, safe-keeping, or transmission of the funds of the Co2ernment that the )ank should possess this power, and it is not !ro!er that %ongress should thus enlarge the powers delegated to them in the %onstitution. .he old Bank of the !nited "tates possessed a capital of only 5++,111,111, which was found fully sufficient to ena)le it with dispatch and safety to perform all the functions reDuired of it )y the Co2ernment. .he capital of the present )ank is 5,@,111,111Vat least twenty-four more than e4perience has pro2ed to )e necessary to ena)le a )ank to perform its pu)lic functions. .he pu)lic de)t which e4isted during the period of the old )ank and on the esta)lishment of the new has )een nearly paid off, and our re2enue will soon )e reduced. .his increase of capital is therefore not for pu)lic )ut for pri2ate purposes. .he Co2ernment is the only ;!ro!er< 'udge where its agents should reside and keep their offices, )ecause it )est knows where their presence will )e necessary. Ft can not, therefore, )e ;necessary< or ;!ro!er< to authoriQe the )ank to locate )ranches where it pleases to perform the pu)lic ser2ice, without consulting the Co2ernment, and contrary to its will. .he principle laid down )y the "upreme %ourt concedes that %ongress can not esta)lish a )ank for purposes of pri2ate speculation and gain, )ut only as a means of e4ecuting the delegated powers of the Ceneral Co2ernment. By the same principle a )ranch )ank can not constitutionally )e esta)lished for other than pu)lic purposes. .he power which this act gi2es to esta)lish two )ranches in any "tate, without the in'unction or reDuest of the Co2ernment and for other than pu)lic purposes, is not ;necessary< to the due e2ecution of the powers delegated to %ongress. .he )onus which is e4acted from the )ank is a confession upon the face of the act that the powers granted )y it are greater than are ;necessary< to its character of a fiscal agent. .he Co2ernment does not ta4 its officers and agents for the pri2ilege of ser2ing it. .he )onus of a million and a half reDuired )y the original charter and that of three millions proposed )y this act are not e4acted for the pri2ilege of gi2ing the necessary facilities for transferring the pu)lic funds from place to place within the !nited "tates or the .erritories thereof, and for distri)uting

the same in payment of the pu)lic creditors without charging commission or claiming allowance on account of the difference of e4change, as reDuired )y the act of incorporation, )ut for something more )eneficial to the stockholders. .he original act declares that it 6the )onus8 is granted in consideration of the e4clusi2e pri2ileges and )enefits conferred )y this act upon the said )ank, and the act )efore me declares it to )e in consideration of the e4clusi2e )enefits and pri2ileges continued )y this act to the said corporation for fifteen years, as aforesaid. Ft is therefore for e4clusi2e pri2ileges and )enefits conferred for their own use and emolument, and not for the ad2antage of the Co2ernment, that a )onus is e4acted. .hese surplus powers for which the )ank is reDuired to pay can not surely )e ;necessary< to make it the fiscal agent of the .reasury. Ff they were, the e4action of a )onus for them would not )e ;!ro!er*< Ft is maintained )y some that the )ank is a means of e4ecuting the constitutional power to coin money and regulate the 2alue thereof. %ongress ha2e esta)lished a mint to coin money and passed laws to regulate the 2alue thereof. .he money so coined, with its 2alue so regulated, and such foreign coins as %ongress may adopt are the only currency known to the %onstitution. But if they ha2e other power to regulate the currency, it was conferred to )e e4ercised )y themsel2es, and not to )e transferred to a corporation. Ff the )ank )e esta)lished for that purpose, with a charter unaltera)le without its consent, %ongress ha2e parted with their power for a term of years, during which the %onstitution is a dead letter. Ft is neither necessary nor proper to transfer its legislati2e power to such a )ank, and therefore unconstitutional. By its silence, considered in connection with the decision of the "upreme %ourt in the case of 0c%ulloch against the "tate of 0aryland, this act takes from the "tates the power to ta4 a portion of the )anking )usiness carried on within their limits, in su)2ersion of one of the strongest )arriers which secured them against 9ederal encroachments. Banking, like farming, manufacturing, or any other occupation or profession, is a business, the right to follow which is not originally deri2ed from the laws. E2ery citiQen and e2ery company of citiQens in all of our "tates possessed the right until the "tate legislatures deemed it good policy to prohi)it pri2ate )anking )y law. Ff the prohi)itory "tate laws were now repealed, e2ery citiQen would again possess the right. .he "tate )anks are a Dualified restoration of the right which has )een taken away )y the laws against )anking, guarded )y such pro2isions and limitations as in the opinion of the "tate legislatures the pu)lic interest reDuires. .hese corporations, unless there )e an e4emption in their charter, are, like pri2ate )ankers and )anking companies, su)'ect to "tate ta4ation. .he manner in which these ta4es shall )e laid depends wholly on legislati2e discretion. Ft may )e upon the )ank, upon the stock, upon the profits, or in any other mode which the so2ereign power shall will. !pon the formation of the %onstitution the "tates guarded their ta4ing power with peculiar 'ealousy. .hey surrendered it only as it regards imports and e4ports. Fn relation to e2ery other o)'ect within their 'urisdiction, whether persons, property, )usiness, or professions, it was secured in as ample a manner as it was )efore possessed. #ll persons, though !nited "tates officers, are lia)le to a poll ta4 )y the "tates within which they reside. .he lands of the !nited "tates are lia)le to the usual land ta4, e4cept in the new "tates, from whom agreements that they will not ta4 unsold lands are e4acted when they are admitted into the !nion. <orses, wagons, any )easts or 2ehicles, tools, or property )elonging to pri2ate citiQens, though employed in the ser2ice of the !nited "tates, are su)'ect to "tate ta4ation. E2ery pri2ate )usiness, whether carried on )y an officer of the Ceneral Co2ernment or not, whether it )e mi4ed with pu)lic concerns or not, e2en if it )e carried on )y the Co2ernment of the !nited "tates itself, separately or in partnership, falls within the scope of the ta4ing power of the "tate. :othing comes more fully within it than )anks and the )usiness of )anking, )y whomsoe2er instituted and carried on. ?2er this whole su)'ect-matter it is 'ust as a)solute, unlimited, and uncontrolla)le as if the %onstitution had ne2er )een adopted, )ecause in the formation of that instrument it was reser2ed without Dualification. .he principle is conceded that the "tates can not rightfully ta4 the operations of the Ceneral Co2ernment. .hey can not ta4 the money of the Co2ernment deposited in the "tate )anks, nor the agency of those )anks in remitting itE )ut will any man maintain that their mere selection to perform this pu)lic ser2ice for the Ceneral Co2ernment would e4empt the "tate )anks and their ordinary )usiness from "tate ta4ationN <ad the !nited "tates, instead of esta)lishing a )ank at Philadelphia, employed a pri2ate )anker to keep and transmit their funds, would it ha2e depri2ed Pennsyl2ania of the right to ta4 his )ank and his usual )anking operationsN Ft will not )e pretended. !pon what principal, then, are the )anking esta)lishments of the Bank of the !nited "tates and their usual )anking operations to )e e4empted from ta4ationN Ft is not their pu)lic agency or the deposits of the Co2ernment which the "tates claim a right to ta4, )ut their )anks and their )anking powers, instituted and e4ercised within "tate 'urisdiction for their pri2ate emolumentVthose powers and pri2ileges for which they pay a )onus, and which the "tates ta4 in their own )anks. .he e4ercise of these powers within a "tate, no matter )y whom or under what authority, whether )y pri2ate citiQens in their original right, )y corporate )odies created )y the "tates, )y foreigners or the agents of foreign go2ernments located within their limits, forms a legitimate o)'ect of "tate ta4ation. 9rom this and like sources, from the persons, property, and )usiness that are found residing, located, or carried on under their 'urisdiction, must the "tates, since the surrender of their right to raise a re2enue from imports and e4ports, draw all the money necessary for the support of their go2ernments and the maintenance of their independence. .here is no more appropriate su)'ect of ta4ation than )anks, )anking, and )ank stocks, and none to which the "tates ought more pertinaciously to cling. Ft can not )e necessary to the character of the )ank as a fiscal agent of the Co2ernment that its pri2ate )usiness should )e e4empted from that ta4ation to which all the "tate )anks are lia)le, nor can F concei2e it ;!ro!er< that the su)stanti2e and most essential powers reser2ed )y the "tates shall )e thus attacked and annihilated as a means of e4ecuting the powers delegated to the Ceneral Co2ernment. Ft may )e safely assumed that none of those sages who had an agency in forming or adopting our %onstitution e2er imagined that any portion of the ta4ing power of the "tates not prohi)ited to them nor delegated to %ongress was to )e swept away and annihilated as a means of e4ecuting certain powers delegated to %ongress. Ff our power o2er means is so a)solute that the "upreme %ourt will not call in Duestion the constitutionality of an act of %ongress the su)'ect of which is not prohi)ited, and is really calculated to effect any of the o)'ects intrusted to the Co2ernment, although, as in the case )efore me, it takes away powers e4pressly granted to %ongress and rights scrupulously reser2ed to the "tates, it )ecomes us to proceed in our legislation with the utmost caution. .hough not directly, our own powers and the rights of the "tates may )e indirectly legislated away in the use of means to e4ecute su)stanti2e powers. We may not enact that %ongress shall not ha2e the power of e4clusi2e legislation o2er the &istrict of %olum)ia, )ut we may pledge the faith of the !nited "tates that as a means of e4ecuting other powers it shall not )e e4ercised for twenty years or fore2er. We may not pass an act prohi)iting the "tates to ta4 the )anking )usiness carried on within their limits, )ut we may, as a means of e4ecuting our powers o2er other o)'ects, place that )usiness in the hands of our agents and then declare it e4empt from "tate ta4ation in their hands. .hus may our own powers and the rights of the "tates, which we can not directly curtail or in2ade, )e frittered away and e4tinguished in the use of means employed )y us to e4ecute other powers. .hat a )ank of the !nited "tates, competent to all the duties which may )e

reDuired )y the Co2ernment, might )e so organiQed as not to infringe on our own delegated powers or the reser2ed rights of the "tates F do not entertain a dou)t. <ad the E4ecuti2e )een called upon to furnish the pro'ect of such an institution, the duty would ha2e )een cheerfully performed. Fn the a)sence of such a call it was o)2iously proper that he should confine himself to pointing out those prominent features in the act presented which in his opinion make it incompati)le with the %onstitution and sound policy. # general discussion will now take place, eliciting new light and settling important principlesE and a new %ongress, elected in the midst of such discussion, and furnishing an eDual representation of the people according to the last census, will )ear to the %apitol the 2erdict of pu)lic opinion, and, F dou)t not, )ring this important Duestion to a satisfactory result. !nder such circumstances the )ank comes forward and asks a renewal of its charter for a term of fifteen years upon conditions which not only operate as a gratuity to the stockholders of many millions of dollars, )ut will sanction any a)uses and legaliQe any encroachments. "uspicions are entertained and charges are made of gross a)use and 2iolation of its charter. #n in2estigation unwillingly conceded and so restricted in time as necessarily to make it incomplete and unsatisfactory discloses enough to e4cite suspicion and alarm. Fn the practices of the principal )ank partially un2eiled, in the a)sence of important witnesses, and in numerous charges confidently made and as yet wholly unin2estigated there was enough to induce a ma'ority of the committee of in2estigationVa committee which was selected from the most a)le and honora)le mem)ers of the <ouse of Representati2esVto recommend a suspension of further action upon the )ill and a prosecution of the inDuiry. #s the charter had yet four years to run, and as a renewal now was not necessary to the successful prosecution of its )usiness, it was to ha2e )een e4pected that the )ank itself, conscious of its purity and proud of its character, would ha2e withdrawn its application for the present, and demanded the se2erest scrutiny into all its transactions. Fn their declining to do so there seems to )e an additional reason why the functionaries of the Co2ernment should proceed with less haste and more caution in the renewal of their monopoly. .he )ank is professedly esta)lished as an agent of the e4ecuti2e )ranch of the Co2ernment, and its constitutionality is maintained on that ground. :either upon the propriety of present action nor upon the pro2isions of this act was the E4ecuti2e consulted. Ft has had no opportunity to say that it neither needs nor wants an agent clothed with such powers and fa2ored )y such e4emptions. .here is nothing in its legitimate functions which makes it necessary or proper. Whate2er interest or influence, whether pu)lic or pri2ate, has gi2en )irth to this act, it can not )e found either in the wishes or necessities of the e4ecuti2e department, )y which present action is deemed premature, and the powers conferred upon its agent not only unnecessary, )ut dangerous to the Co2ernment and country. It is to e re+retted that the ri'h and po!er"ul too o"ten end the a'ts o" +o2ernment to their sel"ish purposes, 0istin'tions in so'iety !ill al!ays eIist under e2ery just +o2ernment, >Juality o" talents, o" edu'ation, or o" !ealth 'an not e produ'ed y human institutions, In the "ull enjoyment o" the +i"ts o" @ea2en and the "ruits o" superior industry, e'onomy, and 2irtue, e2ery man is eJually entitled to prote'tion y la!F ut !hen the la!s underta/e to add to these natural and just ad2anta+es arti"i'ial distin'tions, to +rant titles, +ratuities, and eI'lusi2e pri2ile+es, to ma/e the ri'h ri'her and the potent more po!er"ul, the hum le mem ers o" so'ietyKthe "armers, me'hani's, and la orersK!ho ha2e neither the time nor the means o" se'urin+ li/e "a2ors to themsel2es, ha2e a ri+ht to 'omplain o" the injusti'e o" their 4o2ernment, There are no ne'essary e2ils in +o2ernment, Its e2ils eIist only in its a uses, I" it !ould 'on"ine itsel" to eJual prote'tion, and, as @ea2en does its rains, sho!er its "a2ors ali/e on the hi+h and the lo!, the ri'h and the poor, it !ould e an unJuali"ied lessin+, In the a't e"ore me there seems to e a !ide and unne'essary departure "rom these just prin'iples, :or is our Co2ernment to )e maintained or our !nion preser2ed )y in2asions of the rights and powers of the se2eral "tates. Fn thus attempting to make our Ceneral Co2ernment strong we make it weak. Fts true strength consists in lea2ing indi2iduals and "tates as much as possi)le to themsel2esVin making itself felt, not in its power, )ut in its )eneficenceE not in its control, )ut in its protectionE not in )inding the "tates more closely to the center, )ut lea2ing each to mo2e uno)structed in its proper or)it. >Iperien'e should tea'h us !isdom, Gost o" the di""i'ulties our 4o2ernment no! en'ounters and most o" the dan+ers !hi'h impend o2er our 9nion ha2e sprun+ "rom an a andonment o" the le+itimate o je'ts o" 4o2ernment y our national le+islation, and the adoption o" su'h prin'iples as are em odied in this a't, Gany o" our ri'h men ha2e not een 'ontent !ith eJual prote'tion and eJual ene"its, ut ha2e esou+ht us to ma/e them ri'her y a't o" $on+ress, 8y attemptin+ to +rati"y their desires !e ha2e in the results o" our le+islation arrayed se'tion a+ainst se'tion, interest a+ainst interest, and man a+ainst man, in a "ear"ul 'ommotion !hi'h threatens to sha/e the "oundations o" our 9nion, It is time to pause in our 'areer to re2ie! our prin'iples, and i" possi le re2i2e that de2oted patriotism and spirit o" 'ompromise !hi'h distin+uished the sa+es o" the 1e2olution and the "athers o" our 9nion, I" !e 'an not at on'e, in justi'e to interests 2ested under impro2ident le+islation, ma/e our 4o2ernment !hat it ou+ht to e, !e 'an at least ta/e a stand a+ainst all ne! +rants o" monopolies and eI'lusi2e pri2ile+es, a+ainst any prostitution o" our 4o2ernment to the ad2an'ement o" the "e! at the eIpense o" the many, and in "a2or o" 'ompromise and +radual re"orm in our 'ode o" la!s and system o" politi'al e'onomy, F ha2e now done my duty to my country. Ff sustained )y my fellow citiQens, F shall )e grateful and happyE if not, F shall find in the moti2es which impel me ample grounds for contentment and peace. Fn the difficulties which surround us and the dangers which threaten our institutions there is cause for neither dismay nor alarm. 9or relief and deli2erance let us firmly rely on that kind Pro2idence which F am sure watches with peculiar care o2er the destinies of our Repu)lic, and on the intelligence and wisdom of our countrymen. .hrough <is a)undant goodness and heir patriotic de2otion our li)erty and !nion will )e preser2ed. V#:&REW $#%L"?:. "ource> http>GGwww.milestonedocuments.comGdocumentTdetail.phpNidO,1=moreOfullte4t

183* 7residential >le'tion 1esults

Presidential candidates, left to ri%htC Andrew Jackson 26emocrat5, Henry Clay 2>hi%5, >illiam >irt 2Anti;"asonic5, John 8loyd 2.ullifier5

.he Panic of +*,/ )egan on 0ay +1, +*,/ when e2ery )ank in :ew 7ork %ity stopped payment in specie 6gold and sil2er coinage8. .he Panic of +*,/ was followed )y a si4-year depression, with )ank failures and rise in unemployment. 6Picture> Li)rary of %ongress8

W"tate "treet, Boston3 engra2ed after a picture )y W.<. Bartlett, pu)lished in (merican Scenery, circa +*-1. .he 0assachusetts "tate Board of Education and the first go2ernment schools 6pu)lic schools 8 in Boston were esta)lished in +*,/ following the Broad "treet Riot.

#e'ond #eminole 6ar (1835D18L*) % Trail o" Tears: 5r+aniMed $rime:

The 4'3' "arines search for 3eminole #ndian warriors in the 8lorida e$er%lades durin% the 3eminole >ar in circa 183N' The 3eminole >ar lasted from 183 to 18:9' 3eminole #ndian Chief <sceola, a multiracial .ati$e American of 3cottish descent, was captured ,y deceit and treachery on orders of 4'3' Army "a-or @eneral Thomas Jesup at 8ort Payton in 8lorida and imprisoned at 8ort "arion in 3t' Au%ustine, 8lorida on <cto,er 91, 183N' Chief <sceola died of malaria at 8ort "oultrie, 3outh Carolina, 4'3'A' on January 30, 1838' 2.ational Archi$es5

!The greatest lesson o( the /e!ond /eminole War shows how a go%ernment !an lose "u li! su""ort (or a war that has sim"ly lasted (or too long. As the Army ,ecame more deeply in$ol$ed in the conflict, as the %o$ernment sent more troops into the theater, and as the pu,lic saw more money appropriated for the war, people ,e%an to lose their interest' JesupFs capture of <sceola, and the treachery he used to %et him, turned pu,lic sentiment a%ainst the Army' The use of ,lood hounds only created more hostility in the halls of Con%ress' #t did not matter to the American people that some of JesupFs decepti$e practices helped him achie$e success militarily' The pu,lic $iewed his actions so ne%ati$ely that he had undermined the political %oals of the %o$ernment'0 1 !American "ilitary 3trate%y #n The 3econd 3eminole >ar0, ,y "a-or John C' >hite, Jr', 4nited 3tates "arine Corps 21GG 5 Chief <sceola 2180:;18385, 3eminole #ndian Chief
3ourceC httpCOOwww'%lo,alsecurity'or%OmilitaryOli,raryOreportO1GG O>JC'htm

The 4'3' Army participated in remo$in% Cherokee #ndians to <klahoma alon% the infamous !Trail of Tears0 in the 1830s' President Andrew Jackson enforced the #ndian /emo$al Act of 1830 ,y orderin% the 4'3' Army to escort the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and 3eminole #ndians to the #ndian Territory 2present;day <klahoma5, primarily durin% the harsh winter'

"ap of 4nited 3tates #ndian /emo$al, 1830;183

!This %hastly scene portrays perfectly the depth of JacksonBs an%uish o$er the war' He left office ,urdened with the a%ony %enerated ,y the 3eminole >ar and for years he could not shake it from his mind' #n Con%ress the opposition mocked him o$er the financial ,urden of the continued hostilities and what it did to his efforts to reduce the cost of %o$ernment and ease the ,urden of the ta)payer' +y the time Jesup departed from his command, the cost of the war neared H10 million, or appro)imately H: 8,000 per month' The American people could thank Andrew Jackson for this ,loodlettin%, said Cale, Cushin% of "assachusetts, ,oth the loss of treasure and the loss of li$es' The 3econd 3eminole >ar continued until 18:9 ,efore the last ,attle was fou%ht' +y that time, nearly :,000 3eminoles were remo$ed to the west and the few who remained in 8lorida escaped into the e$er%lades' +y the middle of the twentieth century may,e 1,000 3eminoles still resided in 8lorida and nearly triple that num,er li$ed in <klahoma' 3ome 1, 00 re%ular soldiers died durin% this war out of 10,000 who participated' There is no way to calculate accurately the mortality amon% $olunteers or amon% #ndians' The 3econd 3eminole >ar marked the fiercest and ,loodiest and costliest opposition to JacksonBs policy of remo$al' +ut it could not deter it or ,rin% it to an end' The so;called 8i$e Ci$ili=ed .ations of the 3outh 1 the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Cherokee, and 3eminole 1 had all ,een e)pelled to the west' +ut remo$al did not end with these tri,es' The +lack Hawk >ar accomplished the permanent relocation of the 3auk and 8o) #ndians from #llinois' The Quapaws, the Appalachicolas, the united tri,es of <tos and "issouri, and the four confederated ,ands of Pawnees of the Platte si%ned treaties of cession that remo$ed them from !ci$ili=ed society'0 The Chica%o Treaty of 1833 with the Chippewa, <ttawa, and Potawatomi pro$ided $alua,le land to whites in #llinois, "ichi%an, >isconsin, and #owa' 6urin% the closin% years of JacksonBs administration treaties with the "iami, Caddo, >yandot, "enomini, 3a%inaw, Sickapoo, 6elaware, 3hawnee, <sa%e, #owa, Pinkeshaw, >ea, Peoria, and other tri,es ,rou%ht additional territory in Arkansas, Aouisiana, Sentucky, #ndiana, #llinois, <hio, Sansas, "ichi%an, #owa, "innesota, and .e,raska' +y the close of JacksonBs ei%ht years in office appro)imately : ,EG0 #ndians had ,een relocated ,eyond the "ississippi /i$er' #n addition, a num,er of treaties had ,een si%ned and ratified 2,ut not yet e)ecuted5 that would raise that fi%ure ,y se$eral thousand' Accordin% to the #ndian <ffice, only a,out G,000 #ndians, mostly in the <ld .orthwest and .ew *ork, were without treaty stipulations re(uirin% their remo$al when Jackson left office' The operation, of course, pro$ided an empire' Jackson ac(uired for the 4nited 3tates appro)imately one hundred million acres of land for a,out HE8 million and thirty;two million acres of western land' The remo$al of the American #ndian was one of the most si%nificant and tra%ic acts of the Jackson administration' #t was accomplished in total $iolation not only of American principles of -ustice and law ,ut of JacksonBs own strict code of honor' There can ,e no (uestion that he ,elie$ed he acted in the ,est interest of the #ndian, ,ut to achie$e this purpose countless men, women, and children suffered depri$ation and death' JacksonBs humanitarian concerns;and they were real concerns;were unfortunately shot throu%h with ethnocentrism and paternalism that allowed little re%ard or appreciation of #ndian culture and ci$ili=ation' Andrew Jackson left office ,owed down ,y the stupefyin% misery in$ol$ed in remo$al, ,ut he left knowin% he had accomplished his %oal and that thousands of #ndians had found what he considered a safe ha$en west of the "ississippi /i$er' He left ,elie$in% he had sa$ed the #ndians from ine$ita,le doom'0 1 Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 , ?olume ### ,y /o,ert ?' /emini, p' 319;31:

Choctaw .ation Chief @eor%e >' HarkinsF Aetter to the American People
6ecem,er 1831

Choctaw .ation chief @eor%e >' Harkins

#t is with considera,le diffidence that # attempt to address the American people, knowin% and feelin% sensi,ly my incompetencyL and ,elie$in% that your hi%hly and well impro$ed minds would not ,e well entertained ,y the address of a Choctaw' +ut ha$in% determined to emi%rate west of the "ississippi ri$er this fall, # ha$e thou%ht proper in ,iddin% you farewell to make a few remarks e)pressi$e of my $iews, and the feelin%s that actuate me on the su,-ect of our remo$al' +elie$in% that our all is at stake and knowin% that you readily sympathi=e with the distressed of e$ery country, # confidently throw myself upon your indul%ence and ask you to listen patiently' # do not arro%ate to myself the prero%ati$e of decidin% upon the e)pediency of the late treaty, yet # feel ,ound as a Choctaw, to %i$e a distinct e)pression of my feelin%s on that interestin%, 2and to the Choctaws5, all important su,-ect' >e were hed%ed in ,y two e$ils, and we chose that which we thou%ht the least' *et we could not reco%ni=e the ri%ht that the state of "ississippi had assumed, to le%islate for us'UAlthou%h the le%islature of the state were (ualified to make laws for their own citi=ens, that did not (ualify them to ,ecome law makers to a people that were so dissimilar in manners and customs as the Choctaws are to the "ississippians' Admittin% that they understood the people, could they remo$e that mountain of pre-udice that has e$er o,structed the streams of -ustice, and pre$ent their salutary influence from reachin% my de$oted countrymen' >e as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and ,e free, than li$e under the de%radin% influence of laws, which our $oice could not ,e heard in their formation' "uch as the state of "ississippi has wron%ed us, # cannot find in my heart any other sentiment than an ardent wish for her prosperity and happiness' # could cheerfully hope, that those of another a%e and %eneration may not feel the effects of those oppressi$e measures that ha$e ,een so illi,erally dealt out to usL and that peace and happiness may ,e their reward' Amid the %loom and horrors of the present separation, we are cheered with a hope that ere lon% we shall reach our destined land, and that nothin% short of the ,asest acts of treachery will e$er ,e a,le to wrest it from us, and that we may li$e free' Althou%h your ancestors won freedom on the field of dan%er and %lory, our ancestors owned it as their ,irthri%ht, and we ha$e had to purchase it from you as the $ilest sla$es ,uy their freedom' *et it is said that our present mo$ements are our own $oluntary actsUsuch is not the case' >e found oursel$es like a ,eni%hted stran%er, followin% false %uides, until he was surrounded on e$ery side, with fire and water' The fire was certain destruction, and a fee,le hope was left him of escapin% ,y water' A distant $iew of the opposite shore encoura%es the hopeL to remain would ,e ine$ita,le annihilation' >ho would hesitate, or who would say that his plun%in% into the water was his own $oluntary actM Painful in the e)treme is the mandate of our e)pulsion' >e re%ret that it should proceed from the mouth of our professed friend, for whom our ,lood was co;min%led with that of his ,ra$est warriors, on the field of dan%er and death' +ut such is the insta,ility of professions' The man who said that he would plant a stake and draw a line around us, that ne$er should ,e passed, was the first to say he could not %uard the lines, and drew up the stake and wiped out all traces of the line' # will not conceal from you my fears, that the present %rounds may ,e remo$ed' # ha$e my fore,odin%L who of us can tell after witnessin% what has already ,een done, what the ne)t force may ,e' # ask you in the name of -ustice, for repose for myself and for my in-ured people' Aet us aloneUwe will not harm you, we want rest' >e hope, in the name of -ustice, that another outra%e may ne$er ,e committed a%ainst us, and that we may for the future ,e cared for as children, and not dri$en a,out as ,easts, which are ,enefited ,y a chan%e of pasture' Takin% an e)ample from the American %o$ernment, and knowin% the happiness which its citi=ens en-oy under the influence of mild repu,lican institutions, it is the intention of our countrymen to form a %o$ernment assimilated to that of our white ,rethren in the

4nited 3tates, as nearly as their condition will permit' >e know that in order to protect the ri%hts and secure the li,erties of the people, no %o$ernment appro)imates so nearly to perfection as the one to which we ha$e alluded' As east of the "ississippi we ha$e ,een friends, so west we will cherish the same feelin%s with additional fer$ourL and althou%h we may ,e remo$ed to the desert, still we shall look with fond re%ard, upon those who ha$e promised us their protection' Aet that feelin% ,e reciprocated' 8riends, my attachment to my nati$e land was stron%Uthat cord is now ,rokenL and we must %o forth as wanderers in a stran%e landR # must %oUAet me entreat you to re%ard us with feelin%s of kindness, and when the hand of oppression is stretched a%ainst us, let me hope that a warnin% $oice may ,e heard from e$ery part of the 4nited 3tates, fillin% the mountains and $alleys will echo, and say stop, you ha$e no power, we are the so$erei%n people, and our friends shall no more ,e distur,ed' >e ask you for nothin%, that is incompati,le with your other duties' >e %o forth sorrowful, knowin% that wron% has ,een done' >ill you e)tend to us your sympathi=in% re%ards until all traces of disa%reea,le oppositions are o,literated, and we a%ain shall ha$e confidence in the professions of our white ,rethren' Here is the land of our pro%enitors, and here are their ,onesL they left them as a sacred deposit, and we ha$e ,een compelled to $enerate its trustL it dear to us, yet we cannot stay, my people is dear to me, with them # must %o' Could # stay and for%et them and lea$e them to stru%%le alone, unaided, unfriended, and for%otten, ,y our %reat fatherM # should then ,e unworthy the name of a Choctaw, and ,e a dis%race to my ,lood' # must %o with themL my destiny is cast amon% the Choctaw people' #f they suffer, so will #L if they prosper, then will # re-oice' Aet me a%ain ask you to re%ard us with feelin%s of kindness' *ours , with respect, @7</@7 >' HA/S#.3' /our!e: .ilesF /e%ister, 8e,ruary 9 , 1839, :1C:80' 3ote: HarkinsF letter was reprinted from a paper in .atche=, "ississippi' Precedin% it was a prefatory statement from that paper, titled !The ChoctawFs Aament,0 as followsC !#n our paper today, will ,e found an address to the American people, ,y @eor%e >' Harkins, the present chief of the Choctaw nation' Capt' Harkins, is the nephew, and successor in office of @reenwood Aaflour IsicJL and is now on his way with a lar%e ,ody of people, to their new residence in the west' The address was hastily written with a pencil, on ,oard of the steam ,oat Huron, the day ,efore his arri$al at our landin%' The time was so short as to afford Capt' Harkins no opportunity to send us a re$ised sheet' !To the speculators and land -o,,ers, whose %raspin% a$arice force this people from their homes and the %ra$es of their forefathers, the lan%ua%e of this address will ,e unintelli%i,leL ,ut there are others, who, we presume, are not entirely de$oid of shame, and to whom some allusion is made, who will feel the full force of its mild, ,ut pointed re,uke'0 http>GGanpa.ualr.eduGtrail?f.earsGlettersG+*,+&ecem)erCeorgeW<arkinstothe#mericanPeople.htm

President #ndrew $ackson> Reckless politicianN #ndrew $ackson 6left8 supported the policy of Fndian Remo2al and waged a costly war against the "eminole Fndians. .he "econd "eminole War nearly )ankrupted #merica and lead to the Panic of +*,/. !.". "upreme %ourt %hief $ustice $ohn 0arshall 6center8 presided o2er The "herokee 5ation v* The State of ?eorgia on 0arch +*, +*,+. .he !.". "upreme %ourt decided 6with $ustices $oseph "tory and "mith .hompson dissenting8 that the %herokee :ation was not a foreign nation and therefore the %herokee :ation was denied the right to sue in the !.". "upreme %ourt. $ohn Ross 6right, ?cto)er ,, +/B1-#ugust +, +*;;8, who was the Principal %hief of the %herokee :ation from +*(* to+*;;, sued the "tate of Ceorgia in +*,+ o2er the forced remo2al of %herokee Fndians li2ing in Ceorgia.

.irst 5pium 6ar (183<D18L*) % The $hina Trade: 5r+aniMed $rime:

Partners of /ussell & Company, an American opium syndicate, participated in the China trade at the port of Canton, China durin% the early 1800s' 2Paintin%C ?iew of the Canton 8actories, 180 ;0E ,y >illiam 6aniel, "assachusetts #nstitute of Technolo%y55

The <pium >ar 2183G;18:95' The +ritish %o$ernment under Queen ?ictoria wa%ed war a%ainst the "anchurian Chinese 7mpire in an attempt to allow merchants of Jardine, "atheson & Co', a +ritish opium syndicate, to sell opium in China' The "anchurian Chinese 7mpire 2ChFin% 6ynasty5 ceded Hon% Son% to @reat +ritain in 18:9'

!Joseph Coolid%e #?, Aewis Coolid%eFs first cousin once remo$ed, was a well;known China trader' >hile still in his formati$e years, he tra$eled widely and made the ac(uaintance of the writers >ashin%ton #r$in% and Aord +yronTAfter Joseph Coolid%e #? returned from 7urope, he tra$eled in ?ir%inia, where he met 2and courted5 7leanora >ayles /andolph, the %randdau%hter of Thomas Jefferson' The two were married "ay 9N, 189 ' JosephFs first ,usiness e)perience was in a -oint $enture with his first cousin, Thomas +ulfinch, from 189 to 1839 as !American %oods commission merchants'0 At that point, Joseph left to ,e%in his len%thy China work as a clerk for /ussell and Company in Canton, while his cousin Thomas +ulfinch turned to his lifeFs work writin% such ,ooks as 8u finch9s *ytho o$y, The A$e of 0a" e, and The A$e of Chi(a ry' #n 183:, Joseph Coolid%e returned from China and ,ecame a partner in /ussell and Company' He then returned to China and spent most of the ne)t few years there as well as some time in #ndia' #n 18:0, he left /ussell and Company and was one of the founders of the tradin% company of Au%ustine Heard and Company, which had China as its focus' >ith the out,reak of the <pium >ar ,etween China and +ritain shortly after the foundin% of Au%ustine Heard and Co', +ritish su,-ects fled Canton, and with Joseph Coolid%e #? as its principal Canton representati$e, Au%ustine Heard and Co' ,ecame the Canton a%ent of the %iant 7n%lish trader Jardine, "atheson, and Company' #n 18:: Joseph left China and retired on his earnin%s from his China trade' His family continued in international trade'0 1 Lewis Coo id$e and the :oya$e of the Amethyst, 18;<-1811 ,y 7$a,eth "iller Sienast and John Phillip 8elt, p' 80;89 !Arri$in% at Hon% Son% in 1838, he was welcomed ,y the principal partner of /ussell and Company, John C' @reen, and the -unior mem,ers of the firm, "essrs' A,iel A,,ot Aow, 7dward Sin%, and >illiam C' Hunter' His cousin and early ,acker, John Perkins Cushin%, or%ani=er of /ussell and Company at Canton, had stron%ly recommended him to that firm' Ha$in% made his fortune, senior partner @reen wished to return to the 4nited 3tates, and hefelt that 8or,es was the man to take his place' The arran%ement went throu%h despite the opposition of one mem,er, Joseph Coolid%e' +ecomin% %eneral mana%er of /ussell and Company, 8or,es faced a crisis in the attempt of the Chinese %o$ernment to dri$e out forei%n;owned firms located in China' The /usssell commission ,usiness had increased so rapidly in Canton that there was always a scarcity of partners capa,le of carryin% their share of the ,urdens' 3amuel /ussell, whom Cushin% had inspired to ,e%in the partnership in 189:, retired in wealth from the firm twel$e years afterwards, and thereafter it was carried on ,y numerous partners 1 Au%ustine Heard, >illiam @' Aow, John C' @reen, John "urray 8or,es, Joseph Coolid%e, A,iel A,,ott Aow, >m' C' Hunter, /o,ert +ennet 8or,es, >arren 6elano, Jr', /ussell 3tur%is, 6aniel .icholson 3pooner, Joseph Taylor @ilman, Paul 3ieman 8or,es, @eor%e Perkins, 7dward 6elano, >illiam Henry Sin%, John .' Alsop @riswold, and as many a%ain' Au%ustine Heard deser$es more than mere mention' #n +aker Ai,rary, Har$ard 4ni$ersity, there are : 0 ,ound and un,ound $olumes of manuscripts relatin% to three %enerations of the Heard family' Au%ustine, in his twentieth year, went to China as a supercar%o' The shrewd John Perkins Cushin% marked him as a likely fellow and, after the youth had pro$ed himself, took him into the firm of /ussell and Company' #n 1833, Au%ustine was the sole partner of the firm in China' +reakin% under the strain, he returned to +oston' Afterwards, with Joseph Coolid%e, former /ussell partner, Au%ustine formed the firm of Au%stine Heard and Company, which ,ecame, with the firms of /ussell, <lyphant, and >etmore, the +i% 8our' Au%ustine ,rou%ht four nephews into the firm' As traders in tea and opium, te Heard firm pursued the same acti$ies as /ussell CompanyT8or the /ussell partners and some of their competitotors, there was a fascinatin% element of speculation in the opium traffic' >hen the price of the narcotic ,ecame depressed the rich mem,ers of forei%n firms ,ou%ht it up cheap and stored it in their warehouses, with the result that a ches ,ou%ht for H1 0 could ,e sold for H 00 or HN00L and when there was a %reat scarcity, the demand forced the price up to H1000 or more'0 1 =ankee 3hi&s in China 3eas7 Ad(entures of ,ioneer Americans in the Trou" ed 0ar 1ast ,y 6aniel "' Henderson, p' 1 3;1 !The ori%inal partners in /ussell & Co', one of the ,est;known American firms then doin% ,usiness at Canton, China, were 3amuel /ussell and Philip Ammidon' >illiam H' Aow, Au%ustine Heard, John "' 8or,es, John C' @reen, >arren 6elano, >' C' Hunter, Joseph Coolid%e, /ussell 3tur%is, /ichard 3tarr 6ana, >' H' 8or,es, /' +' 8or,es, Paul 3' 8or,es, J' "urray 8or,es, and 7dward Sin% were, at one time or other, partners in this firm' The firm was founded in 1818 ,y 3amuel /ussell, of "iddletown, Conn', and was first known as 3amuel /ussell & Co' #n 189: the firm ,ecame /ussell & Co', and had a career rarely e(ualled in the Chinese trade' John Perkins Cushin%, who had ,een a representati$e of J' & T' H' Perkins in China, was one of those who had much to do with the startin% of the firm, as he transferred to /ussell & Co' a portion of the commission ,usiness which had %rown too lar%e for Perkins & Co' to handle' The cause of the <pium >ar, which interrupted trade for a time, was a peculiarly fla%rant piece of smu%%lin%, which so aroused the Chinese %o$ernment that its commissioner appeared at the forei%n settlement, demanded the opium, and dumped it into the ditches' The trou,le was finally ad-usted ,y 7n%land compellin% China to pay an indemnity, and trade was resumed' The opium had ,een ,rou%ht for some time from #ndia in the swift;sailin% $essels, or !clippers,0 we ha$e already descri,ed, and was smu%%led into Canton ,y $arious means' As all forei%ners li$ed in a narrow su,ur, on the ri$er and were ne$er allowed within the city, ,usiness was transacted with Chinese middlemen, one of whom, Hou(ua, was e$er the warm friend of /ussell & Co'0 1 3ome 3hi&s of the C i&&er 3hi& 1ra7 Their 8ui ders, -wners, and Ca&tains ,y The 3tate 3treet Trust Company 21G135, p' G;10 !John Perkins Cushin%, called !Su;3hin%0 ,y the Chinese, sailed for China when only si)teen years old, to take the position of clerk in the countin%;house of his uncle, Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins' The head of the firm in China at this time was 7phraim +umstead, who was soon o,li%ed to lea$e Canton on account of illness, and died at sea' *oun% Cushin%, therefore, arri$ed in China at this early a%e to find that he was the only representati$e of the Perkins firm in the 7ast' Colonel Perkins, on hearin% of "r' +umsteadFs death, at once prepared to %o to China, ,ut -ust ,efore sailin% he recei$ed letters from the youn% apprentice, who presented the condition of affairs in such a fa$ora,le li%ht that the intended -ourney was a,andoned' Cushin% mana%ed the affairs of the firm so skillfully that the consi%nments continually increased' He was soon taken into partnership with the Perkinses and continued with them until the consolidation of their firm with /ussell & Co' in 189N'0

1 -ther *erchants and 3ea Ca&tains of - d 8oston, 3tate 3treet Trust Company, p' 1N;18

7rominent ?ale 4raduates % 5pium 6ar (183<D18L*) and #e'ond #eminole 6ar (1835D18L*)

William Wolcott Ellsworth B.#. 7ale +*+1 Co2ernor of %onnecticut 6+*,*-+*-(8

<enry Baldwin B.#. 7ale +/B/ $ustice of the !.". "upreme %ourt 6+*,1-+*--8

$ohn %. %alhoun B.#. 7ale +*1!.". "enator 6&-"outh %arolina, +*,(-+*-,, +*-@-+*@18

9rancis Cranger B.#. 7ale +*++ Postmaster Ceneral of the !.". 6+*-+8E !.". %ongressman 6Whig-:ew 7ork, +*,@-+*,/, +*,B+*-+, +*-+-+*-,8

Roger "herman Baldwin B.#. 7ale +*++ 0em)er of %onnecticut "tate <ouse of Rep. 6+*-1-+*-+8

#sher Ro))ins B.#. 7ale +/*( !.". "enator 6Whig-Rhode Fsland, +*(@-+*,B8

$a)eQ W. <untington B.#. 7ale +*1; !.". "enator 6W-%onn., +*-1-+*-/8

Fsaac %hapman Bates B.#. 7ale +*1( !.". "enator 6Whig-0ass., +*-+-+*-@8

"amuel ". Phelps B.#. 7ale +*++ !.". "enator 6Whig-Aermont, +*,B+*@+, +*@,-+*@-8

.ruman "mith B.#. 7ale +*+@ !.". %ongressman 6Whig-%onnecticut, +*,B+*-,, +*-@-+*-B8

#ugustus B. Longstreet B.#. 7ale +*+, President of Emory %ollege I#tlanta, CeorgiaJ 6+*-1-+*-*8

#)raham B. <as)rouck B.#. 7ale +*+1 President of Rutgers %ollege 6+*-1-+*@18

Re2. $eremiah &ay B #. 7ale +/B@ President of 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*+/-+*-;8

<eman <umphrey B.#. 7ale +*1@ President of #mherst %ollege 6+*(,-+*-@8

William 0a4well B.#. 7ale +*1( President of <ampden"ydney %ollege IAirginiaJ 6+*,*-+*-@8

$ulius Rockwell B.#. 7ale +*(; 0assachusetts "tate Bank %ommissioner 6+*,*-+*-18

$ohn &a2is B.#. 7ale +*+( !.". "enator 6Whig0assachusetts, +*,@+*-+, +*-@-+*@,8

Lyman Beecher B.#. 7ale +/B/ President of Lane .heological "eminary I%incinnatiJ 6+*,(-+*@18

$ohn %otton "mith B.#. 7ale +/*, President of the #merican Bi)le "ociety 6+*,+-+*-@8

&a2id &aggett B.#. 7ale +/*, Professor of Law at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*(;-+*-*8

7rominent @ar2ard 4raduates % 5pium 6ar (183<D18L*) and #e'ond #eminole 6ar (1835D18L*)

Ceorge Bancroft B.#. <ar2ard +*+/E Ph.&. Cottingen +*(1 %ollector of the Port of Boston 6+*,*-+*-+8

%ale) %ushing B.#. <ar2ard +*+/ !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*,@-+*-,8

$oseph %oolidge B.#. <ar2ard +*+/ Partner of Russell = %o. opium syndicate 6+*,--+*-18

"amuel #. Eliot B.#. <ar2ard +*+/ 0ayor of Boston 6+*,/-+*,B8

#l2a Woods B.#. <ar2ard +*+/ inaugural President of !ni2ersity of #la)ama 6+*,+-+*,/8

$ohn Muincy #dams B.#. <ar2ard +/*/ !.". %ongressman 6Whig0ass., +*,+-+*-*8E ?2erseer of <ar2ard !ni2ersity 6+*,1-+*-*8

$osiah Muincy B.#. <ar2ard +/B1 President of <ar2ard !ni2ersity 6+*(B-+*-@8

Edward E2erett B.#. <ar2ard +*++ Ph.&. Cottingen +*+/ !.". 0inister to Creat Britain 6+*-+-+*-@8E Co2. of 0assachusetts 6+*,;-+*-18

Ro)ert %harles Winthrop B.#. <ar2ard +*(* !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*-1-+*-(, +*-(-+*@18

Le2erett "altonstall B.#. <ar2ard +*1( !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*,*-+*-,8

Ro)ert Rantoul $r. B.#. <ar2ard +*(; 0em)er of 0assachusetts "tate Board of Education 6+*,/-+*-(8

Lemuel "haw B.#. <ar2ard +*11 %hief $ustice of the "upreme %ourt of 0assachusetts 6+*,1-+*;18

$oseph "tory B.#. <ar2ard +/B* $ustice of !.". "upreme %ourt 6+*++-+*-@8

Ro)ert W. Barnwell B.#. <ar2ard +*(+ President of !ni2ersity of "outh %arolina 6+*,@-+*-+8

%harles Cordon #therton B.#. <ar2ard +*(( !.". %ongressman 6&emocrat-:ew <ampshire, +*,/-+*-,8

GeIi'an 6ar (18L=D18L8) % Gani"est 0estiny: 5r+aniMed $rime:

4'3' Army @eneral >infield 3cott and his soldiers enter "e)ico City on 3eptem,er 1:, 18:NL the American fla% can ,e seen flyin% atop a ,uildin% in the ,ack%round' The "e)ican >ar was fou%ht primarily to settle a ,order dispute ,etween Te)as and "e)ico and to satisfy the sla$eownersF desire to ac(uire new land for cotton, to,acco, and other cash crops and maintain and e)pand sla$ery within the 4nited 3tates of America' Con%ress declared war on "e)ico on "ay 13, 18:E' The Treaty of @uadalupe Hidal%o, the treaty that formally ended the "e)ican >ar and acknowled%ed AmericaFs ac(uisition of northern half of "e)ico 2i'e' California, Te)as, Ari=ona, .e$ada5, was si%ned in "e)ico on 8e,ruary 9, 18:8L America ac(uired the northern half of "e)ico at a cost of H1 million' 2Paintin% ,y Carl .e,el5

AeftC James S' Polk, President of the 4nited 3tates 218: ;18:G5, perpetrated the "e)ican >ar in an attempt to fulfill !"anifest 6estiny0 1 the ac(uisition of <re%on Territory, Te)as, and California and e)pandin% America from !sea to shinin% sea0' Center photoC .icholas Philip Trist ser$ed as President James S' PolkFs special en$oy to "e)ico durin% the "e)ican >ar and successfully ne%otiated the Treaty of @uadalupe Hidal%o on 8e,ruary 9, 18:8' /i%ht photoC "e)ican Army @en' 3anta Anna 2full name Antonio de Padua "arVa 3e$erino AWpe= de 3anta Anna y PXre= de Ae,rWnL ,orn 8e,ruary 91, 1NG:1died June 91, 18NE5 was the head of the "e)ican army durin% the "e)ican >ar'

8ormer 4'3' President 4lysses 3' @rantFs 6isappro$al of the "e)ican >ar, #n His <wn >ords

4lysses 3' @rant !The anne)ation of Te)as was at this time the su,-ect of $iolent discussion in Con%ress, in the press, and ,y indi$iduals' The administration of President Tyler, then in power, was makin% the most strenuous efforts to effect the anne)ation, which was, indeed, the %reat and a,sor,in% (uestion of the dayT<stensi,ly we were intended to pre$ent fili,usterin% into Te)as, ,ut really as a menace to "e)ico in case she appeared to contemplate war' @enerally the officers of the army were indifferent whether the anne)ation was consummated or notL ,ut not so all of them' For mysel(, # was itterly o""osed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, whi!h resulted, as one o( the most un=ust e%er waged y a stronger against a weaker nation. #t was an instance of a repu,lic followin% the ,ad e)ample of 7uropean monarchies, in not considerin% -ustice in their desire to ac(uire additional territory' Te)as was ori%inally a state ,elon%in% to the repu,lic of "e)ico' #t e)tended from the 3a,ine /i$er on the east to the /io @rande on the west, and from the @ulf of "e)ico on the south and east to the territory of the 4nited 3tates and .ew "e)ico 1 another "e)ican state at that time 1 on the north and west' An empire in territory, it had ,ut a $ery sparse population, until settled ,y Americans who had recei$ed authority from "e)ico to coloni=e' These colonists paid $ery little attention to the supreme %o$ernment, and introduced sla$ery into the state almost from the start thou%h the constitution of "e)ico did not, nor does it now, sanction that institution' 3oon they set up an independent %o$ernment of their own, and war e)isted, ,etween Te)as and "e)ico, in name from that time until 183E, when acti$e hostilities $ery nearly ceased upon the capture of 3anta Anna, the "e)ican President' +efore lon%, howe$er, the same people 1 who with permission of "e)ico had coloni=ed Te)as, and afterwards set up sla$ery there, and then seceded as soon as they felt stron% enou%h to do so 1 offered themsel$es and the 3tate to the 4nited 3tates, and in 18: their offer was accepted' The o!!u"ation, se"aration and anne2ation were, (rom the in!e"tion o( the mo%ement to its (inal !onsummation, a !ons"ira!y to a!>uire territory out o( whi!h sla%e states might e (ormed (or the 1meri!an Gnion. 4%en i( the anne2ation itsel( !ould e =usti(ied, the manner in whi!h the su se>uent war was (or!ed u"on :e2i!o !annot. The fact is, anne)ationists wanted more territory than they could possi,ly lay any claim to, as part of the new ac(uisition' Te2as, as an inde"endent /tate, ne%er had e2er!ised =urisdi!tion o%er the territory etween the 3ue!es .i%er and the .io Grande. :e2i!o had ne%er re!ogni7ed the inde"enden!e o( Te2as, and maintained that, e%en i( inde"endent, the /tate had no !laim south o( the 3ue!es. # am aware that a treaty, made ,y the Te)ans with 3anta Anna while he was under duress, ceded all the territory ,etween the .ueces and the /io @randeL ,ut he was a prisoner of war when the treaty was made, and his life was in -eopardy' He knew, too, that he deser$ed e)ecution at the hands of the Te)ans, if they should e$er capture him' The Te)ans, if they had taken his life, would ha$e only followed the e)ample set ,y 3anta Anna himself a few years ,efore, when he e)ecuted the entire %arrison of the Alamo and the $illa%ers of @oliad' #n takin% military possession of Te)as after anne)ation, the army of occupation, under @eneral Taylor, was directed to occupy the disputed territory' The army did not stop at the .ueces and offer to ne%otiate for a settlement of the ,oundary (uestion, ,ut went ,eyond, apparently in order to force "e)ico to initiate war' #t is to the credit of the American nation, howe$er, that after con(uerin% "e)ico, and while practically holdin% the country in our possession, so that we could ha$e retained the whole of it, or made any terms we chose, we paid a round sum for the additional territory takenL more than it was worth, or was likely to ,e, to "e)ico' To us it was an empire and of incalcula,le $alueL ,ut it mi%ht ha$e ,een o,tained ,y other means' The /outhern re ellion was largely the outgrowth o( the :e2i!an war. 3ations, like indi%iduals, are "unished (or their transgressions. We got our "unishment in the most sanguinary and e2"ensi%e war o( modern times.0 1 4lysses 3impson @rant, former President of the 4nited 3tates, from ,ersona *emoirs of #+3+ !rant 2.ew *orkC C'A' >e,ster & Co, 188 ;188E5, ?olume #, Chapter ###

!@radually the !Army of <ccupation0 assem,led at Corpus Christi' >hen it was all to%ether it consisted of se$en companies of the 9d re%iment of dra%oons, four companies of li%ht artillery, fi$e re%iments of infantryUthe 3d, :th, th, Nth and 8thUand one re%iment of artillery actin% as infantryUnot more than three thousand men in all' @eneral Yachary Taylor commanded the whole' There were troops enou%h in one ,ody to esta,lish a drill and discipline sufficient to fit men and officers for all they were capa,le of in case of ,attle' The rank and file were composed of men who had enlisted in time of peace, to ser$e for se$en dollars a month, and were necessarily inferior as material to the a$era%e $olunteers enlisted later in the war e)pressly to fi%ht, and also to the $olunteers in the war for the preser$ation of the 4nion' The men en%a%ed in the "e)ican war were ,ra$e, and the officers of the re%ular army, from hi%hest to lowest, were educated in their profession' A more efficient army for its num,er and armament, # do not ,elie$e e$er fou%ht a ,attle than the one commanded ,y @eneral Taylor in his first two en%a%ements on "e)icanUor Te)an soil' The presence of 4nited 3tates troops on the ed%e of the disputed territory furthest from the "e)ican settlements, was not sufficient to pro$oke hostilities' We were sent to "ro%oke a (ight, ut it was essential that :e2i!o should !ommen!e it. #t was %ery dou t(ul whether Congress would de!lare warC ut i( :e2i!o should atta!k our troo"s, the 42e!uti%e !ould announ!e, 5Whereas, war e2ists y the a!ts o(, et!.,6 and "rose!ute the !ontest with %igor. 8n!e initiated there were ut (ew "u li! men who would ha%e the !ourage to o""ose it. 42"erien!e "ro%es that the man who o stru!ts a war in whi!h his nation is engaged, no matter whether right or wrong, o!!u"ies no en%ia le "la!e in li(e or history. &etter (or him, indi%idually, to ad%o!ate 5war, "estilen!e, and (amine,6 than to a!t as o stru!tionist to a war already egun. The history o( the de(eated re el will e honora le herea(ter, !om"ared with that o( the 3orthern man who aided him y !ons"iring against his go%ernment while "rote!ted y it. The most (a%ora le "osthumous history the stayAatAhome traitor !an ho"e (or is T o li%ion. "e)ico showin% no willin%ness to come to the .ueces to dri$e the in$aders from her soil, it ,ecame necessary for the !in$aders0 to approach to within a con$enient distance to ,e struck' Accordin%ly, preparations were ,e%un for mo$in% the army to the /io @rande, to a point near "atamoras' #t was desira,le to occupy a position near the lar%est centre of population possi,le to reach, without a,solutely in$adin% territory to which we set up no claim whate$er'0 1 4lysses 3impson @rant, former President of the 4nited 3tates, from ,ersona *emoirs of #+3+ !rant 2.ew *orkC C'A' >e,ster & Co, 188 ;188E5, ?olume #, Chapter #? !The "e)ican army of that day was hardly an or%ani=ation' The pri$ate soldier was picked up from the lower class of the inha,itants when wantedL his consent was not askedL he was poorly clothed, worse fed, and seldom paid' He was turned adrift when no lon%er wanted' The officers of the lower %rades were ,ut little superior to the men' >ith all this # ha$e seen as ,ra$e stands made ,y some of these men as # ha$e e$er seen made ,y soldiers' .ow "e)ico has a standin% army lar%er than that of the 4nited 3tates' They ha$e a military school modelled after >est Point' Their officers are educated and, no dou,t, %enerally ,ra$e' The "e)ican war of 18:E18 would ,e an impossi,ility in this %eneration' The :e2i!ans ha%e shown a "atriotism whi!h it would e well i( we would imitate in "art, ut with more regard to truth. They !ele rate the anni%ersaries o( Cha"ulte"e! and :olino del .ey as o( %ery great %i!tories. The anni%ersaries are re!ogni7ed as national holidays. 1t these two attles, while the Gnited /tates troo"s were %i!torious, it was at %ery great sa!ri(i!e o( li(e !om"ared with what the :e2i!ans su((ered. The :e2i!ans, as on many other o!!asions, stood u" as well as any troo"s e%er did. The trou,le seemed to ,e the lack of e)perience amon% the officers, which led them after a certain time to simply (uit, without ,ein% particularly whipped, ,ut ,ecause they had fou%ht enou%h'0 1 4lysses 3impson @rant, former President of the 4nited 3tates and former Commandin% @eneral of the 4nited 3tates Army, from ,ersona *emoirs of #+3+ !rant 2.ew *orkC C'A' >e,ster & Co, 188 ;188E5, ?olume #, Chapter D##

:e2i!an War: 1ggressi%e, Gnholy, and Gn=ust War

+y 4'3' Con%ressman Joshua /' @iddin%s "ay 13;1G, 18:E

4'3' Con%ressman Joshua /' @iddin%s 2>hi%;<hio5 James >+ ,o k "ecame &resident on an e'&ansionist & atform+ Te'as had a ready "een admitted to the #nion, "ut the southern "oundary of Te'as was in dis&ute7 Te'as c aimed it was the )io !rande, "ut *e'ico c aimed it was the %ueces ri(er, 15; mi es to the north and west+ 8oth sides cou d cite treaties and a$reements in their fa(or+ )ather than ne$otiate a sett ement, ,o k ordered !enera ?achary Tay or into the dis&uted territory and to the north "ank of the )io !rande+ A fu y e'&ected this wou d &reci&itate a mi itary res&onse "y *e'ico+ .hen that ha&&ened, the #+3+ dec ared war on *e'ico, and the rest, as they, is history+ @n the de"ates &recedin$ the war, Joshua !iddin$s A1BC5 - 18<4D, #+3+ Con$ressman from -hio, made this e o5uent and stirrin$ a&&ea to the conscience of a %ation, ar$uin$ that &atriotism demands wi in$ness to criticiEe the $o(ernment when it is wron$+ "* C<4.T/*, /#@HT </ >/<.@ 1 67+AT7 <. TH7 "7D#CA. >A/, H<437 <8 /7P/737.TAT#?73, "A* 13;1G, 18:E
"/' @#66#.@3'UThe President in his messa%e, as a "rete2t for sendin% our army to in$ade and con(uer the country upon the /io @rande, saysC KTe)as, ,y its act of 6ecem,er 1G, 183E, had declared the /io del .orte to ,e the ,oundary of that repu,lic'K This mere declaration on paper ,y the le%islature of Te)as could not chan%e or alter the facts' They were entered upon the pa%e of history, as well as upon the records of eternal truthL and no fla%rant falsehood ,y that ,ody, indorsed ,y a di%nitary of this @o$ernment, can chan%e or alter them' The truth is that Te)as had a%reed upon the .ueces as her ,oundary' >ere "e)ico to declare, ,y a le%islati$e act, that her eastern ,oundary is the KHudson /i$er,K and, on paper, attach the whole of our 3tates south and west of that stream to her con%ressional districts, and then, on paper, di$ide our sea,oard into collection districts, without ,ein% a,le to enforce her laws in any way whate$er, her president may, at the ne)t meetin% of her con%ress, adopt this portion of President PolkBs messa%e, and ur%e, with e(ual propriety, that Pennsyl$ania and <hio are "e)ican territory' +ut if "e)ico possessed the power and disposition to enforce such $iews, we should re%ard the carryin% them out to ,e an outra%e unparalleled amon% ci$ili=ed and Christian nationsL and were a "e)ican army to in$ade our country, in order to compel us to unite with their %o$ernment, we should meet them sword in hand and would yield our country only with our li$es' # apprehend that much ,lood and much treasure will ,e e)pended ,efore the people of .ew "e)ico will ,e compelled to unite with sla$e;holdin% Te)as' Those "e)icans lo$e freedom' They ha$e a,olished sla$ery, for which they entertain an uncon(uera,le detestation' #f # had time, # should like to in(uire of %entlemen from .ew 7n%land and from our free 3tates what ,enefit our nation or the world are to recei$e from a con(uest of that country and the e)tension of sla$ery o$er itM +ut the President says this "e)ican country Kis now included in one of our con%ressional districts'K These thirty thousand people who, so soon as the ,ill which passed this House yesterday shall recei$e the sanction of the 3enate, and shall ,e appro$ed ,y the President, will ,e in a state of war with this nation, are to ,e represented on this floor ,ecause Te)as has on &a&er attached them to one of her con%ressional districts' #f this act of the Te)an le%islature has any ,indin% force whate$er, it will render e$ery "e)ican who opposes our army a traitor a%ainst this @o$ernment, and will su,-ect him to the punishment of death' *es, the men who ,urned their dwellin%s at Point #sa,el and with their wi$es and little ones fled ,efore our in$adin% army are to ,e represented in this ,ody' 3hould their representati$e, accordin% to the democratic doctrine, carry out the $iews of his constituents, the President himself may, in an un%uarded moment, find a KlassoK a,out his own neck, and the mem,ers of our ,ody ,e assassinated a%reea,ly to the hearty wishes of the people of that district'

# regard the message as ha%ing een "ut (orth to di%ert "u li! attention (rom the outrage !ommitted y the President u"on our own Constitution, and the e2er!ise o( usur"ed "owers, o( whi!h he has een guilty in ordering our army to in%ade a !ountry with whi!h we are at "ea!e, and o( "ro%oking and ringing on this war. # am led to this ine$ita,le conclusion from the fact that he dare not rest his -ustification upon truth' He reminds us of the %rie$ous wron%s perpetrated 2as he says5 ,y "e)ico upon our people in former years, and alludes to the delay of that %o$ernment in the payment of de,ts due our people, and mourns o$er the loss of our commerce with "e)icoL all for the purpose of -ustifyin% himself in sendin% the army to the /io @rande, and commencin% the work of human ,utcheryR #f the country ,e ours, why does he seek to -ustify the takin% possession of it ,y reference to the fact that "e)ico is inde,ted to some of our peopleM #f it ,e not ours, and he has taken possession of it in order to compel "e)ico to pay those de,ts, why not say soM The fact that "e)ico has not paid the de,ts due to our citi=ens can ha$e no le%itimate connection with takin% possession of our own soil' +ut the writer of the messa%e was o,$iously conscious that this in$asion of the "e)ican territory could not ,e -ustifiedL and he endea$ored to e)tenuate the act ,y assurin% us that ;; the mo$ement of the troops to the 6el .orte was made under positi$e instructions to a,stain from all a%%ressi$e acts toward "e)ico or "e)ican citi=ens unless she should declare war'K >hat a%%ressi$e acts toward a forei%n power could our army commit while on our own territoryM >hile the army was within the 4nited 3tates they could not commit $iolence upon "e)ico' The order was also to a,stain from all a%%ressi$e acts toward K"e)ican citi=ens'K #t seems that the President e)pected @eneral Taylor to find "e)ican citi=ens located within the 4nited 3tates' And this sentence e$idently alludes to the order of the 3ecretary of >ar, in which @eneral Taylor was directed to take possession of the whole country Ke)cept that which was in the actual occupation of "e)ican troops or "e)ican settlements'K Here is a distinct admission that this country, claimed ,y the President as a portion of the 4nited 3tates, was in the actual possession of "e)ican troops and "e)ican settlements' The idea that our army could &eacea" y surround those military posts occupied ,y "e)ican troops could ,e entertained ,y no reflectin% mind' The President must ha$e known, and we all know, that those military posts were esta,lished for the sole purpose of protectin% the country, and the sendin% of our army there must ha$e ,een done with the moral certainty that war would ensue' The truth is most o,$ious to the casual reader' The President o %iously intended to in%ol%e us in war with :e2i!o. 3o so"histry !an disguise that (a!t. That truth will stand on the "age o( history in all !oming time, to the disgra!e o( this nation and o( the age in whi!h we li%e. 3ir, # re%ard this war as ,ut one scene in the drama now ,ein% enacted ,y this Administration' <ur @o$ernment is under%oin% a re$olution no less marked than was that of 8rance in 1NG9' As yet, it has not ,een characteri=ed ,y that amount of ,loodshed and cruelty which distin%uished the chan%e of %o$ernment in 8rance' >hen the 7)ecuti$e and Con%ress openly and a$owedly took upon themsel$es the responsi,ility of e)tendin% and perpetuatin% sla$ery ,y the anne)ation of Te)as, and ,y the total o$erthrow and su,$ersion of the Constitution, and that, too, ,y the aid of .orthern $otes, my confidence in the sta,ility of our institutions was shaken, destroyed' # had hoped that the free 3tates mi%ht ,e aroused in time to sa$e our 4nion from final o$erthrowL ,ut that hope has ,een torn from me' The great !harter o( our "oliti!al li erties has een tamely surrendered y our (ree /tates to "ur!hase "er"etual sla%ery (or the /outh. 8ur Gnion !ontinues, ut our Constitution is gone. The rights o( the se%eral /tates and o( the "eo"le now de"end u"on the ar itrary will o( an irres"onsi le ma=ority, who are themsel%es !ontrolled y a weak ut am itious 42e!uti%e. 3ir, no man re%ards this war as /ust' .e know, the country knows, and the ci$ili=ed world are conscious, that it has resulted from a desire to e)tend and sustain an institution on which the curse of the Almi%hty most $isi,ly rests' "e)ico has lon% since a,olished sla$ery' 3he has purified herself from its crimes and its %uilt' That institution is now circumscri,ed on the southwest ,y "e)ico, where the sla$es of Te)as find an asylum' A %entleman from "atamoras lately assured me that there were in and a,out that city at least fi$e hundred fu%iti$es from Te)an ,onda%e' 7)perience has shown that they cannot ,e held in ser$itude in the $icinity of a free %o$ernment' #t has therefore ,ecome necessary to e)tend our dominions into "e)ico in order to render sla$ery secure in Te)as' >ithout this, the %reat o,-ects of anne)ation will not ,e attained' >e sou%ht to e)tend and perpetuate sla$ery in a peaceful manner ,y the anne)ation of Te)as' .ow we are a,out to effect that o,-ect ,y war and con(uest' Can we in%oke the lessing o( Deity to rest on su!h moti%es? 'as the 1lmighty any attri ute that will "ermit 'im to take sides with us in this !ontest? # know it is said that a large army and hea%y a""ro"riations will make a short war. @od %rant that the prediction may pro$e true' # apprehend that "e)ico has maturely considered the su,-ect, and enters upon the war with a solemn con$iction that her e)istence as a nation depends upon her resistance to our a%%ressions' The de$otion of her people at Point #sa,el conclusi$ely shows it' >hy, sir, look at @eneral TaylorBs report, and you will see a de$otion manifested ,y the officers and peasantry of "e)ico that speaks in thunder tones to those who re%ard the con(uest of that people as a triflin% matter' 3ee the females and children, at the approach of our troops, lea$e their homes, consecrated ,y all the ties of domestic life, and, while they are fleein% to the "e)ican army for protection, see their hus,ands and fathers apply the torch to their own dwellin%s, and then fly to arms in defence of their institutions' # confess # was struck with deep solemnity when that communication was read at your ta,leL and, in imitation of >illiam Pitt, # was ready to swear that, i( # were a :e2i!an, as # am an 1meri!an, # would ne%er sheathe my sword while an enemy remained u"on my nati%e soil. *esterday # was asked to declare to the world that K"e)ico had made war upon us'K That assertion # knew would ,e untrue, as # ha$e already shown' # felt most deeply the impotence of this ,ody, in thus attemptin% to chan%e or alter %reat and important facts already

entered upon the records of eternal truth, where they will remain while a @od of truth shall e)ist' 3ir, when we were a,out to assume upon oursel$es the awful responsi,ility of in$ol$in% our country in a serious and ,loody war, with all its conse(uencesL when a,out to appeal to a @od of -ustice and of truth for his aid in maintainin% our national ri%hts, # dared not do so with an impious falsehood upon my lipsT &ut # hear it said that Dwe must go (or our !ountry, right or wrong.D #( this ma2im e understood to re>uire us to go with our !ountry, or with the ma=ority o( our !ountry, to !ommit a wrong u"on other nations or "eo"le, either in time o( "ea!e or in time o( war, # deny its moralityC ut i( it e understood as im"osing u"on us, at all times and under all !ir!umstan!es, the o ligation o( using all our in(luen!e and e((orts to set our !ountry in the right when we (ind her wrong, or to kee" her right when we (ind her in the "ath o( duty, then, sir, # yield my assent to its !orre!tness. We are not to a andon our !ountry e!ause our Go%ernment is adly administeredC ut, in su!h !ase, we should use our e((orts to !orre!t the e%il and "la!e the Go%ernment in =ust and a le hands. A%ain it is said, Kwe must stand ,y our country'K The man who would do otherwise would ,e unworthy of any country' He only is a true friend of his country who maintains her $irtue and her -usticeL and he is not a true (riend to his !ountry who will knowingly su""ort her in doing wrong. Tomorrow this nation will "ro a ly e in a state o( war with :e2i!o. #t will e an aggressi%e, unholy, and un=ust war. #t will then e my duty to use my e((orts to restore "ea!e at the earliest "ra!ti!a le moment that it !an e done on =ust and honora le "rin!i"les. +ut while the war continues efforts will pro,a,ly ,e made to con(uer "e)ico, and we shall ,e called on to appropriate money and raise troops to %o there and slay her people and ro, her of territory' +ut the crime of murderin% her inha,itants and of takin% possession of her territory will ,e as %reat to;morrow, after war shall ha$e ,een declared, as it would ha$e ,een yesterday' $usti!e is as un!hangea le as its 1uthor. The line o( moral re!titude will ne%er end to our sel(ish "assions. #n the murder o( :e2i!ans u"on their own soil, or in ro ing them o( their !ountry, # !an take no "art, either now or herea(ter. The guilt o( these !rimes must rest on othersC # will not "arti!i"ate in themC ,ut if "e)icans or any other people should dare in$ade our country, # would meet them with the sword in one hand and a torch in the otherL and, if compelled to retreat, like the "e)icans at Point #sa,el, # would lay our dwellin%s in ashes, rather than see them occupied ,y a con(uerin% army' We may always =usti(y oursel%es (or de(ending our !ountry, ut ne%er (or waging a war u"on an uno((ending "eo"le (or the "ur"ose o( !on>uest. There is an immuta le, an eternal "rin!i"le o( =usti!e "er%ading the moral uni%erse. 3o nation, or "eo"le, or indi%idual e%er did or e%er will %iolate that law with im"unity. 3uppose we send an army into "e)ico and kill hundreds and thousands of her people, ,urn her cities, and lay waste her countryL do you think we shall escape the dread penalty of retri,uti$e -usticeM # tell you, we shall not' As sure as our destiny is swayed ,y a ri%hteous @od, our troops will fall ,y the sword and ,y pestilenceL our widows will mournL and our orphans, rendered such ,y this unholy war, will ,e thrown upon our pu,lic charity' 1' +ut it is said that war is always popular' # deny this assertion' # ,elie$e that nine;tenths of our people re%arded the 8lorida war with contempt'9 Their dis%ust arose from the fact that it was un-ust and cruel, and arose from an effort to sustain sla$ery' This war is e(ually un-ust, and arises from the same cause, and must ,e $iewed in the same li%ht ,y the people' #t is impossi,le, in the nature of thin%s, for it to ,e otherwise' <ur people feel no hostility to those of "e)ico' The "e)icans ha$e remained at home, Kunder their own $ines and fi%;treesKL they ha$e not molested us or encroached upon our ri%hts' #t is true that their population is less intelli%ent than that of our free 3tatesL and it is e(ually true that they are more rapidly impro$in% their condition than are those of our sla$e 3tates' They are surely in ad$ance of them in the diffusion of uni$ersal li,erty amon% their people' The means of intelli%ence and en-oyment are open to all' #ndeed, takin% the whole population of our sla$e 3tates and of "e)ico into consideration, # think we shall find the "e)icans the ,est informed, most intelli%ent, and most $irtuous' <ur people of the .orth ha$e sympathi=ed with them in their efforts to render their free %o$ernment permanent and respecta,le' Can the lo$ers of li,erty now desire to see a sister repu,lic wantonly su,$erted while -ust comin% into e)istence and stru%%lin% for the permanent esta,lishment of ci$il freedomM #t cannot ,e' Sou may de!lare warC dis"lay your anners, your glittering arms, your la7ing uni(ormsC you may raise the attleA!ry and sound your trum"etsC ut you !annot indu!e the intelligent men o( the 3orth to mar!h to :e2i!o (or the "ur"ose o( athing their hands in :e2i!an lood (or the e2tension o( sla%ery. Sou may (or the moment e2!ite the young, the giddy and thoughtlessC ut their Dso er se!ond thoughtsD will lead them to in>uire (or the !ause o( the war in whi!h they are asked to engage. The true answer to that in>uiry must o%erwhelm its authors with disgra!e' There is, howe$er, one cheerin% circumstance in the distant future' 1ll history in(orms us that (or ages no nation or "eo"le, on!e ha%ing ado"ted the system o( uni%ersal (reedom, was e%er a(terward rought to the maintenan!e o( sla%ery. There are now pro,a,ly ei%ht or nine millions of people in "e)ico who hate sla$ery as sincerely as do those of our free 3tates' *ou may murder or dri$e from their country that whole population, ,ut you can ne$er force sla$ery upon them' This war is waged against an uno((ending "eo"le, without =ust or ade>uate !ause, (or the "ur"oses o( !on>uestC with the design to e2tend sla%eryC in

%iolation o( the Constitution, against the di!tates o( =usti!e, o( humanity, the sentiments o( the age in whi!h we li%e, and the "re!e"ts o( the religion we "ro(ess. # will lend it no aid, no support whate$er' # will not ,athe my hands in the ,lood of the people of "e)ico, nor will # participate in the %uilt of those murders which ha$e ,een and which will hereafter ,e committed ,y our army there' 8or these reasons # shall $ote a%ainst the ,ill under consideration and all others calculated to support this war' 3ourceC "arion "ills"iller 2ed5', !reat De"ates in American 6istory, :o + F Aof 14D7 0orei$n re ations, &art 1' .ew *orkC Current Aiterature Pu,' Co', 1G13' 2pp' 3 3;G5 .otesC 1' #t is estimated that the num,er of $ictims who fell in this war, ,y pestilence and the sword, were ei%hty thousand' <f these, thirty thousand were Americans, and fifty thousand "e)icans' ; ,ack 9' I9J The 3eminole >ar' 3ee ?olume ?###, Chapter ?# 3ourceC ; ,ack 3ourceC httpCOOwww'-ohn;ue,ersa)'comOplatoO%iddin%s'htm

"kull = Bones and .heir ?ccupation during the 0e4ican War 6+*-;-+*-*8

Richard .aylor B.#. 7ale +*-@ "er2ed in the 0e4ican War with his father Cen. Kachary .aylorE Louisiana "tate "enator 6+*@;-+*;+8

William <. Russell B.#. 7ale +*,, 0em)er of the %onnecticut "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-;-+*-/8

#lphonso .aft B.#. 7ale +*,, 0em)er of the %ommon %ouncil of %incinnati, ?hio 6+*-/-+*-B8

.homas #. .hacher B.#. 7ale +*,@ Professor of Latin at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*-(-+**;8

$oseph Parrish .hompson B.#. 7ale +*,* Pastor of the Broadway .a)ernacle in :ew 7ork %ity 6+*-@-+*/+8

$ohn Wallace <ouston 6"=B +*,-8 H !.". %ongressman 6Whig Party-&elaware, +*-@-+*@+8 $ohn <u))ard .weedy 6"=B +*,-8 H &elegate of the .erritory of Wisconsin 6Whig Party-Wisconsin, +*-/-+*-*8 <enry Rootes $ackson 6"=B +*,B8 H !.". #ttorney for the &istrict of Ceorgia 6+*---+*-B8 William <untington Russell 6"=B +*,,8 H 0em)er of the %onnecticut "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-;-+*-/8 William "mith "car)orough 6"=B +*,/8 H 0em)er of the %onnecticut "tate "enate 6+*-;8 William <enry %handler 6"=B +*,B8 H 0em)er of the %onnecticut "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-/8 Rufus <art 6"=B +*,,8 H 0em)er of ?hio "tate "enate 6+*-@-+*-/8 #sahel <. Lewis 6"=B +*,,8 H 0em)er of ?hio Ceneral #ssem)ly I<ouse of Representati2esJ 6+*-/-+*-*8 <ugh White "heffey 6"=B +*,@8 H 0em)er of the Ceneral #ssem)ly of the "tate of Airginia 6+*-;-+*@-8 #llen 9erdinand ?wen 6"=B +*,/8 H 0em)er of Ceorgia "tate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-,-+*-/8 #lphonso .aft 6"=B +*,,8 H 0em)er of the %ommon %ouncil of %incinnati 6+*-/-+*-B8 $oseph Parrish .hompson 6"=B +*,*8 H Pastor of Broadway .a)ernacle in :ew 7ork %ity 6+*-@-+*/+8 .homas #nthony .hacher 6"=B +*,@8 H Professor of Latin at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*-(-+**;8 Ben'amin "illiman $r. 6"=B +*,/8 H Professor of #pplied %hemistry at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*-;-+*-B8

Territorial %ains and losses of "e)ico 21891;present5

.oteC The "e)ican >ar 2also known as "e)ican;American >ar5 lasted from April 9 , 18:E to 8e,ruary 9, 18:8' .oteC The 4nited 3tates of America 2includin% Alaska and Hawaii5 consists of 3,NG:,101 s(uare miles' The conti%uous 4nited 3tates of America 2e)cludin% Alaska and Hawaii5 consists of 3,11G,88: s(uare miles' The /oman 7mpire at its hei%ht 2in 11N A'6'5 consisted of 9, 0G,EE: s(uare miles' The 4nited 3tates of America ,ecame lar%er than the /oman 7mpire %eo%raphically on 8e,ruary 9, 18:8, when the "e)ican >ar was formally concluded with the si%nin% of the Treaty of @uadalupe Hidal%o'

The +attle of the Alamo was fou%ht in 3an Antonio, Te)as from 8e,ruary 93, 183E to "arch E, 183E' Amon% the !Te)ans0 who were killed in action at the Alamo "ission on "arch E, 183E include former 4'3' Con%ressman 6a$y Crockett 2center, holdin% a rifle o$er his head5'

"e)ican Army @en' 3anta Anna 2center5, a prisoner of war, stands ,efore the wounded 3am Houston 2restin% under a tree5 after the +attle of 3an Jacinto on April 91, 183E' The +attle of 3an Jacinto was fou%ht in present;day Houston, Te)as on April 91, 183E'

"ap of "e)ico in 18:

The /epu,lic of Te)as 2left fla%5 declared its independence from "e)ico on "arch 9, 183E and was anne)ed to the 4nited 3tates of America on 6ecem,er 9G, 18: ' The /epu,lic of *ucatan 2ri%ht fla%5 lasted from "arch 1E, 18:1 to July 1:, 18:8'

American soldiers raise the American fla% in Te)as on De!em er OQ, +,E- after 4'3' President James S' Polk reco%ni=ed the anne)ation of Te)as' According to the Chinese calendar, 184 !as kno!n as "ear o# the $nake. 2Paintin% ,y 6onald "' *enaL Te)as 3tate Ai,rary and Archi$es Commission5

The +attle of Palo Alto was the first ma-or ,attle of the "e)ican >ar and was fou%ht on :ay ,, +,EH, on disputed %round fi$e miles from the modern;day city of +rowns$ille, Te)as' A force of some 3,:00 "e)ican troops 1 a portion of the Army of The .orth 1 led ,y @eneral "ariano Arista en%a%ed a force of 9,:00 American troops 1 the so called KArmy of <,ser$ation'K Con%ress declared war on "e)ico on :ay +), +,EH' The Thornton Affair, a skirmish ,etween the "e)ican army and 4'3' Army that resulted in 1E American soldiers killed in action, occurred on 1"ril O-, +,EHL the Thornton Affair would ,e reco%ni=ed later as the incident that initiated the "e)ican >ar'

Con%ress declared war on "e)ico on :ay +), +,EH, with a $ote of :0;9 2with : 3enators a,sent5 in the 4'3' 3enate and 1N:;1: in the 4'3' House of /epresentati$es' 3enators John "' +errien 2A'+' Princeton 1NGE5, @eor%e 7$ans 2+'A' +owdoin 181 5, Ja,e= >' Huntin%ton 2+'A' *ale 180E5, and John C' Calhoun 2+'A' *ale 180:5 did not $ote' 3enator Thomas Clayton 26elaware5 and 3enator John 6a$is 2+'A' *ale 1819, "assachusetts5 $oted a%ainst the war' The followin% mem,ers of the 4'3' House of /epresentati$es $oted a%ainst the "e)ican >arC John Quincy Adams 2+'A' Har$ard 1N8N5, @eor%e Ashmun 2+'A' *ale 18935, Henry *' Cranston, 7rastus 6' Cul$er, Colum,us 6elano, Joshua /' @iddin%s, Joseph @rinnell, Charles Hudson, 6aniel P' Sin% 2+'A' Har$ard 18935, Joseph "' /oot, Auther 3e$erance, John 3trohm, 6aniel /' Tilden, and Joseph ?ance'

The 4'3' Army under the command of @eneral Yachary Taylor defeated the "e)ican army at the +attle of +uena ?ista in Puerto de la An%ostura, Coahuila, "e)ico on 8e,ruary 99;93, 18:N'

The 4'3' Army under the command of @eneral >infield 3cott defeated the "e)ican army at the +attle of Chapultepec in "e)ico City on 3eptem,er 19;13, 18:N' The 4'3' Army marched into "e)ico City on 3eptem,er 1:, 18:N'

7rominent ?ale 4raduates % GeIi'an 6ar (18L=D18L8)

$a)eQ W. <untington B.#. 7ale +*1; !.". "enator 6Whig-%onn., +*-1-+*-/8

$ohn &a2is B.#. 7ale +*+( !.". "enator 6Whig0assachusetts, +*,@+*-+, +*-@-+*@,8

$ohn %. %alhoun B.#. 7ale +*1!.". "enator 6&-"outh %arolina, +*,(-+*-,, +*-@-+*@18

"amuel ". Phelps B.#. 7ale +*++ !.". "enator 6Whig-Aermont, +*,B+*@+, +*@,-+*@-8

Roger "herman Baldwin B.#. 7ale +*++ !.". "enator 6Whig-%onn., +*-/-+*@+8

Ceorge Edmund Badger B.#. 7ale +*+, !.". "enator 6Whig-:orth %arolina, +*-;-+*@@8

$ohn 0. %layton B.#. 7ale +*+@ !.". "enator 6Whig&elaware, +*(B-+*,;E +*-@-+*-BE +*@,-+*@;8

$ohn Wales B.#. 7ale +*1+ "ecretary of "tate of &elaware 6+*-@-+*-B8

.ruman "mith B.#. 7ale +*+@ !.". %ongressman 6Whig-%onnecticut, +*,B+*-,, +*-@-+*-B8

$ulius Rockwell B.#. 7ale +*(; !.". %ongressman 6Whig-0assachusetts, +*-,-+*@+8

#ugustus B. Longstreet B.#. 7ale +*+, President of Emory %ollege I#tlanta, CeorgiaJ 6+*-1-+*-*8

#)raham B. <as)rouck B.#. 7ale +*+1 President of Rutgers %ollege 6+*-1-+*@18

Re2. .heodore &wight Woolsey B.#. 7ale +*(1 President of 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*-;-+*/+8

Lyman Beecher B.#. 7ale +/B/ President of Lane .heological "eminary I%incinnatiJ 6+*,(-+*@18

&a2id &aggett B.#. 7ale +/*, Professor of Law at 7ale !ni2ersity 6+*(;-+*-*8

0e4ican War> 0r. Polk3s WarN

$ames Buchanan !.". "ecretary of "tate 6+*-@-+*-B8E !.". 0inister to Creat Britain 6+*@,-+*@;8E President of the !.". 6+*@/-+*;+8E !.". "enator 6&-Penn., +*,--+*-@8

Ro)ert $ohn Walker B.#. !. of Penn. +*+B "ecretary of the .reasury 6+*-@-+*-B8E !.". "enator 6&-0iss., +*,@-+*-@8E Co2ernor of Lansas .erritory 6+*@/8

$ames L. Polk President of the !.". 60arch -, +*-@0arch -, +*-B8E Co2ernor of .ennessee 6+*,B-+*-+8

William Learned 0arcy #.B. Brown +*1* !.". "ecretary of War 6+*-@-+*-B8E !.". "ecretary of "tate 6+*@,-+*@/8E Co2ernor of :ew 7ork 6+*,,-+*,*8

$ohn 7oung 0ason B.#. !ni2ersity of :orth %arolina +*+; "ecretary of the :a2y 6+*---+*-@, "ept. B, +*-;-0arch /, +*-B8E !.". #ttorney Ceneral 6+*-@-+*-;8

Wilson "hannon !nited "tates 0inister to 0e4ico 6"ept. +, +*--0ay +-, +*-@8E Co2ernor of ?hio 6+*,*-+*-1, +*-(-+*--8

:athan %lifford !.". #ttorney Ceneral 6?cto)er +/, +*-;0arch +/, +*-*8E !nited "tates 0inister to 0e4ico 60arch +*, +*-*"eptem)er ;, +*-B8

Ceorge 0. &allas #.B. Princeton +*+1 Aice President of the !.". 6+*-@-+*-B8E !.". 0inister to Creat Britain 6+*@;-+*;+8

%a2e $ohnson Postmaster Ceneral of the !nited "tates 60arch @, +*-@0arch @, +*-B8

Fsaac .oucey Co2ernor of %onnecticut 60ay ;, +*-;-0ay @, +*-/8E !.". #ttorney Ceneral 6$une (+, +*-*0arch -, +*-B8E "ecretary of the :a2y 6+*@/-+*;+8

Cen. Kachary .aylor President of the !.". 60arch -, +*-B$uly B, +*@18

Cen. Winfield "cott %ommanding Ceneral of the !nited "tates #rmy 6$uly @, +*-+:o2em)er +, +*;+8

"am <ouston !.". "enator 6.e4as, 9e)ruary (+, +*-;0arch ,, +*@B8E Co2ernor of .e4as 6+*@B-+*;+8E President of the Repu)lic of .e4as 6+*,;-+*,*, +*-+-+*--8

.homas $efferson Rusk !.". "enator 6&emocrat.e4as, 9e)ruary (+, +*-;-$uly (B, +*@/8E %hief $ustice of the "upreme %ourt of .e4as 6+*,*-+*-(8

$ames Pinckney <enderson Co2ernor of .e4as 69e)ruary +B, +*-; H &ecem)er (+, +*-/8

.oteC American army officers who ser$ed in the "e)ican >ar and the American Ci$il >ar 23outhern /e,ellion5 includeC Al,ert 3idney Johnston 2>est Point 189E5, Jefferson 6a$is 2>est Point 18985, Captain /o,ert 7' Aee 2>est Point 189G5, Joseph 7' Johnston 2>est Point 189G5, @eor%e @' "eade 2>est Point 183 5, Aieutenant 4lysses 3' @rant 2>est Point 18:35, @eor%e +' "cClellan 2>est Point 18:E5, and 3econd Aieutenant Thomas Jonathan K3tonewallK Jackson 2>est Point 18:E5'

President James S' Polk 2seated, 9nd ri%ht5 and his Ca,inet pose for a portrait in the >hite House dinin% room in 18:G' Ca,inet secretaries in this photo includeC 3ecretary of the .a$y John *oun% "ason 2seated, left5, 3ecretary of >ar >illiam Aearned "arcy 2seated, second left5, Postmaster @eneral Ca$e Johnson 2standin%, center5, and Treasury 3ecretary /o,ert John >alker 2seated, ri%ht5' 3ecretary of 3tate James +uchanan is a,sent'

$ohn /lidell, an alleged .oths!hild agent and .e el ?Con(ederate@ (inan!ier during the 1meri!an Ci%il War, was a""ointed y President $ames K. Polk to ser%e as the G./. :inister to :e2i!o in +,E- and +,EH des"ite the (a!t :e2i!o se%ered di"lomati! relations with the Gnited /tates on :ar!h O,, +,E-. John 3lidell was ,orn and raised in .ew *ork City and %raduated from Colum,ia 4ni$ersity in .ew *ork City in 1810L John 3lidell mo$ed to .ew <rleans around 181G' John 3lidell ser$ed as a "em,er of the 4'3' House of /epresentati$es from Aouisiana 2"arch :, 18:3;.o$em,er 10, 18: 5 and 4'3' 3enator from Aouisiana 26ecem,er , 18 3, to 8e,ruary :, 18E15 ,efore the Ci$il >ar and ser$ed as a Confederate en$oy to 8rance durin% the Ci$il >ar'

A proclamation of the declaration of war issued ,y President James S' Polk

President $ames K. Polk0s /"e!ial :essage to Congress Calling (or a De!laration o( War 1gainst :e2i!o
James >+ ,o k, ,resident of the #nited 3tates at .ashin$ton, D+C+, to the Con$ress of the #nited 3tates+ A s&ecia messa$e ca in$ for a dec aration of war a$ainst *e'ico+ >ashin%ton, "ay 11, 18:E' To the 3enate and the House of /epresentati$esC The e)istin% state of the relations ,etween the 4nited 3tates and "e)ico renders it proper that # should ,rin% the su,-ect to the consideration of Con%ress' #n my messa%e at the commencement of your present session, the state of these relations, the causes which led to the suspension of diplomatic intercourse ,etween the two countries in "arch, 18: , and the lon%;continued and unredressed wron%s and in-uries committed ,y the "e)ican @o$ernment on citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates in their persons and property were ,riefly set forth' As the facts and opinions which were then laid ,efore you were carefully considered, # can not ,etter e)press my present con$ictions of the condition of affairs up to that time than ,y referrin% you to that communication' The stron% desire to esta,lish peace with "e)ico on li,eral and honora,le terms, and the readiness of this @o$ernment to re%ulate and ad-ust our ,oundary and other causes of difference with that power on such fair and e(uita,le principles as would lead to permanent relations of the most friendly nature, induced me in 3eptem,er last to seek the reopenin% of diplomatic relations ,etween the two countries' 7$ery measure adopted on our part had for its o,-ect the furtherance of these desired results' #n communicatin% to Con%ress a succinct statement of the in-uries which we had suffered from "e)ico, and which ha$e ,een accumulatin% durin% a period of more than twenty years, e$ery e)pression that could tend to inflame the people of "e)ico or defeat or delay a pacific result was carefully a$oided' An en$oy of the 4nited 3tates repaired to "e)ico with full powers to ad-ust e$ery e)istin% difference' +ut thou%h present on "e)ican soil ,y a%reement ,etween the two @o$ernments, in$ested with full powers, and ,earin% e$idence of the most friendly dispositions, his mission has ,een una$ailin%' The "e)ican @o$ernment not only refused to recei$e him or listen to his propositions, ,ut after a lon%;continued series of menaces ha$e at last in$aded our territory and shed the ,lood of our fellow;citi=ens on our own soil' #t now ,ecomes my duty to state more in detail the ori%in, pro%ress, and failure of that mission' #n pursuance of the instructions %i$en in 3eptem,er last, an in(uiry was made on the 13th of <cto,er, 18: , in the most friendly terms, throu%h our consul in "e)ico, of the minister for forei%n affairs, whether the "e)ican @o$ernment Kwould recei$e an en$oy from the 4nited 3tates intrusted with full powers to ad-ust all the (uestions in dispute ,etween the two @o$ernment, K with the assurance that Kshould the answer ,e in the affirmati$e such an en$oy would ,e immediately dispatched to "e)ico' The "e)ican minister on the 1 th of <cto,er %a$e an affirmati$e answer to this in(uiry, re(uestin% at the same time that our na$al force at ?era Cru= mi%ht ,e withdrawn, lest its continued presence mi%ht assume the appearance of menace and coercion pendin% the ne%otiations' This force was immediately withdrawn' <n the 10th of .o$em,er, 18: , "r' John 3lidell, of Aouisiana, was commissioned ,y me as en$oy e)traordinary and minister plenipotentiary of the 4nited 3tates to "e)ico, and was intrusted with full powers to ad-ust ,oth the (uestions of the Te)as ,oundary and of indemnification to our citi=ens' The redress of wron%s of our citi=ens naturally and insepara,ly ,lended itself with the (uestion of ,oundary' The settlement of the one (uestion in any correct $iew of the su,-ect in$ol$es that of the other' # could not for a moment entertain the idea that the claims of our much;in-ured and lon%; sufferin% citi=ens, many of which had e)isted for more than twenty years, should ,e postponed or separated from the settlement of the ,oundary (uestion' "r' 3lidell arri$ed at ?era Cru= on the 30th of .o$em,er and was courteously recei$ed ,y the authorities of that city' +ut the @o$ernment of @eneral Herrera was then totterin% to its fall' The re$olutionary party had sei=ed upon the Te)as (uestion to effect or hasten its o$erthrow' #ts determination to restore friendly relations with the 4nited 3tates, and to recei$e our minister to ne%otiate for the settlement of this (uestion, was $iolently assailed, and was made the %reat theme of denunciation a%ainst it' The @o$ernment of @eneral Herrera, there is %ood reason to ,elie$e, was sincerely desirous to recei$e our ministerL ,ut it yielded to the storm raised ,y its enemies, and on the 91st of 6ecem,er refused to accredit "r' 3lidell upon the most fri$olous prete)ts' These are so fully and a,ly e)posed in the note of "r' 3lidell of the 9:th of 6ecem,er last to the "e)ican minister of forei%n relations, herewith transmitted, that # deem it unnecessary to enter into further detail on this portion of the su,-ect'

8i$e days after the date of "r' 3lidellBs note @eneral Herrera yielded the @o$ernment to @eneral Paredes without a stru%%le, and on the 30th of 6ecem,er resi%ned the Presidency' This re$olution was accomplished solely ,y the army, the people ha$in% taken little part in the contestL and thus the supreme power in "e)ico passed into the hands of a military leader' 6etermined to lea$e no effort untried to effect an amica,le ad-ustment with "e)ico, # directed "r' 3lidell to present his credentials to the @o$ernment of @eneral Paredes and ask to ,e officially recei$ed ,y him' There would ha$e ,een less %round for takin% this step had @eneral Paredes come into power ,y a re%ular constitutional succession' #n that e$ent his administration would ha$e ,een considered ,ut a mere constitutional continuance of the @o$ernment of @eneral Herrera, and the refusal of the latter to recei$e our minister would ha$e ,een deemed conclusi$e unless an intimation had ,een %i$en ,y @eneral Paredes of his desire to re$erse the decision of his predecessor' +ut the @o$ernment of @eneral Paredes owes its e)istence to a military re$olution, ,y which the su,sistin% constitutional authorities had ,een su,$erted' The form of %o$ernment was entirely chan%ed, as well as all the hi%h functionaries ,y whom it was administered' 4nder these circumstances, "r' 3lidell, in o,edience to my direction, addressed a note to the "e)ican minister of forei%n relations, under date of the 1st of "arch last, askin% to ,e recei$ed ,y that @o$ernment in the diplomatic character to which he had ,een appointed' This minister in his reply, under date of the 19th of "arch, reiterated the ar%uments of his predecessor, and in terms that may ,e considered as %i$in% -ust %rounds of offense to the @o$ernment and people of the 4nited 3tates denied the application of "r' 3lidell' .othin% therefore remained for our en$oy ,ut to demand his passports and return to his own country' Thus the @o$ernment of "e)ico, thou%h solemnly pled%ed ,y official acts in <cto,er last to recei$e and accredit an American en$oy, $iolated their pli%hted faith and refused the offer of a peaceful ad-ustment of our difficulties' .ot only was the offer re-ected, ,ut the indi%nity of its re-ection was enhanced ,y the manifest ,reach of faith in refusin% to admit the en$oy who came ,ecause they had ,ound themsel$es to recei$e him' .or can it ,e said that the offer was fruitless from want of opportunity of discussin% itL our en$oy was present on their own soil' .or can it ,e ascri,ed to a want of sufficient powersL our en$oy had full powers to ad-ust e$ery (uestion of difference' .or was there room for complaint that our propositions for settlement were unreasona,leL permission was not e$en %i$en our en$oy to make any proposition whate$er' .or can it ,e o,-ected that we, on our part, would not listen to any reasona,le terms of their su%%estionL the "e)ican @o$ernment refused all ne%otiation, and ha$e made no proposition of any kind' #n my messa%e at the commencement of the present session # informed you that upon the earnest appeal ,oth of the Con%ress and con$ention of Te)as # had ordered an efficient military force to take a position K,etween the .ueces and 6el .orte'K This had ,ecome necessary to meet a threatened in$asion of Te)as ,y the "e)ican forces, for which e)tensi$e military preparations had ,een made' The in$asion was threatened solely ,ecause Te)as had determined, in accordance with a solemn resolution of the Con%ress of the 4nited 3tates, to anne) herself to our 4nion, and under these circumstances it was plainly our duty to e)tend our protection o$er her citi=ens and soil' This force was concentrated at Corpus Christi, and remained there until after # had recei$ed such information from "e)ico as rendered it pro,a,le, if not certain, that the "e)ican @o$ernment would refuse to recei$e our en$oy' "eantime Te)as, ,y the final act of our Con%ress, had ,ecome an inte%ral part of our 4nion' The Con%ress of Te)as, ,y its act of 6ecem,er 1G, 183E, had declared the /io del .orte to ,e the ,oundary of that /epu,lic' #ts -urisdiction had ,een e)tended and e)ercised ,eyond the .ueces' The country ,etween that ri$er and the 6el .orte had ,een represented in the Con%ress and in the con$ention of Te)as, had thus taken part in the act of anne)ation itself, and is now included within one of our Con%ressional districts' <ur own Con%ress had, moreo$er, with %reat unanimity, ,y the act appro$ed 6ecem,er 31, 18: , reco%ni=ed the country ,eyond the .ueces as a part of our territory ,y includin% it within our own re$enue system, and a re$enue officer to reside within that district had ,een appointed ,y and with the ad$ice and consent of the 3enate' #t ,ecame, therefore, of ur%ent necessity to pro$ide for the defense of that portion of our country' Accordin%ly, on the 13th of January last instructions were issued to the %eneral in command of these troops to occupy the left ,ank of the 6el .orte' This ri$er, which is the southwestern ,oundary of the 3tate of Te)as, is an e)pose frontier' 8rom this (uarter in$asion was threatenedL upon it and in its immediate $icinity, in the -ud%ement of hi%h military e)perience, are the proper stations for the protectin% forces of the @o$ernment' #n addition to this important consideration, se$eral others occurred to induce this mo$ement' Amon% these are the facilities afforded ,y the ports at +ra=os 3antia%o and the mouth of the 6el .orte for the reception of supplies ,y sea, the stron%er and more healthy military positions, the con$enience for o,tainin% a ready and a more a,undant supply of pro$isions, water, fuel, and fora%e, and the ad$anta%es which are afforded ,y the 6el .orte in forwardin% supplies to such posts as may ,e esta,lished in the interior and upon the #ndian frontier' The mo$ement of the troops to the 6el .orte was made ,y the commandin% %eneral under positi$e instructions to a,stain from all a%%ressi$e acts toward "e)ico or "e)ican citi=ens and to re%ard the relations ,etween that /epu,lic and the 4nited 3tates as

peaceful unless she should declare war or commit acts of hostility indicati$e of a state of war' He was specially directed to protect pri$ate property and respect personal ri%hts' The Army mo$ed from Corpus Christi on the 11th of "arch, and on the 98th of that month arri$ed on the left ,ank of the 6el .orte opposite to "atamoras, where it encamped on a commandin% position, which since ,een stren%thened ,y the erection of fieldworks' A depot has also ,een esta,lished at Point #sa,el, near the +ra=os 3antia%o, 30 miles in rear of the encampment' The selection of his position was necessarily confided to the -ud%ment of the %eneral in command' The "e)ican forces at "atamoras assumed a ,elli%erent attitude, and on the 19th of April @eneral Ampudia, then in command, notified @eneral Taylor to ,reak up his camp within twenty;four hours and to retire ,eyond the .ueces /i$er, and in the e$ent of this failure to comply with these demands announced that arms, and arms alone, must decide the (uestion' +ut no open act of hostility was committed until the 9:th of April' <n that day @eneral Arista, who had succeeded to the command of the "e)ican forces, communicated to @eneral Taylor that Khe considered hostilities commenced and should prosecute them'K A party of dra%oons of E3 men and officers were on the same day dispatched from the American camp up the /io del .orte, on its left ,ank, to ascertain whether the "e)ican troops had crossed or were preparin% to cross the ri$er, K,ecame en%a%ed with a lar%e ,ody of these troops, and after a short affair, in which some 1E were killed and wounded, appear to ha$e ,een surrounded and compelled to surrender' The %rie$ous wron%s perpetrated ,y "e)ico upon our citi=ens throu%hout a lon% period of years remain unredressed, and solemn treaties pled%in% her pu,lic faith for this redress ha$e ,een disre%arded' A %o$ernment either una,le or unwillin% to enforce the e)ecution of such treaties fails to perform one of its plainest duties' <ur commerce with "e)ico has ,een almost annihilated' #t was formerly hi%hly ,eneficial to ,oth nations, ,ut our merchants ha$e ,een deterred from prosecutin% it ,y the system of outra%e and e)tortion which the "e)ican authorities ha$e pursued a%ainst them, whilst their appeals throu%h their own @o$ernment for indemnity ha$e ,een made in $ain' <ur for,earance has %one to such an e)treme as to ,e mistaken in its character' Had we acted with $i%or in repellin% the insults and redressin% the in-uries inflicted ,y "e)ico at the commencement, we should dou,tless ha$e escaped all the difficulties in which we are now in$ol$ed' #nstead of this, howe$er, we ha$e ,een e)ertin% our ,est efforts to propitiate her %ood will' 4pon the prete)t that Te)as, a nation as independent as herself, thou%ht proper to unite its destinies with our own, she has affected to ,elie$e that we ha$e se$ered her ri%htful territory, and in official proclamations and manifestoes has repeatedly threatened to make war upon us for the purpose of recon(uerin% Te)as' #n the meantime we ha$e tried e$ery effort at reconciliation' The cup of for,earance had ,een e)hausted e$en ,efore the recent information from the frontier of the 6el .orte' +ut now, after reiterated menaces, :e2i!o has "assed the oundary o( the Gnited /tates, has in%aded our territory and shed 1meri!an lood u"on the 1meri!an soil ' 3he has proclaimed that hostilities ha$e commenced, and that the two nations are now at war' As war e)ists, and, notwithstandin% all our efforts to a$oid it, e)ists ,y the act of "e)ico herself, we are called upon ,y e$ery consideration of duty and patriotism to $indicate with decision the honor, the ri%hts, and the interests of our country' Anticipatin% the possi,ility of a crisis like that which has arri$ed, instructions were %i$en in Au%ust last, Kas a precautionary measureK a%ainst in$asion or threatened in$asion, authori=in% @eneral Taylor, if the emer%ency re(uired it, to accept $olunteers, not from Te)as only, ,ut from the 3tates of Aouisiana, Ala,ama, "ississippi, Tennessee, and Sentucky, and correspondin% letters were addressed to the respecti$e %o$ernors of those 3tates' These instructions were repeated, and in January last, soon after the incorporation of KTe)as into our 4nion of 3tates,K @eneral Taylor was further Kauthori=ed ,y the President to make a re(uisition upon the e)ecuti$e of that 3tate for such of its militia force as may ,e needed to repel in$asion or to secure the country a%ainst apprehended in$asion'K <n the 9d day of "arch he was a%ain reminded, Kin the e$ent of the approach of any considera,le "e)ican force, promptly and efficiently to use the authority with which he was clothed to call to him such au)iliary force as he mi%ht need'K >ar actually e)istin% and our territory ha$in% ,een in$aded, @eneral Taylor, pursuant to authority $ested in him ,y my direction, has called on the %o$ernor of Te)as for four re%iments of 3tate troops, two to ,e mounted and two to ser$e on foot, and on the %o$ernor of Aouisiana for four re%iments of infantry to ,e sent to him as soon as practica,le' #n further $indication of our ri%hts and defense of our territory, # in$oke the prompt action of Con%ress to reco%ni=e the e)istence of the war, and to place at the disposition of the 7)ecuti$e the means of prosecutin% the war with $i%or, and thus hastenin% the restoration of peace' To this end # recommend that authority should ,e %i$en to call into the pu,lic ser$ice a lar%e ,ody of $olunteers to ser$e for not less than si) or twel$e months unless sooner dischar%ed' A $olunteer force is ,eyond (uestion more efficient than any other description of citi=en soldiers, and it is not to ,e dou,ted that a num,er far ,eyond that

re(uired would readily rush to the field upon the call of their country' # further recommend that a li,eral pro$ision ,e made for sustainin% our entire military force and furnishin% it with supplies and munitions of war' The most ener%etic and prompt measures and the immediate appearance in arms or a lar%e and o$erpowerin% force are recommended to Con%ress as the most certain and efficient means of ,rin%in% the e)istin% collision with "e)ico to a speedy and successful termination' #n makin% these recommendations # deem it proper to declare that it is my an)ious desire not only to terminate hostilities speedily, ,ut to ,rin% all matters in dispute ,etween this @o$ernment and "e)ico to an early and amica,le ad-ustmentL and in this $iew # shall ,e prepared to renew ne%otiations whene$er "e)ico shall ,e ready to recei$e propositions or to propositions of her own' # transmit herewith a copy of the correspondence ,etween our en$oy to "e)ico and the "e)ican minister for forei%n affairs, and so much of the correspondence ,etween that en$oy and the 3ecretary of 3tate and ,etween the 3ecretary of >ar and the %eneral in command on the 6el .orte as is necessary to a full understandin% of the su,-ect' JA"73 S' P<AS' 3ourceC httpCOOwww'dmw$'or%Ome)warOdocumentsOpolk'htm

Treaty of @uadalupe Hidal%oL 8e,ruary 9, 18:8

T)1AT= -0 ,1AC1, 0)@1%D36@,, L@*@T3, A%D 31TTL1*1%T 81T.11% T61 #%@T1D 3TAT13 -0 A*1)@CA A%D T61 #%@T1D *1G@CA% 3TAT13 C-%CL#D1D AT !#ADAL#,1 6@DAL!-, 018)#A)= F, 18482 )AT@0@CAT@-% AD:@31D 8= 31%AT1, .@T6 A*1%D*1%T3, *A)C6 1;, 18482 )AT@0@1D 8= ,)13@D1%T, *A)C6 1<, 18482 )AT@0@CAT@-%3 1GC6A%!1D AT H#1)1TA)-, *A= 3;, 18482 ,)-CLA@*1D, J#L= 4, 1848+ #. TH7 .A"7 <8 AA"#@HT* @<6 The 4nited 3tates of America and the 4nited "e)ican 3tates animated ,y a sincere desire to put an end to the calamities of the war which unhappily e)ists ,etween the two /epu,lics and to esta,lish 4pon a solid ,asis relations of peace and friendship, which shall confer reciprocal ,enefits upon the citi=ens of ,oth, and assure the concord, harmony, and mutual confidence wherein the two people should li$e, as %ood nei%h,ors ha$e for that purpose appointed their respecti$e plenipotentiaries, that is to sayC The President of the 4nited 3tates has appointed .icholas P' Trist, a citi=en of the 4nited 3tates, and the President of the "e)ican /epu,lic has appointed 6on Auis @on=a%a Cue$as, 6on +ernardo Couto, and 6on "i%uel Atristain, citi=ens of the said /epu,licL >ho, after a reciprocal communication of their respecti$e full powers, ha$e, under the protection of Almi%hty @od, the author of peace, arran%ed, a%reed upon, and si%ned the followin%C Treaty of Peace, 8riendship, Aimits, and 3ettlement ,etween the 4nited 3tates of America and the "e)ican /epu,lic' A/T#CA7 # There shall ,e firm and uni$ersal peace ,etween the 4nited 3tates of America and the "e)ican /epu,lic, and ,etween their respecti$e countries, territories, cities, towns, and people, without e)ception of places or persons' A/T#CA7 ## #mmediately upon the si%nature of this treaty, a con$ention shall ,e entered into ,etween a commissioner or commissioners appointed ,y the @eneral;in;chief of the forces of the 4nited 3tates, and such as may ,e appointed ,y the "e)ican @o$ernment, to the end that a pro$isional suspension of hostilities shall take place, and that, in the places occupied ,y the said forces, constitutional order may ,e reesta,lished, as re%ards the political, administrati$e, and -udicial ,ranches, so far as this shall ,e permitted ,y the circumstances of military occupation' A/T#CA7 ### #mmediately upon the ratification of the present treaty ,y the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates, orders shall ,e transmitted to the commanders of their land and na$al forces, re(uirin% the latter 2pro$ided this treaty shall then ha$e ,een ratified ,y the @o$ernment of the "e)ican /epu,lic, and the ratifications e)chan%ed5 immediately to desist from ,lockadin% any "e)ican ports and re(uirin% the former 2under the same condition5 to commence, at the earliest moment practica,le, withdrawin% all troops of the 4nited 3tates then in the interior of the "e)ican /epu,lic, to points that shall ,e selected ,y common a%reement, at a distance from the seaports not e)ceedin% thirty lea%uesL and such e$acuation of the interior of the /epu,lic shall ,e completed with the least possi,le delayL the "e)ican @o$ernment here,y ,indin% itself to afford e$ery facility in its power for renderin% the same con$enient to the troops, on their march and in their new positions, and for promotin% a %ood understandin% ,etween them and the inha,itants' #n like manner orders shall ,e despatched to the persons in char%e of the custom houses at all ports occupied ,y the forces of the 4nited 3tates, re(uirin% them 2under the same condition5 immediately to deli$er possession of the same to the persons authori=ed ,y the "e)ican @o$ernment to recei$e it, to%ether with all ,onds and e$idences of de,t for duties on importations and on e)portations, not yet fallen due' "oreo$er, a faithful and e)act account shall ,e made out, showin% the entire amount of all duties on imports and on e)ports, collected at such custom;houses, or elsewhere in "e)ico, ,y authority of the 4nited 3tates, from and after the day of ratification of this treaty ,y the @o$ernment of the "e)ican /epu,licL and also an account of the cost of collectionL and such entire amount, deductin% only the cost of collection, shall ,e deli$ered to the "e)ican @o$ernment, at the city of "e)ico, within three months after the e)chan%e of ratifications' The e$acuation of the capital of the "e)ican /epu,lic ,y the troops of the 4nited 3tates, in $irtue of the a,o$e stipulation, shall ,e completed in one month after the orders there stipulated for shall ha$e ,een recei$ed ,y the commander of said troops, or sooner if possi,le' A/T#CA7 #?

#mmediately after the e)chan%e of ratifications of the present treaty all castles, forts, territories, places, and possessions, which ha$e ,een taken or occupied ,y the forces of the 4nited 3tates durin% the present war, within the limits of the "e)ican /epu,lic, as a,out to ,e esta,lished ,y the followin% article, shall ,e definitely restored to the said /epu,lic, to%ether with all the artillery, arms, apparatus of war, munitions, and other pu,lic property, which were in the said castles and forts when captured, and which shall remain there at the time when this treaty shall ,e duly ratified ,y the @o$ernment of the "e)ican /epu,lic' To this end, immediately upon the si%nature of this treaty, orders shall ,e despatched to the American officers commandin% such castles and forts, securin% a%ainst the remo$al or destruction of any such artillery, arms, apparatus of war, munitions, or other pu,lic property' The city of "e)ico, within the inner line of intrenchments surroundin% the said city, is comprehended in the a,o$e stipulation, as re%ards the restoration of artillery, apparatus of war, & c' The final e$acuation of the territory of the "e)ican /epu,lic, ,y the forces of the 4nited 3tates, shall ,e completed in three months from the said e)chan%e of ratifications, or sooner if possi,leL the "e)ican @o$ernment here,y en%a%in%, as in the fore%oin% article to use all means in its power for facilitatin% such e$acuation, and renderin% it con$enient to the troops, and for promotin% a %ood understandin% ,etween them and the inha,itants' #f, howe$er, the ratification of this treaty ,y ,oth parties should not take place in time to allow the em,arcation of the troops of the 4nited 3tates to ,e completed ,efore the commencement of the sickly season, at the "e)ican ports on the @ulf of "e)ico, in such case a friendly arran%ement shall ,e entered into ,etween the @eneral;in;Chief of the said troops and the "e)ican @o$ernment, where,y healthy and otherwise suita,le places, at a distance from the ports not e)ceedin% thirty lea%ues, shall ,e desi%nated for the residence of such troops as may not yet ha$e em,arked, until the return of the healthy season' And the space of time here referred to as, comprehendin% the sickly season shall ,e understood to e)tend from the first day of "ay to the first day of .o$em,er' All prisoners of war taken on either side, on land or on sea, shall ,e restored as soon as practica,le after the e)chan%e of ratifications of this treaty' #t is also a%reed that if any "e)icans should now ,e held as capti$es ,y any sa$a%e tri,e within the limits of the 4nited 3tates, as a,out to ,e esta,lished ,y the followin% article, the @o$ernment of the said 4nited 3tates will e)act the release of such capti$es and cause them to ,e restored to their country' A/T#CA7 ? The ,oundary line ,etween the two /epu,lics shall commence in the @ulf of "e)ico, three lea%ues from land, opposite the mouth of the /io @rande, otherwise called /io +ra$o del .orte, or <pposite the mouth of its deepest ,ranch, if it should ha$e more than one ,ranch emptyin% directly into the seaL from thence up the middle of that ri$er, followin% the deepest channel, where it has more than one, to the point where it strikes the southern ,oundary of .ew "e)icoL thence, westwardly, alon% the whole southern ,oundary of .ew "e)ico 2which runs north of the town called Paso5 to its western terminationL thence, northward, alon% the western line of .ew "e)ico, until it intersects the first ,ranch of the ri$er @ilaL 2or if it should not intersect any ,ranch of that ri$er, then to the point on the said line nearest to such ,ranch, and thence in a direct line to the same5L thence down the middle of the said ,ranch and of the said ri$er, until it empties into the /io ColoradoL thence across the /io Colorado, followin% the di$ision line ,etween 4pper and Aower California, to the Pacific <cean' The southern and western limits of .ew "e)ico, mentioned in the article, are those laid down in the map entitled K"ap of the 4nited "e)ican 3tates, as or%ani=ed and defined ,y $arious acts of the Con%ress of said repu,lic, and constructed accordin% to the ,est authorities' /e$ised edition' Pu,lished at .ew *ork, in 18:N, ,y J' 6isturnell,K of which map a copy is added to this treaty, ,earin% the si%natures and seals of the undersi%ned Plenipotentiaries' And, in order to preclude all difficulty in tracin% upon the %round the limit separatin% 4pper from Aower California, it is a%reed that the said limit shall consist of a strai%ht line drawn from the middle of the /io @ila, where it unites with the Colorado, to a point on the coast of the Pacific <cean, distant one marine lea%ue due south of the southernmost point of the port of 3an 6ie%o, accordin% to the plan of said port made in the year 1N89 ,y 6on Juan Panto-a, second sailin%;master of the 3panish fleet, and pu,lished at "adrid in the year 1809, in the atlas to the $oya%e of the schooners 3util and "e)icanaL of which plan a copy is hereunto added, si%ned and sealed ,y the respecti$e Plenipotentiaries' #n order to desi%nate the ,oundary line with due precision, upon authoritati$e maps, and to esta,lish upon the %round land;marks which shall show the limits of ,oth repu,lics, as descri,ed in the present article, the two @o$ernments shall each appoint a commissioner and a sur$eyor, who, ,efore the e)piration of one year from the date of the e)chan%e of ratifications of this treaty, shall meet at the port of 3an 6ie%o, and proceed to run and mark the said ,oundary in its whole course to the mouth of the /io +ra$o del .orte' They shall keep -ournals and make out plans of their operationsL and the result a%reed upon ,y them shall ,e deemed a part of this treaty, and shall ha$e the same force as if it were inserted therein' The two @o$ernments will amica,ly a%ree re%ardin% what may ,e necessary to these persons, and also as to their respecti$e escorts, should such ,e necessary'

The ,oundary line esta,lished ,y this article shall ,e reli%iously respected ,y each of the two repu,lics, and no chan%e shall e$er ,e made therein, e)cept ,y the e)press and free consent of ,oth nations, lawfully %i$en ,y the @eneral @o$ernment of each, in conformity with its own constitution' A/T#CA7 ?# The $essels and citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates shall, in all time, ha$e a free and uninterrupted passa%e ,y the @ulf of California, and ,y the ri$er Colorado ,elow its confluence with the @ila, to and from their possessions situated north of the ,oundary line defined in the precedin% articleL it ,ein% understood that this passa%e is to ,e ,y na$i%atin% the @ulf of California and the ri$er Colorado, and not ,y land, without the e)press consent of the "e)ican @o$ernment' #f, ,y the e)aminations which may ,e made, it should ,e ascertained to ,e practica,le and ad$anta%eous to construct a road, canal, or railway, which should in whole or in part run upon the ri$er @ila, or upon its ri%ht or its left ,ank, within the space of one marine lea%ue from either mar%in of the ri$er, the @o$ernments of ,oth repu,lics will form an a%reement re%ardin% its construction, in order that it may ser$e e(ually for the use and ad$anta%e of ,oth countries' A/T#CA7 ?## The ri$er @ila, and the part of the /io +ra$o del .orte lyin% ,elow the southern ,oundary of .ew "e)ico, ,ein%, a%reea,ly to the fifth article, di$ided in the middle ,etween the two repu,lics, the na$i%ation of the @ila and of the +ra$o ,elow said ,oundary shall ,e free and common to the $essels and citi=ens of ,oth countriesL and neither shall, without the consent of the other, construct any work that may impede or interrupt, in whole or in part, the e)ercise of this ri%htL not e$en for the purpose of fa$orin% new methods of na$i%ation' .or shall any ta) or contri,ution, under any denomination or title, ,e le$ied upon $essels or persons na$i%atin% the same or upon merchandise or effects transported thereon, e)cept in the case of landin% upon one of their shores' #f, for the purpose of makin% the said ri$ers na$i%a,le, or for maintainin% them in such state, it should ,e necessary or ad$anta%eous to esta,lish any ta) or contri,ution, this shall not ,e done without the consent of ,oth @o$ernments' The stipulations contained in the present article shall not impair the territorial ri%hts of either repu,lic within its esta,lished limits' A/T#CA7 ?### "e)icans now esta,lished in territories pre$iously ,elon%in% to "e)ico, and which remain for the future within the limits of the 4nited 3tates, as defined ,y the present treaty, shall ,e free to continue where they now reside, or to remo$e at any time to the "e)ican /epu,lic, retainin% the property which they possess in the said territories, or disposin% thereof, and remo$in% the proceeds where$er they please, without their ,ein% su,-ected, on this account, to any contri,ution, ta), or char%e whate$er' Those who shall prefer to remain in the said territories may either retain the title and ri%hts of "e)ican citi=ens, or ac(uire those of citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates' +ut they shall ,e under the o,li%ation to make their election within one year from the date of the e)chan%e of ratifications of this treatyL and those who shall remain in the said territories after the e)piration of that year, without ha$in% declared their intention to retain the character of "e)icans, shall ,e considered to ha$e elected to ,ecome citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates' #n the said territories, property of e$ery kind, now ,elon%in% to "e)icans not esta,lished there, shall ,e in$iola,ly respected' The present owners, the heirs of these, and all "e)icans who may hereafter ac(uire said property ,y contract, shall en-oy with respect to it %uarantees e(ually ample as if the same ,elon%ed to citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates' A/T#CA7 #D The "e)icans who, in the territories aforesaid, shall not preser$e the character of citi=ens of the "e)ican /epu,lic, conforma,ly with what is stipulated in the precedin% article, shall ,e incorporated into the 4nion of the 4nited 3tates' and ,e admitted at the proper time 2to ,e -ud%ed of ,y the Con%ress of the 4nited 3tates5 to the en-oyment of all the ri%hts of citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates, accordin% to the principles of the ConstitutionL and in the mean time, shall ,e maintained and protected in the free en-oyment of their li,erty and property, and secured in the free e)ercise of their reli%ion withoutL restriction' A/T#CA7 D I3tricken outJ

Article D# Considerin% that a %reat part of the territories, which, ,y the present treaty, are to ,e comprehended for the future within the limits of the 4nited 3tates, is now occupied ,y sa$a%e tri,es, who will hereafter ,e under the e)clusi$e control of the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates, and whose incursions within the territory of "e)ico would ,e pre-udicial in the e)treme, it is solemnly a%reed that all such incursions shall ,e forci,ly restrained ,y the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates whensoe$er this may ,e necessaryL and that when they cannot ,e pre$ented, they shall ,e punished ,y the said @o$ernment, and satisfaction for the same shall ,e e)actedall in the same way, and with e(ual dili%ence and ener%y, as if the same incursions were meditated or committed within its own territory, a%ainst its own citi=ens' #t shall not ,e lawful, under any prete)t whate$er, for any inha,itant of the 4nited 3tates to purchase or ac(uire any "e)ican, or any forei%ner residin% in "e)ico, who may ha$e ,een captured ,y #ndians inha,itin% the territory of either of the two repu,licsL nor to purchase or ac(uire horses, mules, cattle, or property of any kind, stolen within "e)ican territory ,y such #ndians' And in the e$ent of any person or persons, captured within "e)ican territory ,y #ndians, ,ein% carried into the territory of the 4nited 3tates, the @o$ernment of the latter en%a%es and ,inds itself, in the most solemn manner, so soon as it shall know of such capti$es ,ein% within its territory, and shall ,e a,le so to do, throu%h the faithful e)ercise of its influence and power, to rescue them and return them to their country' or deli$er them to the a%ent or representati$e of the "e)ican @o$ernment' The "e)ican authorities will, as far as practica,le, %i$e to the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates notice of such capturesL and its a%ents shall pay the e)penses incurred in the maintenance and transmission of the rescued capti$esL who, in the mean time, shall ,e treated with the utmost hospitality ,y the American authorities at the place where they may ,e' +ut if the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates, ,efore recei$in% such notice from "e)ico, should o,tain intelli%ence, throu%h any other channel, of the e)istence of "e)ican capti$es within its territory, it will proceed forthwith to effect their release and deli$ery to the "e)ican a%ent, as a,o$e stipulated' 8or the purpose of %i$in% to these stipulations the fullest possi,le efficacy, there,y affordin% the security and redress demanded ,y their true spirit and intent, the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates will now and hereafter pass, without unnecessary delay, and always $i%ilantly enforce, such laws as the nature of the su,-ect may re(uire' And, finally, the sacredness of this o,li%ation shall ne$er ,e lost si%ht of ,y the said @o$ernment, when pro$idin% for the remo$al of the #ndians from any portion of the said territories, or for its ,ein% settled ,y citi=ens of the 4nited 3tatesL ,ut, on the contrary, special care shall then ,e taken not to place its #ndian occupants under the necessity of seekin% new homes, ,y committin% those in$asions which the 4nited 3tates ha$e solemnly o,li%ed themsel$es to restrain' A/T#CA7 D## #n consideration of the e)tension ac(uired ,y the ,oundaries of the 4nited 3tates, as defined in the fifth article of the present treaty, the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates en%a%es to pay to that of the "e)ican /epu,lic the sum of fifteen millions of dollars' #mmediately after the treaty shall ha$e ,een duly ratified ,y the @o$ernment of the "e)ican /epu,lic, the sum of three millions of dollars shall ,e paid to the said @o$ernment ,y that of the 4nited 3tates, at the city of "e)ico, in the %old or sil$er coin of "e)ico The remainin% twel$e millions of dollars shall ,e paid at the same place, and in the same coin, in annual installments of three millions of dollars each, to%ether with interest on the same at the rate of si) per centum per annum' This interest shall ,e%in to run upon the whole sum of twel$e millions from the day of the ratification of the present treaty ,y;;the "e)ican @o$ernment, and the first of the installments shall ,e paid;at the e)piration of one year from the same day' To%ether with each annual installment, as it falls due, the whole interest accruin% on such installment from the ,e%innin% shall also ,e paid' A/T#CA7 D### The 4nited 3tates en%a%e, moreo$er, to assume and pay to the claimants all the amounts now due them, and those hereafter to ,ecome due, ,y reason of the claims already li(uidated and decided a%ainst the "e)ican /epu,lic, under the con$entions ,etween the two repu,lics se$erally concluded on the ele$enth day of April, ei%hteen hundred and thirty;nine, and on the thirtieth day of January, ei%hteen hundred and forty;threeL so that the "e)ican /epu,lic shall ,e a,solutely e)empt, for the future, from all e)pense whate$er on account of the said claims' A/T#CA7 D#? The 4nited 3tates do furthermore dischar%e the "e)ican /epu,lic from all claims of citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates, not heretofore decided a%ainst the "e)ican @o$ernment, which may ha$e arisen pre$iously to the date of the si%nature of this treatyL which

dischar%e shall ,e final and perpetual, whether the said claims ,e re-ected or ,e allowed ,y the ,oard of commissioners pro$ided for in the followin% article, and whate$er shall ,e the total amount of those allowed' A/T#CA7 D? The 4nited 3tates, e)oneratin% "e)ico from all demands on account of the claims of their citi=ens mentioned in the precedin% article, and considerin% them entirely and fore$er canceled, whate$er their amount may ,e, undertake to make satisfaction for the same, to an amount not e)ceedin% three and one;(uarter millions of dollars' To ascertain the $alidity and amount of those claims, a ,oard of commissioners shall ,e esta,lished ,y the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates, whose awards shall ,e final and conclusi$eL pro$ided that, in decidin% upon the $alidity of each claim, the ,oa shall ,e %uided and %o$erned ,y the principles and rules of decision prescri,ed ,y the first and fifth articles of the unratified con$ention, concluded at the city of "e)ico on the twentieth day of .o$em,er, one thousand ei%ht hundred and forty;threeL and in no case shall an award ,e made in fa$our of any claim not em,raced ,y these principles and rules' #f, in the opinion of the said ,oard of commissioners or of the claimants, any ,ooks, records, or documents, in the possession or power of the @o$ernment of the "e)ican /epu,lic, shall ,e deemed necessary to the -ust decision of any claim, the commissioners, or the claimants throu%h them, shall, within such period as Con%ress may desi%nate, make an application in writin% for the same, addressed to the "e)ican "inister of 8orei%n Affairs, to ,e transmitted ,y the 3ecretary of 3tate of the 4nited 3tatesL and the "e)ican @o$ernment en%a%es, at the earliest possi,le moment after the receipt of such demand, to cause any of the ,ooks, records, or documents so specified, which shall ,e in their possession or power 2or authenticated copies or e)tracts of the same5, to ,e transmitted to the said 3ecretary of 3tate, who shall immediately deli$er them o$er to the said ,oard of commissionersL pro$ided that no such application shall ,e made ,y or at the instance of any claimant, until the facts which it is e)pected to pro$e ,y such ,ooks, records, or documents, shall ha$e ,een stated under oath or affirmation' A/T#CA7 D?# 7ach of the contractin% parties reser$es to itself the entire ri%ht to fortify whate$er point within its territory it may -ud%e proper so to fortify for its security' A/T#CA7 D?## The treaty of amity, commerce, and na$i%ation, concluded at the city of "e)ico, on the fifth day of April, A' 6' 1831, ,etween the 4nited 3tates of America and the 4nited "e)ican 3tates, e)cept the additional article, and e)cept so far as the stipulations of the said treaty may ,e incompati,le with any stipulation contained in the present treaty, is here,y re$i$ed for the period of ei%ht years from the day of the e)chan%e of ratifications of this treaty, with the same force and $irtue as if incorporated thereinL it ,ein% understood that each of the contractin% parties reser$es to itself the ri%ht, at any time after the said period of ei%ht years shall ha$e e)pired, to terminate the same ,y %i$in% one yearBs notice of such intention to the other party' A/T#CA7 D?### All supplies whate$er for troops of the 4nited 3tates in "e)ico, arri$in% at ports in the occupation of such troops pre$ious to the final e$acuation thereof, althou%h su,se(uently to the restoration of the custom;houses at such ports, shall ,e entirely e)empt from duties and char%es of any kindL the @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates here,y en%a%in% and pled%in% its faith to esta,lish and $i%ilantly to enforce, all possi,le %uards for securin% the re$enue of "e)ico, ,y pre$entin% the importation, under co$er of this stipulation, of any articles other than such, ,oth in kind and in (uantity, as shall really ,e wanted for the use and consumption of the forces of the 4nited 3tates durin% the time they may remain in "e)ico' To this end it shall ,e the duty of all officers and a%ents of the 4nited 3tates to denounce to the "e)ican authorities at the respecti$e ports any attempts at a fraudulent a,use of this stipulation, which they may know of, or may ha$e reason to suspect, and to %i$e to such authorities all the aid in their power with re%ard theretoL and e$ery such attempt, when duly pro$ed and esta,lished ,y sentence of a competent tri,unal, They shall ,e punished ,y the confiscation of the property so attempted to ,e fraudulently introduced' A/T#CA7 D#D >ith respect to all merchandise, effects, and property whatsoe$er, imported into ports of "e)ico, whilst in the occupation of the forces of the 4nited 3tates, whether ,y citi=ens of either repu,lic, or ,y citi=ens or su,-ects of any neutral nation, the followin% rules shall ,e o,ser$edC

215 All such merchandise, effects, and property, if imported pre$iously to the restoration of the custom;houses to the "e)ican authorities, as stipulated for in the third article of this treaty, shall ,e e)empt from confiscation, althou%h the importation of the same ,e prohi,ited ,y the "e)ican tariff' 295 The same perfect e)emption shall ,e en-oyed ,y all such merchandise, effects, and property, imported su,se(uently to the restoration of the custom;houses, and pre$iously to the si)ty days fi)ed in the followin% article for the comin% into force of the "e)ican tariff at such ports respecti$elyL the said merchandise, effects, and property ,ein%, howe$er, at the time of their importation, su,-ect to the payment of duties, as pro$ided for in the said followin% article' 235 All merchandise, effects, and property descri,ed in the two rules fore%oin% shall, durin% their continuance at the place of importation, and upon their lea$in% such place for the interior, ,e e)empt from all duty, ta), or imposts of e$ery kind, under whatsoe$er title or denomination' .or shall they ,e there su,-ect to any char%e whatsoe$er upon the sale thereof' 2:5 All merchandise, effects, and property, descri,ed in the first and second rules, which shall ha$e ,een remo$ed to any place in the interior, whilst such place was in the occupation of the forces of the 4nited 3tates, shall, durin% their continuance therein, ,e e)empt from all ta) upon the sale or consumption thereof, and from e$ery kind of impost or contri,ution, under whatsoe$er title or denomination' 2 5 +ut if any merchandise, effects, or property, descri,ed in the first and second rules, shall ,e remo$ed to any place not occupied at the time ,y the forces of the 4nited 3tates, they shall, upon their introduction into such place, or upon their sale or consumption there, ,e su,-ect to the same duties which, under the "e)ican laws, they would ,e re(uired to pay in such cases if they had ,een imported in time of peace, throu%h the maritime custom;houses, and had there paid the duties conforma,ly with the "e)ican tariff' 2E5 The owners of all merchandise, effects, or property, descri,ed in the first and second rules, and e)istin% in any port of "e)ico, shall ha$e the ri%ht to reship the same, e)empt from all ta), impost, or contri,ution whate$er' >ith respect to the metals, or other property, e)ported from any "e)ican port whilst in the occupation of the forces of the 4nited 3tates, and pre$iously to the restoration of the custom;house at such port, no person shall ,e re(uired ,y the "e)ican authorities, whether %eneral or state, to pay any ta), duty, or contri,ution upon any such e)portation, or in any manner to account for the same to the said authorities' A/T#CA7 DD Throu%h consideration for the interests of commerce %enerally, it is a%reed, that if less than si)ty days should elapse ,etween the date of the si%nature of this treaty and the restoration of the custom houses, conforma,ly with the stipulation in the third article, in such case all merchandise, effects and property whatsoe$er, arri$in% at the "e)ican ports after the restoration of the said custom;houses, and pre$iously to the e)piration of si)ty days after the day of si%nature of this treaty, shall ,e admitted to entryL and no other duties shall ,e le$ied thereon than the duties esta,lished ,y the tariff found in force at such custom;houses at the time of the restoration of the same' And to all such merchandise, effects, and property, the rules esta,lished ,y the precedin% article shall apply' A/T#CA7 DD# #f unhappily any disa%reement should hereafter arise ,etween the @o$ernments of the two repu,lics, whether with respect to the interpretation of any stipulation in this treaty, or with respect to any other particular concernin% the political or commercial relations of the two nations, the said @o$ernments, in the name of those nations, do promise to each other that they will endea$our, in the most sincere and earnest manner, to settle the differences so arisin%, and to preser$e the state of peace and friendship in which the two countries are now placin% themsel$es, usin%, for this end, mutual representations and pacific ne%otiations' And if, ,y these means, they should not ,e ena,led to come to an a%reement, a resort shall not, on this account, ,e had to reprisals, a%%ression, or hostility of any kind, ,y the one repu,lic a%ainst the other, until the @o$ernment of that which deems itself a%%rie$ed shall ha$e maturely considered, in the spirit of peace and %ood nei%h,ourship, whether it would not ,e ,etter that such difference should ,e settled ,y the ar,itration of commissioners appointed on each side, or ,y that of a friendly nation' And should such course ,e proposed ,y either party, it shall ,e acceded to ,y the other, unless deemed ,y it alto%ether incompati,le with the nature of the difference, or the circumstances of the case' A/T#CA7 DD## #f 2which is not to ,e e)pected, and which @od for,id5 war should unhappily ,reak out ,etween the two repu,lics, they do now, with a $iew to such calamity, solemnly pled%e themsel$es to each other and to the world to o,ser$e the followin% rulesL a,solutely where the nature of the su,-ect permits, and as closely as possi,le in all cases where such a,solute o,ser$ance shall ,e impossi,leC

215 The merchants of either repu,lic then residin% in the other shall ,e allowed to remain twel$e months 2for those dwellin% in the interior5, and si) months 2for those dwellin% at the seaports5 to collect their de,ts and settle their affairsL durin% which periods they shall en-oy the same protection, and ,e on the same footin%, in all respects, as the citi=ens or su,-ects of the most friendly nationsL and, at the e)piration thereof, or at any time ,efore, they shall ha$e full li,erty to depart, carryin% off all their effects without molestation or hindrance, conformin% therein to the same laws which the citi=ens or su,-ects of the most friendly nations are re(uired to conform to' 4pon the entrance of the armies of either nation into the territories of the other, women and children, ecclesiastics, scholars of e$ery faculty, culti$ators of the earth, merchants, artisans, manufacturers, and fishermen, unarmed and inha,itin% unfortified towns, $illa%es, or places, and in %eneral all persons whose occupations are for the common su,sistence and ,enefit of mankind, shall ,e allowed to continue their respecti$e employments, unmolested in their persons' .or shall their houses or %oods ,e ,urnt or otherwise destroyed, nor their cattle taken, nor their fields wasted, ,y the armed force into whose power, ,y the e$ents of war, they may happen to fallL ,ut if the necessity arise to take anythin% from them for the use of such armed force, the same shall ,e paid for at an e(uita,le price' All churches, hospitals, schools, colle%es, li,raries, and other esta,lishments for charita,le and ,eneficent purposes, shall ,e respected, and all persons connected with the same protected in the dischar%e of their duties, and the pursuit of their $ocations' 295' #n order that the fate of prisoners of war may ,e alle$iated all such practices as those of sendin% them into distant, inclement or unwholesome districts, or crowdin% them into close and no)ious places, shall ,e studiously a$oided' They shall not ,e confined in dun%eons, prison ships, or prisonsL nor ,e put in irons, or ,ound or otherwise restrained in the use of their lim,s' The officers shall en-oy li,erty on their paroles, within con$enient districts, and ha$e comforta,le (uartersL and the common soldiers shall ,e dispose2 in cantonments, open and e)tensi$e enou%h for air and e)ercise and lod%ed in ,arracks as roomy and %ood as are pro$ided ,y the party in whose power they are for its own troops' +ut if any office shall ,reak his parole ,y lea$in% the district so assi%ned him, o any other prisoner shall escape from the limits of his cantonment after they shall ha$e ,een desi%nated to him, such indi$idual, officer, or other prisoner, shall forfeit so much of the ,enefit of this article as pro$ides for his li,erty on parole or in cantonment' And if any officer so ,reakin% his parole or any common soldier so escapin% from the limits assi%ned him, shall afterwards ,e found in arms pre$iously to his ,ein% re%ularly e)chan%ed, the person so offendin% shall ,e dealt with accordin% to the esta,lished laws of war' The officers shall ,e daily furnished, ,y the party in whose power they are, with as many rations, and of the same articles, as are allowed either in kind or ,y commutation, to officers of e(ual rank in its own armyL and all others shall ,e daily furnished with such ration as is allowed to a common soldier in its own ser$iceL the $alue of all which supplies shall, at the close of the war, or at periods to ,e a%reed upon ,etween the respecti$e commanders, ,e paid ,y the other party, on a mutual ad-ustment of accounts for the su,sistence of prisonersL and such accounts shall not ,e min%led with or set off a%ainst any others, nor the ,alance due on them withheld, as a compensation or reprisal for any cause whate$er, real or pretended 7ach party shall ,e allowed to keep a commissary of prisoners, appointed ,y itself, with e$ery cantonment of prisoners, in possession of the otherL which commissary shall see the prisoners as often a he pleasesL shall ,e allowed to recei$e, e)empt from all duties a ta)es, and to distri,ute, whate$er comforts may ,e sent to them ,y their friendsL and shall ,e free to transmit his reports in open letters to the party ,y whom he is employed' And it is declared that neither the pretense that war dissol$es all treaties, nor any other whate$er, shall ,e considered as annullin% or suspendin% the solemn co$enant contained in this article' <n the contrary, the state of war is precisely that for which it is pro$idedL and, durin% which, its stipulations are to ,e as sacredly o,ser$ed as the most acknowled%ed o,li%ations under the law of nature or nations' A/T#CA7 DD### This treaty shall ,e ratified ,y the President of the 4nited 3tates of America, ,y and with the ad$ice and consent of the 3enate thereofL and ,y the President of the "e)ican /epu,lic, with the pre$ious appro,ation of its %eneral Con%ressL and the ratifications shall ,e e)chan%ed in the City of >ashin%ton, or at the seat of @o$ernment of "e)ico, in four months from the date of the si%nature hereof, or sooner if practica,le' #n faith whereof we, the respecti$e Plenipotentiaries, ha$e si%ned this treaty of peace, friendship, limits, and settlement, and ha$e hereunto affi)ed our seals respecti$ely' 6one in (uintuplicate, at the city of @uadalupe Hidal%o, on the second day of 8e,ruary, in the year of our Aord one thousand ei%ht hundred and forty;ei%ht' .' P' T/#3T A4#3 P' C47?A3 +7/.A/6< C<4T< "#@A' AT/#3TA#. 3ourceC Treaties and Con$entions ,etween the 4nited 3tates of America and <ther Powers 3ince July :, 1NNE >ashin%ton, 6C C @o$ernment Printin% <ffice, 18N1 3ourceC httpCOOa$alon'law'yale'eduO1GthPcenturyO%uadhida'asp

Artic e @G was modified and Artic e G were stricken "y the #+3+ Con$ress+ 6ere are the ori$ina artic es+ @n addition, there is an e'& anation or a$reement of why the artic es where stricken which is known as the ,rotoco of HuerItaro A/T#CA7 #D The "e)icans who, in the territories aforesaid, shall not preser$e the character of citi=ens of the "e)ican /epu,lic, conforma,ly with what is stipulated in the precedin% Article, shall ,e incorporated into the 4nion of the 4nited 3tates, and admitted as soon as possi,le, accordin% to the principles of the 8ederal Constitution, to the en-oyment of all the ri%hts of citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates' #n the mean time, they shall ,e maintained and protected in the en-oyment of their li,erty, their property, and the ci$il ri%hts now $ested in them accordin% to the "e)ican laws' >ith respect to political ri%hts, their condition shall ,e on an e(uality with that of the inha,itants of the other territories of the 4nited 3tatesL and at least e(ually %ood as that of the inha,itants of Aouisiana and the 8loridas, when these pro$inces, ,y transfer from the 8rench /epu,lic and the Crown of 3pain, ,ecame territories of the 4nited 3tates' The same most ample %uaranty shall ,e en-oyed ,y all ecclesiastics and reli%ious corporations or communities, as well in the dischar%e of the offices of their ministry, as in the en-oyment of their property of e$ery kind, whether indi$idual or corporate' This %uaranty shall em,race all temples, houses and edifices dedicated to the /oman Catholic worshipL as well as all property destined to itBs IsicJ support, or to that of schools, hospitals and other foundations for charita,le or ,eneficent purposes' .o property of this nature shall ,e considered as ha$in% ,ecome the property of the American @o$ernment, or as su,-ect to ,e, ,y it, disposed of or di$erted to other uses' 8inally, the relations and communication ,etween the Catholics li$in% in the territories aforesaid, and their respecti$e ecclesiastical authorities, shall ,e open, free and e)empt from all hindrance whate$er, e$en althou%h such authorities should reside within the limits of the "e)ican /epu,lic, as defined ,y this treatyL and this freedom shall continue, so lon% as a new demarcation of ecclesiastical districts shall not ha$e ,een made, conforma,ly with the laws of the /oman Catholic Church' A/T#CA7 D All %rants of land made ,y the "e)ican %o$ernment or ,y the competent authorities, in territories pre$iously appertainin% to "e)ico, and remainin% for the future within the limits of the 4nited 3tates, shall ,e respected as $alid, to the same e)tent that the same %rants would ,e $alid, to the said territories had remained within the limits of "e)ico' +ut the %rantees of lands in Te)as, put in possession thereof, who, ,y reason of the circumstances of the country since the ,e%innin% of the trou,les ,etween Te)as and the "e)ican @o$ernment, may ha$e ,een pre$ented from fulfillin% all the conditions of their %rants, shall ,e under the o,li%ation to fulfill the said conditions within the periods limited in the same respecti$elyL such periods to ,e now counted from the date of the e)chan%e of ratifications of this TreatyC in default of which the said %rants shall not ,e o,li%atory upon the 3tate of Te)as, in $irtue of the stipulations contained in this Article' The fore%oin% stipulation in re%ard to %rantees of land in Te)as, is e)tended to all %rantees of land in the territories aforesaid, elsewhere than in Te)as, put in possession under such %rantsL and, in default of the fulfillment of the conditions of any such %rant, within the new period, which, as is a,o$e stipulated, ,e%ins with the day of the e)chan%e of ratifications of this treaty, the same shall ,e null and $oid' TH7 P/<T<C<A <8 Q47/ZTA/< #n the city of Queretaro on the twenty si)th of the month of "ay ei%hteen hundred and forty;ei%ht at a conference ,etween Their 7)cellencies .athan Clifford and Am,rose H' 3e$ier Commissioners of the 4nited 3tates of America, with full powers from their @o$ernment to make to the "e)ican /epu,lic suita,le e)planations in re%ard to the amendments which the 3enate and @o$ernment of the said 4nited 3tates ha$e made in the treaty of peace, friendship, limits and definiti$e settlement ,etween the two /epu,lics, si%ned in @uadalupe Hidal%o, on the second day of 8e,ruary of the present year, and His 7)cellency 6on Auis de la /osa, "inister of 8orei%n Affairs of the /epu,lic of "e)ico, it was a%reed, after ade(uate con$ersation respectin% the chan%es alluded to, to record in the present protocol the followin% e)planations which Their aforesaid 7)cellencies the Commissioners %a$e in the name of their @o$ernment and in fulfillment of the Commission conferred upon them near the "e)ican /epu,lic' 8irst' The American @o$ernment ,y suppressin% the #Dth article of the Treaty of @uadalupe and su,stitutin% the ### article of the Treaty of Aouisiana did not intend to diminish in any way what was a%reed upon ,y the aforesaid article #Dth in fa$or of the inha,itants of the territories ceded ,y "e)ico' #ts understandin% that all of that a%reement is contained in the ###d article of tile

Treaty of Aouisiana' #n conse(uence, all the pri$ile%es and %uarantees, ci$il, political and reli%ious, which would ha$e ,een possessed ,y the inha,itants of the ceded territories, if the #Dth article of the Treaty had ,een retained, will ,e en-oyed ,y them without any difference under the article which has ,een su,stituted' 3econd' The American @o$ernment, ,y suppressin% the Dth article of the Treaty of @uadalupe did not in any way intend to annul the %rants of lands made ,y "e)ico in the ceded territories' These %rants, notwithstandin% the suppression of the article of the Treaty, preser$e the le%al $alue which they may possessL and the %rantees may cause their le%itimate titles to ,e acknowled%ed ,efore the American tri,unals' Conforma,ly to the law of the 4nited 3tates, le%itimate titles to e$ery description of property personal and real, e)istin% in the ceded territories, are those which were le%itimate titles under the "e)ican law in California and .ew "e)ico up to the #3th of "ay 18:E, and in Te)as up to the 9d "arch 183E' Third' The @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates ,y suppressin% the concludin% para%raph of article D##th of the Treaty, did not intend to depri$e the "e)ican /epu,lic of the free and unrestrained faculty of cedin%, con$eyin% or transferrin% at any time 2as it may -ud%e ,est[ the sum of the twel$e IsicJ millions of dollars which the same @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates is to deli$er in the places desi%nated ,y the amended article' And these e)planations ha$in% ,een accepted ,y the "inister of 8orei%n Affairs of the "e)ican /epu,lic, he declared in name of his @o$ernment that with the understandin% con$eyed ,y them, the same @o$ernment would proceed to ratify the Treaty of @uadalupe as modified ,y the 3enate and @o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates' #n testimony of which their 7)cellencies the aforesaid Commissioners and the "inister ha$e si%ned and sealed in (uintuplicate the present protocol' I3ealJ A' H' 3e$ier I3ealJ .athan Clifford I3ealJ Auis de la /osa 3ourceC httpCOOwww'me)ica'netO%uadhida'php

"ap of the @old /e%ions of California, pu,lished in 18:G

3an 8rancisco har,or 2*er,a +uena Co$e5, California in 18 0 or 18 1

#merican and %hinese miners search for gold, hoping to strike it rich during the %alifornia Cold Rush at #u)urn Ra2ine in +*@(. .he %alifornia Cold Rush 6+*-*-+*@@8 )egan on $anuary (-, +*-*, when gold was found )y $ames W. 0arshall at "utterPs 0ill in %oloma, %alifornia. Aoters in %alifornia appro2ed their )ilingual state constitution, which outlawed sla2ery, on :o2em)er +,, +*-B. %alifornia was admitted into the !nion as a free state on "eptem)er B, +*@1 once mem)ers of %ongress appro2ed the %ompromise of +*@1. "la2eowners3 attempt to create sla2e states from captured 0e4ican territory was futile as the mem)ers of the Repu)lican Party fa2ored containing and later a)olishing sla2ery altogether. 6%alifornia "tate Li)rary I&aguerreotype collection XB+(J8

.he !.". go2ernment purchased a portion of 0e4ico, known as the Cadsden Purchase, on &ecem)er ,1, +*@,. .he Cadsden Purchase went into effect on $une ,1, +*@- after the !.". "enate ratified an amended 2ersion of the Cadsden Purchase on #pril (@, +*@- and after Ceneral "anta #nna, the President of 0e4ico, appro2ed the amended 2ersion of the Cadsden Purchase.

0ap of #merican territorial acDuisitions

William Walker, an #merican fili)uster who attempted to esta)lish a sla2e-owning colony in the Ba'a %alifornia and "onora pro2inces of 0e4ico, :icaragua, and <onduras. William Walker conDuered :icaragua and ser2ed as president of :icaragua from +*@; to +*@/. William Walker was sentenced to death )y firing sDuad in <onduras on "eptem)er +(, +*;1. William Walker was )orn in :ash2ille, .ennessee on 0ay *, +*(-.

William Walker3s military ad2entures in Latin #merica in the +*@1s, commonly known as fili)uster . .hree #merican diplomats H $ames Buchanan 6!.". 0inister to Creat Britain and later President of the !.".8, Pierre "oule 6!.". 0inister to "pain8, and $ohn 7. 0ason 6!.". 0inister to 9rance8 H held a conference in +*@- and issued the ?stend 0anifesto , a proposal calling for #merica to acDuire %u)a either )y purchasing the island from "pain or waging war against "pain. .he ?stend 0anifesto was later condemned )y the 9ranklin Pierce administration.

Commotion on >all 3treet in .ew *ork City on <cto,er 1:, 18 N durin% the Panic of 18 N 23ourceC -"so ete ,a&er *oney @ssued "y 8anks in the #nited 3tates, 1B8F-18<< ,y Q' 6a$id +owers, p' 33G5

!A run on a ,ank in the Panic of 18 N, as customers sou%ht to withdraw their deposits and also to e)chan%e paper money for coins'0 23ourceC -"so ete ,a&er *oney @ssued "y 8anks in the #nited 3tates, 1B8F-18<< ,y Q' 6a$id +owers, p' 33G5

Presidential 7lection of 18E0

Presidential candidates 6left to right8> $ohn %. Breckinridge, "tephen #. &ouglas, #)raham Lincoln, $ohn Bell
.he &emocratic Party was di2ided o2er the issue of sla2ery during its national con2ention in %harleston in #pril +*;1 and Baltimore in $une +*;1. "outhern delegates, known as 9ire-eaters walked out of )oth con2entions, and nominated $ohn %. Breckinridge as their candidate. .he &i2ision within the &emocratic Party would allow #)raham Lincoln and the Repu)lican Party to win the presidential election on :o2em)er ;, +*;1.

.he Lincoln-&ouglas &e)ates in +*@*. "tephen #. &ouglas defeated #)raham Lincoln in the !.". "enate race in Fllinois in +*@*.

&emocratic :ational %on2ention in %harleston, "outh %arolina on #pril (,, +*;1. 69rom Har!er@s )eekly, #pril (*, +*;18 6Wisconsin <istorical "ociety8 http>GGwww.wisconsinhistory.orgGmuseumGe4hi)itsGelectionsG+*;1.asp

Fnterior of the Wigwam during the Repu)lican :ational %on2ention in %hicago in 0ay +*;1. 6Picture> %ity of %hicago8 http>GGwww.cityofchicago.orgGLandmarksG"G"auganash-.html

A !secession0 rally was held in Charleston, 3outh Carolina soon after the 18E0 presidential election' 23ourceC -"so ete ,a&er *oney @ssued "y 8anks in the #nited 3tates, 1B8F-18<< ,y Q' 6a$id +owers, p' 3GN5

!<h, it is all folly, madness, a crime a%ainst ci$ili=ationT*ou people of the 3outh donFt know what you are doin%' This country will ,e drenched in ,lood, and @od only knows how it will end' The .orth can make a steam en%ine, locomoti$e or railway carL hardly a yard of cloth or a pair of shoes can you make' Sou are rushing into war with one o( the most "ower(ul, ingeniously me!hani!al and determined "eo"le on earthAright at your doors. Sou are ound to (ail. <nly in spirit and determination are you prepared for war' #n all else you are totally unprepared, with a ,ad cause to start with' Sou "eo"le s"eak so lightly o( warC you don0t know what you0re talking a out. War is a terri le thingL *ou mistake, too, the people of the .orth' They are a peacea,le people ,ut an earnest people, and they will fi%ht, too' They are not %oin% to let this country ,e destroyed without a mi%hty effort to sa$e itT+esides, where are your men and appliances of war to contend a%ainst themM At first you will make headway, ,ut as your limited resources ,e%in to fail, shut out from the markets of 7urope as you will ,e, your cause will ,e%in to wane' #( your "eo"le will ut sto" and think, they must see that in the end you will surely (ail.0 ; 4'3' Army Colonel >illiam Tecumseh 3herman, 3uperintendent of the Aouisiana 3tate 3eminary and "ilitary Academy, in an impromptu speech he deli$ered on 6ecem,er 9:, 18E0, after he learned of 3outh CarolinaFs secession

.he inauguration of $efferson &a2is as President of the %onfederate "tates of #merica takes place in 0ontgomery, #la)ama on .e ruary 18, 18=1. #)raham Lincoln was inaugurated as President of the !nited "tates of #merica in Washington, &.%. on Gar'h L, 18=1. $ames Buchanan was the President of the !nited "tates of #merica from 0arch -, +*@/ to 0arch -, +*;+.

Colum,iad %uns of the Confederate water ,attery at >arrin%ton, 8lorida, near the entrance to Pensacola +ay, 8e,ruary 18E1' 2Photo%raphed ,y >' <' 7dwards or J' 6' 7dwards of .ew <rleans, AouisianaO.ational Archi$es5

Re)el Bom)ardment of 9ort "umter near %harleston, "outh %arolina on #pril +(-+,, +*;+
CThe "irin+ on that "ort E.ort #umterH !ill inau+urate a 'i2il !ar +reater than any the !orld has e2er seen,,,Gr, 7resident E0a2isH, i" this is true, it is sui'ide, it is murder, and EyouH !ill lose us e2ery "riend to the &orth, ?ou !ill !antonly stri/e a hornets nest !hi'h eItends "rom mountains to o'ean, and le+ions no! Juiet, !ill s!arm out to stin+ us to death - it is unne'essary, it puts us in the !ron+, it is "atal,C H Ro)ert .oom)s, %onfederate "ecretary of "tate, #pril +*;+

Quotes & 3tatements Concernin% the American Ci$il >ar

Thomas Jefferson 2left5, @eor%e >ashin%ton 2center5, and James "adison

!Profoundly penetrated with this idea, # shall carry it with me to my %ra$e as a stron% incitement to unceasin% $ows that Hea$en may continue to you the choicest tokens of its ,eneficenceL that your Gnion and rotherly a((e!tion may e "er"etualC that the (ree !onstitution, whi!h is the work o( your hands, may e sa!redly maintained L that its Administration in e$ery department may ,e stamped with wisdom and ?irtueL that, in fine, the happiness of the people of these 3tates, under the auspices of li,erty, may ,e made complete ,y so careful a preser$ation and so prudent a use of this ,lessin% as will ac(uire to them the %lory of recommendin% it to the applause, the affection, and adoption of e$ery nation which is yet a stran%er to itT Citi=ens ,y ,irth or choice, of a common country, that country has a ri%ht to concentrate your affections' The name o( 1:4.#C13, whi!h elongs to you, in your national !a"a!ity, must always e2alt the =ust "ride o( Patriotism, more than any appellation deri$ed from local discriminations' >ith sli%ht shades of difference, you ha$e the same /eli%ion, "anners, Ha,its, and political Principles' *ou ha$e in a common cause fou%ht and triumphed to%ether' The independence and li,erty you possess are the work of -oint councils, and -oint effortsL of common dan%ers, sufferin%s and successes'0 1 @eor%e >ashin%ton, President of the 4nited 3tates, in his 8arewell Address, 3eptem,er 1G, 1NGE !A strict o,ser$ance of the written laws is dou,tless one of the hi%h duties of a %ood citi=en, ,ut it is not the hi$hest' The laws o( ne!essity, o( sel(A"reser%ation, o( sa%ing our !ountry when in danger, are o( higher o ligation. To lose our !ountry y a s!ru"ulous adheren!e to written law, would e to lose the law itsel(, with li(e, li erty, "ro"erty and all those who are en=oying them with usC thus a surdly sa!ri(i!ing the end to the means. >hen, in the ,attle of @ermantown, @eneral >ashin%tonFs army was annoyed from ChewFs house, he did not hesitate to plant his cannon a%ainst it, althou%h the property of a citi=en' >hen he ,esie%ed *orktown, he le$eled the su,ur,s, feelin% that the laws of property must ,e postponed to the safety of the nation'0 1 Thomas Jefferson, former President of the 4nited 3tates, in a letter to John +' Col$in, 3eptem,er 90, 1810 !As this ad$ice, if it e$er see the li%ht will not do it till # am no more, it may ,e considered as issuin% from the tom,, where truth alone can ,e respected, and the happiness of man alone consulted' #t will ,e entitled therefore to whate$er wei%ht can ,e deri$ed from %ood intentions, and from the e)perience of one who has ser$ed his country in $arious stations throu%h a period of forty years, who espoused in his youth and adhered throu%h his life to the cause of its li,erty, and who has ,orne a part in most of the %reat transactions which will constitute epochs of its destiny' The ad%i!e nearest to my heart and dee"est in my !on%i!tions is that the Gnion o( the /tates e !herished and "er"etuated. Let the o"en enemy to it e regarded as a Pandora with her o2 o"enedC and the disguised one, as the /er"ent !ree"ing with his deadly wiles into Paradise. 0 1 James "adison, former President of the 4nited 3tates, in his letter Ad(ice to *y Country, 183:

@eneral @eor%e >ashin%tonFs Circular Aetter of 8arewell to the Continental Army on June 8, 1N83 2Circular Aetter to 3tates5 @eor%e >ashin%ton June 8, 1N83 3irC The %reat o,-ect for which # had the honor to hold an appointment in the 3er$ice of my Country, ,ein% accomplished, # am now preparin% to resi%n it into the hands of Con%ress, and to return to that domestic retirement, which, it is well known, # left with the %reatest reluctance, a /etirement, for which # ha$e ne$er ceased to si%h throu%h a lon% and painful a,sence, and in which 2remote from the noise and trou,le of the >orld5 # meditate to pass the remainder of life in a state of undistur,ed reposeL +ut ,efore # carry this resolution into effect, # think it a duty incum,ent on me, to make this my last official communication, to con%ratulate you on the %lorious e$ents which Hea$en has ,een pleased to produce in our fa$or, to offer my sentiments respectin% some important su,-ects, which appear to me, to ,e intimately connected with the tran(uility of the 4nited 3tates, to take my lea$e of your 7)cellency as a pu,lic Character, and to %i$e my final ,lessin% to that Country, in whose ser$ice # ha$e spent the prime of my life, for whose sake # ha$e consumed so many an)ious days and watchfull ni%hts, and whose happiness ,ein% e)tremely dear to me, will always constitute no inconsidera,le part of my own' #mpressed with the li$eliest sensi,ility on this pleasin% occasion, # will claim the indul%ence of dilatin% the more copiously on the su,-ects of our mutual felicitation' >hen we consider the ma%nitude of the pri=e we contended for, the dou,tful nature of the contest, and the fa$ora,le manner in which it has terminated, we shall find the %reatest possi,le reason for %ratitude and re-oicin%L this is a theme that will afford infinite deli%ht to e$ery ,ene$olent and li,eral mind, whether the e$ent in contemplation, ,e considered as the source of present en-oyment or the parent of future happinessL and we shall ha$e e(ual occasion to felicitate oursel$es on the lot which Pro$idence has assi%ned us, whether we $iew it in a natural, a political or moral point of li%ht' The Citi=ens of America, placed in the most en$ia,le condition, as the sole Aords and Proprietors of a $ast Tract of Continent, comprehendin% all the $arious soils and climates of the >orld, and a,oundin% with all the necessaries and con$eniencies of life, are now ,y the late satisfactory pacification, acknowled%ed to ,e possessed of a,solute freedom and #ndependencyL They are, from this period, to ,e considered as the Actors on a most conspicuous Theatre, which seems to ,e peculiarly desi%nated ,y Pro$idence for the display of human %reatness and felicityL Here, they are not only surrounded with e$ery thin% which can contri,ute to the completion of pri$ate and domestic en-oyment, ,ut Hea$en has crowned all its other ,lessin%s, ,y %i$in% a fairer oppertunity for political happiness, than any other .ation has e$er ,een fa$ored with' .othin% can illustrate these o,ser$ations more forci,ly, than a recollection of the happy con-uncture of times and circumstances, under which our /epu,lic assumed its rank amon% the .ationsL The foundation of our 7mpire was not laid in the %loomy a%e of #%norance and 3uperstition, ,ut at an 7pocha when the ri%hts of mankind were ,etter understood and more clearly defined, than at any former period, the researches of the human mind, after social happiness, ha$e ,een carried to a %reat e)tent, the Treasures of knowled%e, ac(uired ,y the la,ours of Philosophers, 3a%es and Ae%islatures, throu%h a lon% succession of years, are laid open for our use, and their collected wisdom may ,e happily applied in the 7sta,lishment of our forms of @o$ernmentL the free culti$ation of Aetters, the un,ounded e)tension of Commerce, the pro%ressi$e refinement of "anners, the %rowin% li,erality of sentiment, and a,o$e all, the pure and ,eni%n li%ht of /e$elation, ha$e had a melioratin% influence on mankind and increased the ,lessin%s of 3ociety' 1t this aus"i!ious "eriod, the Gnited /tates !ame into e2isten!e as a 3ation, and i( their Citi7ens should not e !om"letely (ree and ha""y, the (ault will e intirely their own. /u!h is our situation, and su!h are our "ros"e!ts: ut notwithstanding the !u" o( lessing is thus rea!hed out to us, notwithstanding ha""iness is ours, i( we ha%e a dis"osition to sei7e the o!!asion and make it our ownC yet, it a""ears to me there is an o"tion still le(t to the Gnited /tates o( 1meri!a, that it is in their !hoi!e, and de"ends u"on their !ondu!t, whether they will e res"e!ta le and "ros"erous, or !ontem"ta le and misera le as a 3ationC This is the time o( their "oliti!al "ro ation, this is the moment when the eyes o( the whole World are turned u"on them, this is the moment to esta lish or ruin their national Chara!ter (ore%er, this is the (a%ora le moment to gi%e su!h a tone to our Federal Go%ernment, as will ena le it to answer the ends o( its institution, or this may e the illA(ated moment (or rela2ing the "owers o( the Gnion, annihilating the !ement o( the Con(ederation, and e2"osing us to e!ome the s"ort o( 4uro"ean "oliti!s, whi!h may "lay one /tate against another to "re%ent their growing im"ortan!e, and to ser%e their own interested "ur"oses. For, a!!ording to the system o( Poli!y the /tates shall ado"t at this moment, they will stand or (all, and y their !on(irmation or la"se, it is yet to e de!ided, whether the .e%olution must ultimately e !onsidered as a lessing or a !urse: a lessing or a !urse, not to the "resent age alone, (or with our (ate will the destiny o( un orn :illions e in%ol%ed. >ith this con$iction of the importance of the present Crisis, silence in me would ,e a crimeL # will therefore speak to your 7)cellency, the lan%ua%e of freedom and of sincerity, without dis%uiseL # am aware, howe$er, that those who differ from me in political sentiment, may perhaps remark, # am steppin% out of the proper line of my duty, and they may possi,ly ascri,e to arro%ance or ostentation, what # know is alone the result of the purest intention, ,ut the rectitude of my own heart, which disdains such unworthy moti$es, the part # ha$e hitherto acted in life, the determination # ha$e formed, of not takin% any share in pu,lic ,usiness hereafter, the ardent desire, #

feel, and shall continue to manifest, of (uietly en-oyin% in, pri$ate life, after all the toils of >ar, the ,enefits of a wise and li,eral @o$ernment, will, # flatter myself, sooner or later con$ince my countrymen, that # could ha$e no sinister $iews in deli$erin% with so little reser$e, the opinions contained in this Address' There are four thin%s, which # hum,ly concei$e, are essential to the well ,ein%, # may e$en $enture to say, to the e)istence of the 4nited 3tates as an #ndependent PowerC 1st' An indissolu,le 4nion of the 3tates under one 8ederal Head' 9dly' A 3acred re%ard to Pu,lic Justice' 3dly' The adoption of a proper Peace 7sta,lishment, and :thly' The pre$alence of that pacific and friendly 6isposition, amon% the People of the 4nited 3tates, which will induce them to for%et their local pre-udices and policies, to make those mutual concessions which are re(uisite to the %eneral prosperity, and in some instances, to sacrifice their indi$idual ad$anta%es to the interest of the Community' These are the Pillars on whi!h the glorious Fa ri!k o( our #nde"enden!y and 3ational Chara!ter must e su""ortedC Li erty is the &asis, and whoe%er would dare to sa" the (oundation, or o%erturn the /tru!ture, under whate%er s"e!ious "rete2ts he may attem"t it, will merit the itterest e2e!ration, and the se%erest "unishment whi!h !an e in(li!ted y his in=ured Country. <n the three first Articles # will make a few o,ser$ations, lea$in% the last to the %ood sense and serious consideration of those immediately concerned' 4nder the first head, althoB it may not ,e necessary or proper for me in this place to enter into a particular dis(uisition of the principles of the 4nion, and to take up the %reat (uestion which has ,een fre(uently a%itated, whether it ,e e)pedient and re(uisite for the 3tates to dele%ate a lar%er proportion of power to Con%ress, or not, Set it will e a "art o( my duty, and that o( e%ery true Patriot, to assert without reser%e, and to insist u"on the (ollowing "ositions, That unless the /tates will su((er Congress to e2er!ise those "rerogati%es, they are undou tedly in%ested with y the Constitution, e%ery thing must %ery ra"idly tend to 1nar!hy and !on(usion, That it is indis"ensa le to the ha""iness o( the indi%idual /tates, that there should e lodged somewhere, a /u"reme Power to regulate and go%ern the general !on!erns o( the Con(ederated .e"u li!, without whi!h the Gnion !annot e o( long duration. That there must e a (aith(ull and "ointed !om"lian!e on the "art o( e%ery /tate, with the late "ro"osals and demands o( Congress, or the most (atal !onse>uen!es will ensue, That whate%er measures ha%e a tenden!y to dissol%e the Gnion, or !ontri ute to %iolate or lessen the /o%ereign 1uthority, ought to e !onsidered as hostile to the Li erty and #nde"enden!y o( 1meri!a, and the 1uthors o( them treated a!!ordingly , and lastly, that unless we can ,e ena,led ,y the concurrence of the 3tates, to participate of the fruits of the /e$olution, and en-oy the essential ,enefits of Ci$il 3ociety, under a form of @o$ernment so free and uncorrupted, so happily %uarded a%ainst the dan%er of oppression, as has ,een de$ised and adopted ,y the Articles of Confederation, it will ,e a su,-ect of re%ret, that so much ,lood and treasure ha$e ,een la$ished for no purpose, that so many sufferin%s ha$e ,een encountered without a compensation, and that so many sacrifices ha$e ,een made in $ain' "any other considerations mi%ht here ,e adduced to pro$e, that without an entire !on(ormity to the /"irit o( the Gnion, we !annot e2ist as an #nde"endent PowerL it will ,e sufficient for my purpose to mention ,ut one or two which seem to me of the %reatest importance' #t is only in our united Character as an 7mpire, that our #ndependence is acknowled%ed, that our power can ,e re%arded, or our Credit supported amon% 8orei%n .ations' The Treaties of the 7uropean Powers with the 4nited 3tates of America, will ha$e no $alidity on a dissolution of the 4nion' >e shall ,e left nearly in a state of .ature, or we may find ,y our own unhappy e)perience, that there is a natural and ne!essary "rogression, (rom the e2treme o( anar!hy to the e2treme o( TyrannyC and that ar itrary "ower is most easily esta lished on the ruins o( Li erty a used to li!entiousness ' As to the second Article, which respects the performance of Pu,lic Justice, Con%ress ha$e, in their late Address to the 4nited 3tates, almost e)hausted the su,-ect, they ha$e e)plained their #deas so fully, and ha$e enforced the o,li%ations the 3tates are under, to render compleat -ustice to all the Pu,lic Creditors, with so much di%nity and ener%y, that in my opinion, no real friend to the honor and #ndependency of America, can hesitate a sin%le moment respectin% the propriety of complyin% with the -ust and honora,le measures proposedL if their Ar%uments do not produce con$iction, # know of nothin% that will ha$e %reater influenceL especially when we recollect that the 3ystem referred to, ,ein% the result of collected >isdom of the Continent, must ,e esteemed, if not perfect, certainly the least o,-ectiona,le of any that could ,e de$isedL and that if it shall not ,e carried into immediate e)ecution, a .ational +ankruptcy, with all its deplora,le conse(uences will take place, ,efore any different Plan can possi,ly ,e proposed and adoptedL 3o pressin% are the present circumstancesR and such is the alternati$e now offered to the 3tatesR The a,ility of the Country to dischar%e the de,ts which ha$e ,een incurred in its defence, is not to ,e dou,ted, an inclination, # flatter myself, will not ,e wantin%, the path of our duty is plain ,efore us, honesty will ,e found on e$ery e)periment, to ,e the ,est and only true policy, let us then as a .ation ,e -ust, let us fulfil the pu,lic Contracts, which Con%ress had undou,tedly a ri%ht to make for the purpose of carryin% on the >ar, with the same %ood faith we suppose oursel$es ,ound to perform our pri$ate en%a%ementsL in the

mean time, let an attention to the chearfull performance of their proper ,usiness, as #ndi$iduals, and as mem,ers of 3ociety, ,e earnestly inculcated on the Citi=ens of America, that will they stren%then the hands of @o$ernment, and ,e happy under its protectionC e$ery one will reap the fruit of his la,ours, e$ery one will en-oy his own ac(uisitions without molestation and without dan%er' #n this state of a,solute freedom and perfect security, who will %rud%e to yield a $ery little of his property to support the common interest of 3ociety, and insure the protection of @o$ernmentM >ho does not remem,er, the fre(uent declarations, at the commencement of the >ar, that we should ,e compleatly satisfied, if at the e)pence of one half, we could defend the remainder of our possessionsM >here is the "an to ,e found, who wishes to remain inde,ted, for the defence of his own person and property, to the e)ertions, the ,ra$ery, and the ,lood of others, without makin% one %enerous effort to repay the de,t of honor and of %ratitudeM #n what part of the Continent shall we find any "an, or ,ody of "en, who would not ,lush to stand up and propose measures, purposely calculated to ro, the 3oldier of his 3tipend, and the Pu,lic Creditor of his dueM and were it possi,le that such a fla%rant instance of #n-ustice could e$er happen, would it not e)cite the %eneral indi%nation, and tend to ,rin% down, upon the Authors of such measures, the a%%ra$ated $en%eance of Hea$enM #f after all, a spirit of disunion or a temper of o,stinacy and per$erseness , should manifest itself in any of the 3tates, if such an un%racious disposition should attempt to frustrate all the happy effects that mi%ht ,e e)pected to flow from the 4nion, if there should ,e a refusal to comply with the re(uisitions for 8unds to dischar%e the annual interest of the pu,lic de,ts, and if that refusal should re$i$e a%ain all those -ealousies and produce all those e$ils, which are now happily remo$ed, Con%ress, who ha$e in all their Transaction shewn a %reat de%ree of ma%nanimity and -ustice, will stand -ustified in the si%ht of @od and "an, and the 3tate alone which puts itself in opposition to the a%%re%ate >isdom of the Continent, and follows such mistaken and pernicious Councils, will ,e responsi,le for all the conse(uences' 8or my own part, conscious of ha$in% acted while a 3er$ant of the pu,lic, in the manner # concei$ed ,est suited to promote the real interests of my CountryL ha$in% in conse(uence of my fi)ed ,elief in some measure pled%ed myself to the Army, that their Country would finally do them compleat and ample JusticeL and not wishin% to conceal any instance of my official conduct from the eyes of the >orld, # ha$e thou%ht proper to transmit to your 7)cellency the inclosed collection of Papers, relati$e to the half pay and commutation %ranted ,y Con%ress to the <fficers of the ArmyL 8rom these communications, my decided sentiment will ,e clearly comprehended, to%ether with the conclusi$e reasons which induced me, at an early period, to recommend the adoption of the measure, in the most earnest and serious manner' As the proceedin%s of Con%ress, the Army, and myself are open to all, and contain in my opinion, sufficient information to remo$e the pre-udices and errors which may ha$e ,een entertained ,y anyL # think it unnecessary to say any thin% more, than -ust to o,ser$e, that the /esolutions of Con%ress, now alluded to, are undou,tedly as a,solutely ,indin% upon the 4nited 3tates, as the most solemn Acts of Confederation or Ae%islation' As to the #dea, which # am informed has in some in;stances pre$ailed, that the half pay and commutation are to ,e re%arded merely in the odious li%ht of a Pension, it ou%ht to ,e e)ploded fore$erL that Pro$ision, should ,e $iewed as it really was, a reasona,le compensation offered ,y Con%ress, at a time when they had nothin% else to %i$e, to the <fficers of the Army, for ser$ices then to ,e performed' #t was the only means to pre$ent a total dereliction of the 3er$ice, #t was a part of their hire, # may ,e allowed to say, it was the price of their ,lood and of your #ndependency, it is therefore more than a common de,t, it is a de,t of honour, it can ne$er ,e considered as a Pension or %ratuity, nor ,e cancelled until it is fairly dischar%ed' >ith re%ard to a distinction ,etween <fficers and 3oldiers, it is sufficient that the uniform e)perience of e$ery .ation of the >orld, com,ined with our own, pro$es the utility and propriety of the discrimination' /ewards in proportion to the aids the pu,lic deri$es from them, are un(uestiona,ly due to all its 3er$antsL #n some Aines, the 3oldiers ha$e perhaps %enerally had as ample a compensation for their 3er$ices, ,y the lar%e +ounties which ha$e ,een paid to them, as their <fficers will recei$e in the proposed Commutation, in others, if ,esides the donation of Aands, the payment of Arreara%es of Cloathin% and >a%es 2in which Articles all the component parts of the Army must ,e put upon the same footin%5 we take into the estimate, the +ounties many of the 3oldiers ha$e recei$ed and the %ratuity of one *earBs full pay, which is promised to all, possi,ly their situation 2e$ery circumstance ,ein% duly considered5 will not ,e deemed less eli%i,le than that of the <fficers' 3hould a farther reward, howe$er, ,e -ud%ed e(uita,le, # will $enture to assert, no one will en-oy %reater satisfaction than myself, on seein% an e)emption from Ta)es for a limited time, 2which has ,een petitioned for in some instances5 or any other ade(uate immunity or compensation, %ranted to the ,ra$e defenders of their CountryBs CauseL ,ut neither the adoption or re-ection of this proposition will in any manner affect, much less militate a%ainst, the Act of Con%ress, ,y which they ha$e offered fi$e years full pay, in lieu of the half pay for life, which had ,een ,efore promised to the officers of the Army' +efore # conclude the su,-ect of pu,lic -ustice, # cannot omit to mention the o,li%ations this Country is under, to that meritorious Class of $eteran .on;commissioned <fficers and Pri$ates, who ha$e ,een dischar%ed for ina,ility, in conse(uence of the /esolution of Con%ress of the 93d of April 1N89, on an annual pension for life, their peculiar sufferin%s, their sin%ular merits and claims to that pro$ision need only ,e known, to interest all the feelin%s of humanity in their ,ehalfC nothin% ,ut a punctual payment of their annual allowance can rescue them from the most complicated misery, and nothin% could ,e a more melancholy and distressin% si%ht, than to ,ehold those who ha$e shed their ,lood or lost their lim,s in the ser$ice of their Country, without a shelter, without a friend, and without the means of o,tainin% any of the necessaries or comforts of AifeL compelled to ,e% their daily ,read from door to doorR suffer me to recommend those of this description, ,elon%in% to your 3tate, to the warmest patrona%e of your 7)cellency and your Ae%islature'

#t is necessary to say ,ut a few words on the third topic which was proposed, and which re%ards particularly the defence of the /epu,lic, As there can ,e little dou,t ,ut Con%ress will recommend a proper Peace 7sta,lishment for the 4nited 3tates, in which a due attention will ,e paid to the importance of placin% the "ilitia of the 4nion upon a re%ular and respecta,le footin%L #f this should ,e the case, # would ,e% lea$e to ur%e the %reat ad$anta%e of it in the stron%est terms' The "ilitia of this Country must ,e considered as the Palladium of our security, and the first effectual resort in case of hostilityL #t is essential therefore, that the same system should per$ade the wholeL that the formation and discipline of the "ilitia of the Continent should ,e a,solutely uniform, and that the same species of Arms, Accoutrements and "ilitary Apparatus, should ,e introduced in e$ery part of the 4nited 3tatesL .o one, who has not learned it from e)perience, can concei$e the difficulty, e)pence, and confusion which result from a contrary system, or the $a%ue Arran%ements which ha$e hitherto pre$ailed' #f in treatin% of political points, a %reater latitude than usual has ,een taken in the course of this Address, the importance of the Crisis, and the ma%nitude of the o,-ects in discussion, must ,e my apolo%yC #t is, howe$er, neither my wish or e)pectation, that the precedin% o,ser$ations should claim any re%ard, e)cept so far as they shall appear to ,e dictated ,y a %ood intention, consonant to the immuta,le rules of JusticeL calculated to produce a li,eral system of policy, and founded on whate$er e)perience may ha$e ,een ac(uired ,y a lon% and close attention to pu,lic ,usiness' Here # mi%ht speak with the more confidence from my actual o,ser$ations, and, if it would not swell this Aetter 2already too proli)5 ,eyond the ,ounds # had prescri,ed myselfC # could demonstrate to e$ery mind open to con$iction, that in less time and with much less e)pence than has ,een incurred, the >ar mi%ht ha$e ,een ,rou%ht to the same happy conclusion, if the resourses of the Continent could ha$e ,een properly drawn forth, that the distresses and disappointments which ha$e $ery often occurred, ha$e in too many instances, resulted more from a want of ener%y, in the Continental @o$ernment, than a deficiency of means in the particular 3tates' That the inefficiency of measures, arisin% from the want of an ade(uate authority in the 3upreme Power, from a partial compliance with the /e(uisitions of Con%ress in some of the 3tates, and from a failure of punctuality in others, while it tended to damp the =eal of those which were more willin% to e)ert themsel$esL ser$ed also to accumulate the e)pences of the >ar, and to frustrate the ,est concerted Plans, and that the discoura%ement occasioned ,y the complicated difficulties and em,arrassments, in which our affairs were, ,y this means in$ol$ed, would ha$e lon% a%o produced the dissolution of any Army, less patient, less $irtuous and less perse$erin%, than that which # ha$e had the honor to command' +ut while # mention these thin%s, which are notorious facts, as the defects of our 8ederal Constitution, particularly in the prosecution of a >ar, # ,e% it may ,e understood, that as # ha$e e$er taken a pleasure in %ratefully acknowled%in% the assistance and support # ha$e deri$ed from e$ery Class of Citi=ens, so shall # always ,e happy to do -ustice to the unparalleled e)ertion of the indi$idual 3tates, on many interestin% occasions' # ha$e thus freely disclosed what # wished to make known, ,efore # surrendered up my Pu,lic trust to those who committed it to me, the task is now accomplished, # now ,id adieu to your 7)cellency as the Chief "a%istrate of your 3tate, at the same time # ,id a last farewell to the cares of <ffice, and all the employments of pu,lic life' #t remains then to ,e my final and only re(uest, that your 7)cellency will communicate these sentiments to your Ae%islature at their ne)t meetin%, and that they may ,e considered as the Ae%acy of <ne, who has ardently wished, on all occasions, to ,e useful to his Country, and who, e$en in the shade of /etirement, will not fail to implore the di$ine ,enediction upon it' # now make it my earnest "rayer, that God would ha%e you, and the /tate o%er whi!h you "reside, in his holy "rote!tion, that he would in!line the hearts o( the Citi7ens to !ulti%ate a s"irit o( su ordination and o edien!e to Go%ernment, to entertain a rotherly a((e!tion and lo%e (or one another, (or their (ellow Citi7ens o( the Gnited /tates at large, and "arti!ularly (or their rethren who ha%e ser%ed in the Field, and (inally, that he would most gra!iously e "leased to dis"ose us all, to do $usti!e, to lo%e mer!y, and to demean oursel%es with that Charity, humility and "a!i(i! tem"er o( mind, whi!h were the Chara!teristi!s o( the Di%ine 1uthor o( our lessed .eligion, and without an hum le imitation o( whose e2am"le in these things, we !an ne%er ho"e to e a ha""y 3ation. Copyri%ht\ 9009 The Claremont #nstitute' All ri%hts reser$ed' httpCOOwww'p,s'or%O%eor%ewashin%tonOmultimediaOhestonOcircularPletter'html

@eor%e >ashin%tonFs Aetter to John Jay 1 Au%ust 1N8E "ount ?ernon 1 th Au%t 1N8E 6ear 3ir # ha$e to thank you $ery sincerely for your interestin% letter of the 9Nth of June, as well as for the other communications you had the %oodness to make at the same time' # am sorry to ,e assured, of what indeed # had little dou,t ,efore, that we ha$e ,een %uilty of $iolatin% the treaty in some instances' >hat a misfortune it is the +ritish should ha$e so well %rounded a prete)t for their palpa,le infractionsM;;and what a dis%raceful part, out of the choice of difficulties ,efore us, are we to actM *our sentiments, that our affairs are drawin% rapidly to a crisis, accord with my own' >hat the e$ent will ,e is also ,eyond the reach of my foresi%ht' >e ha$e errors to correct' >e ha$e pro,a,ly had too %ood an opinion of human nature in formin% our confederation' 7)perience has tau%ht us, that men will not adopt & carry into e)ecution, measures the ,est calculated for their own %ood without the inter$ention of a coerci$e power' # do not !on!ei%e we !an e2ist long as a nation, without ha%ing lodged somewhere a "ower whi!h will "er%ade the whole Gnion in as energeti! a manner, as the authority o( the di((erent state go%ernments e2tends o%er the se%eral /tates. To ,e fearful of $estin% Con%ress, constituted as that ,ody is, with ample authorities for national purposes, appears to me the $ery clima) of popular a,surdity and madness' Could Con%ress e)ert them for the detriment of the pu,lic without in-urin% themsel$es in an e(ual or %reater proportionM Are not their interests insepera,ly connected with those of their constituentsM +y the rotation of appointment must they not min%le fre(uently with the mass of citi=ensM #s it not rather to ,e apprehended, if they were possessed of the powers ,efore descri,ed, that the indi$idual mem,ers would ,e induced to use them, on many occasions, $ery timidly & inefficatiously for fear of loosin% their popularity & future electionM >e must take human nature as we find it' Perfection falls not to the share of mortals' "any are of opinion that Con%ress ha$e too fre(uently made use of the suppliant hum,le tone of re(uisition, in applications to the 3tates, when they had a ri%ht to assume their imperial di%nity and command o,edience' +e that as it may, re(uisitions are a perfect nihility, where thirteen so$erei%n, independentI,J disunited 3tates are in the ha,it of discussin% & refusin% compliance with them at their option' /e(uisitions are actually little ,etter than a -est and a ,ye word throu%h out the Aand' #f you tell the Ae%islatures they ha$e $iolated the treaty of peace and in$aded the prero%ati$es of the confederacy they will lau%h in your face' >hat then is to ,e doneM Thin%s cannot %o on in the same train fore$er' #t is much to ,e feared, as you o,ser$e, that the ,etter kind of people ,ein% dis%usted with the circumstances will ha$e their minds prepared for any re$olution whate$er' >e are apt to run from one e)treme into another' To anticipate & pre$ent disasterous contin%encies would ,e the part of wisdom & patriotism' >hat astonishin% chan%es a few years are capa,le of producin%R # am told that e$en respecta,le characters speak of a monarchical form of %o$ernment without horror' 8rom thinkin% proceeds speakin%, thence to actin% is often ,ut a sin%le step' +ut how irre$oca,le & tremendousR >hat a triumph for the ad$ocates of despotism to find that we are incapa,le of %o$ernin% oursel$es, and that systems founded on the ,asis of e(ual li,erty are merely ideal & falaciousR >ould to @od that wise measures may ,e taken in time to a$ert the conse(uences we ha$e ,ut too much reason to apprehend' /etired as # am from the world, # frankly acknowled%e # cannot feel myself an unconcerned spectator' *et ha$in% happily assisted in ,rin%in% the ship into port & ha$in% ,een fairly dischar%edL it is not my ,usiness to em,ark a%ain on a sea of trou,les' .or could it ,e e)pected that my sentiments and opinions would ha$e much wei%ht on the minds of my Countrymen;;they ha$e ,een ne%lected, thoB %i$en as a last le%acy in the most solemn manner' I1J # had then perhaps some claims to pu,lic attention' # consider myself as ha$in% none at present' >ith sentiments of sincere esteem & friendship # am, my dear 3ir, *r most <,edt & Affecte H,le 3er$ant @oC >ashin%ton 3otes +. 3ee @>Bs Address to Con%ress on /esi%nin% His Commission, 93 6ec' 1N83, in 8it=patrick, .ritin$s of .ashin$ton, 9NC98:;8E' AA3, @reat +ritainC >indsor CastleL A+, 6ACC@>' The letter;,ook copy is dated 1 Au%ust' @>Bs letter was ,ound in the $olume that John Jay 2181N;18G:5 presented to the Prince of >ales on 10 <ct' 18E0' #t is docketed K@en' >ashin%ton 1 Au%t 1N8E anIswereJd N Jan' 1N8N'K JayBs letter of N Jan', deposited in 6ACC@>, is printed ,elow' 8rom The ,a&ers, Confederation 3eries, :C919;13' 3ourceC httpCOO%wpapers'$ir%inia'eduOdocumentsOconstitutionO1N8:O-ay9'html

42!er"ts (rom President George Washington0s Farewell 1ddress /e"tem er +Q, +FQH

Profoundly penetrated with this idea, # shall carry it with me to my %ra$e as a stron% incitement to unceasin% $ows that Hea$en may continue to you the choicest tokens of its ,eneficenceL that your Gnion and rotherly a((e!tion may e "er"etualC that the (ree !onstitution, whi!h is the work o( your hands, may e sa!redly maintained L that its Administration in e$ery department may ,e stamped with wisdom and ?irtueL that, in fine, the happiness of the people of these 3tates, under the auspices of li,erty, may ,e made complete ,y so careful a preser$ation and so prudent a use of this ,lessin% as will ac(uire to them the %lory of recommendin% it to the applause, the affection, and adoption of e$ery nation which is yet a stran%er to it' Here, perhaps, # ou%ht to stop' +ut a solicitude for your welfare which cannot end ,ut with my life, and the apprehension of dan%er, natural to that solicitude, ur%e me on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your fre(uent re$iew, some sentimentsL which are the result of much reflection, of no inconsidera,le o,ser$ation, and which appear to me all important to the permanency of your felicity as a People' These will ,e offered to you with the more freedom, as you can only see in them the disinterested warnin%s of a partin% friend, who can possi,ly ha$e no personal moti$e to ,iass his counsel' .or can # for%et, as an encoura%ement to it, your endul%ent reception of my sentiments on a former and not dissimilar occasion' #nterwo$en as is the lo$e of li,erty with e$ery li%ament of your hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment' The 4nity of @o$ernment which constitutes you one people is also now dear to you' #t is -ustly soL for it is a main Pillar in the 7difice of your real independence, the support of your tran(uility at homeL your peace a,roadL of your safetyL of your prosperityL of that $ery Ai,erty which you so hi%hly pri=e' &ut as it is easy to (oresee, that (rom di((erent !auses and (rom di((erent >uarters, mu!h "ains will e taken, many arti(i!es em"loyed, to weaken in your minds the !on%i!tion o( this truthC as this is the "oint in your "oliti!al (ortress against whi!h the atteries o( internal and e2ternal enemies will e most !onstantly and a!ti%ely ?though o(ten !o%ertly and insidiously@ dire!ted, it is o( in(inite moment that you should "ro"erly estimate the immense %alue o( your national Gnion to your !olle!ti%e and indi%idual ha""inessC that you should !herish a !ordial, ha itual and immo%ea le atta!hment to itL accustomin% yoursel$es to think and speak of it as of the Palladium of your political safety and prosperityL watchin% for its preser$ation with -ealous an)ietyL discountenancin% whate$er may su%%est e$en a suspicion that it can in any e$ent ,e a,andoned, and indi%nantly frownin% upon the first dawnin% of e$ery attempt to alienate any portion of our Country from the rest, or to enfee,le the sacred ties which now link to%ether the $arious parts' Citi=ens ,y ,irth or choice, of a common country, that country has a ri%ht to concentrate your affections' The name o( 1:4.#C13, whi!h elongs to you, in your national !a"a!ity, must always e2alt the =ust "ride o( Patriotism , more than any appellation deri$ed from local discriminations' >ith sli%ht shades of difference, you ha$e the same /eli%ion, "anners, Ha,its, and political Principles' *ou ha$e in a common cause fou%ht and triumphed to%ether' The independence and li,erty you possess are the work of -oint councils, and -oint effortsL of common dan%ers, sufferin%s and successes' +ut these considerations, howe$er powerfully they address themsel$es to your sensi,ility are %reatly outwei%hed ,y those which apply more immediately to your #nterest' Here e$ery portion of our country finds the most commandin% moti$es for carefully %uardin% and preser$in% the 4nion of the whole' The %orth, in an unrestrained inter!ourse with the $o&th, "rote!ted y the e>ual Laws o( a !ommon go%ernment, (inds in the "rodu!tions o( the latter, great additional resour!es o( :aritime and !ommer!ial enter"rise and "re!ious materials o( manu(a!turing industry. The $o&th, in the same #nter!ourse, ene(itting y the same 1gen!y o( the %orth, sees its agri!ulture grow and its !ommer!e e2"and. Turnin% partly into its own channels the seamen of the %orth, it finds its particular na$i%ation en$i%oratedL and while it contri,utes, in different ways, to nourish and increase the %eneral mass of the .ational na$i%ation, it looks forward to the protection of a "aritime stren%th, to which itself is une(ually adapted' The 1ast, in a like #ntercourse with the .est, already finds, and in the pro%ressi$e impro$ement of interior communications, ,y land and water, will more and more find a $alua,le

$ent for the commodities which it ,rin%s from a,road, or manufactures at home' The .est deri$es from the 1ast supplies re(uisite to its %rowth and comfort, and what is perhaps of still %reater conse(uence, it must of necessity owe the secure en-oyment of indispensa,le out ets for its own productions to the wei%ht, influence, and the future "aritime stren%th of the Atlantic side of the 4nion, directed ,y an indissolu,le community of #nterest as one %ation' Any other tenure ,y which the .est can hold this essential ad$anta%e, whether deri$ed from its own seperate stren%th, or from an apostate and unnatural connection with any forei%n Power, must ,e intrinsically precarious' >hile then e$ery part of our country thus feels an immediate and particular #nterest in 4nion, all the parts com,ined cannot fail to find in the united mass of means and efforts %reater stren%th, %reater resource, proportiona,ly %reater security from e)ternal dan%er, a less fre(uent interruption of their Peace ,y forei%n .ationsL and what is of inestima,le $alueR they must deri$e from 4nion an e)emption from those ,roils and >ars ,etween themsel$es, which so fre(uently afflict nei%h,ourin% countries, not tied to%ether ,y the same %o$ernmentL which their own ri$alships alone would ,e sufficient to produce, ,ut which opposite forei%n alliances, attachments, and intrie%ues would stimulate and im,itter' Hence, likewise, they will a$oid the necessity of those o$er%rown "ilitary esta,lishments, which under any form of @o$ernment are inauspicious to li,erty, and which are to ,e re%arded as particularly hostile to /epu,lican Ai,ertyC #n this sense it is, that your 4nion ou%ht to ,e considered as a main prop of your li,erty, and that the lo$e of the one ou%ht to endear to you the preser$ation of the other' These considerations speak a persuasi$e lan%ua%e to e$ery reflectin% and $irtuous mind, and e)hi,it the continuance of the 4.#<. as a primary o,-ect of Patriotic desire' #s there a dou,t, whether a common %o$ernment can em,race so lar%e a sphereM Aet e)perience sol$e it' To listen to mere speculation in such a case were criminal' >e are authori=ed to hope that a proper or%ani=ation of the whole, with the au)iliary a%ency of %o$ernments for the respecti$e 3u,di$isions, will afford a happy issue to the e)periment' FTis well worth a fair and full e)periment' >ith such powerful and o,$ious moti$es to 4nion, affectin% all parts of our country, while e)perience shall not ha$e demonstrated its impractica,ility, there will always ,e reason, to distrust the patriotism of those, who in any (uarter may endea$or to weaken its ,ands' #n contemplatin% the causes wch' may distur, our 4nion, it occurs as matter of serious concern, that any %round should ha$e ,een furnished for characteri=in% parties ,y !eo$ra&hica discriminationsC %orthern and 3outhernL At antic and .esternL whence desi%nin% men may endea$our to e)cite a ,elief that there is a real difference of local interests and $iews' <ne of the e)pedients of Party to ac(uire influence, within particular districts, is to misrepresent the opinions and aims of other 6istricts' *ou cannot shield yoursel$es too much a%ainst the -ealousies and heart ,urnin%s which sprin% from these misrepresentations' They tend to render Alien to each other those who ou%ht to ,e ,ound to%ether ,y fraternal affection' The #nha,itants of our >estern country ha$e lately had a useful lesson on this head' They ha$e seen, in the .e%ociation ,y the 7)ecuti$e, and in the unanimous ratification ,y the 3enate, of the Treaty with 3pain, and in the uni$ersal satisfaction at that e$ent, throu%hout the 4nited 3tates, a decisi$e proof how unfounded were the suspicions propa%ated amon% them of a policy in the @eneral @o$ernment and in the Atlantic 3tates unfriendly to their #nterests in re%ard to the "ississippi' They ha$e ,een witnesses to the formation of two Treaties, that with @C +ritain and that with 3pain, which secure to them e$ery thin% they could desire, in respect to our 8orei%n relations, towards confirmin% their prosperity' >ill it not ,e their wisdom to rely for the preser$ation of these ad$anta%es on the 4nion ,y wch' they were procuredM >ill they not henceforth ,e deaf to those ad$isers, if such there are, who would se$er them from their +rethren and connect them with AliensM To the efficacy and permanency of *our 4nion, a @o$ernment for the whole is indispensa,le' .o Alliances howe$er strict ,etween the parts can ,e an ade(uate su,stitute' They must ine$ita,ly e)perience the infractions and interruptions which all Alliances in all times ha$e e)perienced' 3ensi,le of this momentous truth, you ha$e impro$ed upon your first essay, ,y the adoption of a Constitution of @o$ernment, ,etter calculated than your former for an intimate 4nion, and for the efficacious mana%ement of your common concerns' This %o$ernment, the offsprin% of our own choice uninfluenced and unawed, adopted upon full in$esti%ation and mature deli,eration, completely free in its principles, in the distri,ution of its powers, unitin% security with ener%y, and containin% within itself a pro$ision for its own amendment, has a -ust claim to your confidence and your support' /espect for its authority, compliance with its Aaws, ac(uiescence in its measures, are duties en-oined ,y the fundamental ma)ims of true Ai,erty' The ,asis of our political systems is the ri%ht of the people to make and to alter their Constitutions of @o$ernment' +ut the constitution which at any time e)ists, Ftill chan%ed ,y an e)plicit and authentic act of the whole People, is sacredly o,li%atory upon all' The $ery idea of the power and the ri%ht of the People to esta,lish @o$ernment presupposes the duty of e$ery #ndi$idual to o,ey the esta,lished @o$ernment' 1ll o stru!tions to the e2e!ution o( the Laws, all !om inations and 1sso!iations, under whate%er "lausi le !hara!ter, with the real design to dire!t, !ontroul !ountera!t, or awe the regular deli eration and a!tion o( the Constituted authorities, are distru!ti%e o( this (undamental "rin!i"le and o( (atal tenden!y. They ser$e to or%ani=e faction, to %i$e it an artificial and e)traordinary forceL to put in the place of the dele%ated will of the .ation, the will of a partyL often a small ,ut artful and enterpri=in% minority of the CommunityL and, accordin% to the alternate triumphs of different parties, to make the pu,lic administration the "irror of the ill concerted and incon%ruous pro-ects of faction, rather than the or%an of consistent and wholesome plans di%ested ,y common councils and modefied ,y mutual interests' Howe$er com,inations or Associations of the a,o$e description may now and then answer popular ends, they are likely in the course of time and thin%s, to ,ecome potent en%ines, ,y which cunnin%, am,itious and unprincipled men will ,e ena,led to su,$ert the Power of the People, and to usurp for themsel$es the reins of @o$ernmentL destroyin% afterwards the $ery en%ines which ha$e lifted them to un-ust dominion'

Towards the preser$ation of your @o$ernment and the permanency of your present happy state, it is re(uisite, not only that you steadily discountenance irre%ular oppositions to its acknowled%ed authority, ,ut also that you resist with care the spirit of inno$ation upon its principles, howe$er specious the prete)ts' 8ne method o( assault may e to e((e!t, in the (orms o( the Constitution, alterations whi!h will im"air the energy o( the system, and thus to undermine what !annot e dire!tly o%erthrown. #n all the chan%es to which you may ,e in$ited, remem,er that time and ha,it are at least as necessary to fi) the true character of @o$ernments, as of other human institutionsL that e)perience is the surest standard ,y which to test the real tendency of the e)istin% Constitution of a countryL that facility in chan%es upon the credit of mere hypotheses and opinion e)poses to perpetual chan%e, from the endless $ariety of hypotheses and opinionC and remem,er, especially, that for the efficient mana%ement of your common interests, in a country so e)tensi$e as ours, a @o$ernment of as much $i%our as is consistent with the perfect security of Ai,erty is indispensa,le' Ai,erty itself will find in such a @o$ernment, with powers properly distri,uted and ad-usted, its surest @uardian' #t is indeed little else than a name, where the @o$ernment is too fee,le to withstand the enterprises of faction, to confine each mem,er of the 3ociety within the limits prescri,ed ,y the laws and to maintain all in the secure and tran(uil en-oyment of the ri%hts of person and property' # ha$e already intimated to you the dan%er of Parties in the 3tate, with particular reference to the foundin% of them on @eo%raphical discriminations' Aet me now take a more comprehensi$e $iew, and warn you in the most solemn manner a%ainst the ,aneful effects of the 3pirit of Party, %enerally' This spirit, unfortunately, is insepera,le from our nature, ha$in% its root in the stron%est passions of the human "ind' #t e)ists under different shapes in all @o$ernments, more or less stifled, controuled, or repressedL ,ut, in those of the popular form it is seen in its %reatest rankness and is truly their worst enemy' The alternate domination o( one (a!tion o%er another, shar"ened y the s"irit o( re%enge natural to "arty dissention, whi!h in di((erent ages and !ountries has "er"etrated the most horrid enormities, is itsel( a (right(ul des"otism. +ut this leads at len%th to a more formal and permanent despotism' The disorders and miseries, which result, %radually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the a,solute power of an #ndi$idualC and sooner or later the chief of some pre$ailin% faction more a,le or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of his own ele$ation, on the ruins of Pu,lic Ai,erty' >ithout lookin% forward to an e)tremity of this kind 2which ne$ertheless ou%ht not to ,e entirely out of si%ht5 the common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of Party are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of a wise People to discoura%e and restrain it' #t ser%es always to distra!t the Pu li! Coun!ils and en(ee le the Pu li! administration. #t agitates the Community with illA (ounded =ealousies and (alse alarms, kindles the animosity o( one "art against anotherC (oments o!!asionally riot and insurre!tion. #t opens the door to forei%n influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the %o$ernment itself throu%h the channels of party passions' Thus the policy and the will of one country, are su,-ected to the policy and will of another' There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the Administration of the @o$ernment and ser$e to keep ali$e the spirit of Ai,erty' This within certain limits is pro,a,ly true, and in @o$ernments of a "onarchical cast Patriotism may look with endul%ence, if not with fa$our, upon the spirit of party' +ut in those of the popular character, in @o$ernments purely electi$e, it is a spirit not to ,e encoura%ed' 8rom their natural tendency, it is certain there will always ,e enou%h of that spirit for e$ery salutary purpose' And there ,ein% constant dan%er of e)cess, the effort ou%ht to ,e, ,y force of pu,lic opinion, to miti%ate and assua%e it' A fire not to ,e (uenchedL it demands a uniform $i%ilance to pre$ent its ,urstin% into a flame, lest instead of warmin% it should consume' #t is important, likewise, that the ha,its of thinkin% in a free Country should inspire caution in those entrusted with its administration, to confine themsel$es within their respecti$e Constitutional spheresL a$oidin% in the e)ercise of the Powers of one department to encroach upon another' The spirit of encroachment tends to consolidate the powers of all the departments in one, and thus to create whate$er the form of %o$ernment, a real despotism' A -ust estimate of that lo$e of power, and proneness to a,use it, which predominates in the human heart is sufficient to satisfy us of the truth of this position' The necessity of reciprocal checks in the e)ercise of political powerL ,y di$idin% and distri,utin% it into different depositories, and constitutin% each the @uardian of the Pu,lic >eal a%ainst in$asions ,y the others, has ,een e$inced ,y e)periments ancient and modernL some of them in our country and under our own eyes' To preser$e them must ,e as necessary as to institute them' #( in the o"inion o( the Peo"le the distri ution or modi(i!ation o( the Constitutional "owers e in any "arti!ular wrong, let it e !orre!ted y an amendment in the way whi!h the Constitution designates. &ut let there e no !hange y usur"ationC for thou%h this, in one instance, may ,e the instrument of %ood, it is the customary weapon ,y which free %o$ernments are destroyed' The precedent must always %reatly o$er,alance in permanent e$il any partial or transient ,enefit which the use can at any time yield' <f all the dispositions and ha,its which lead to political prosperity, /eli%ion and morality are indispensa,le supports' #n $ain would that man claim the tri,ute of Patriotism who should la,our to su,$ert these %reat Pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of "en and citi=ens' The mere Politician, e(ually with the pious man ou%ht to respect and to cherish them' A $olume could not trace all their connections with pri$ate and pu,lic felicity' Aet it simply ,e asked where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of reli%ious o,li%ation desert the oaths, which are the instruments of in$esti%ation in Courts of JusticeM And let us with caution indul%e the supposition that morality can ,e maintained without reli%ion' >hate$er may ,e conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and e)perience ,oth for,id us to e)pect that .ational morality can pre$ail in e)clusion of reli%ious principle'

The 3econd /eply to Hayne

2Also known as 4'3' 3enator 6aniel >e,sterFs /eply to 4'3' 3enator /o,ert Hayne of 3outh Carolina, January 9E;9N, 18305

6aniel >e,ster
TThis leads us to in(uire into the ori%in of this %o$ernment and the source of its power' >hose a%ent is itM #s it the creature of the 3tate le%islatures, or the creature of the peopleM #f the %o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates ,e the a%ent of the 3tate %o$ernments, then they may control it, pro$ided they can a%ree in the manner of controllin% itL if it ,e the a%ent of the people, then the people alone can control it, restrain it, modify, or reform it' #t is o,ser$a,le enou%h, that the doctrine for which the honora,le %entleman contends leads him to the necessity of maintainin%, not only that this %eneral %o$ernment is the creature of the 3tates, ,ut that it is the creature of each of the 3tates se$erally, so that each may assert the power for itself of determinin% whether it acts within the limits of its authority' #t is the ser$ant of four;and;twenty masters, of different will and different purposes and yet ,ound to o,ey all' This a,surdity 2for it seems no less5 arises from a misconception as to the ori%in of this %o$ernment and its true character' #t is, /ir, the "eo"leMs Constitution, the "eo"leMs go%ernment, made (or the "eo"le, made y the "eo"le, and answera le to the "eo"le. The "eo"le o( the Gnited /tates ha%e de!lared that the Constitution shall e the su"reme law. We must either admit the "ro"osition, or dis"ute their authority. The /tates are, un>uestiona ly, so%ereign, so (ar as their so%ereignty is not a((e!ted y this su"reme law. &ut the /tate legislatures, as "oliti!al odies, howe%er so%ereign, are yet not so%ereign o%er the "eo"le. /o (ar as the "eo"le ha%e gi%en the "ower to the general go%ernment, so (ar the grant is un>uestiona ly good, and the go%ernment holds o( the "eo"le, and not o( the /tate go%ernments. We are all agents o( the same su"reme "ower, the "eo"le. The general go%ernment and the /tate go%ernments deri%e their authority (rom the same sour!e. 3either !an, in relation to the other, e !alled "rimary, though one is de(inite and restri!ted, and the other general and residuary. The national go%ernment "ossesses those "owers whi!h it will e shown the "eo"le ha%e !on(erred u"on it, and no more. 1ll the rest elongs to the /tate go%ernments, or to the "eo"le themsel%es. /o (ar as the "eo"le ha%e restrained /tate so%ereignty, y the e2"ression o( their will, in the Constitution o( the Gnited /tates, so (ar, it must e admitted. /tate so%ereignty is e((e!tually !ontrolled. # do not contend that it is, or ou%ht to ,e, controlled farther' The sentiment to which # ha$e referred propounds that 3tate so$erei%nty is only to ,e controlled ,y its own !feelin% of -ustice0C that is to say, it is not to ,e controlled at all, for one who is to follow his own feelin%s is under no le%al control' .ow, howe$er men may think this ou%ht to ,e, the fact is, that the people of the 4nited 3tates ha$e chosen to impose control on 3tate so$erei%nties' There are those, dou,tless, who wish they had ,een left without restraintL ,ut the Constitution has ordered the matter differently' To make war, for instance, is an e)ercise of so$erei%ntyL ,ut the Constitution declares that no 3tate shall make war' To coin money is another e)ercise of so$erei%n power, ,ut no 3tate is at li,erty to coin money' A%ain, the Constitution says that no so$erei%n 3tate shall ,e so so$erei%n as to make a treaty' These prohi,itions, it must ,e confessed, are a control on the 3tate so$erei%nty of 3outh Carolina, as well as of the other 3tates, which does not arise !from her own feelin%s of honora,le -ustice'0 The opinion referred to, therefore, is in defiance of the plainest pro$isions of the Constitution''' # must now ,e% to ask, 3ir, >hence is this supposed ri%ht of the 3tates deri$edM >here do they find the power to interfere with the laws of the 4nionM 3ir the opinion which the honora,le %entleman maintains is a notion founded in a total misapprehension, in my -ud%ment, of the ori%in of this %o$ernment, and of the foundation on which it stands' # hold it to ,e a popular %o$ernment, erected ,y the peopleL those who administer it, responsi,le to the peopleL and itself capa,le of ,ein% amended and modified, -ust as the people may choose it should ,e' #t is as popular, -ust as truly emanatin% from the people, as the 3tate %o$ernments' #t is created for one purposeL the 3tate %o$ernments for another' #t has its own powersL they ha$e theirs' There is no more authority with them to arrest the operation of a law of Con%ress, than with Con%ress to arrest the operation of their laws' >e are here to administer a Constitution emanatin% immediately from the people, and trusted ,y them to our administration' #t is not the creature of the 3tate %o$ernments' #t is of no moment to the ar%ument, that certain acts of the 3tate le%islatures are necessary to fill our seats in this ,ody' That is not one of their ori%inal 3tate powers, a part of the so$erei%nty of the 3tate' #t is a duty which the people, ,y the Constitution itself, ha$e imposed on the 3tate le%islaturesL and which they mi%ht ha$e left toe performed elsewhere, if they had seen fit' 3o they ha$e left the choice of President with electorsL ,ut all this does not affect the proposition that this whole %o$ernment, President, 3enate, and House of /epresentati$es, is a popular %o$ernment' #t lea$es it still all its popular character' The %o$ernor of a 3tate 2in some of the 3tates5 is

chosen, not directly ,y the people, ,ut ,y those who are chosen ,y the people, for the purpose of performin%, amon% other duties, that of electin% a %o$ernor' #s the %o$ernment of the 3tate, on that account, not a popular %o$ernmentM This %o$ernment, 3ir, is the independent offsprin% of the popular will' #t is not the creature of 3tate le%islaturesL nay, more, if the whole truth must ,e told, the people ,rou%ht it into e)istence, esta,lished it, and ha$e hitherto supported it, for the $ery purpose, amon%st others, of imposin% certain salutary restraints on 3tate so$erei%nties' The 3tates cannot now make warL they cannot contract alliancesL they cannot make, each for itself, separate re%ulations of commerceL they cannot lay impostsL they cannot coin money' #f this Constitution, 3ir, ,e the creature of 3tate le%islatures, it must ,e admitted that it has o,tained a stran%e control o$er the $olitions of its creators' The people, then, 3ir, erected this %o$ernment' They %a$e it a Constitution, and in that Constitution they ha$e enumerated the powers which they ,estow on it' They ha$e made it a limited %o$ernment' They ha$e defined its authority' They ha$e restrained it to the e)ercise of such powers as are %rantedL and all others, they declare, are reser$ed to the 3tates or the people' +ut, 3ir, they ha$e not stopped here' #f they had, they would ha$e accomplished ,ut half their work' .o definition can ,e so clear, as to a$oid possi,ility of dou,tL no limitation so precise, as to e)clude all uncertainty' >ho, then, shall construe this %rant of the peopleM >ho shall interpret their will, where it may ,e supposed they ha$e left it dou,tfulM >ith whom do they repose this ultimate ri%ht of decidin% on the powers of %o$ernmentM 3ir, they ha$e settled all this in the fullest manner' They ha$e left it with the %o$ernment itself, in its appropriate ,ranches' 3ir, the $ery chief end, the main desi%n, for which the whole Constitution was framed and adopted, was to esta,lish a %o$ernment that should not ,e o,li%ed to act throu%h 3tate a%ency, or depend on 3tate opinion and 3tate discretion' The people had had (uite enou%h of that kind of %o$ernment under the Confederation' 4nder that system, the le%al action, the application of law to indi$iduals, ,elon%ed e)clusi$ely to the 3tates' Con%ress could only recommendL their acts were not of ,indin% force, till the 3tates had adopted and sanctioned them' Are we in that condition stillM Are we yet at the mercy of 3tate discretion and 3tate constructionM 3ir, if we are, then $ain will ,e our attempt to maintain the Constitution under which we sit' +ut, 3ir, the people ha$e wisely pro$ided, in the Constitution itself, a proper, suita,le mode and tri,unal for settlin% (uestions of Constitutional law' There are in the Constitution %rants of powers to Con%ress, and restrictions on these powers' There are, also, prohi,itions on the 3tates' 3ome authority must, therefore, necessarily e)ist, ha$in% the ultimate -urisdiction to fi) and ascertain the interpretation of these %rants, restrictions, and prohi,itions' The Constitution has itself pointed out, ordained, and esta,lished that authority' How has it accomplished this %reat and essential endM +y declarin%, 3ir, that Jthe Constitution, and the aws of the #nited 3tates made in &ursuance thereof, sha "e the su&reme aw of the and, any thin$ in the constitution or aws of any 3tate to the contrary notwithstandin$+K This, 3ir, was the first %reat step' +y this the supremacy of the Constitution and laws of the 4nited 3tates is declared' The people so will it' .o 3tate law is to ,e $alid which comes in conflict with the Constitution, or any law of the 4nited 3tates passed in pursuance of it' +ut who shall decide this (uestion of interferenceM To whom lies the last appealM This, 3ir, the Constitution itself decides also, ,y declarin%, JThat the /udicia &ower sha e'tend to a cases arisin$ under the Constitution and aws of the #nited 3tates+K These two pro$isions co$er the whole %round' They are, in truth, the keystone of the archR >ith these it is a %o$ernmentL without them it is a confederation' #n pursuance of these clear and e)press pro$isions, Con%ress esta,lished, at its $ery first session, in the -udicial act, a mode for carryin% them into full effect, and for ,rin%in% all (uestions of constitutional power to the final decision of the 3upreme Court' #t then, 3ir, ,ecame a %o$ernment' #t then had the means of self;protectionL and ,ut for this, it would, in all pro,a,ility, ha$e ,een now amon% thin%s which are past' Ha$in% constituted the %o$ernment, and declared its powers, the people ha$e further said, that, since some,ody must decide on the e)tent of these powers, the %o$ernment shall itself decideL su,-ect always, like other popular %o$ernments, to its responsi,ility to the peopleT # ha$e not allowed myself, 3ir, to look ,eyond the 4nion, to see what mi%ht lie hidden in the dark recess ,ehind' # ha$e not coolly wei%hed the chances of preser$in% li,erty when the ,onds that unite us to%ether shall ,e ,roken asunder' # ha$e not accustomed myself to han% o$er the precipice of disunion, to see whether, with my short si%ht, # can fathom the depth of the a,yss ,elowL nor could # re%ard him as a safe counsellor in the affairs of this %o$ernment, whose thou%hts should ,e mainly ,ent on considerin%, not how the 4nion may ,e ,est preser$ed, ,ut how tolera,le mi%ht ,e the condition of the people when it should ,e ,roken up and destroyed' >hile the 4nion lasts, we ha$e hi%h, e)citin%, %ratifyin% prospects spread out ,efore us and our children' +eyond that # seek not to penetrate the $eil' @od %rant that in my day, at least, that curtain may not riseR @od %rant that on my $ision ne$er may ,e opened what lies ,ehindR >hen my eyes shall ,e turned to ,ehold for the last time the sun in hea$en, may # not see him shin% on the ,roken and dishonored fra%ments of a once %lorious 4nionL on 3tates disse$ered, discordant, ,elli%erentL on a land rent with ci$il feuds, or drenched, it may ,e, in fraternal ,loodR Aet their last fee,le and lin%erin% %lance rather ,ehold the %or%eous ensi%n of the repu,lic, now known and honored throu%hout the earth, still full hi%h ad$anced, its arms and trophies streamin% in their ori%inal luster, not a stripe erased or polluted, not a sin%le star o,scured, ,earin% for its motto, no such misera,le interro%atory as !>hat is all this worthM0 nor those other words of delusion and folly, !Ai,erty first and 4nion afterwards0L ,ut e$erywhere, spread all o$er in characters of li$in% li%ht, placin% on all it sample folds, as they float o$er the sea and o$er the land, and in e$ery wind under the whole hea$ens, that other sentiment, dear to e$ery true American heart, T Li erty and Gnion, now and (ore%er, one and inse"ara leL

President Andrew Jacksons Proclamation Regarding Nullification and Secession December 10, 1832
>hereas a con$ention, assem,led in the 3tate of 3outh Carolina, ha$e passed an ordinance, ,y which they declare that the se$eral acts and parts of acts of the Con%ress of the 4nited 3tates, purportin% to ,e laws for the imposin% of duties and imposts on the importation of forei%n commodities, and now ha$in% actual operation and effect within the 4nited 3tates, and more especially Ktwo acts for the same purposes, passed on the 9Gth of "ay, 1898, and on the 1:th of July, 1839, are unauthori=ed ,y the Constitution of the 4nited 3tates, and $iolate the true meanin% and intent thereof, and are null and $oid, and no law,K nor ,indin% on the citi=ens of that 3tate or its officers, and ,y the said ordinance it is further declared to he unlawful for any of the constituted authorities of the 3tate, or of the 4nited 3tates, to enforce the payment of the duties imposed ,y the said acts within the same 3tate, and that it is the duty of the le%islature to pass such laws as may ,e necessary to %i$e full effect to the said ordinancesC And whereas, ,y the said ordinance it is further ordained, that, in no case of law or e(uity, decided in the courts of said 3tate, wherein shall ,e drawn in (uestion the $alidity of the said ordinance, or of the acts of the le%islature that may ,e passed to %i$e it effect, or of the said laws of the 4nited 3tates, no appeal shall ,e allowed to the 3upreme Court of the 4nited 3tates, nor shall any copy of the record ,e permitted or allowed for that purposeL and that any person attemptin% to take such appeal, shall ,e punished as for a contempt of courtC And, finally, the said ordinance declares that the people of 3outh Carolina will maintain the said ordinance at e$ery ha=ard, and that they will consider the passa%e of any act ,y Con%ress a,olishin% or closin% the ports of the said 3tate, or otherwise o,structin% the free in%ress or e%ress of $essels to and from the said ports, or any other act of the 8ederal @o$ernment to coerce the 3tate, shut up her ports, destroy or harass her commerce, or to enforce the said acts otherwise than throu%h the ci$il tri,unals of the country, as inconsistent with the lon%er continuance of 3outh Carolina in the 4nionL and that the people of the said 3tate will thenceforth hold themsel$es a,sol$ed from all further o,li%ation to maintain or preser$e their political connection with the people of the other 3tates, and will forthwith proceed to or%ani=e a separate %o$ernment, and do all other acts and thin%s which so$erei%n and independent 3tates may of ri%ht do' And whereas the said ordinance prescri,es to the people of 3outh Carolina a course of conduct in direct $iolation of their duty as citi=ens of the 4nited 3tates, contrary to the laws of their country, su,$ersi$e of its Constitution, and ha$in% for its o,-ect the instruction of the 4nion;that 4nion, which, coe$al with our political e)istence, led our fathers, without any other ties to unite them than those of patriotism and common cause, throu%h the san%uinary stru%%le to a %lorious independence;that sacred 4nion, hitherto in$iolate, which, perfected ,y our happy Constitution, has ,rou%ht us, ,y the fa$or of Hea$en, to a state of prosperity at home, and hi%h consideration a,road, rarely, if e$er, e(ualed in the history of nationsL to preser$e this ,ond of our political e)istence from destruction, to maintain in$iolate this state of national honor and prosperity, and to -ustify the confidence my fellow;citi=ens ha$e reposed in me, #, Andrew Jackson, President of the 4nited 3tates, ha$e thou%ht proper to issue this my P/<CAA"AT#<., statin% my $iews of the Constitution and laws applica,le to the measures adopted ,y the Con$ention of 3outh Carolina, and to the reasons they ha$e put forth to sustain them, declarin% the course which duty will re(uire me to pursue, and, appealin% to the understandin% and patriotism of the people, warn them of the conse(uences that must ine$ita,ly result from an o,ser$ance of the dictates of the Con$ention' 3trict duty would re(uire of me nothin% more than the e)ercise of those powers with which # am now, or may hereafter ,e, in$ested, for preser$in% the 4nion, and for the e)ecution of the laws' +ut the imposin% aspect which opposition has assumed in this case, ,y clothin% itself with 3tate authority, and the deep interest which the people of the 4nited 3tates must all feel in pre$entin% a resort to stron%er measures, while there is a hope that anythin% will ,e yielded to reasonin% and remonstrances, perhaps demand, and will certainly -ustify, a full e)position to 3outh Carolina and the nation of the $iews # entertain of this important (uestion, as well as a distinct enunciation of the course which my sense of duty will re(uire me to pursue' The ordinance is founded, not on the indefeasi,le ri%ht of resistin% acts which are plainly unconstitutional, and too oppressi$e to ,e endured, ,ut on the stran%e position that any one 3tate may not only declare an act of Con%ress $oid, ,ut prohi,it its e)ecution; that they may do this consistently with the Constitution;that the true construction of that instrument permits a 3tate to retain its place in the 4nion, and yet ,e ,ound ,y no other of its laws than those it may choose to consider as constitutional' #t is true they add, that to -ustify this a,ro%ation of a law, it must ,e palpa,ly contrary to the Constitution, ,ut it is e$ident, that to %i$e the ri%ht of resistin% laws of that description, coupled with the uncontrolled ri%ht to decide what laws deser$e that character, is to %i$e the power of resistin% all laws' 8or, as ,y the theory, there is no appeal, the reasons alle%ed ,y the 3tate, %ood or ,ad, must pre$ail' #f it should ,e said that pu,lic opinion is a sufficient check a%ainst the a,use of this power, it may ,e asked why it is not deemed a sufficient %uard a%ainst the passa%e of an unconstitutional act ,y Con%ress' There is, howe$er, a restraint in this last case, which makes the assumed power of a 3tate more indefensi,le, and which does not e)ist in the other' There are two appeals from an unconstitutional act passed ,y Con%ress; one to the -udiciary, the other to the people and the 3tates' There is no appeal from the 3tate decision in theoryL and the practical illustration shows that the courts are closed a%ainst an application to re$iew it, ,oth -ud%es and -urors ,ein% sworn to decide in its fa$or' +ut reasonin% on this su,-ect is superfluous, when our social compact in e)press terms declares, that the laws of the 4nited

3tates, its Constitution, and treaties made under it, are the supreme law of the landL and for %reater caution adds, Kthat the -ud%es in e$ery 3tate shall ,e ,ound there,y, anythin% in the Constitution or laws of any 3tate to the contrary notwithstandin%'K And it may ,e asserted, without fear of refutation, that no federati$e %o$ernment could e)ist without a similar pro$ision' Aook, for a moment, to the conse(uence' #f 3outh Carolina considers the re$enue laws unconstitutional, and has a ri%ht to pre$ent their e)ecution in the port of Charleston, there would ,e a clear constitutional o,-ection to their collection in e$ery other port, and no re$enue could ,e collected anywhereL for all imposts must ,e e(ual' #t is no answer to repeat that an unconstitutional law is no law, so lon% as the (uestion of its le%ality is to ,e decided ,y the 3tate itself, for e$ery law operatin% in-uriously upon any local interest will ,e perhaps thou%ht, and certainly represented, as unconstitutional, and, as has ,een shown, there is no appeal' #f this doctrine had ,een esta,lished at an earlier day, the 4nion would ha$e ,een dissol$ed in its infancy' The e)cise law in Pennsyl$ania, the em,ar%o and non;intercourse law in the 7astern 3tates, the carria%e ta) in ?ir%inia, were all deemed unconstitutional, and were more une(ual in their operation than any of the laws now complained ofL ,ut, fortunately, none of those 3tates disco$ered that they had the ri%ht now claimed ,y 3outh Carolina' The war into which we were forced, to support the di%nity of the nation and the ri%hts of our citi=ens, mi%ht ha$e ended in defeat and dis%race instead of $ictory and honor, if the 3tates, who supposed it a ruinous and unconstitutional measure, had thou%ht they possessed the ri%ht of nullifyin% the act ,y which it was declared, and denyin% supplies for its prosecution' Hardly and une(ually as those measures ,ore upon se$eral mem,ers of the 4nion, to the le%islatures of none did this efficient and peacea,le remedy, as it is called, su%%est itself' The disco$ery of this important feature in our Constitution was reser$ed to the present day' To the statesmen of 3outh Carolina ,elon%s the in$ention, and upon the citi=ens of that 3tate will, unfortunately, fall the e$ils of reducin% it to practice' #f the doctrine of a 3tate $eto upon the laws of the 4nion carries with it internal e$idence of its impractica,le a,surdity, our constitutional history will also afford a,undant proof that it would ha$e ,een repudiated with indi%nation had it ,een proposed to form a feature in our @o$ernment' #n our colonial state, althou%h dependent on another power, we $ery early considered oursel$es as connected ,y common interest with each other' Aea%ues were formed for common defense, and ,efore the 6eclaration of #ndependence, we were known in our a%%re%ate character as the 4nited Colonies of America' That decisi$e and important step was taken -ointly' >e declared oursel$es a nation ,y a -oint, not ,y se$eral actsL and when the terms of our confederation were reduced to form, it was in that of a solemn lea%ue of se$eral 3tates, ,y which they a%reed that they would, collecti$ely, form one nation, for the purpose of conductin% some certain domestic concerns, and all forei%n relations' #n the instrument formin% that 4nion, is found an article which declares that !e$ery 3tate shall a,ide ,y the determinations of Con%ress on all (uestions which ,y that Confederation should ,e su,mitted to them'0 4nder the Confederation, then, no 3tate could le%ally annul a decision of the Con%ress, or refuse to su,mit to its e)ecution, ,ut no pro$ision was made to enforce these decisions' Con%ress made re(uisitions, ,ut they were not complied with' The @o$ernment could not operate on indi$iduals' They had no -udiciary, no means of collectin% re$enue' +ut the defects of the Confederation need not ,e detailed' 4nder its operation we could scarcely ,e called a nation' >e had neither prosperity at home nor consideration a,road' This state of thin%s could not ,e endured, and our present happy Constitution was formed, ,ut formed in $ain, if this fatal doctrine pre$ails' #t was formed for important o,-ects that are announced in the pream,le made in the name and ,y the authority of the people of the 4nited 3tates, whose dele%ates framed, and whose con$entions appro$ed it' The most important amon% these o,-ects, that which is placed first in rank, on which all the others rest, is K to form a more &erfect #nion+K .ow, is it possi,le that, e$en if there were no e)press pro$ision %i$in% supremacy to the Constitution and laws of the 4nited 3tates o$er those of the 3tates, it can ,e concei$ed that an #nstrument made for the purpose of K formin$2 a more &erfect #nionK than that of the confederation, could ,e so constructed ,y the assem,led wisdom of our country as to su,stitute for that confederation a form of %o$ernment, dependent for its e)istence on the local interest, the party spirit of a 3tate, or of a pre$ailin% faction in a 3tateM 7$ery man, of plain, unsophisticated understandin%, who hears the (uestion, will %i$e such an answer as will preser$e the 4nion' "etaphysical su,tlety, in pursuit of an impractica,le theory, could alone ha$e de$ised one that is calculated to destroy it' # consider, then, the power to annul a law of the 4nited 3tates, assumed ,y one 3tate, incom&ati" e with the e'istence of the #nion, contradicted e'&ress y "y the etter of the Constitution, unauthoriEed "y its s&irit, inconsistent with e(ery &rinci& e on which @t was founded, and destructi(e of the $reat o"/ect for which it was formed+ After this %eneral $iew of the leadin% principle, we must e)amine the particular application of it which is made in the ordinance' The pream,le rests its -ustification on these %roundsC #t assumes as a fact, that the o,no)ious laws, althou%h they purport to ,e laws for raisin% re$enue, were in reality intended for the protection of manufactures, which purpose it asserts to ,e unconstitutionalL that the operation of these laws is une(ual, that the amount raised ,y them is %reater than is re(uired ,y the wants of the @o$ernmentL and, finally, that the proceeds are to ,e applied to o,-ects unauthori=ed ,y the Constitution' These are the only causes alle%ed to -ustify an open opposition to the laws of the country, and a threat of secedin% from the 4nion, if any attempt should ,e made to enforce them'

The first $irtually acknowled%es that the law in (uestion was passed under a power e)pressly %i$en ,y the Constitution, to lay and collect imposts, ,ut its constitutionality is drawn in (uestion from the moti$es of those who passed it' Howe$er apparent this purpose may ,e in the present case, nothin% can ,e more dan%erous than to admit the position that an unconstitutional purpose, entertained ,y the mem,ers who assent to a law enacted under a constitutional power, shall make that law $oidL for how is that purpose to ,e ascertainedM >ho is to make the scrutinyM How often may ,ad purposes ,e falsely imputed M #n how many cases are they concealed ,y false professionsM #n how many is no declaration of moti$e madeM Admit this doctrine and you %i$e to the 3tates an uncontrolled ri%ht to decide, and e$ery law may ,e annulled under this prete)t' #f, therefore, the a,surd and dan%erous doctrine should ,e admitted, that a 3tate may annul an unconstitutional law, or one that it deems such, it will not apply to the present case' The ne)t o,-ection is, that the laws in (uestion operate une(ually' This o,-ection may ,e made with truth to e$ery law that has ,een or can ,e passed' The wisdom of man ne$er yet contri$ed a system of ta)ation that would operate with perfect e(uality' #f the une(ual operation of a law makes it unconstitutional and if all laws of that description may ,e a,ro%ated ,y any 3tate for that cause, then, indeed, is the federal Constitution unworthy of the sli%htest effort for its preser$ation' >e ha$e hitherto relied on it as the perpetual ,ond of our 4nion' >e ha$e recei$ed it as the work of the assem,led wisdom of the nation >e ha$e trusted to it as to the sheet;anchor of our safety, in the stormy times of conflict with a forei%n or domestic foe' >e ha$e looked to it with sacred awe as the palladium of our li,erties, and with all the solemnities of reli%ion ha$e pled%ed to each other our li$es and fortunes here, and our hopes of happiness hereafter, in its defense and support' >ere we mistaken, my countrymen, in attachin% this importance to the Constitution of our countryM >as our de$otion paid to the wretched, inefficient, clumsy contri$ance, which this new doctrine would make itM 6id we pled%e oursel$es to the support of an airy nothin%;a ,u,,le that must ,e ,lown away ,y the first ,reath of disaffectionM >as this self; destroyin%, $isionary theory the work of the profound statesmen, the e)alted patriots, to whom the task of constitutional reform was intrustedM 6id the name of >ashin%ton sanction, did the 3tates deli,erately ratify, such an anomaly in the history of fundamental le%islationM .o' >e were not mistaken' The letter of this %reat instrument is free from this radical faultL its lan%ua%e directly contradicts the imputation, its spirit, its e$ident intent, contradicts it' .o, we did not err' <ur Constitution does not contain the a,surdity of %i$in% power to make laws, and another power to resist them' The sa%es, whose memory will always ,e re$erenced, ha$e %i$en us a practical, and, as they hoped, a permanent constitutional compact' The 8ather of his Country did not affi) his re$ered name to so palpa,le an a,surdity' .or did the 3tates, when they se$erally ratified it, do so under the impression that a $eto on the laws of the 4nited 3tates was reser$ed to them, or that they could e)ercise it ,y application' 3earch the de,ates in all their con$entions;e)amine the speeches of the most =ealous opposers of federal authority;look at the amendments that were proposed' They are all silent;;not a sylla,le uttered, not a $ote %i$en, not a motion made, to correct the e)plicit supremacy %i$en to the laws of the 4nion o$er those of the 3tates, or to show that implication, as is now contended, could defeat it' .o, we ha$e not erredR The Constitution is still the o,-ect of our re$erence, the ,ond of our 4nion, our defense in dan%er, the source of our prosperity in peace' #t shall descend, as we ha$e recei$ed it, uncorrupted ,y sophistical construction to our posterityL and the sacrifices of local interest, of 3tate pre-udices, of personal animosities, that were made to ,rin% it into e)istence, will a%ain ,e patriotically offered for its support' The two remainin% o,-ections made ,y the ordinance to these laws are, that the sums intended to ,e raised ,y them are %reater than are re(uired, and that the proceeds will ,e unconstitutionally employed' The Constitution has %i$en e)pressly to Con%ress the ri%ht of raisin% re$enue, and of determinin% the sum the pu,lic e)i%encies will re(uire' The 3tates ha$e no control o$er the e)ercise of this ri%ht other than that which results from the power of chan%in% the representati$es who a,use it, and thus procure redress' Con%ress may undou,tedly a,use this discretionary power, ,ut the same may ,e said of others with which they are $ested' *et the discretion must e)ist somewhere' The Constitution has %i$en it to the representati$es of all the people, checked ,y the representati$es of the 3tates, and ,y the e)ecuti$e power' The 3outh Carolina construction %i$es it to the le%islature, or the con$ention of a sin%le 3tate, where neither the people of the different 3tates, nor the 3tates in their separate capacity, nor the chief ma%istrate elected ,y the people, ha$e any representation' >hich is the most discreet disposition of the powerM # do not ask you, fellow;citi=ens, which is the constitutional disposition;that instrument speaks a lan%ua%e not to ,e misunderstood' +ut if you were assem,led in %eneral con$ention, which would you think the safest depository of this discretionary power in the last resortM >ould you add a clause %i$in% it to each of the 3tates, or would you sanction the wise pro$isions already made ,y your ConstitutionM #f this should ,e the result of your deli,erations when pro$idin% for the future, are you;can you;,e ready to risk all that we hold dear, to esta,lish, for a temporary and a local purpose, that which you must acknowled%e to ,e destructi$e, and e$en a,surd, as a %eneral pro$isionM Carry out the conse(uences of this ri%ht $ested in the different 3tates, and you must percei$e that the crisis your conduct presents at this day would recur whene$er any law of the 4nited 3tates displeased any of the 3tates, and that we should soon cease to ,e a nation' The ordinance with the same knowled%e of the future that characteri=es a former o,-ection, tells you that the proceeds of the ta) will ,e unconstitutionally applied' #f this could ,e ascertained with certainty, the o,-ection would, with more propriety, ,e reser$ed for the law so applyin% the proceeds, ,ut surely cannot ,e ur%ed a%ainst the laws le$yin% the duty' These are the alle%ations contained in the ordinance' 7)amine them seriously, my fellow;citi=ens;-ud%e for yoursel$es' # appeal to you to determine whether they are so clear, so con$incin%, as to lea$e no dou,t of their correctness, and e$en if you should come to this conclusion, how far they -ustify the reckless, destructi$e course which you are directed to pursue' /e$iew these o,-ections and the conclusions drawn from them once more' >hat are theyR 7$ery law, then, for raisin% re$enue, accordin% to the 3outh Carolina ordinance, may ,e ri%htfully annulled, unless it ,e so framed as no law e$er will or can ,e framed' Con%ress ha$e a ri%ht to pass laws for raisin% re$enue, and each 3tate has a ri%ht to oppose their e)ecution;two ri%hts directly opposed to each otherL and yet is this

a,surdity supposed to ,e contained in an instrument drawn for the e)press purpose of a$oidin% collisions ,etween the 3tates and the %eneral %o$ernment, ,y an assem,ly of the most enli%htened statesmen and purest patriots e$er em,odied for a similar purpose' #n $ain ha$e these sa%es declared that Con%ress shall ha$e power to lay and collect ta)es, duties, imposts, and e)cises;in $ain ha$e they pro$ided that they shall ha$e power to pass laws which shall ,e necessary and proper to carry those powers into e)ecution, that those laws and that Constitution shall ,e the Ksupreme law of the landL that the -ud%es in e$ery 3tate shall ,e ,ound there,y, anythin% in the constitution or laws of any 3tate to the contrary notwithstandin%'K #n $ain ha$e the people of the se$eral 3tates solemnly sanctioned these pro$isions, made them their paramount law, and indi$idually sworn to support them whene$er they were called on to e)ecute any office'' ?ain pro$isionsR #neffectual restrictionsR ?ile profanation of oathsR "isera,le mockery of le%islationR #f a ,are ma-ority of the $oters in any one 3tate may, on a real or supposed knowled%e of the intent with which a law has ,een passed, declare themsel$es free from its operation;say here it %i$es too little, there too much, and operates une(ually;here it suffers articles to ,e free that ou%ht to ,e ta)ed, there it ta)es those that ou%ht to ,e free;in this case the proceeds are intended to ,e applied to purposes which we do not appro$e, in that the amount raised is more than is wanted' Con%ress, it is true, are in$ested ,y the Constitution with the ri%ht of decidin% these (uestions accordin% to their sound discretion' Con%ress is composed of the representati$es of all the 3tates, and of all the people of all the statesL ,ut >7, part of the people of one 3tate, to whom the Constitution has %i$en no power on the su,-ect from whom it has e)pressly taken it away;we, who ha$e solemnly a%reed that this Constitution shall ,e our law;we, most of whom ha$e sworn to support it;we now a,ro%ate this law, and swear, and force others to swear, that it shall not ,e o,eyed;and we do this, not ,ecause Con%ress ha$e no ri%ht to pass such lawsL this we do not alle%eL ,ut ,ecause they ha$e passed them with improper $iews' They are unconstitutional from the moti$es of those who passed them, which we can ne$er with certainty know, from their une(ual operationL althou%h it is impossi,le from the nature of thin%s that they should ,e e(ual;and from the disposition which we presume may ,e made of their proceeds, althou%h that disposition has not ,een declared' This is the plain meanin% of the ordinance in relation to laws which it a,ro%ates for alle%ed unconstitutionality' +ut it does not stop here' #t repeals, in e)press terms, an important part of the Constitution itself, and of laws passed to %i$e it effect, which ha$e ne$er ,een alle%ed to ,e unconstitutional' The Constitution declares that the -udicial powers of the 4nited 3tates e)tend to cases arisin% under the laws of the 4nited 3tates, and that such laws, the Constitution and treaties, shall ,e paramount to the 3tate constitutions and laws' The -udiciary act prescri,es the mode ,y which the case may ,e ,rou%ht ,efore a court of the 4nited 3tates, ,y appeal, when a 3tate tri,unal shall decide a%ainst this pro$ision of the Constitution' The ordinance declares there shall ,e no appealL makes the 3tate law paramount to the Constitution and laws of the 4nited 3tatesL forces -ud%es and -urors to swear that they will disre%ard their pro$isionsL and e$en makes it penal in a suitor to attempt relief ,y appeal' #t further declares that it shall not ,e lawful for the authorities of the 4nited 3tates, or of that 3tate, to enforce the payment of duties imposed ,y the re$enue laws within its limits' Here is a law of the 4nited 3tates, not e$en pretended to ,e unconstitutional, repealed ,y the authority of a small ma-ority of the $oters of a sin%le 3tate' Here is a pro$ision of the Constitution which is solemnly a,ro%ated ,y the same authority' <n such e)positions and reasonin%s, the ordinance %rounds not only an assertion of the ri%ht to annul the laws of which it complains, ,ut to enforce it ,y a threat of secedin% from the 4nion if any attempt is made to e)ecute them' This right to se!ede is dedu!ed (rom the nature o( the Constitution, whi!h they say is a !om"a!t etween so%ereign /tates who ha%e "reser%ed their whole so%ereignty, and there(ore are su =e!t to no su"eriorC that e!ause they made the !om"a!t, they !an reak it when in their o"inion it has een de"arted (rom y the other /tates. Falla!ious as this !ourse o( reasoning is, it enlists /tate "ride, and (inds ad%o!ates in the honest "re=udi!es o( those who ha%e not studied the nature o( our go%ernment su((i!iently to see the radi!al error on whi!h it rests. The "eo"le o( the Gnited /tates (ormed the Constitution, a!ting through the /tate legislatures, in making the !om"a!t, to meet and dis!uss its "ro%isions, and a!ting in se"arate !on%entions when they rati(ied those "ro%isionsC ut the terms used in its !onstru!tion show it to e a go%ernment in whi!h the "eo"le o( all the /tates !olle!ti%ely are re"resented. We are 834 P48PL4 in the !hoi!e o( the President and Ji!e President. 'ere the /tates ha%e no other agen!y than to dire!t the mode in whi!h the %ote shall e gi%en. The !andidates ha%ing the ma=ority o( all the %otes are !hosen. The ele!tors o( a ma=ority o( /tates may ha%e gi%en their %otes (or one !andidate, and yet another may e !hosen. The "eo"le, then, and not the /tates, are re"resented in the e2e!uti%e ran!h. #n the House of /epresentati$es there is this difference, that the people of one 3tate do not, as in the case of President and ?ice President, all $ote for all the mem,ers, each 3tate electin% only its own representati$es' +ut this creates no material distinction' >hen chosen, they are all representati$es of the 4nited 3tates, not representati$es of the particular 3tate from which they come' They are paid ,y the 4nited 3tates, not ,y the 3tateL nor are they accounta,le to it for any act done in performance of their le%islati$e functionsL and howe$er they may in practice, as it is their duty to do, consult and prefer the interests of their particular constituents when they come in conflict with any other partial or local interest, yet it is their first and hi%hest duty, as representati$es of the 4nited 3tates, to promote the %eneral %ood'

The Constitution o( the Gnited /tates, then, (orms a go%ernment, not a league, and whether it e (ormed y !om"a!t etween the /tates, or in any other manner, its !hara!ter is the same. #t is a go%ernment in whi!h all the "eo"le are re"resented, whi!h o"erates dire!tly on the "eo"le indi%idually, not u"on the /tatesC they retained all the "ower they did not grant. &ut ea!h /tate ha%ing e2"ressly "arted with so many "owers as to !onstitute =ointly with the other /tates a single nation, !annot (rom that "eriod "ossess any right to se!ede, e!ause su!h se!ession does not reak a league, ut destroys the unity o( a nation, and any in=ury to that unity is not only a rea!h whi!h would result (rom the !ontra%ention o( a !om"a!t, ut it is an o((ense against the whole Gnion. To say that any /tate may at "leasure se!ede (rom the Gnion, is to say that the Gnited /tates are not a nation e!ause it would e a sole!ism to !ontend that any "art o( a nation might dissol%e its !onne!tion with the other "arts, to their in=ury or ruin, without !ommitting any o((ense. /e!ession, like any other re%olutionary a!t, may e morally =usti(ied y the e2tremity o( o""ressionC ut to !all it a !onstitutional right, is !on(ounding the meaning o( terms, and !an only e done through gross error, or to de!ei%e those who are willing to assert a right, ut would "ause e(ore they made a re%olution, or in!ur the "enalties !onse>uent u"on a (ailure. &e!ause the Gnion was (ormed y !om"a!t, it is said the "arties to that !om"a!t may, when they (eel themsel%es aggrie%ed, de"art (rom itC ut it is "re!isely e!ause it is a !om"a!t that they !annot. 1 !om"a!t is an agreement or inding o ligation. #t may y its terms ha%e a san!tion or "enalty (or its rea!h, or it may not. #( it !ontains no san!tion, it may e roken with no other !onse>uen!e than moral guiltC i( it ha%e a san!tion, then the rea!h in!urs the designated or im"lied "enalty. 1 league etween inde"endent nations, generally, has no san!tion other than a moral oneC or i( it should !ontain a "enalty, as there is no !ommon su"erior, it !annot e en(or!ed. 1 go%ernment, on the !ontrary, always has a san!tion, e2"ress or im"liedC and, in our !ase, it is oth ne!essarily im"lied and e2"ressly gi%en. 1n attem"t y (or!e o( arms to destroy a go%ernment is an o((ense, y whate%er means the !onstitutional !om"a!t may ha%e een (ormedC and su!h go%ernment has the right, y the law o( sel(A de(ense, to "ass a!ts (or "unishing the o((ender, unless that right is modi(ied, restrained, or resumed y the !onstitutional a!t. #n our system, although it is modi(ied in the !ase o( treason, yet authority is e2"ressly gi%en to "ass all laws ne!essary to !arry its "owers into e((e!t, and under this grant "ro%ision has een made (or "unishing a!ts whi!h o stru!t the due administration o( the laws. #t would seem superfluous to add anythin% to show the nature of that union which connects usL ,ut as erroneous opinions on this su,-ect are the foundation of doctrines the most destructi$e to our peace, # must %i$e some further de$elopment to my $iews on this su,-ect' .o one, fellow;citi=ens, has a hi%her re$erence for the reser$ed ri%hts of the 3tates than the ma%istrate who now addresses you' .o one would make %reater personal sacrifices, or official e)ertions, to defend them from $iolationL ,ut e(ual care must ,e taken to pre$ent, on their part, an improper interference with, or resumption of, the ri%hts they ha$e $ested in the nation' The line has not ,een so distinctly drawn as to a$oid dou,ts in some cases of the e)ercise of power' "en of the ,est intentions and soundest $iews may differ in their construction of some parts of the Constitution, ,ut there are others on which dispassionate reflection can lea$e no dou,t' <f this nature appears to ,e the assumed ri%ht of secession' #t rests, as we ha$e seen, on the alle%ed undi$ided so$erei%nty of the 3tates, and on their ha$in% formed in this so$erei%n capacity a compact which is called the Constitution, from which, ,ecause they made it, they ha$e the ri%ht to secede' +oth of these positions are erroneous, and some of the ar%uments to pro$e them so ha$e ,een anticipated' The /tates se%erally ha%e not retained their entire so%ereignty. #t has een shown that in e!oming "arts o( a nation, not mem ers o( a league, they surrendered many o( their essential "arts o( so%ereignty. The right to make treaties, de!lare war, le%y ta2es, e2er!ise e2!lusi%e =udi!ial and legislati%e "owers, were all (un!tions o( so%ereign "ower. The /tates, then, (or all these im"ortant "ur"oses, were no longer so%ereign. The allegian!e o( their !iti7ens was trans(erred in the (irst instan!e to the go%ernment o( the Gnited /tatesC they e!ame 1meri!an !iti7ens, and owed o edien!e to the Constitution o( the Gnited /tates, and to laws made in !on(ormity with the "owers %ested in Congress. This last "osition has not een, and !annot e, denied. 'ow then, !an that /tate e said to e so%ereign and inde"endent whose !iti7ens owe o edien!e to laws not made y it, and whose magistrates are sworn to disregard those laws, when they !ome in !on(li!t with those "assed y another? What shows !on!lusi%ely that the /tates !annot e said to ha%e reser%ed an undi%ided so%ereignty, is that they e2"ressly !eded the right to "unish treasonAnot treason against their se"arate "ower, ut treason against the Gnited /tates. Treason is an o((ense against so%ereignty, and so%ereignty must reside with the "ower to "unish it. &ut the reser%ed rights o( the /tates are not less sa!red e!ause they ha%e (or their !ommon interest made the general go%ernment the de"ository o( these "owers. The unity o( our "oliti!al !hara!ter ?as has een shown (or another "ur"ose@ !ommen!ed with its %ery e2isten!e. Gnder the royal go%ernment we had no se"arate !hara!terC our o""osition to its o""ression egan as G3#T4D C8L83#4/. We were the G3#T4D /T1T4/ under the Con(ederation, and the name was "er"etuated and the Gnion rendered more "er(e!t y the (ederal Constitution. #n none o( these stages did we !onsider oursel%es in any other light than as (orming one nation. Treaties and allian!es were made in the name o( all. Troo"s were raised (or the =oint de(ense. 'ow, then, with all these "roo(s, that under all !hanges o( our "osition we had, (or designated "ur"oses and with de(ined "owers, !reated national go%ernmentsAhow is it that the most "er(e!t o( these se%eral modes o( union should now e !onsidered as a mere league that may e dissol%ed at "leasure ? #t is (rom an a use o( terms. Com"a!t is used as synonymous with league, although the true term is not em"loyed, e!ause it would at on!e show the (alla!y o( the reasoning. #t would not do to say that our Constitution was only a league, ut it is la ored to "ro%e it a !om"a!t ?whi!h, in one sense, it is@, and then to argue that as a league is a !om"a!t, e%ery !om"a!t etween

nations must, o( !ourse, e a league, and that (rom su!h an engagement e%ery so%ereign "ower has a right to re!ede. &ut it has een shown that in this sense the /tates are not so%ereign, and that e%en i( they were, and the national Constitution had een (ormed y !om"a!t, there would e no right in any one /tate to e2onerate itsel( (rom the o ligation. /o o %ious are the reasons whi!h (or id this se!ession, that it is ne!essary only to allude to them. The Gnion was (ormed (or the ene(it o( all. #t was "rodu!ed y mutual sa!ri(i!e o( interest and o"inions. Can those sa!ri(i!es e re!alled? Can the /tates, who magnanimously surrendered their title to the territories o( the West, re!all the grant? Will the inha itants o( the inland /tates agree to "ay the duties that may e im"osed without their assent y those on the 1tlanti! or the Gul(, (or their own ene(it? /hall there e a (ree "ort in one /tate, and enormous duties in another? 3o one elie%es that any right e2ists in a single /tate to in%ol%e all the others in these and !ountless other e%ils, !ontrary to engagements solemnly made. 4%eryone must see that the other /tates, in sel(Ade(ense, must o""ose it at all ha7ards. These are the alternati$es that are presented ,y the con$entionC A repeal of all the acts for raisin% re$enue, lea$in% the %o$ernment without the means of supportL or an ac(uiescence in the dissolution of our 4nion ,y the secession of one of its mem,ers' >hen the first was proposed, it was known that it could not ,e listened to for a moment' #t was known if force was applied to oppose the e)ecution of the laws, that it must ,e repelled ,y force;that Con%ress could not, without in$ol$in% itself in dis%race and the country in ruin, accede to the propositionL and yet if this is not done in a %i$en day, or if any attempt is made to e)ecute the laws, the 3tate is, ,y the ordinance, declared to ,e out of the 4nion' The ma-ority of a con$ention assem,led for the purpose ha$e dictated these terms, or rather this re-ection of all terms, in the name of the people of 3outh Carolina' #t is true that the %o$ernor of the 3tate speaks of the su,mission of their %rie$ances to a con$ention of all the 3tatesL which, he says, they BBsincerely and an)iously seek and desire'K *et this o,$ious and constitutional mode of o,tainin% the sense of the other 3tates on the construction of the federal compact, and amendin% it, if necessary, has ne$er ,een attempted ,y those who ha$e ur%ed the 3tate on to this destructi$e measure' The 3tate mi%ht ha$e proposed a call for a %eneral con$ention to the other 3tates, and Con%ress, if a sufficient num,er of them concurred, must ha$e called it' +ut the first ma%istrate of 3outh Carolina, when he e)pressed a hope that Kon a re$iew ,y Con%ress and the functionaries of the %eneral %o$ernment of the merits of the contro$ersy,B such a con$ention will ,e accorded to them, must ha$e known that neither Con%ress, nor any functionary in the %eneral %o$ernment, has authority to call such a con$ention, unless it ,e demanded ,y two;thirds of the 3tates' This su%%estion, then, is another instance of the reckless inattention to the pro$isions of the Constitution with which this crisis has ,een madly hurried onL or of the attempt to persuade the people that a constitutional remedy has ,een sou%ht and refused' #f the le%islature of 3outh Carolina Kan)iously desireK a %eneral con$ention to consider their complaints, why ha$e they not made application for it in the way the Constitution points outM The assertion that they Kearnestly seekK is completely ne%ati$ed ,y the omission' This, then, is the position in which we stand' A small ma-ority of the citi=ens of one 3tate in the 4nion ha$e elected dele%ates to a 3tate con$entionL that con$ention has ordained that all the re$enue laws of the 4nited 3tates must ,e repealed, or that they are no lon%er a mem,er of the 4nion' The %o$ernor of that 3tate has recommended to the le%islature the raisin% of an army to carry the secession into effect, and that he may ,e empowered to %i$e clearances to $essels in the name of the 3tate' .o act of $iolent opposition to the laws has yet ,een committed, ,ut such a state of thin%s is hourly apprehended, and it is the intent of this instrument to P/<CAA#", not only that the duty imposed on me ,y the Constitution, B] to take care that the laws ,e faithfully e)ecuted,K shall ,e performed to the e)tent of the powers already $ested in me ,y law or of such others as the wisdom of Con%ress shall de$ise and 7ntrust to me for that purposeL ,ut to warn the citi=ens of 3outh Carolina, who ha$e ,een deluded into an opposition to the laws, of the dan%er they will incur ,y o,edience to the ille%al and disor%ani=in% ordinance of the con$ention;to e)hort those who ha$e refused to support it to perse$ere in their determination to uphold the Constitution and laws of their country, and to point out to all the perilous situation into which the %ood people of that 3tate ha$e ,een led, and that the course they are ur%ed to pursue is one of ruin and dis%race to the $ery 3tate whose ri%hts they affect to support' 8ellow;citi=ens of my nati$e 3tateR let me not only admonish you, as the first ma%istrate of our common country, not to incur the penalty of its laws, ,ut use the influence that a father would o$er his children whom he saw rushin% to a certain ruin' #n that paternal lan%ua%e, with that paternal feelin%, let me tell you, my countrymen, that you are deluded ,y men who are either decei$ed themsel$es or wish to decei$e you' "ark under what pretenses you ha$e ,een led on to the ,rink of insurrection and treason on which you standR 8irst a diminution of the $alue of our staple commodity, lowered ,y o$er;production in other (uarters and the conse(uent diminution in the $alue of your lands, were the sole effect of the tariff laws' The effect of those laws was confessedly in-urious, ,ut the e$il was %reatly e)a%%erated ,y the unfounded theory you were tau%ht to ,elie$e, that its ,urdens were in proportion to your e)ports, not to your consumption of imported articles' *our pride was aroused ,y the assertions that a su,mission to these laws was a state of $assala%e, and that resistance to them was e(ual, in patriotic merit, to the opposition our fathers offered to the oppressi$e laws of @reat +ritain' *ou were told that this opposition mi%ht ,e peacea,ly;mi%ht ,e constitutionally made;that you mi%ht en-oy all the ad$anta%es of the 4nion and ,ear none of its ,urdens' 7lo(uent appeals to your passions, to your 3tate pride, to your nati$e coura%e, to your sense of real in-ury, were used to prepare you for the period when the mask which concealed the hideous features of 6#34.#<. should ,e taken off' #t fell, and you were made to look with complacency on o,-ects which not lon% since you would ha$e re%arded with horror' Aook ,ack to the arts which ha$e ,rou%ht you to this state;look forward to the conse(uences to which it must ine$ita,ly leadR Aook ,ack to what was first told you as an inducement to enter into this dan%erous course' The %reat political truth was repeated to you that you had the re$olutionary ri%ht of resistin% all laws that were palpa,ly unconstitutional and intolera,ly oppressi$e;it was added that

the ri%ht to nullify a law rested on the same principle, ,ut that it was a peacea,le remedyR This character which was %i$en to it, made you recei$e with too much confidence the assertions that were made of the unconstitutionality of the law and its oppressi$e effects' "ark, my fellow;citi=ens, that ,y the admission of your leaders the unconstitutionality must ,e &a &a" e, or it will not -ustify either resistance or nullificationR >hat is the meanin% of the word &a &a" e in the sense in which it is here usedM that which is apparent to e$eryone, that which no man of ordinary intellect will fail to percei$e' #s the unconstitutionality of these laws of that descriptionM Aet those amon% your leaders who once appro$ed and ad$ocated the principles of protecti$e duties, answer the (uestionL and let them choose whether they will ,e considered as incapa,le, then, of percei$in% that which must ha$e ,een apparent to e$ery man of common understandin%, or as imposin% upon your confidence and endea$orin% to mislead you now' #n either case, they are unsafe %uides in the perilous path they ur%e you to tread' Ponder well on this circumstance, and you will know how to appreciate the e)a%%erated lan%ua%e they address to you' They are not champions of li,erty emulatin% the fame of our /e$olutionary fathers, nor are you an oppressed people, contendin%, as they repeat to you, a%ainst worse than colonial $assala%e' *ou are free mem,ers of a flourishin% and happy 4nion' There is no settled desi%n to oppress you' *ou ha$e, indeed, felt the une(ual operation of laws which may ha$e ,een unwisely, not unconstitutionally passedL ,ut that ine(uality must necessarily ,e remo$ed' At the $ery moment when you were madly ur%ed on to the unfortunate course you ha$e ,e%un, a chan%e in pu,lic opinion has commenced' The nearly approachin% payment of the pu,lic de,t, and the conse(uent necessity of a diminution of duties, had already caused a considera,le reduction, and that, too, on some articles of %eneral consumption in your 3tate' The importance of this chan%e was underrated, and you were authoritati$ely told that no further alle$iation of your ,urdens was to ,e e)pected, at the $ery time when the condition of the country imperiously demanded such a modification of the duties as should reduce them to a -ust and e(uita,le scale' +ut as apprehensi$e of the effect of this chan%e in allayin% your discontents, you were precipitated into the fearful state in which you now find yoursel$es' # ha%e urged you to look a!k to the means that were used to urly you on to the "osition you ha%e now assumed, and (orward to the !onse>uen!es they will "rodu!e. /omething more is ne!essary. Contem"late the !ondition o( that !ountry o( whi!h you still (orm an im"ortant "artC !onsider its go%ernment uniting in one ond o( !ommon interest and general "rote!tion so many di((erent /tatesAgi%ing to all their inha itants the "roud title o( 1:4.#C13 C#T#K43A"rote!ting their !ommer!eAse!uring their literature and artsA(a!ilitating their inter!ommuni!ationAAde(ending their (rontiersAand making their name res"e!ted in the remotest "arts o( the earthL Consider the e2tent o( its territory its in!reasing and ha""y "o"ulation, its ad%an!e in arts, whi!h render li(e agreea le, and the s!ien!es whi!h ele%ate the mindL /ee edu!ation s"reading the lights o( religion, morality, and general in(ormation into e%ery !ottage in this wide e2tent o( our Territories and /tatesL &ehold it as the asylum where the wret!hed and the o""ressed (ind a re(uge and su""ortL Look on this "i!ture o( ha""iness and honor, and say, W4 T88, 1.4 C#T#K43/ 8F 1:4.#C1AACarolina is one o( these "roud /tates her arms ha%e de(endedAher est lood has !emented this ha""y GnionL 1nd then add, i( you !an, without horror and remorse this ha""y Gnion we will dissol%eAthis "i!ture o( "ea!e and "ros"erity we will de(a!eAthis (ree inter!ourse we will interru"tA these (ertile (ields we will deluge with loodAthe "rote!tion o( that glorious (lag we renoun!eAthe %ery name o( 1meri!ans we dis!ard. 1nd (or what, mistaken menL For what do you throw away these inestima le lessingsA(or what would you e2!hange your share in the ad%antages and honor o( the Gnion? For the dream o( a se"arate inde"enden!eAa dream interru"ted y loody !on(li!ts with your neigh ors, and a %ile de"enden!e on a (oreign "ower. #( your leaders !ould su!!eed in esta lishing a se"aration, what would e your situation? 1re you united at homeAare you (ree (rom the a""rehension o( !i%il dis!ord, with all its (ear(ul !onse>uen!es? Do our neigh oring re"u li!s, e%ery day su((ering some new re%olution or !ontending with some new insurre!tionA do they e2!ite your en%y? &ut the di!tates o( a high duty o lige me solemnly to announ!e that you !annot su!!eed. The laws o( the Gnited /tates must e e2e!uted. # ha%e no dis!retionary "ower on the su =e!tAmy duty is em"hati!ally "ronoun!ed in the Constitution. Those who told you that you might "ea!ea ly "re%ent their e2e!ution, de!ei%ed youAthey !ould not ha%e een de!ei%ed themsel%es. They know that a (or!i le o""osition !ould alone "re%ent the e2e!ution o( the laws, and they know that su!h o""osition must e re"elled. Their o =e!t is disunion, ut e not de!ei%ed y namesC disunion, y armed (or!e, is T.41/83. 1re you really ready to in!ur its guilt? #( you are, on the head o( the instigators o( the a!t e the dread(ul !onse>uen!esAon their heads e the dishonor, ut on yours may (all the "unishmentAon your unha""y /tate will ine%ita ly (all all the e%ils o( the !on(li!t you (or!e u"on the go%ernment o( your !ountry. #t !annot a!!ede to the mad "ro=e!t o( disunion, o( whi!h you would e the (irst %i!timsA its (irst magistrate !annot, i( he would, a%oid the "er(orman!e o( his dutyAthe !onse>uen!e must e (ear(ul (or you, distressing to your (ellowA!iti7ens here, and to the (riends o( good go%ernment throughout the world. #ts enemies ha%e eheld our "ros"erity with a %e2ation they !ould not !on!ealAAit was a standing re(utation o( their sla%ish do!trines, and they will "oint to our dis!ord with the trium"h o( malignant =oy. #t is yet in your power to disappoint them' There is yet time to show that the descendants of the Pinckneys, the 3umpters, the /utled%es, and of the thousand other names which adorn the pa%es of your /e$olutionary history, will not a,andon that 4nion to support which so many of them fou%ht and ,led and died' # ad-ure you, as you honor their memory;;as you lo$e the cause of freedom, to which they dedicated their li$es;;as you pri=e the peace of your country, the li$es of its ,est citi=ens, and your own fair fame, to retrace your steps' 3natch from the archi$es of your 3tate the disor%ani=in% edict of its con$ention;hid its mem,ers to re;assem,le and promul%ate the decided e)pressions of your will to remain in the path which alone can conduct you to safety, prosperity, and honor;tell them that compared to disunion, all other e$ils are li%ht, ,ecause that ,rin%s with it an accumulation of all;declare that you will ne$er take the field unless the star;span%led ,anner of your country shall float o$er you;; that you will not ,e sti%mati=ed when dead, and dishonored and scorned while you li$e, as the authors of the first attack on the Constitution of your countryR;its destroyers you cannot ,e' *ou may distur, its peace;you may interrupt the course of its prosperity; you may cloud its reputation for sta,ility; ,ut its tran(uillity will ,e restored, its prosperity will return, and the stain upon its national character will ,e transferred and remain an eternal ,lot on the memory of those who caused the disorder'

8ellow;citi=ens of the 4nited 3tatesR the threat of unhallowed disunion;the names of those, once respected, ,y whom it is uttered;;the array of military force to support it;denote the approach of a crisis in our affairs on which the continuance of our une)ampled prosperity, our political e)istence, and perhaps that of all free %o$ernments, may depend' The con-uncture demanded a free, a full, and e)plicit enunciation, not only of my intentions, ,ut of my principles of action, and as the claim was asserted of a ri%ht ,y a 3tate to annul the laws of the 4nion, and e$en to secede from it at pleasure, a frank e)position of my opinions in relation to the ori%in and form of our %o$ernment, and the construction # %i$e to the instrument ,y which it was created, seemed to ,e proper' Ha$in% the fullest confidence in the -ustness of the le%al and constitutional opinion of my duties which has ,een e)pressed, # rely with e(ual confidence on your undi$ided support in my determination to e)ecute the laws;to preser$e the 4nion ,y all constitutional means;to arrest, if possi,le, ,y moderate ,ut firm measures, the necessity of a recourse to forceL and, if it ,e the will of Hea$en that the recurrence of its prime$al curse on man for the sheddin% of a ,rotherBs ,lood should fall upon our land, that it ,e not called down ,y any offensi$e act on the part of the 4nited 3tates' 8ellow;citi=ensR the momentous case is ,efore you' <n your undi$ided support of your %o$ernment depends the decision of the %reat (uestion it in$ol$es, whether your sacred 4nion will ,e preser$ed, and the ,lessin% it secures to us as one people shall ,e perpetuated' .o one can dou,t that the unanimity with which that decision will ,e e)pressed, will he such as to inspire new confidence in repu,lican institutions, and that the prudence, the wisdom, and the coura%e which it will ,rin% to their defense, will transmit them unimpaired and in$i%orated to our children' "ay the @reat /uler of nations %rant that the si%nal ,lessin%s with which he has fa$ored ours may not, ,y the madness of party or personal am,ition, ,e disre%arded and lost, and may His wise pro$idence ,rin% those who ha$e produced this crisis to see the folly, ,efore they feel the misery, of ci$il strife, and inspire a returnin% $eneration for that 4nion which, if we may dare to penetrate his desi%ns, he has chosen, as the only means of attainin% the hi%h destinies to which we may reasona,ly aspire' #n testimony whereof, # ha$e caused the seal of the 4nited 3tates to ,e hereunto affi)ed, ha$in% si%ned the same with my hand' 6one at the City of >ashin%ton, this 10th day of 6ecem,er, in the year of our Aord one thousand ei%ht hundred and thirty;two, and of the independence of the 4nited 3tates the fifty;se$enth' A.6/7> JACS3<.' +y the President 76>' A#?#.@3T<., 3ecretary of 3tate' 215 >ritten ,y 7dward Ai$in%ston' +ack

3ourceC httpCOOa$alon'law'yale'eduO1GthPcenturyO-ack01'asp

To %icho as ,+ Trist
"ontpellier, 6ecr 93, 1839' 6r' 3ir # ha$e recei$ed yours of the 1Gth, inclosin% some of the 3outh Carolina papers' There are in one of them some interestin% $iews of the doctrine of secessionL one that had occurred to me, and which for the first time # ha$e seen in printL namely that if one 3tate can at will withdraw from the others, the others can at will withdraw from her, and turn her, nolentem, $olentem, out of the union' 4ntil of late, there is not a 3tate that would ha$e a,horred such a doctrine more than 3outh Carolina, or more dreaded an application of it to herself' The same may ,e said of the doctrine of nullification, which she now preaches as the only faith ,y which the 4nion can ,e sa$ed' # partake of the wonder that the men you name should $iew secession in the li%ht mentioned' The essential difference ,etween a free @o$ernment and @o$ernments not free, is that the former is founded in compact, the parties to which are mutually and e(ually ,ound ,y it' .either of them therefore can ha$e a %reater ri%ht to ,reak off from the ,ar%ain, than the other or others ha$e to hold them to it' And certainly there is nothin% in the ?ir%inia resolutions of U G8, ad$erse to this principle, which is that of common sense and common -ustice' The fallacy which draws a different conclusion from them lies in confoundin% a sin$ e party, with the &arties to the Constitutional compact of the 4nited 3tates' The latter ha$in% made the compact may do what they will with it' The former as one only of the parties, owes fidelity to it, till released ,y consent, or a,sol$ed ,y an intolera,le a,use of the power created' #n the ?ir%inia /esolutions and /eport the & ura num,er, 3tates, is in e(ery instance used where reference is made to the authority which presided o$er the @o$ernment' As # am now known to ha$e drawn those documents, # may say as # do with a distinct recollection, that the distinction was intentional' #t was in fact re(uired ,y the course of reasonin% employed on the occasion' The Sentucky resolutions ,ein% less %uarded ha$e ,een more easily per$erted' The prete)t for the li,erty taken with those of ?ir%inia is the word res&ecti(e, prefi)ed to the Kri%htsK &c to ,e secured within the 3tates' Could the a,use of the e)pression ha$e ,een foreseen or suspected, the form of it would dou,tless ha$e ,een $aried' +ut what can ,e more consistent with common sense, than that all ha$in% the same ri%hts &c' should unite in contendin% for the security of them to each' #t is remarka,le how closely the nullifiers who make the name of "r Jefferson the pedestal for their colossal heresy, shut their eyes and lips, whene$er his authority is e$er so clearly and emphatically a%ainst them' *ou ha$e noticed what he says in his letters to "onroe & Carrin%ton Pa%es :3 & 903, $ol 9, with respect to the powers of the old Con%ress to coerce delin(uent 3tates, and his reasons for preferrin% for the purpose a na$al to a military force, and moreo$er that it was not necessary to find a ri%ht to coerce in the 8ederal Articles, that ,ein% inherent in the nature of a compact' #t is high time that the !laim to se!ede at will should e "ut down y the "u li! o"inion, and # shall e glad to see the task !ommen!ed y one who understands the su =e!t. # know nothin% of what is passin% at /ichmond, more than what is seen in the newspapers' *ou were ri%ht in your foresi%ht of the effect of the passa%es in the late Proclamation' They ha$e pro$ed a lea$en for much fermentation there, and created an alarm a%ainst the dan%er of consolidation, ,alancin% that of disunion' # wish with you the Ae%islature may not seriously in-ure itself ,y assumin% the hi%h character of mediator' They will certainly do so if they for%et that their real influence will ,e in the in$erse ratio of a ,oastful interposition of it' #f you can fi), and will name the day of your arri$al at <ran%e Court House, we will ha$e a horse there for you, and if you ha$e more ,a%%a%e than can ,e otherwise ,rou%ht than on wheels, we will send such a $ehicle for it' 3uch is the state of the roads produced ,y the wa%ons hurryin% flour to market, that it may ,e impossi,le to send our carria%e which would answer ,oth purposes' James "adison

3ourceC httpCOOwww'constitution'or%O-mO18391993Ptrist'htm 3ourceC httpCOOwww'constitution'or%O-mO-m'htm

To .i iam Ca"e )i(es "ontpr, "arch 19, 1833 6ear 3ir, # ha$e recd your $ery kind letter of the Eth, from >ashin%ton, and ,y the same mail a copy of your late 3peech in the 3enate, for which # tender my thanks' # ha$e found as # e)pected, that it takes a $ery a,le and enli%htenin% $iew of its su,-ect' # wish it may ha$e the effect of reclaimin% to the doctrine & lan%ua%e held ,y all from the ,irth of the Constitution, & till $ery lately ,y themsel$es, those who now Contend that the 3tates ha$e ne$er parted with an Atom of their so$erei%nty, and conse(uently that the Constitutional ,and which holds them to%ether, is a mere lea%ue or partnership, without any of the characteristics of so$erei%nty or nationality' #t seems stran%e that it should ,e necessary to dispro$e this no$el and nullifyin% doctrine, and stran%er still that those who deny it should ,e denounced as #nno$ators, heretics & Apostates' <ur political system is admitted to ,e a new Creation U a real nondescript' #ts character therefore must ,e sou%ht within itself, not in precedents, ,ecause there are none, not in writers whose comments are %uided ,y precedents' >ho can tell at present how ?attel and others of that class, would ha$e (ualified 2in the @allic sense of the term5 a Compound & peculiar system with such an e)ample of it as ours ,efore them' >hat can ,e more preposterous than to say that the 3tates as united, are in no respect or de%ree, a .ation, which implies so$erei%nty, althoB acknowled%ed to ,e such ,y all other .ations & 3o$erei%ns, and maintainin% with them, all the in ternational relations, of war & peace, treaties, commerce, &c, and, on the other hand and at the same time, to say that the 3tates separately are compleatly nations & so$erei%ns, althou%h they can separately neither speak nor harken to any other nation, nor maintain with it any of the international relations whate$er and would ,e disowned as .ations if presentin% themsel$es in that character' The milliners it appears, endea$or to shelter themsel$es under a distinction ,etween a dele%ation and a surrender of powers' +ut if the powers ,e attri,utes of so$erei%nty & nationality & the %rant of them ,e perpetual, as is necessarily implied, where not otherwise e)pressed, so$erei%nty & nationality accordin% to the e)tent of the %rant are effectually transferred ,y it, and a dispute a,out the name, is ,ut a ,attle of words' The practical result is not indeed left to ar%ument or inference' The words of the Constitution are e)plicit that the Constitution & laws of the 4' 3' shall ,e supreme o$er the Constitution & laws of the se$eral 3tates, supreme in their e)position and e)ecution as well as in their authority' >ithout a supremacy in those respects it would ,e like a sca,,ard in the hand of a soldier without a sword in it' The ima%ination itself is startled at the idea of twenty four independent e)pounders of a rule that cannot e)ist, ,ut in a meanin% and operation, the same for all' The !ondu!t o( /. Carolina has !alled (orth not only the >uestion o( nulli(i!ation, ut the more (ormida le one o( se!ession. #t is asked whether a /tate y resuming the so%ereign (orm in whi!h it entered the Gnion, may not o( right withdraw (rom it at will. 1s this is a sim"le >uestion whether a /tate, more than an indi%idual, has a right to %iolate its engagements, it would seem that it might e sa(ely le(t to answer itsel(. &ut the !ountenan!e gi%en to the !laim shows that it !annot e so lightly dismissed. The natural (eelings whi!h lauda ly atta!h the "eo"le !om"osing a /tate, to its authority and im"ortan!e, are at "resent too mu!h e2!ited y the unnatural (eelings, with whi!h they ha%e een ins"ired agst their rethren o( other /tates, not to e2"ose them, to the danger o( eing misled into erroneous %iews o( the nature o( the Gnion and the interest they ha%e in it. 8ne thing at least seems to e too !lear to e >uestioned, that whilst a /tate remains within the Gnion it !annot withdraw its !iti7ens (rom the o"eration o( the Constitution B laws o( the Gnion. #n the e%ent o( an a!tual se!ession without the Consent o( the Co /tates, the !ourse to e "ursued y these in%ol%es >uestions "ain(ul in the dis!ussion o( them. God grant that the mena!ing a""earan!es, whi!h o truded it may not e (ollowed y "ositi%e o!!urren!es re>uiring the more "ain(ul task o( de!iding them? #n e)plainin% the proceedin%s of ?ir%a in G8;GG, the state of thin%s at that time was the more properly appealed to, as it has ,een too much o$erlooked' The doctrines com,ated are always a key to the ar%uments employed' #t is ,ut too common to read the e)pressions of a remote period throB the modern meanin% of them, & to omit %uards a%st misconstruction not anticipated' A few words with a prophetic %ift, mi%ht ha$e pre$ented much error in the %losses on those proceedin%s' The remark is e(ually applica,le to the Constitution itself' Ha$in% thrown these thou%hts on paper in the midst of interruptions added to other dan%ers of inaccuracy, # will ask the fa$or of you to return the letter after perusal' # ha$e latterly taken this li,erty with more than one of my correspondin% friends' And e$ery lapse of $ery short periods ,ecomes now a fresh apolo%y for it' .either "rs' "' nor myself ha$e for%otten the promised $isit which included "rs' /i$es, and we flatter oursel$es the fulfilment of it, will not ,e $ery distant' "eanwhile we tender to you ,oth our -oint & affecte' salutations' P' 3cript' # inclose a little pamphlet rec' a few days a%o, which so well repaid my perusal, that # su,mit it to yours, to ,e returned only at your leisure' #t is handsomely written, and its matter well chosen & interestin%' A like task as well e)ecuted in e$ery 3tate wd' ,e of historical $alueL the more so as the e)amples mi%ht ,oth prompt & %uide researches, not as yet too late ,ut rapidly ,ecomin% so' James "adison 3ourceC httpCOOwww'constitution'or%O-mO18330319Pri$es'htm 3ourceC httpCOOwww'constitution'or%O-mO-m'htm

/am 'ouston .e(uses to Take the 8ath o( Loyalty to the Con(edera!y

9ellow %itiQens -When on account of the election of 0r. Lincoln to the Presidency of the !nited "tates, F was urged to call the Legislature, F refused to do so until such time as F )elie2ed the pu)lic interests reDuired it. .o all F said, that if the people desired the Legislature to )e called, F would not stand in their way. When satisfied that the necessity e4isted, F called it together, and upon the assem)ling urged upon it the importance of immediate action in reference to your relations with the !nited "tates and with respect to the 9rontier and the .reasury. Fn the meantime, the %on2ention had )een called, which assem)led on the (*th of $anuary. .hat con2ention )esides )eing re2olutionary in its character, did not recei2e the sanction of a ma'ority of the people. #s the representati2e of a minority, howe2er large, it could not claim the right to speak for the people. Ft was without the pale of the %onstitution, and was unknown to the laws which F had sworn to support. While sworn to support the %onstitution, it was my duty to stand aloof from all re2olutionary schemes calculated to su)2ert the %onstitution. .he people who were free from such solemn o)ligations, might re2olutioniQe and a)sol2e me from mine, my oath only ha2ing reference to my acts in the capacity of their %hief E4ecuti2eE )ut as a sworn officer, my duty was too plain to )e misunderstood. Because others more lightly regarded the )ond they made with <ea2en, furnished me no e4cuse, if my conscience condemned the act. Ff F had )elie2ed that the time had come for re2olution, F should ha2e thrown off the )urden of an official oath, resigned my office, and as one of the people, a free and independent citiQen, ha2e aided to arouse my countrymen to action. F )elie2ed the %onstitution and laws would pro2ide a remedy and therefore F was not ready for re2olution. .he %onstitution has depri2ed the people of a right to know its doing )y holding its sessions in secret. Ft has appointed military officers and agents under its assumed authority. Ft has declared )y ordinance that the people of .e4as ratify the %onstitution of the Pro2isional Co2ernment of the %onfederate "tates, and has changed the "tate %onstitution and esta)lished a .E". ?#.< of allegiance to the %onfederate "tates, reDuiring all persons now in office to take the same, or suffer the penalty of remo2al from officeE and actuated )y a spirit of petty tyranny, reDuiring the E4ecuti2e and a portion of the other officers at the seat of Co2ernment to appear at its )ar at a certain hour and take the same. Ft has assumed to create organic laws and put the same in e4ecution. Ft has o2erthrown the theory of free go2ernment, )y com)ining in itself all the &epartments of Co2ernment, and e4ercising the powers )elonging to each. ?ur fathers ha2e taught us that freedom reDuires that these powers shall not )e all lodged in, and e4ercised )y any one )ody. Whene2er it is so, the people suffer under despotism. 9ellow %itiQens, F ha2e refused to recogniQe this %on2ention. F )elie2e that it has deri2ed none of the powers which it has assumed either from the people or from the Legislature. F )elie2e in guilty of an usurpation and degradation. F ha2e declared my determination to stand )y .e4as in whate2er the position she assumes. <er people ha2e declared in fa2or of a separation from the !nion. F ha2e followed her )anners )efore, when an e4ile from the land of my fathers. F went )ack into the !nion with the people of .e4as. F go out from the !nion with themE and though F see only gloom )efore me, F shall follow the RLone "tarR with the same de2otion as of yore. 7ou ha2e withdrawn .e4as from her connection with the !nited "tates. 7our act changes the character of the o)ligation F assumed at the time of my inauguration. #s 7our %hief E4ecuti2e, F am no longer )ound to support the %onstitution of the !nited "tates. F lo2e .e4as too well to )ring ci2il strife and )loodshed upon her. .o a2ert this calamity, F shall make no endea2or to maintain my authority as %hief E4ecuti2e of this "tate, e4cept )y the peaceful e4ercise of my functions. When F can no longer do this, F shall calmly withdraw from the scene, lea2ing the Co2ernment in the hands of those who ha2e usurped its authorityE )ut still claiming that F am its %hief E4ecuti2e. F protest in the name of the people of .e4as against all the acts and doings of this con2ention, #:& F &E%L#RE .<E0 :!LL #:& A?F&Y F solemnly protest against the act of its mem)ers who are )ound )y no other than themsel2es, in declaring my office 2acant, and F refuse to appear )efore it and take the oath prescri)ed. "ource> http>GGamericanTreflections.home.mchsi.comGhouston-sam.html

!# ha$e personally known "r' 6a$is for many years' # first met him when he was a mem,er of Con%ress from "ississippi, later when he was 3ecretary of >ar under President Pierce, and when he was a 4nited 3tates 3enator while # was in the 3enate' He was a distin%uished colonel in the 4nited 3tates army durin% the >ar with "e)ico, and was ,adly wounded near +uena ?ista' He is a %entleman im,ued with all the instincts of 3outhern honor and chi$alry, ,ut # want to tell you somethin% you may not know a,out himC $e(( Da%is is as am itious as Lu!i(er and !old as a li7ard'0 1 3am Houston, former @o$ernor of Te)as, 18E9 23ourceC 3am 6ouston ,y James A' Haley, p' :115

3am Houston 2"arch 9, 1NG3;July 9E, 18E35 !3ome of you lau%h to scorn the idea of ,loodshed as the result of secession, ,ut let me tell you what is comin%Tyour fathers and hus,ands, your sons and ,rothers, will ,e herded at the point of ,ayonets;;;*ou may, after the sacrifice of countless millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of li$es, as a ,are possi,ility, win 3outhern independence if @od ,e not a%ainst you, ,ut # dou,t it' # will tell you that, while # ,elie$e with you in the doctrine of 3tates /i%hts, the .orth is determined to preser$e this 4nion' They are not a fiery, impulsi$e people as you are, for they li$e in colder climates' +ut when they ,e%in to mo$e in a %i$en direction, they mo$e with the steady momentum and perse$erance of a mi%hty a$alancheL and what # fear is, they will o$erwhelm the 3outh'0 1 3am Houston, former @o$ernor of Te)as, on April 1G, 18E1 !To secede from the 4nion and set up another %o$ernment would cause war' #f you %o to war with the 4nited 3tates, you will ne$er con(uer her, as she has the money and the men' #f she does not whip you ,y %uns, powder, and steel, she will star$e you to death' #t will take the flower of the country 1 the youn% men'0 1 3am Houston !# declare that ci$il war is ine$ita,le and is near at hand' >hen it comes the descendants of the heroes of Ae)in%ton and +unker Hill will ,e found e(ual in patriotism, coura%e and heroic endurance with the descendants of the heroes of Cowpens and *orktown' 8or this reason # predict the ci$il war which is now at hand will ,e stu,,orn and of lon% duration'0 1 3am Houston !8ellow Citi=ens, in the name of your ri%hts and li,erty, which # ,elie$e ha$e ,een trampled upon, # refuse to take this oath' #n the name of my own conscience and my own manhoodT# refuse to take this oathTI+utJ # lo$e Te)as too well to ,rin% ci$il strife and ,loodshed upon her' # shall make no endea$or to maintain my authority as Chief 7)ecuti$e of this state, e)cept ,y the peaceful e)ercise of my functions' >hen # can no lon%er do this, # shall calmly withdraw from the scene'''# amTstricken down ,ecause # will not yield those principles which # ha$e fou%ht forTThe se$erest pan% is that the ,low comes in the name of the state of Te)as'0 1 3am Houston, @o$ernor of Te)as, "arch 18E1 23ourceC ,rofi es in Coura$e ,y John 8' Sennedy, p' 11E;11N5

3am Houston was a 4'3' 3enator from Te)as 28e,ruary 91, 18:E;"arch 3, 18 G5, @o$ernor of Te)as 218 G;deposed on "arch 18, 18E15, President of the /epu,lic of Te)as 2183E;1838, 18:1;18::5, @o$ernor of Tennessee 2189N;189G5, and a 4'3' Con%ressman from Tennessee 2"arch :, 1893;"arch 3, 189N5' 3am Houston died in Hunts$ille, Te)as on July 9E, 18E3, 99 days followin% the conclusion of the +attle of ?icks,ur% 2"ississippi5'

Tari(( :erely the Prete2t 1ndrew $a!kson

1ndrew $a!kson
/e$erend A' J' Crawford >ashin%ton, *ay 1, 1833' # ha$e had a la,orious task here, ,ut .ullification is deadL and its actors and courtiers will only ,e remem,ered ,y the People to ,e e)ecrated for their wicked desi%ns to se$er and destroy the only %ood @o$ernment on the %lo,e, and that prosperity and happiness we en-oy o$er e$ery other portion of the >orld' HamanBs %allows ou%ht to ,e the fate of all such am,itious men who would in$ol$e their Country in Ci$il >ar, and all the e$ils in its train, that they mi%ht rei%n and ride on its whirlwinds and direct the storm' The 8ree People of these 4nited 3tates ha$e spoken, and consi%ned these wicked dema%o%ues to their proper doom' Take care of your .ullifiersL you ha$e them amon% youL let them meet with the indi%nant frowns of e$ery man who lo$es his Country' The Tariff, it is now known, was a mere prete)t ; its ,urden was on your coarse woolens' +y the law of July, 1839, coarse woolen was reduced to fi$e per cent', for the ,enefit of the 3outh' "r' ClayBs +ill takes it up and classes it with woolens at fifty per cent', reduces it %radually down to twenty per cent', and there it is to remain, and "r' Calhoun and all the .ullifiers a%ree to the principle' The cash duties and home $aluation will ,e e(ual to fifteen per cent' more, and after the year 18:9, you pay on coarse woolens thirty;fi$e per cent' #f this is not Protection, # cannot understandL there(ore the Tari(( was only the "rete2t, and Disunion and a /outhern Con(edera!y the real o =e!t. The ne2t "rete2t will e the 3egro or /la%ery >uestion. "y health is not %ood, ,ut is impro$in% a little' Present me kindly to your lady and family, and ,elie$e me to ,e your friend' # will always ,e happy to hear from you' A.6/7> JACS3<.

The !reat Cons&iracy7 @ts -ri$in and 6istory "y John A+ Lo$an, &a$es F1B-F18 A+ )+ 6art L Co+, ,u" ishers, %ew =ork, 188< 3ourceC httpCOOwww'adena'comOadenaOusaOcwOcw9EN'htm

1(ri!an /la%ery: 1 Pe!uliar #nstitution

# )usinessman displays sla2es for sale at a "la2e auction somewhere in the southern part of the !nited "tates of #merica. Wealthy families in the "outh who maintained large estates and plantation owned many sla2es, whom the owners descri)e as property .

!African 3la$ery has not only ,ecome one of the fi)ed domestic institutions of the 3outhern 3tates, ,ut forms an important element of their political power, and constitutes the most $alua,le species of their property;; worth, accordin% to recent estimates, not less than (our thousand millions o( dollarsT0 1 3tephen 8' Hale, Commissioner of Ala,ama to the 3tate of Sentucky, in a letter to +eriah "a%offin, the @o$ernor of Sentucky, on 6ecem,er 9N, 18E0

R#uction = :egro "ales,R Whitehall "treet in #tlanta, Ceorgia in +*;-. 6Photo> Li)rary of %ongress8 6"ource> http>GGgeorgiainfo.galileo.usg.eduGcwphotos.htm8

"la2e %a)ins circa +*,1, #nte)ellum Plantation <ouse in Ceorgia 6Photo> 9lickr8

Ceorge 0c&uffie 6left8, former Co2ernor of "outh %arolina, !.". "enator, and !.". %ongressman, once descri)ed sla2ery as the cornerstone of our repu)lican edifice and descri)ed a)olitionists as enemies of the human race in his annual message to the "outh %arolina legislature in +*,@ that was later pu)lished in The Liberator on &ecem)er +(, +*,@.

American sla$es of African descent operate a cotton %in on a plantation' >ealthy plantation owners utili=ed !%uest workers0 from Africa as a form of cheap la,or to enhance their profits'

.he #mistad sla2e re)ellion in $uly +*,B. .he !.". "upreme %ourt ruled in fa2or of the #frican sla2es in 'nited States v* The (mistad on 0arch B, +*-+. 0any #frican sla2es died of disease, malnutrition, or e4posure during their 2oyage from western #frica to the %ari))ean islands. "la2es were forced to li2e and sleep in cramped Duarters, and sanitation 6i.e. latrines8 was haphaQard. European merchants acDuired #frican sla2es primarily )y paying tri)utes to #frican princes and #frican sla2e raiders. #frican sla2es spoke se2eral #frican languages and were una)le to communicate with one anotherE #frican sla2es in the +;11s learned the English language 6in the English colonies8 with e4treme difficulties, primarily through whips, threats, and )eatings.

AeftC !+leedin% Sansas0 circa 18 :' 8ree 3oilers and sla$eowners fi%ht o$er the future of sla$ery in Sansas' /i%htC /unaway sla$e Henry !+o)0 +rown !The most important, and pro,a,ly the most endurin%, effect of the sla$e system was the repression of creati$e thou%ht in southern society' 3la$ery produced a climate of fear, an inhi,itin% force on any creati$e mind' >ithin the sla$e re%ime, there were animosities amon% the ,lacks and potential dan%er for the whites' The hatred %enerated ,y indifferent and sometimes cruel o$erseers and the an%uish wrou%ht ,y family separations in the sla$e market led to increasin%ly ri%id precautionary measures ,y the master class'0 1 1ducation in a 0ree 3ociety 23i)th 7dition5 ,y 3' Ale)ander /ippa, p' 83 2Chapter :, The Common 3chool "o$ement5

3la$e escape routes, also known as the !4nder%round /ailroad0

The 4nder%round /ailroad

.he infamous sla2e trade

The "issouri Compromise prohi,ited sla$ery in areas north of the Aine, e)cept "issouri'

4'3' 3enator Henry Clay 2standin%, center5 introduces the Compromise of 18 0 in the 3enate cham,er in 18 0'

P/<"#.7.T A+<A#T#<.#3T3

Left to right> <arriet Beecher "towe, "usan B. #nthony, <arriet .u)man, and "o'ourner .ruth

Left to right> &red "cott, 9rederick &ouglass, William Lloyd Carrison, and $ohn Brown

<ar2ard anti-sla2ery statesmen, left to right> $ohn Muincy #dams, %harles "umner, $oseph "tory $ohn Muincy #dams 6B.#. <ar2ard +/*/8 ser2ed as the President of the !nited "tates 6+*(@-+*(B8 and as a !.". %ongressman during the ?pium War and the 0e4ican WarE #dams was a staunch a)olitionist. %harles "umner 6B.#. <ar2ard +*,18 was a !.". "enator from +*@+ to +*/- and a staunch a)olitionistE !.". %ongressman Preston Brooks, a &emocrat from "outh %arolina, attacked !.". "enator %harles "umner on the floor of the "enate on 0ay ((, +*@;. $oseph "tory 6B.#. <ar2ard +/B*8 ser2ed as an associate $ustice of the !.". "upreme %ourt from +*++ to +*-@E $oseph "tory, along with other "upreme %ourt 'ustices, ruled in fa2or of the #frican sla2es who re2olted against sla2e traders a)oard the "panish ship #mistad in the case 'nited States v* The (mistad on 0arch B, +*-+.

!.". %ongressman Preston Brooks, a &emocrat from "outh %arolina, attacks !.". "enator %harles "umner on the floor of the "enate on 0ay ((, +*@;.

Roger B. .aney 6left8, the %hief $ustice of the !.". "upreme %ourt, ruled against &red "cott in the 1red Scott v* Sanford case on 0arch ;, +*@/. !.". "upreme %ourt $ustice Ben'amin R. %urtis 6right, B.#. <ar2ard +*(B8 resigned on "eptem)er ,1, +*@/, months after issuing a dissenting opinion in the 1red Scott v* Sanford case. .he &red "cott decision issued )y the !.". "upreme %ourt in +*@/ effecti2ely in2alidated the 0issouri %ompromise and inad2ertently allowed sla2ery into federal territories that was once prohi)ited )y %ongress. &red "cott was sold to his original owners in +*@/, who e2entually freed &red "cott from sla2ery later that yearE &red "cott died in +*@*.

?riginal caption> R.he <arperPs 9erry Fnsurrection.--.he !.". 0arines storming the Engine-<ouse.--Fnsurgents firing through holes in the wall.R 9rom P<arperPs WeeklyP in :o2em)er +*@B 6Fmage %redit> <istoric Photo %ollection, <arpers 9erry :<P8 http>GGen.wikipedia.orgGwikiG9ile><W9ire<ouseBrown.'pg

P.he Last 0oments of $ohn BrownP, oil on can2as painting )y .homas <o2ende. #)olitionist $ohn Brown was sentenced to death )y hanging in %harles .own, Airginia 6later West Airginia8 on &ecem)er (, +*@B after participating in a failed sla2e insurrection at <arpers 9erry in Airginia 6later West Airginia8.

"AP <8 3<4TH CA/<A#.A, 3H<>#.@ TH7 P/<P</T#<. <8 3AA?73 #. 7ACH C<4.T*' 2HarperFs >eekly5
.ranscript of the map on the lower left portion of the page> ?!R 0#P ?9 "?!.< %#R?LF:#. WE pu)lish herewith a %<#R. 0#P ?9 "?!.< %#R?LF:#, which will )e interesting at the present time. .he tint, )y its depth of shade, represents the comparati2e percentage of colored peopleVfree and sla2eVto the aggregate population. .he figures placed in the middle of each district show the relati2e num)er of colored population to the +11 of the whole inha)itants. .hus in Barnwell &istrict will )e found @,, which signifies that in e2ery +11 inha)itants in that district @, are colored people, nearly all of whom are sla2es. Fn Ceorgetown, %harleston, %olleton, and Beaufort &istricts are se2eral parishes, in which more than B1 per cent of the inha)itants are sla2es. Fn Lower #ll-"aints parish, Ceorgetown &istrict, the population is reported to )e ((( whites, no free negroes, and ;-;* sla2es. Fn the parish of "t. Luke, lying west of Broad Ri2er, in Beaufort &istrict, the population is ** sla2es to +( whites. Fn the city of %harleston the colored population was @, per cent., si4se2enths of which were free colored people. ?nly @, per cent. in the city reduces the percentage of the whole &istrict to ;@ per cent., although in the parishes of "t. $ames, "antee, "t. .homas, "t. #ndrews, and "t. $ohns, which lie toward the coast, more than B1 per cent. of the inha)itants are sla2es. .he white-dotted lines are railroads in "outh %arolina. .he white round dots represent the location of the %ourthouses, which in general are named the same as the &istrict. .he &istricts of "outh %arolina are similar to the %ounties in other "tates.

# sla2e family in Beaufort, "outh %arolina representing se2eral generationsE all )orn on the plantation of $.$. "mith. Photo was taken in +*;( )y .imothy <. ?P"ulli2an 6+*-1-+**(8 6Photo> http>GGwww.old-picture.comGci2il-warGPlantation-9amily-"la2e-on.htm8

!The wron%s under which the 3outh is now sufferin%, and for which she seeks redress, seem to arise chiefly from a difference in our construction of the Constitution' *ou, 3enators of the /epu,lican party, assert, and your people whom you represent assert, that, under a -ust and fair interpretation of the 8ederal Constitution, it is ri%ht that you deny that our sla%es, whi!h dire!tly and indire!tly in%ol%e a %alue o( more than (our thousand million dollars, are property at all, or entitled to protection in Territories owned ,y the common @o$ernment'0 1 4'3' 3enator Judah Philip +en-amin 26emocrat;Aouisiana5, in a speech he deli$ered in the 4'3' 3enate on 6ecem,er 31, 18E0

Po"ulation o( the Gnited /tates ?+,H*@

.ew 7n%land 3tate Connecticut "aine "assachusetts 8ree Population 3la$e Population :E0, 1:N E98,9NG 1,931,0EE ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;;

.ew Hampshire 39E,0N3 /hode #sland ?ermont 1N:,E90 31 ,0G8 "iddle 3tates 3tate .ew Jersey .ew *ork Pennsyl$ania

8ree Population 3la$e Population EN9,01N 3,880,N3 9,G0E,91 ;;; ;;; ;;;

.oteC #n .ew Jersey there remained, in addition to the EN9,01N free, 18 colored apprentices for life ,y the act to a,olish sla$ery, passed April 18, 18:E' "iddle >est 3tate 6akota #llinois #ndiana #owa Sansas "ichi%an "innesota .e,raska <hio >isconsin 8ree Population 3la$e Population :,83N 1,N11,G 1 1,3 0,:98 EN:,G13 10N,90: N:G,113 1N9,093 98,89E 9,33G, 11 NN ,881 8ar >est 3tates California Colorado .ew "e)ico .e$ada 8ree Population 3la$e Population 3NG,GG: 3:,9NN G , 1E E,8 N ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; ;;; 9 ;;; ;;; 1 ;;; ;;;

<re%on 4tah >ashin%ton

9,:E :0,9:: 11, G:

;;; 9G ;;;

+order 3tates 3tate 6elaware 8ree Population 3la$e Population 110,:18 1,NG8 3,18 99 ,:83 8N,18G 11:,G31

6ist' Colum,ia N1,8G Sentucky "aryland "issouri G30,901 GG,8E0 1,0EN,081 4pper 3outh 3tate Arkansas

8ree Population 3la$e Population 39:,33 111,11 331,0GG 9N ,N1G :G0,8E

.orth Carolina EE1, E3 Tennessee ?ir%inia 83:,089 1,10 ,: 3 Aower 3outh 3tate Ala,ama 8lorida @eor%ia Aouisiana :ississi""i

8ree Population 3la$e Population 1G,191 N8,ENG 0 ,088 3NE,9NE )-E,HFE :3 ,080 E1,N: :E9,1G8 331,N9E E)H,H)+ E*O,E*H 189, EE

/outh Carolina )*+,)*O Te)as :91,E:G Total 18E0 Population Total 8ree Population

9N,:8G, E1

Total 3la$e Population 3,G 3,NE0 @rand Total 31,::3,391

3ourceC KThe Ci$il >ar and /econstructionK ,y /andall and 6onald 2Their source was 4'3' Census, 18E0, Population, pp' G8; GG5 3ourceC httpCOOwww'ci$ilwarhome'comOpopulation18E0'htm
:ote> #ppro4imately /1,,;(1 people li2ed in "outh %arolina in +*;1E there were -+(,,(1 Black 6#frican8 people and (B+,,11 White 6European8 people li2ing in "outh %arolina in +*;1. # 2ast ma'ority of the -+(,,(1 Blacks in "outh %arolina were sla2es.

3outhern 3ecessionists on 3la$eryC #n Their <wn >ords

E4perience has pro2ed that sla2eDholdin+ #tates can not )e safe in su)'ection to non-sla2eholding "tates. Fndeed, no people e2er e4pect to preser2e their rights and li)erties unless they are in their own custody. .o plunder and oppress where plunder and oppression can )e practiced with impunity, seems to )e the natural order of things. .he fairest portions of the world ha2e )een turned into wildernesses, and the most ci2iliQed and prosperous communities ha2e )een impo2erished and ruined )y #nti-"la2ery fanaticism. .he people of the :orth ha2e not left us in dou)t as to their designs and policy. !nited as a section in the late Presidential election, they ha2e elected as the e4ponent of their policy one who has openly declared that all the "tates of the !nited "tates must )e made 9ree "tates or "la2e "tates. Ft is true that among those who aided in this election, there are 2arious shades of #nti-"la2ery hostility. But if 3"ri'an #la2ery in the #outhern #tates )e the e2il their political com)inations affirm it to )e, the reDuisitions of an ine4ora)le logic must lead them to emancipation. Ff it is right to preclude or a)olish "la2ery in a territory, why should it )e allowed to remain in the "tatesN...$itiMens o" the sla2eholdin+ #tates o" the 9nited #tates , circumstances )eyond our control ha2e placed us in the 2an of the great contro2ersy )etween the :orthern and "outhern "tates. We would ha2e preferred that other "tates should ha2e assumed the position we now occupy. Fndependent oursel2es, we disclaim any design or desire to lead the councils of the other "outhern "tates. Pro2idence has cast our lot together, )y e4tending o2er us an identity of pursuits, interests, and institutions. "outh %arolina desires no destiny separated from yours. .o )e one of a great sla2eholding confederacy, stretching its arms o2er a territory larger than any Power in Europe possesses -- with population four times greater than that of the whole !nited "tates when they achie2ed their independence of the British Empire -- with productions which make our e4istence more important to the world than that of any other people inha)iting it -- with common institutions to defend, and common dangers to encounter -- we ask your sympathy and confederation. While constituting a portion of the !nited "tates, it has )een your statesmanship which has guided it in its mighty strides to power and e4pansion. Fn the field, as in the %a)inet, you ha2e led the way to its renown and grandeur. 7ou ha2e lo2ed the !nion, in whose ser2ice your great statesmen ha2e la)ored, and your great soldiers ha2e fought and conDuered -- not for the material )enefits it conferred, )ut with the faith of a generous and de2oted chi2alry. 7ou ha2e long lingered and hoped o2er the shattered remains of a )roken %onstitution. %ompromise after compromise, formed )y your concessions, has )een trampled under foot )y your :orthern confederates. #ll fraternity of feeling )etween the :orth and the "outh is lost, or has )een con2erted into hateE and we of the "outh are at last dri2en together )y the stern destiny which controls the e4istence of nations. 7our )itter e4perience of the faithlessness and rapacity of your :orthern confederates may ha2e )een necessary to e2ol2e those great principles of free go2ernment, upon which the li)erties of the world depend, and to prepare you for the grand mission of 2indicating and re-esta)lishing them. We re'oice that other nations should )e satisfied with their institutions. "elf-complacency is a great element of happiness, with nations as with indi2iduals. We are satisfied with ours. Ff they prefer a system of industry in which capital and la)or are in perpetual conflict -- and chronic star2ation keeps down the natural increase of population -- and a man is worked out in eight years -- and the law ordains that children shall )e worked only ten hours a day -- and the sa)re and )ayonet are the instruments of order -- )e it so. Ft is their affair, not ours. We prefer, howe2er, our system of industry, )y which la)or and capital are identified in interest, and capital, therefore, protects la)orE )y which our population dou)les e2ery twenty yearsE )y which star2ation is unknown, and a)undance crowns the landE y !hi'h order is preser2ed y unpaid poli'e, and the most "ertile re+ions o" the !orld !here the $au'asian 'annot la or are rou+ht into use"ulness y the la or o" the 3"ri'an , and the whole world is )lessed )y our own productions. #ll we demand of other peoples is to )e let alone to work out our own high destinies. !nited together, and we must )e the most independent, as we are the most important among the nations of the world. !nited together, and we reDuire no other instrument to conDuer peace than our )eneficent productions. !nited together, and we must )e a great, free and prosperous people, whose renown must spread throughout the ci2iliQed world, and pass down, we trust, to the remotest ages. 6e as/ you to join us in "ormin+ a 'on"edera'y o" #la2eholdin+ #tates . H Ro)ert Barnwell Rhett, .he #ddress of the people of "outh %arolina, assem)led in %on2ention, to the people of the "la2eholding "tates of the !nited "tates, &ecem)er (@, +*;1 #t the time of the adoption of the 9ederal %onstitution, 3"ri'an sla2ery e4isted in twel2e of the thirteen "tates. #la2es are re'o+niMed as property, and as a )asis of political power, )y the 9ederal %ompact, and special pro2isions are made )y that instrument for their protection as property. !nder the influences of climate, and other causes, sla2ery has )een )anished from the :orthern "tates, the sla2es themsel2es ha2e )een sent to the "outhern "tates, and there sold, and their price gone into the pockets of their former owners at the :orth. #nd in the meantime, 3"ri'an #la2ery has not only e'ome one o" the "iIed domesti' institutions o" the #outhern #tates, ut "orms an important element o" their politi'al po!er, and 'onstitutes the most 2alua le spe'ies o" their propertyDD !orth, a''ordin+ to re'ent estimates, not less than "our thousand millions o" dollars E forming, in fact, the )asis upon which rests the prosperity and wealth of most of these "tates, and supplying the commerce of the world with its richest freights, and furnishing the manufactories of two continents with the raw material, and their operati2es with )read. Ft is upon this gigantic interest, this peculiar institution of the "outh, that the :orthern "tates and their people ha2e )een waging an unrelenting and fanatical war for the last Duarter of a century. #n institution with which is )ound up, not only the wealth and prosperity of the "outhern people, )ut their 2ery e4istence as a political communityZ Will the people of the :orth cease to make war upon the institution o" #la2ery, and award to it the protection guaranteed )y the %onstitutionN .he accumulated wrongs of many years, the late action of the mem)ers in %ongress in refusing e2ery measure of 'ustice to the "outh, as well as the e4perience of all the past, answers, :o, ne2erY Will the "outh gi2e up the institution of sla2ery, and consent that her citiQens )e stripped of their property, her ci2iliQation destroyed, the whole land laid waste )y fire and swordN Ft is impossi)leE she can not, she will not. .hen why attempt any longer to hold together hostile "tates under the stipulations of a 2iolated %onstitutionN Ft is impossi)leE disunion is ine2ita)le. H "tephen 9. <ale, %ommissioner of #la)ama to the "tate of Lentucky, in a letter to Beriah 0agoffin, the Co2ernor of Lentucky, on &ecem)er (/, +*;1

.he wrongs under which the "outh is now suffering, and for which she seeks redress, seem to arise chiefly from a difference in our construction of the %onstitution. 7ou, "enators of the Repu)lican party, assert, and your people whom you represent assert, that, under a 'ust and fair interpretation of the 9ederal %onstitution , it is ri+ht that you deny that our sla2es, !hi'h dire'tly and indire'tly in2ol2e a 2alue o" more than "our thousand million dollars, are property at all, or entitled to prote'tion in Territories o!ned y the 'ommon 4o2ernment, 7ou assume the interpretation that it is right to encourage, )y all possi)le means, directly and indirectly, the ro))ery of this property and to legislate so as to render its reco2ery as difficult and dangerous as possi)leE that it is right and proper and 'ustifia)le, under the %onstitution, to pre2ent our mere transit across a sister "tate, to em)ark with our property on a lawful 2oyage, without )eing openly despoiled of it. 7ou assert, and practice upon the assertion, that it is right to hold us up to the )an of mankind in speech, writing, and print, with e2ery possi)le appliance of pu)licity, as thie2es, ro))ers, murderers, 2illains, and criminals of the )lackest dye, )ecause we continue to own property which we owned at the time that we all signed the compactE that it is right that we should )e e4posed to spend our treasure in the purchase, or shed our )lood in the conDuest, of foreign territory, with no right to enter it for settlement without lea2ing )ehind our most 2alua)le property, under penalty of its confiscation. 7ou practically interpret this instrument to )e that it is eminently in accordance with the assurance that our tranDuility and welfare were to )e preser2ed and promotedE that our sister "tates should com)ine to pre2ent our growth and de2elopmentE that they should surround us with a cordon of hostile communities for the e4press and a2owed purpose of accumulating in dense masses, and within restricted limits, a population which you )elie2e to )e dangerous, and there)y force the sacrifice of property nearly sufficient in 2alue to pay the pu)lic de)t of e2ery nation in Europe. H !.". "enator $udah P. Ben'amin, &ecem)er ,+, +*;1 5ur ne! +o2ernment is "ounded upon eIa'tly the opposite ideaF its "oundations are laid, its 'ornerDstone rests, upon the +reat truth that the ne+ro is not eJual to the !hite manF that sla2eryKsu ordination to the superior ra'eKis his natural and normal 'ondition, .his, our new go2ernment, is the first, in the history of the world, )ased upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truthZ ?ur system commits no such 2iolation of nature3s laws. 6ith us, all o" the !hite ra'e, ho!e2er hi+h or lo!, ri'h or poor, are eJual in the eye o" the la!, &ot so !ith the ne+ro, #u ordination is his pla'e, H #le4ander <. "tephens, the Aice President of the %onfederate "tates of #merica , in his %ornerstone "peech on 0arch (+, +*;+ 5ur position is thorou+hly identi"ied !ith the institution o" sla2ery -- the greatest material interest of the world. Fts la)or supplies the product which constitutes )y far the largest and most important portions of commerce of the earth. .hese products are peculiar to the climate 2erging on the tropical regions, and )y an imperious law of nature, none )ut the la'/ ra'e can )ear e4posure to the tropical sun. .hese products ha2e )ecome necessities of the world, and a )low at sla2ery is a )low at commerce and ci2iliQation. .hat )low has )een long aimed at the institution, and was at the point of reaching its consummation. .here was no choice left us )ut su)mission to the mandates of a)olition, or a dissolution of the !nion, whose principles had )een su)2erted to work out our ruin. H # &eclaration of the Fmmediate %auses which Fnduce and $ustify the "ecession of the "tate of 0ississippi from the 9ederal !nion, B $anuary +*;+ .e4as a)andoned her separate national e4istence and consented to )ecome one of the %onfederated !nion to promote her welfare, insure domestic tranDuility and secure more su)stantially the )lessings of peace and li)erty to her people. "he was recei2ed into the confederacy with her own constitution, under the guarantee of the federal constitution and the compact of anne4ation, that she should en'oy these )lessings. #he !as re'ei2ed as a 'ommon!ealth holdin+, maintainin+ and prote'tin+ the institution /no!n as ne+ro sla2eryDD the ser2itude o" the 3"ri'an to the !hite ra'e !ithin her limits -- a relation that had e4isted from the first settlement of her wilderness )y the white race, and which her people intended should e4ist in all future time. <er institutions and geographical position esta)lished the strongest ties )etween her and other sla2e-holding "tates of the confederacy. .hose ties ha2e )een strengthened )y associationZ 6e hold as undenia le truths that the +o2ernments o" the 2arious #tates, and o" the 'on"edera'y itsel", !ere esta lished eI'lusi2ely y the !hite ra'e, "or themsel2es and their posterityF that the 3"ri'an ra'e had no a+en'y in their esta lishmentE that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their e4istence in this country )e rendered )eneficial or tolera)le , That in this "ree +o2ernment all !hite men are and o" ri+ht ou+ht to e entitled to eJual 'i2il and politi'al ri+htsF that the ser2itude o" the 3"ri'an ra'e , as e4isting in these "tates, is mutually )eneficial to )oth )ond and free, and is a)undantly authoriQed and 'ustified )y the e4perience of mankind, and the re2ealed will of the #lmighty %reator, as recogniQed )y all %hristian nationsE while the destruction of the e4isting relations )etween the two races, as ad2ocated )y our sectional enemies, would )ring ine2ita)le calamities upon )oth and desolation upon the fifteen sla2e-holding states. H # &eclaration of the %auses which Fmpel the "tate of .e4as to "ecede from the 9ederal !nion, ( 9e)ruary +*;+

!# consider the Tariff, ,ut as the occasion, rather than the real cause of the present unhappy state of thin%s' The truth !an no longer e disguised, that the "e!uliar domesti!k institution o( the /outhern /tates , and the conse(uent direction, which that and her soil and climate ha$e %i$en to her industry, ha$e placed them in re%ard to ta)ation and appropriations in opposite relation to the ma-ority of the 4nionL a%ainst the dan%er of which, if there ,e no protecti$e power in the reser$ed ri%hts of the 3tates, they must in the end ,e forced to re,el, or su,mit to ha$e their permanent interests sacraficed, their domestick institutions su,$erted ,y Coloni=ation and other schemes, and themsel$es & children reduced to wretchedness' Thus situated, the denial of the ri%ht of the 3tate to interfere constitutionally in the last resort, more alarms the thinkin%, than all other causes'0 1 John C' Calhoun, in a letter to ?ir%il "a)cy on 3eptem,er 11, 1830
/our!e: John C' Calhoun to ?ir%il "a)cy, 3eptem,er 11, 1830' @alloway;"a)cy;"arkoe Papers, $olume 3 , "anuscript 6i$ision, Ai,rary of Con%ress

Timeline of 7$ents Aeadin% 4p to the Ci$il >ar

$une +*, +*+( H %ongress declares war on the British Empire &ecem)er +@, +*+--$anuary -, +*+@ H <artford %on2ention takes place in <artford, %onnecticut. &ecem)er (-, +*+- H #merica and the British Empire sign a peace treaty at Chent, Belgium. $anuary *, +*+@ H Cen. #ndrew $ackson defeats British #rmy at the Battle of :ew ?rleans #pril +1, +*+; H "econd Bank of the !nited "tates is chartered. $anuary +*+/ H #merican %oloniQation "ociety, an organiQation supporting deportation of sla2es to #frica, was formed in Washington, &.%. 0arch -, +*+/ H $ames 0onroe is inaugurated as President of the !nited "tates. 9e)ruary ((, +*+B H !nited "tates of #merica acDuires 9lorida from "pain. 0arch ,, +*(1 H %ongress passes the 0issouri %ompromise. &ecem)er (, +*(, H 0onroe &octrine is esta)lished. 9e)ruary B, +*(@ H %ongress elects $ohn Muincy #dams as President of the !.". after a deadlock. &ecem)er +B, +*(* H "outh %arolina3s state legislature declared right of nullification of federal laws and condemns .ariff of #)ominations 0arch -, +*(B H #ndrew $ackson is inaugurated President of the !nited "tates. $anuary (;-(/, +*,1 H !.". "enator &aniel We)ster deli2ers a "econd Reply to !.". "enator Ro)ert <ayne of "outh %arolina. $anuary +, +*,+ H William Lloyd Carrison esta)lishes The Liberator, an a)olitionist newspaper #ugust (+, +*,+ H :at .urner and other sla2es )egin a sla2e re2olt in AirginiaE :at .urner was tried and hanged on :o2em)er ++, +*,+ $uly +1, +*,( H President #ndrew $ackson 2etoes a )ill renewing the "econd Bank of the !nited "tates. ?cto)er ((, +*,( H "outh %arolina legislators met to discuss nullification in %olum)ia, "outh %arolina. &ecem)er +1, +*,( H #ndrew $ackson deli2ers a Proclamation to the People of "outh %arolina Regarding :ullification and "ecession . &ecem)er +(, +*,( H $ohn %. %alhoun is elected a !.". "enator from "outh %arolina &ecem)er (*, +*,( H $ohn %. %alhoun resigns as Aice President of the !nited "tates and )egins ser2ing in the !.". "enate the ne4t day. +*,( H William <untington Russell esta)lishes "kull = Bones at 7ale !ni2ersity. 0arch -, +*,, H #ndrew $ackson is inaugurated for a second time. $une (*, +*,- H %ongress passes the "econd %oinage #ct $anuary ,1, +*,@ H Richard Lawrence, an unemployed Englishman from London, attempts to assassinate President #ndrew $ackson at the entrance of the !.". %apitol in Washington, &.%. +*,; H .he "econd Bank of the !nited "tates e4pires. 9e)ruary (,-0arch ;, +*,; H Battle of the #lamo in "an #ntonio, .e4as #pril (+, +*,; H "am <ouston defeats Cen. "anta #nna at .he Battle of "an $acinto in .e4as. 0arch -, +*,/ H #ndrew $ackson lea2es office and returns to :ash2ille, .ennessee. 0ay +1, +*,/ H .he Panic of +*,/ )egins. +*,B-+*-( H British Empire wages war against the %hinese Empire in the ?pium War &ecem)er (B, +*-@ H .e4as is admitted into the !nion. 0ay +,, +*-; H %ongress declares war on 0e4ico &ecem)er (*, +*-; H Fowa is admitted into the !nion 9e)ruary (, +*-* H #merica and 0e4ico sign the .reaty of Cuadalupe-<idalgo. +*-B H Cold Rush )egins in %alifornia. 0arch ,+, +*@1 H !.". "enator $ohn %. %alhoun dies in office. "eptem)er +*@1 H %ongress passes the %ompromise of +*@1 and the 9ugiti2e "la2e #ct of +*@1. "eptem)er B, +*@1 H %alifornia is admitted into the !nion as a free state. +*@( H <arriet Beecher "towe3s )ook 'ncle Tom@s "abin is pu)lished. 9e)ruary (*, +*@- H Repu)lican Party is esta)lished. 0ay ,1, +*@- H Lansas-:e)raska #ct is enacted. 0ay-#ugust +*@- H Bleeding Lansas 0arch -, +*@/ H $ames Buchanan is inaugurated President of the !nited "tates. 0arch ;, +*@/ H !.". "upreme %ourt decides 1red Scott v* Sanford #ugust (+-?cto)er +@, +*@* H .he Lincoln-&ouglas &e)ates take place in Fllinois 9e)ruary +-, +*@B H ?regon is admitted into the !nion ?cto)er +;, +*@B H #)olitionist $ohn Brown and his followers raid a military arsenal at <arpers 9erry, Airginia 6later West Airginia8 :o2em)er ;, +*;1 H Presidential Election &ayE #)raham Lincoln is elected President of the !nited "tates. &ecem)er +1, +*;1 H <owell %o)) 6former Co2ernor of Ceorgia8 resigns as !.". "ecretary of the .reasury. &ecem)er (1, +*;1 H "outh %arolina secedes &ecem)er (B, +*;1 H $ohn B. 9loyd 6former Co2ernor of Airginia8 resigns as !.". "ecretary of War. $anuary B, +*;+ H 0ississippi secedes $anuary +1, +*;+ H 9lorida secedes E #la)ama secedes on $anuary ++, +*;+E Ceorgia secedes on $anuary +B, +*;+. $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". "enator $efferson &a2is 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary (;, +*;+ H Louisiana secedes $anuary (B, +*;+ H Lansas is admitted into the !nion 9e)ruary +, +*;+ H .e4as secedes 9e)ruary -, +*;+ H !.". "enator $udah P. Ben'amin 6&-Louisiana8 and !.". "enator $ohn "lidell 6&-Louisiana8 resign from the !.". "enate. 9e)ruary +*, +*;+ H $efferson &a2is is inaugurated President of the %onfederate "tates of #merica in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 0arch -, +*;+ H #)raham Lincoln is inaugurated President of the !nited "tates. 0arch ++, +*;+ H Re)el politicians sign and esta)lish the %onfederate %onstitution . 0arch (+, +*;+ H #le4ander "tephens deli2ers his %ornerstone "peech. #pril +(-+,, +*;+ H .he Bom)ardment of 9ort "umter near %harleston, "outh %arolina #pril +/, +*;+ H Airginia secedes #pril +B, +*;+ H Riot in Baltimore, 0aryland )etween !.". #rmy soldiers headed to Washington, &.%. and Re)el supporters 0ay ;, +*;+ H #rkansas secedes 0ay /, +*;+ H .ennessee secedes E :orth %arolina secedes on 0ay (1, +*;+ $uly (+, +*;+ H 9irst Battle of Bull Run 60anassas8 takes place in Airginia

3tates that !seceded0 ,efore April 1 , 18E1 3tates that !seceded0 after April 1 , 18E1 4nion states that ,anned sla$ery Territories

4nion states that permitted sla$ery

0ap of counties co2ered and not co2ered )y the Emancipation Proclamation. .he red color indicates areas co2ered )y the Emancipation Proclamation where sla2es were freed. .he light )lue color indicates areas not co2ered )y the Emancipation Proclamation. .he .hirteenth #mendment would a)olish sla2ery and in2oluntary ser2itude throughout the !nited "tates of #merica.

President #)raham Lincoln meets with his %a)inet for the first reading of the Emancipation Proclamation draft on $uly ((, +*;(. Left to right> Edwin 0. "tanton 6"ecretary of the .reasury8, "almon P. %hase 6"ecretary of the .reasury8, President #)raham Lincoln, Cideon Welles 6"ecretary of the :a2y8, %ale) B. "mith 6"ecretary of the Fnterior, standing8, William <. "eward 6"ecretary of "tate, seated8, 0ontgomery Blair 6!.". Postmaster Ceneral, standing8, and Edward Bates 6!.". #ttorney Ceneral, seated8. William <. "eward, "imon %ameron 6"ecretary of War and !.". 0inister to Russia8, "almon P. %hase, and Edward Bates were presidential candidates at the Repu)lican :ational %on2ention in %hicago, Fllinois in +*;1. #ll fi2e presidential candidates, including #)raham Lincoln himself, ser2ed in the e4ecuti2e )ranch in +*;+.

!8ellow;citi=ens, we can not escape history' >e of this Con%ress and this Administration will ,e remem,ered in spite of oursel$es' .o personal si%nificance or insi%nificance can spare one or another of us' The fiery trial throu%h which we pass will li%ht us down in honor or dishonor to the latest %eneration' >e say we are for the 4nion' The world will not for%et that we say this' >e know how to sa$e the 4nion' The world knows we do know how to sa$e it' >e, e$en we here, hold the power and ,ear the responsi,ility' #n gi%ing (reedom to the sla%e we assure (reedom to the (ree;;honora,le alike in what we %i$e and what we preser$e' >e shall no,ly sa$e or meanly lose the last ,est hope of earth' <ther means may succeedL this could not fail' The way is plain, peaceful, %enerous, -ust;;a way which if followed the world will fore$er applaud and @od must fore$er ,less'0 1 4'3' President A,raham Aincoln, in his 3econd Annual "essa%e 23tate of the 4nion5 to Con%ress, 6ecem,er 1, 18E9

23ourceC Ai,rary of Con%ress5

C<.8767/AT7 /73P<.37 T< TH7 7"A.C#PAT#<. P/<CAA"AT#<. 1n 1ddress to the Peo"le o( the Free /tates y the President o( the /outhern Con(edera!y, .i!hmond, $anuary -, +,H). Citi=ens of the non;sla$eholdin% 3tates of America, swayed ,y peacea,le moti$es, # ha$e used all my influence, often there,y endan%erin% my position as the President of the 3outhern Confederacy, to ha$e the unhappy conflict now e)istin% ,etween my people and yoursel$es, %o$erned ,y those well esta,lished international rules, which heretofore ha$e softened the asperities which necessarily are the concomitants of a state of ,elli%erency, ,ut all my efforts in the premises ha$e heretofore ,een una$ailin%' .ow, therefore, # am compelled e necessitati rei to employ a measure, which most willin%ly # would ha$e omitted to do, re%ardin%, as # always must, 3tate /i%hts, as the $ery or%anism of politically associated society' 8or nearly two years my people ha$e ,een defendin% their inherent ri%hts their political, social and reli%ious ri%hts a%ainst the speculators of .ew 7n%land and their allies in the 3tates heretofore re%arded as conser$ati$e' The people of the 3outhern Confederacy ha$e ;; makin% sacrifices such as the modern world has ne$er witnessed ;; patiently, ,ut determinedly, stood ,etween their home interests and the well paid, well fed and well clad mercenaries of the A,olitionists, and # need not say that they ha$e no,ly $indicated the %ood name of American citi=ens' Heretofore, the warfare has ,een conducted ,y white men ;; peers, scions of the same stockL ,ut the pro%ramme has ,een chan%ed, and your rulers despairin% of a triumph ,y the employment of white men, ha$e de%raded you and themsel$es, ,y in$itin% the cooperation of the ,lack race' Thus, while they deprecate the inter$ention of white men ;; the 8rench and the 7n%lish ;; in ,ehalf of the 3outhern Confederacy, they, these A,olitionists, do not hesitate to in$oke the inter$ention of the African race in fa$or of the .orth' The time has, therefore, come when a ,ecomin% respect for the %ood opinion of the ci$ili=ed world impels me to set forth the followin% factsC 8irst' A,raham Aincoln, the President of the .on;3la$eholdin% 3tates, has issued his proclamation, declarin% the sla$es within the limits of the 3outhern Confederacy to ,e free' 3econd' A,raham Aincoln has declared that the sla$es so emancipated may ,e used in the Army and .a$y, now under his control, ,y which he means to employ, a%ainst the 8ree People of the 3outh, insurrectionary measures, the ine$ita,le tendency of which will ,e to inau%urate a 3er$ile >ar, and there,y pro$e destructi$e, in a %reat measure, to sla$e property' .ow, therefore, as a compensatory measure, # do here,y issue the followin% Address to the People of the .on;3la$eholdin% 3tatesC <n and after 8e,ruary 99, 18E3, all free ne%roes within the limits of the 3outhern Confederacy shall ,e placed on the sla$e status, and ,e deemed to ,e chattels, they and their issue fore$er' All ne%roes who shall ,e taken in any of the 3tates in which sla$ery does not now e)ist, in the pro%ress of our arms, shall ,e ad-ud%ed, immediately after such capture, to occupy the sla$e status, and in all 3tates which shall ,e $an(uished ,y our arms, all free ne%roes shall, ipsofacto, ,e reduced to the condition of helotism, so that the respecti$e normal conditions of the white and ,lack races may ,e ultimately placed on a permanent ,asis, so as to pre$ent the pu,lic peace from ,ein% thereafter endan%ered' Therefore, while # would not i%nore the conser$ati$e policy of the 3la$e 3tates, namely, that a 8ederal @o$ernment cannot, without $iolatin% the fundamental principles of a Constitution, interfere with the internal policy of se$eral 3tatesL since, howe$er, A,raham Aincoln has seen fit to i%nore the Constitution he has solemnly sworn to support, it ou%ht not ,e considered polemically or politically improper in me to $indicate the position which has ,een at an early day of this 3outhern repu,lic, assumed ,y the Confederacy, namely, that sla$ery is the corner;stone of a >estern /epu,lic' #t is not necessary for me to ela,orate this proposition' # may merely refer, in passin%, to the prominent fact, that the 3outh is emphatically a producin% section of .orth AmericaL this is e(ually true of the >est and .orthwest, the people of which ha$e ,een mainly dependent on the 3outh for the consumption of their products' The other 3tates, in which sla$ery does not e)ist, ha$e occupied a middle position, as to the 3outh, >est and .orthwest' The 3tates of .ew 7n%land, from which all complicated difficulties ha$e arisen, owe their %reatness and power to the free suffra%es of all other sections of .orth AmericaL and yet, as is now e$ident, they ha$e, from the adoption of the 8ederal Constitution, wa%ed a persistent warfare a%ainst the interests of all the other 3tates of the old 4nion' The %reat centre of their opposition has ,een 3la$ery, while the annual statistics of their respecti$e 3tate @o$ernments a,undantly pro$e that they entertain within all their ,oundaries fewer ne%roes than any sin%le 3tate which does not tolerate sla$ery' #n $iew of these facts, and conscientiously ,elie$in% that the proper condition of the ne%ro is sla$ery, or a complete su,-ection to the white man, ;; and entertainin% the ,elief that the day is not distant when the old 4nion will ,e restored with sla$ery nationally declared to ,e the proper condition of all of African descent, and in $iew of the future harmony and pro%ress of all the 3tates of America, # ha$e ,een induced to issue this address, so that there may ,e no misunderstandin% in the future' J7887/3<. 6A?#3

8inanciers & Promoters of the !Aost Cause0

Lionel 3athan de .oths!hild 21808;18NG5 is introduced in the House of Commons on 9E July 18 8 ,y Aord John /ussell and "r' A,el 3mith' 2A paintin% ,y Henry +arraud' 18N95 2The /othschild Archi$e5

$ewish )ankers 8aron James Gayer de 1oths'hild o" 7aris (se'ond "rom le"t, 1;<*D18=8) and 8aron Nionel &athan de 1oths'hild o" Nondon (se'ond "rom ri+ht, 1808D18;<) played a prominent role in financing the %i2il War from their )anking houses in London and Paris. British Prime 0inister Aiscount Palmerston I<enry $ohn .empleJ 6left8 and Emperor :apoleon FFF of 9rance 6right8 sympathiQed with the Re)els 6%onfederates8 during the %i2il War and proposed to esta)lish diplomatic relations with the %onfederate "tates of #merica . Aiscount Palmerston ser2ed as the Prime 0inister of Creat Britain from 9e)ruary ;, +*@@ to 9e)ruary +B, +*@* and from $une +(, +*@B to ?cto)er +*, +*;@. Emperor :apoleon FFF of 9rance ruled 9rance from &ecem)er (, +*@( to "eptem)er -, +*/1.

!Permit me to issue and control the money of a nation, and # care not who makes its laws'0 1 Amschel "ayer /othschild 21NN3;18 5, in 1838

9inanciers of the %i2il War> #lleged Rothschild agent and Re)el 6%onfederate8 financier $ohn "lidell 6left8 and Rothschild agent and 9ederal 6!nion8 financier #ugust Belmont "r. 6right8. #ugust Belmont "r., a $ewish )anker )orn in Cermany, was the %hairman of the &emocratic :ational %ommittee from +*;1 to +*/(. #ugust Belmont "r. married $ohn "lidell3s niece prior to the %i2il War. $ohn "lidell was )orn and raised in :ew 7ork %ity and graduated from %olum)ia !ni2ersity in :ew 7ork %ity in +*+1E $ohn "lidell mo2ed to :ew ?rleans around +*+B. $ohn "lidell ser2ed as a !.". "enator from Louisiana )efore the %i2il War and ser2ed as a %onfederate en2oy to 9rance during the %i2il War.

.he "ecessionists of "outh %arolina

Ro)ert W. Barnwell, Ro)ert Barnwell Rhett, $ohn %. %alhoun, $ames %hesnut $r., and $ames Lawrence ?rr

9rancis Wilkinson Pickens, 0illedge Luke Bonham, Laurence 0. Leitt, William Porcher 0iles, William <. Cist 6Co2ernor of "outh %arolina8 ?.<ER PR?0F:E:. "!PP?R.ER" ?9 .<E L?". %#!"E

Left to right> #le4ander <. "tephens, William L. 7ancey, Pierre "oule, Cen. $u)al #. Early, Cen. $ohn %. Breckinridge, William ..". Barry

7dmund /uffin 2January , 1NG:1June 1N, 18E 5, a !8ire;7ater0, sla$eowner, secessionist, and traitor who participated in firin% artillery shells into 8ort 3umter on April 19, 18E1 and committed suicide on June 1N, 18E '

Confederate 2/e,el5 Ca,inet in 18E1, left to ri%htC Judah P' +en-amin 2Attorney @eneral5, 3tephen /' "allory 23ecretary of the .a$y5, Christopher @usta$us "emmin%er 23ecretary of the Treasury5, Ale)ander H' 3tephens 2?ice President5, Ae/oy Pope >alker 23ecretary of >ar5, Jefferson 6a$is 2President5, John H' /ea%an 2Postmaster @eneral5, /o,ert A' Toom,s 23ecretary of 3tate5'

!Aea$e America di$ided into thirteen or, if you please, into three or four independent %o$ernments ;; what armies could they raise and pay ;; what fleets could they e$er hope to ha$eM #f one was attacked, would the others fly to its succor, and spend their ,lood and money in its defenseM >ould there ,e no dan%er of their ,ein% flattered into neutrality ,y its specious promises, or seduced ,y a too %reat fondness for peace to decline ha=ardin% their tran(uillity and present safety for the sake of nei%h,ors, of whom perhaps they ha$e ,een -ealous, and whose importance they are content to see diminishedM Althou%h such conduct would not ,e wise, it would, ne$ertheless, ,e natural' The history of the states of @reece, and of other countries, a,ounds with such instances, and it is not impro,a,le that what has so often happened would, under similar circumstances, happen a%ain' +ut admit that they mi%ht ,e willin% to help the in$aded 3tate or confederacy' How, and when, and in what proportion shall aids of men and money ,e affordedM >ho shall command the allied armies, and from which of them shall he recei$e his ordersM >ho shall settle the terms of peace, and in case of disputes what umpire shall decide ,etween them and compel ac(uiescenceM ?arious difficulties and incon$eniences would ,e insepara,le from such a situationL whereas one %o$ernment, watchin% o$er the %eneral and common interests, and com,inin% and directin% the powers and resources of the whole, would ,e free from all these em,arrassments, and conduce far more to the safety of the people' &ut whate%er may e our situation, whether (irmly united under one national go%ernment, or s"lit into a num er o( !on(edera!ies, !ertain it is, that (oreign nations will know and %iew it e2a!tly as it isC and they will a!t toward us a!!ordingly. #f they see that our national %o$ernment is efficient and well administered, our trade prudently re%ulated, our militia properly or%ani=ed and disciplined, our resources and finances discreetly mana%ed, our credit re;esta,lished, our people free, contented, and united, they will ,e much more disposed to culti$ate our friendship than pro$oke our resentment' #f, on the other hand, they find us either destitute of an effectual %o$ernment 2each 3tate doin% ri%ht or wron%, as to its rulers may seem con$enient5, or split into three or four independent and pro,a,ly discordant repu,lics or confederacies, one inclinin% to +ritain, another to 8rance, and a third to 3pain, and perhaps played off a%ainst each other ,y the three, what a poor, pitiful fi%ure will America make in their eyesR How lia,le would she ,ecome not only to their contempt ,ut to their outra%e, and how soon would dear;,ou%ht e)perience proclaim that when a people or family so di$ide, it ne$er fails to ,e a%ainst themsel$es'0 1 John Jay, 0edera ist .o' :

:ota)le Re)el Politicians

&ame $ohn %. %alhoun 6B.#. 7ale +*1-8 9,#, .ederal and #tate 4o2ernment 7ositions !.". "enator from "outh %arolina 6+*,(-+*-,, +*-@-+*@18 "ecretary of "tate 6+*---+*-@8 Aice President of the !.". 6+*(@-+*,(8 "ecretary of War 6+*+/-+*(@8 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*++-+*+/8 Bi'e 7resident o" the 9,#, (185;D18=1) !.". "enator from Lentucky 6+*;+8 !.". %ongressman ILentuckyJ 6+*@+-+*@@8 9,#, #e'retary o" the Treasury (185;D18=0) !.". %ongressman ICeorgiaJ 6+*-,-+*@+, +*@@-+*@/8 "peaker of the !.". <ouse of Representati2es 6+*-B-+B@+8 Co2ernor of Ceorgia 6+*@+-+*@,8 9,#, #e'retary o" 6ar (185;D18=0) Co2ernor of Airginia 6+*-B-+*@(8 9,#, #e'retary o" the Interior (185;D18=1) !.". %ongressman I0ississippiJ 6+*,B-+*@+8 9,#, #enator "rom Nouisiana (1853D18=1) !.". %ongressman ILouisianaJ 6+*-,-+*-@8 9,#, #enator "rom Nouisiana (1853D18=1) 9,#, #enator "rom Gississippi (18L;D1851F 185;D18=1) !.". "ecretary of War 6+*@,-+*@/8 9,#, #enator "rom Gississippi (185LD18=1) !.". %ongressman I0ississippiJ 6+*,B-+*-+, +*-/-+*@,8 Co2ernor of 0ississippi 6+*---+*-*8 9,#, #enator "rom Bir+inia (18L;D18=1) !.". %ongressman IAirginiaJ 6+*,/-+*-,, +*-@-+*-/8 "peaker of the !.". <ouse of Representati2es 6+*,B-+*-+8 9,#, #enator "rom Bir+inia (18L;D18=1) President pro tempore of the !.". "enate 6+*@@-+*@B8 !.". %ongressman IAirginiaJ 6+*,/-+*,B8 9,#, #enator "rom &orth $arolina (185<D18=1) Co2ernor of :orth %arolina 6+*@@-+*@B8 9,#, #enator "rom &orth $arolina (1858D18=1) !.". %ongressman I:orth %arolinaJ 6+*-,--@, +*-/-+*@*8 9,#, #enator "rom 4eor+ia (1853D18=1) !.". %ongressman ICeorgiaJ 6+*-@-+*@,8 9,#, #enator "rom 4eor+ia (1855D18=1) !.". %ongressman ICeorgiaJ 6+*-/-+*-B8 9,#, #enator "rom .lorida (1851D18=1) 9,#, #enator "rom .lorida (18L5D1851, 1855D18=1) 9,#, #enator "rom 3la ama (1853D18=1) 9,#, #enator "rom 3la ama (18L8DL<, 1853D55, 1855D=1) President pro tempore of the !.". "enate 6+*@/-+*;18 Co2ernor of #la)ama 6+*-+-+*-@8 9,#, #enator "rom 3r/ansas (1853D18=1) !.". %ongressman I#rkansasJ 6+*-/-+*@,8 9,#, #enator "rom 3r/ansas (18L8D18=1) 9,#, #enator "rom TeIas (185<D18=1) %hief $ustice of the "upreme %ourt of .e4as 6+*-;-+*@*8 9,#, #enator "rom TeIas (185<D18=1) 9,#, #enator "rom Tennessee (18L0D18L*F 185<D18=1) 9,#, #enator "rom #outh $arolina (185;D18=0) Co2ernor of "outh %arolina 6+*-(-+*--8 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*,@-+*,;8 9,#, #enator "rom #outh $arolina (185<D18=0) !.". %ongressman ICeorgiaJ 6+*-,-+*@B, +*/,-+**(8 Co2ernor of Ceorgia 6+**(-+**,8 $on"ederate 4o2ernment 7ositions

$ohn %. Breckinridge <owell %o))

%onfederate "ecretary of War 6+*;@8 %hairman of the "ecession %on2ention in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 69e)ruary (-, +*;+8E "peaker of the Pro2isional %onfederate %ongress 6+*;+-+*;(8E 0a'or Ceneral in the %onfederate #rmy Brigadier Ceneral in the %onfederate #rmy 6+*;+8 Fnspector Ceneral in the %onfederate #rmyE confidential agent of the %onfederacy to %anada 6+*;--+*;@8 %onfederate financier %onfederate &iplomatic #gent 6Paris, 9rance8 %onfederate "ecretary of "tate 6+*;(-+*;@8 %onfederate "ecretary of War 6+*;+-+*;(8 %onfederate #ttorney Ceneral 6+*;+8 %onfederate President 6+*;+-+*;@8 %onfederate "enator 6+*;(-+*;@8 %onfederate "ecretary of "tate 6+*;+-+*;(8 %onfederate "enator 6+*;(-+*;@8 Peace %ommissioner at <ampton Roads %onference 6+*;@8 %ommissioner of the %onfederacy to Creat Britain and 9rance 6+*;+-+*;@8 %onfederate #ttorney Ceneral 6+*;+-+*;,8 Brigadier Ceneral in the %onfederate #rmy %onfederate "ecretary of "tate 6+*;+8 Brigadier Ceneral in the %onfederate #rmy %onfederate "ecretary of the :a2y 6+*;+-+*;@8 IPresident of 9lorida Railroad %o. 6+*@,-+*;;8J %onfederate "enator from #la)ama 6+*;+-+*;,8 %onfederate &iplomatic #gent 6+*;,-+*;@8

$ohn Buchanan 9loyd $aco) .hompson $ohn "lidell 6B.#. %olum)ia +*+18 $udah P. Ben'amin $efferson &a2is #l)ert Callatin Brown Ro)ert 0... <unter

$ames 0urray 0ason 6B.#. !. of Penn. +*+*8 .homas Bragg .homas L. %lingman Ro)ert #. .oom)s #lfred F2erson "r. 6#.B. Princeton +*(18 "tephen R. 0allory &a2id Le2y 7ulee %lement %. %lay $r. Ben'amin 9itQpatrick Ro)ert Ward $ohnson William Ling "e)astian $ohn <emphill Louis .. Wigfall #lfred ?s)orn Pope :icholson $ames <enry <ammond $ames %hesnut $r. 6#.B. Princeton +*,@8 #le4ander <. "tephens

%onfederate "enator from #rkansas 6+*;(-+*;@8 %onfederate %ongressman from .e4as 6+*;+-+*;(8 "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution %onfederate %ongressman from .e4as "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution

"igner of the %onfederate %onstitution &elegate to the %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 6+*;+8 %onfederate Aice President 6+*;+-+*;@8 Peace %ommissioner at <ampton Roads %onference 6+*;@8

$ohn <. Reagan $ames #. "eddon .homas "tanley Bocock William "mith 0uscoe Russell <unter Carnett &aniel %. &e $arnette #le4ander R. Boteler 6#.B. Princeton +*,@8 9rancis Wilkinson Pickens $ames Lawrence ?rr William Waters Boyce William Porcher 0iles Ro)ert Barnwell Rhett Ro)ert W. Barnwell 6B.#. <ar2ard +*(+8 0illedge Luke Bonham Laurence 0. Leitt $ohn $ones 0cRae ?tho Ro)ards "ingleton $ames Lawrence Pugh $a)eQ Lamar 0onroe %urry &a2id %lopton Ceorge ". <awkins 0artin $. %rawford <erschel A. $ohnson Ke)ulon B. Aance Lawrence ?. Branch 6#.B. Princeton +*,*8 William :athan <arrell "mith 6B.#. 7ale +*,-8 $ohn Perkins $r. 6B.#. 7ale +*-1, "kull = Bones +*-18 William ..". Barry 6B.#. 7ale +*-+, "kull = Bones +*-+8 Pierre "oule 6attended $esuit college8

9,#, $on+ressman ETeIasH (185;D18=1, 18;5D188;) !.". "enator from .e4as 6+**/-+*B+8 !.". %ongressman IAirginiaJ 6+*-@-+*-/, +*-B-+*@+8 9,#, $on+ressman EBir+iniaH (18L;D18=1) 9,#, $on+ressman EBir+iniaH (18L1D18L3, 1853D18=1) Co2ernor of Airginia 6+*-;-+*-B8 9,#, $on+ressman EBir+iniaH (185=D18=1) 0em)er of Airginia "tate house of delegates 6+*@,-+*@;8 9,#, $on+ressman EBir+iniaH (185<D18=1) 0em)er of Airginia "tate house of delegates 6+*@,-+*@*8 9,#, $on+ressman EBir+iniaH (185<D18=1) !.". 0inister to Russia 6+*@*-+*;18 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*,--+*-,8 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*-B-+*@B8 "peaker of the !.". <ouse of Representati2es 6+*@/-+*@B8 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*@,-+*;18 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*@/-+*;18 0ayor of %harleston, "outh %arolina 6+*@@-+*@/8 IPresident of !ni2ersity of "outh %arolina 6+**1-+**(8J !.". "enator from "outh %arolina 6+*@1-+*@(8 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*,/-+*-B8 !.". "enator from "outh %arolina 6+*@18 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*(B-+*,,8 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*@/-+*;18 !.". %ongressman I"outh %arolinaJ 6+*@,-@;, +*@;-+*;18 9,#, $on+ressman EGississippiH (1858D18=1) Co2ernor of 0ississippi 6+*@--+*@*8 !.". "enator from 0ississippi 6+*@+-+*@(8 9,#, $on+ressman EGississippiH (1853D1855, 185;D18=1, 18;5D188;) 9,#, $on+ressman E3la amaH (185<D18=1) !.". "enator from #la)ama 6+**1-+*B/8 9,#, $on+ressman E3la amaH (185;D18=1) !.". 0inister to "pain 6+**@-+***8 9,#, $on+ressman E3la amaH (185<D18=1) $udge of the "upreme %ourt of #la)ama 6+**--+*B(8 9,#, $on+ressman E.loridaH (185;D18=1) $ustice of the "upreme %ourt of 9lorida 6+*-;-+*@18 9,#, $on+ressman E4eor+iaH (1855D18=1) $udge of the "upreme %ourt of Ceorgia 6+**1-+**,8 Co2ernor of Ceorgia 6+*@,-+*@/8 !.". "enator from Ceorgia 6+*-*-+*-B8 9,#, $on+ressman E&orth $arolinaH (1858D18=1) !.". "enator from :orth %arolina 6+*/B-+*B-8 Co2ernor of :orth %arolina 6+*/;-+*/*8 9,#, $on+ressman E&orth $arolinaH (1855D18=1) 9,#, $on+ressman E&orth $arolinaH (185<D18=1) %hief $ustice of the "upreme %ourt of :orth %arolina 6+*/*-+**B8 !.". %ongressman ILouisianaJ 6+*@,-+*@@8 !.". %ongressman I0ississippiJ 6+*@,-+*@@8 !.". "enator from Louisiana 6+*-/, +*-B-+*@,8 !.". 0inister to "pain 6+*@,-+*@@8

%onfederate Postmaster Ceneral 6+*;+-+*;@8 "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution %onfederate "ecretary of War 6+*;(-+*;@8 %onfederate %ongressman from Airginia 6+*;++*;(8E "peaker of the %onfederate <ouse of Representati2es 6+*;(8 %onfederate %ongressman from Airginia 6+*;(+*;,8E Co2ernor of Airginia 6+*;--+*;@8 %onfederate %ongressman from Airginia 6+*;(-+*;-8 %onfederate %ongressman from Airginia 6+*;(-+*;@8 %onfederate %ongressman from Airginia 6+*;(-+*;-8 Co2ernor of "outh %arolina 6+*;1-+*;(8 %onfederate "enator from "outh %arolina 6+*;+8 %onfederate %ongressman from "outh %arolina 6+*;(-+*;-8E "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution %onfederate %ongressman from "outh %arolina 6+*;(-+*;-8E "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution &elegate to the %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 6+*;+8 %onfederate "enator 6+*;+-+*;@8 "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution Co2ernor of "outh %arolina 6+*;(-+*;-8 0em)er of %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress 6+*;+8 "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution %onfederate %ongressman from 0ississippi 6+*;(-+*;-8 %onfederate %ongressman from 0ississippi 6+*;+-+*;@8 %onfederate %ongressman from #la)ama 6+*;+-+*;@8 %onfederate %ongressman from #la)ama 6+*;(+*;-8E "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution %onfederate %ongressman from #la)ama 6+*;(-+*;-8 $udge of the &istrict %ourt of 9lorida 6under the %onfederate Co2ernment8 6+*;(-+*;@8 0em)er of %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress 6+*;++*;(8E "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution %onfederate "enator from Ceorgia 6+*;(-+*;@8 Co2ernor of :orth %arolina 6+*;(-+*;@8 Brigadier Ceneral in the %onfederate armyE killed in action at the Battle of #ntietam %onfederate %ongressman from :orth %arolina 6+*;(-+*;@8 %onfederate %ongressman 6+*;--+*;@8 &elegate to the %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 6+*;+-+*;(8 "igner of the %onfederate %onstitution 6+*;+8 &elegate to the %onfederate Pro2isional %ongress in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 6+*;+-+*;(8 Iauthor of the ?stend 0anifesto in +*@-J

!The primary o,-ect of the conspirators was the retention of political power lon% en-oyed, ,ut which they plainly percei$ed was a,out to slip from their %rasp' The first seat of their action was the 4nited 3tates 3enateL the most effecti$e of their earlier co;la,orers were ministers in the ca,inet of +uchananT#n 3outh Carolina, in Ala,ama, and indeed throu%hout the Cotton 3tates, there were many different disunion schemesL ,ut the one which at len%th reached a fatal issue was or%ani=ed ,y 4nited 3tates senators and mem,ers of the ca,inet of +uchanan' Thou%h these men did not know the stren%th, they knew well the weaknesses of the %o$ernment they undertook to ,etray' They knew what was the proper time for action, and that !6an%er to sla$ery0 was their correct war;cry' >ith that the 3outhern people could ,e unified' +y de)terous manipulations with the %o$ernors and Ae%islatures of the +order 3tates they e)pected to attach those important communities to their cause, and oppose them as a ,ulwark to the attacks of the loyal portion of the nation' They intended to sei=e >ashin%ton, to pre$ent the inau%uration, or to depose, perhaps to dispose of, the new President, to secure the %o$ernment 1 to "e)icani=e the nation' They concerted for the capture of all the national works in the 3la$e 3tates, and prepared %arrisons for themL they entrapped the army, and dispersed the na$y of the nation, which they insidiously disarmed' Takin% ad$anta%e of the offices they controlled, they threw into confusion its finances, ro,,ed its treasury, and ,roke into its mints' They stripped its arsenals of rifles and cannon, its dock;yards of ships' They rendered nu%atory its courts of law, and seduced from their alle%iance the officers of its army and na$y' They introduced insu,ordination into the pu,lic ser$ice, and there,y paraly=ed it' They kept their confederates in Con%ress for the e)press purpose of o,structin% le%islation, and ruinin% the %o$ernment which had ,een intrusted IsicJ to their hands' They tried to e)clude from >ashin%ton all means of defense, and there,y make it easy of captureTA secret meetin% of the conspirators had ,een held in >ashin%ton 2January th, 18E15, at which the senators from @eor%ia, Ala,ama, Aouisiana, Arkansas, Te)as, "ississippi, and 8lorida were present' They decided on the plan of action su,se(uently carried out, and determined that a Con$ention of the secedin% states should assem,le at "ont%omery durin% the followin% month' The secession of the 3la$e 3tates which had not yet -oined in the mo$ement was to ,e secured, if possi,le, without su,mittin% the matter to a $ote of the peopleL ,ut their senators and representati$es were to remain in Con%ress as lon% as they could , to paraly=e any mo$ements hostile to the conspiracyL the armin% of the 3outh was to %o on unceasin%lyL munitions of war of e$ery kind were to ,e assiduously pro$ided, and such preparations made that a military force of 100,000 men, e)ceedin% any thin% that it was supposed the %o$ernment could raise, was to ,e in readiness at the time of AincolnFs inau%uration' 7$ery e)ertion was to ,e made to o,tain possession of the forts, dock; yards, arsenals, custom;houses, mints, and other pu,lic property, to induce the resi%nation of army and na$y officers, and to constrain the $arious le%al and other a%ents in the 3outh to refuse to do their duty' The sei=ure of >ashin%ton had ,ecome a part of the plan, and hence the importance of prohi,itin%, ,y Con%ressional action, if possi,le, the accumulation of troops in it' #f that could ,e accomplished, and AincolnFs inau%uration pre$ented, his election was to ,e declared unconstitutional, and possession of the %o$ernment taken ,y the conspirators under plea of the ri%ht of self;preser$ation'0 1 6istory of the American Ci(i .ar ,y John >illiam 6raper, "'6', ?olume ##, Chapter DDD?, p' :9;: 2pu,lished in 18E85 !As soon as the result of the election was known, $arious mo$ements in the 3outh indicated purposes of resistance' Amon% the /epu,licans there was this feelin%, that they had fairly, on an open declaration of principles and policy, and accordin% to the pro$isions of the constitution, elected a President, and if for this the 3outh was %oin% to make war, the contest mi%ht come as well first as last' The incipient steps towards secession were taken, howe$er, ,efore the election, ,y the officers of the %o$ernment under President +uchanan' 6urin% 18E0, 11 ,000 muskets were remo$ed from .orthern armories to 3outhern arsenals ,y one order' The 3outhern forts were left without efficient %arrisons unless commanded ,y officers who could ,e relied upon for the 3outh' #n the na$y the efficient $essels were sent into distant waters, and President +uchanan had said that the %o$ernment was powerless to pre$ent secession' 3outh Carolina led off in the secession mo$ement' A con$ention was called to meet 6ecem,er 1N' #t met at Charleston, and on the twentieth an ordinance was passed dissol$in% the 4nion then e)istin% ,etween 3outh Carolina and the other 3tates under the name of the 4nited 3tates of America' #n the de,ates in the con$ention, "r' Parker said the mo$ement was !no spasmodic effortL it had ,een %radually culminatin% for a lon% series of years'0 "r' /hett declared that !the secession of 3outh Carolina was not the e$ent of a dayL it is a matter which has ,een %atherin% head for thirty years'0 6isclosures which ha$e appeared since the re,ellion pro$e clearly that the entire secession mo$ement was concocted ,y conspirators who had their head(uarters in >ashin%ton, and that most of them were holdin% offices under the %o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates' <n the ni%ht of January , 18E1, a secret meetin% was held, at which the 3enators from @eor%ia, Ala,ama, Aouisiana, Arkansas, Te)as, "ississippi and 8lorida were present' "en ,ound ,y all the solemn o,li%ations of honor, and their oaths re%istered to protect, defend and preser$e the constitution and %o$ernment of the 4nited 3tates, under which they were holdin% office and recei$in% their salaries, here met in concla$e to destroy what they had sworn to protect and defend' They there, ,y resolution, decided that their se$eral 3tates should secede as soon as possi,leL that a con$ention of secedin% 3tates should ,e held at "ont%omery, Ala,ama, not later than the 1 th of 8e,ruaryL and that the 3enators and "em,ers of Con%ress should and ou%ht to remain in their seats as lon% as possi,le in order to defeat measures that mi%ht ,e proposed at >ashin%ton hostile to the secession mo$ement' 6a$is of "ississippi, 3lidell of Aouisiana and "allory were appointed a committee to carry these resolutions into effectL and in pursuance of these, "ississippi passed her ordinance of secession January GL Ala,ama and 8lorida, January 11L Aouisiana, January 9EL and Te)as, 8e,ruary ' This was a new era in the history of America' Thus were taken the first steps to o$erthrow the %o$ernment and the constitution of the 4nited 3tatesU taken from moti$es of personal and sectional am,ition, and for the purpose of esta,lishin% a %o$ernment which should ,e permanently and completely in the interest of sla$ery'0 1 The Life and ,u" ic 3er(ices of A"raham Linco n ,y Charles "alt,y, p' 109;103 2pu,lished in 188:5

.he Buchanan #dministration

President $ames Buchanan and his %a)inet, circa +*@B. 9rom left to right> "ecretary of the Fnterior $aco) .hompson, "ecretary of "tate Lewis %ass, #e'retary o" 6ar John 8, .loyd, President $ames Buchanan, Treasury #e'retary @o!ell $o , "ecretary of the :a2y Fsaac .oucey, Postmaster Ceneral $oseph <olt, and #ttorney Ceneral $eremiah ". Black. "ecretary of War $ohn B. 9loyd and .reasury "ecretary <owell %o)) would ser2e in the Re)el 6%onfederate8 army during the %i2il War. President $ames Buchanan3s %a)inet Lewis %ass 6). +/*( - d. +*;;8 H "ecretary of "tate 60arch ;, +*@/-&ecem)er +-, +*;18 $eremiah ". Black 6).+*+1 -d.+**,8 H !.". #ttorney Ceneral 60arch ;, +*@/-&ec. +;, +*;18E "ecretary of "tate 6&ec. +/, +*;1-0arch @, +*;+8 @o!ell $o ( , 1815 D d, 18=8) - #e'retary o" the Treasury (Gar'h ;, 185;D0e'em er 10, 18=0) Philip 9. .homas H "ecretary of the .reasury 6&ecem)er +(, +*;1-$anuary +-, +*;+8 $ohn #dams &i4 H "ecretary of the .reasury 6$anuary +@, +*;+ H 0arch ;, +*;+8 John 8, .loyd ( , 180= D d, 18=3) - #e'retary o" 6ar (Gar'h =, 185;D0e'em er *<, 18=0) Fsaac .oucey 6). +/B; - d. +*;B8 H "ecretary of the :a2y 60arch /, +*@/-0arch -, +*;+8 #aron A. Brown 6). +/B@ - d. +*@B8 H Postmaster Ceneral of the !nited "tates 60arch ;, +*@/-0arch +-, +*@B8 $oseph <olt H Postmaster Ceneral of the !.". 60arch B, +*@B-&ec. ,+, +*;18E "ecretary of War 6&ec. ,+, +*;1-0arch (, +*;+8 <oratio Ling H Postmaster Ceneral of the !nited "tates 69e)ruary +(, +*;+-0arch /, +*;+8 Ja'o Thompson ( , 1810 D d, 1885) - #e'retary o" the Interior (Gar'h =, 185;DJanuary 8, 18=1) John $, 8re'/inrid+e ( , 18*1 D d, 18;5) - Bi'e 7resident o" the 9nited #tates (Gar'h L, 185;DGar'h L, 18=1)

Howell Co,, 2left5, John +uchanan 8loyd 2center5, and Jaco, Thompson 2ri%ht5

$onspirators (9,#, #enators) !ho parti'ipated in the #e'ret Geetin+ held on January 5, 18=1

$udah P. Ben'amin 6Louisiana8, $ohn "lidell 6Louisiana8

&a2id Le2y 7ulee 69lorida8, "tephen R. 0allory 69lorida8, $efferson &a2is 60ississippi8, #l)ert Callatin Brown 60ississippi8

%lement %lai)orne %lay $r. 6#la)ama8, Ben'amin 9itQpatrick 6#la)ama8, #lfred F2erson "r. 6Ceorgia8, Ro)ert #. .oom)s 6Ceorgia8

Ro)ert Ward $ohnson 6#rkansas8, William Ling "e)astian 6#rkansas8, $ohn <emphill 6.e4as8, Louis .. Wigfall 6.e4as8 :otes> $udah P. Ben'amin was )orn on the Fsland of "t. %roi4, &anish West Fndies on #ugust ;, +*++. &a2id Le2y 7ulee was )orn in "t. .homas, West Fndies IBritish colonyJ on $une +(, +*+1. "tephen R. 0allory was )orn in .rinidad, West Fndies IBritish colonyJ in +*+, and died in Pensacola, 9lorida, !.".#. on :o2em)er B, +*/,. $ohn "lidell was )orn and raised in :ew 7ork %ity. $efferson &a2is3s )rother-in-law Richard .aylor was a mem)er of "kull = Bones and a graduate of 7ale !ni2ersity. $ohn %. %alhoun graduated from 7ale !ni2ersityE $udah P. Ben'amin attended 7ale !ni2ersity.

6ates of !3ecession0 and /esi%nations

&ecem)er (1, +*;1 H "outh %arolina secedes :o2em)er +1, +*;1 H !.". "enator $ames %hesnut $r. 6&-"outh %arolina8 resigns from the !.". "enate. :o2em)er ++, +*;1 H !.". "enator $ames <enry <ammond 6&-"outh %arolina8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary B, +*;+ H 0ississippi secedes &ecem)er +*;1 H !.". %ongressman Lucius M.%. Lamar 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary +(, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman William Barksdale 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary +(, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman Reu)en &a2is 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary +(, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman $ohn $ones 0cRae 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary +(, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman ?tho Ro)ards "ingleton 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary +(, +*;+ H !.". "enator #l)ert Callatin Brown 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". "enator $efferson &a2is 6&-0ississippi8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary (;, +*;+ H Louisiana secedes 9e)ruary -, +*;+ H !.". "enator $udah P. Ben'amin 6&-Louisiana8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 9e)ruary -, +*;+ H !.". "enator $ohn "lidell 6&-Louisiana8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 9e)ruary @, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman 0iles .aylor 6&-Louisiana8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary +1, +*;+ H 9lorida secedes $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". "enator "tephen R. 0allory 6&-9lorida8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". "enator &a2id Le2y 7ulee 6&-9lorida8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman Ceorge ". <awkins 6&-9lorida8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary ++, +*;+ H #la)ama secedes $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". "enator %lement %. %lay $r. 6&-#la)ama8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". "enator Ben'amin 9itQpatrick 6&-#la)ama8 resigns from the !.". "enate. $anuary (+, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman &a2id %lopton 6&-#la)ama8 resigns from the !.". <ouse of Representati2es. $anuary +B, +*;+ H Ceorgia secedes $anuary (*, +*;+ H !.". "enator #lfred F2erson "r. 6&-Ceorgia8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 9e)ruary -, +*;+ H !.". "enator Ro)ert #. .oom)s 6&-Ceorgia8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 9e)ruary +, +*;+ H .e4as secedes 0arch ,, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman $ohn <. Reagan 6&-.e4as8 concludes his term and lea2es office. 0arch (,, +*;+ H !.". "enator Louis .. Wigfall 6&-.e4as8 resigns from the !.". "enate. July 18=1 - 9,#, #enator John @emphill (0DTeIas) is eIpelled "rom the 9,#, #enate, #pril +/, +*;+ H Airginia secedes 0arch (*, +*;+ H !.". "enator Ro)ert 0... <unter 6&-Airginia8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 0arch (*, +*;+ H !.". "enator $ames 0urray 0ason 6&-Airginia8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 0ay ;, +*;+ H #rkansas secedes 0arch ,, +*;+ H !.". "enator Ro)ert Ward $ohnson 6&-#rkansas8 concludes his term and lea2es office. July 11, 18=1 - 9,#, #enator 6illiam Oin+ #e astian (0D3r/ansas) is eIpelled "rom the 9,#, #enate, 0ay /, +*;+ H .ennessee secedes 0arch ,, +*;+ H !.". "enator #lfred ?s)orn Pope :icholson 6&-.ennessee8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 0ay (1, +*;+ H :orth %arolina secedes 0arch ,, +*;+ H !.". %ongressman Ke)ulon B. Aance 6&-:orth %arolina8 concludes his term and lea2es office. 0arch ;, +*;+ H !.". "enator .homas Bragg 6&-:orth %arolina8 resigns from the !.". "enate. 0arch (*, +*;+ H !.". "enator .homas L. %lingman 6&-:orth %arolina8 resigns from the !.". "enate. &ecem)er +1, +*;1 H <owell %o)) resigns as !.". "ecretary of the .reasury. &ecem)er (B, +*;1 H $ohn B. 9loyd resigns as !.". "ecretary of War. $anuary *, +*;+ H $aco) .hompson resigns as !.". "ecretary of the Fnterior. 9e)ruary +*, +*;+ H $efferson &a2is is inaugurated President of the %onfederate "tates of #merica in 0ontgomery, #la)ama 9e)ruary (1, +*;+ H !.". "enate passes the 0orrill tariff )ill )y a margin of (@-+-. 0arch (, +*;+ H !.". President $ames Buchanan signs the 0orrill tariff )ill into law. 0arch -, +*;+ H #)raham Lincoln is inaugurated President of the !nited "tates. 0arch ++, +*;+ H Re)el politicians sign and esta)lish the %onfederate %onstitution . 0arch (+, +*;+ H #le4ander "tephens deli2ers his %ornerstone "peech. #pril +(-+,, +*;+ H .he Bom)ardment of 9ort "umter near %harleston, "outh %arolina #pril +B, +*;+ H Riot in Baltimore, 0aryland )etween !.". #rmy soldiers headed to Washington, &.%. and Re)el supporters $uly (+, +*;+ H 9irst Battle of Bull Run 60anassas8 takes place in Airginia

3outh Carolina <rdinance of 3ecession

3outh Carolina was the first state of those that e$entually formed the Confederate 3tates of America to secede from the 4nited 3tates of America' <n .o$em,er 10, 18E0, the 3outh Carolina le%islature called a special con$ention to consider the (uestion of secession' <n 6ecem,er 90, 18E0, they adopted the <rdinance of 3ecession' The <rdinance of 3ecession as adopted in the city of Charleston is as followsC ^^^ An -rdinance to Disso (e the #nion "etween the 3tate of 3outh Caro ina and -ther 3tates #nited with 6er under The Com&act 1ntit ed the Constitution of the #nited 3tates of America+ .e the &eo& e of the 3tate of 3outh Caro ina, in con(ention assem" ed, do dec are and ordain, and it is here"y dec ared and ordained, that the ordinance ado&ted "y us in con(ention on the F3d day of *ay, in the year of our Lord one thousand se(en hundred and ei$hty-ei$ht, where"y the Constitution of the #nited 3tates of America was ratified, and a so a acts and &arts of acts of the !enera Assem" y of this 3tate ratifyin$ amendments of said Constitution are here"y re&ea ed and that the union now su"sistin$ "etween 3outh Caro ina and other 3tates under the name of the #nited 3tates of America is here"y disso (ed+ Done at Char eston the F;th day of Decem"er, in the year of our Lord one thousand ei$ht hundred and si'ty+ ^^^ The followin% are the si%ners of the <rdinance of 3ecession and the parishes which they represented in the con$entionC ^ A,,e$illeC Thomas Chiles Perrin, 7dward .o,le, J' H' >ilson, Thomas Thomson, 6a$id Aouis >ardlaw, John Alfred Calhoun' ^ All;3aintsC John #=ard "iddleton, +en-amin 7' 3ession' ^ AndersonC J' .' >hitner, James A' <rr, J' P' /eed, /'8' 3impson, +en-amin 8ranklin "auldin' ^ +arnwellC Aewis "alone Ayer, Jr', >' Peronneau 8inley, J' J' +ra,ham, +en-amin >' Aawton, 6' 8' Jamison' ^ ChesterC John "cSee, Thomas >' "oore, /ichard >oods, A' Q' 6uno$ant' ^ ChesterfieldC John A' #n%lis, Henry "ci$er, 3tephen Jackson' ^ Christ ChurchC >' Pickney 3hin%ler, Peter P' +onneau' ^ ClarendonC John P' /ichardson, John J' #n%ram' ^ 6arlin%tonC 7d%ar >' Charles, Julias A' 6ar%an, #saac 6' >ilson, John "' Timmons' ^ 7d%efieldC 8rancis Hu%h >ardlaw, /' @' "' 6uno$ant, James parsons Carroll, >illiam @re%%, Andrew J' Hammond, James Tompkins, James C' 3myly' ^ 8airfieldC John Hu%h "eans, >illiam 3trother Ayles, Henry Camp,ell 6a$is, John +uchanan' ^ @reen$illeC James C' 8urman, P'7' 6uncan, >' S' 7asley, James Harrison, >' H' Camp,ell' ^ HorryC Thomas >' +eaty, >illiam J' 7llis' ^ SershawC T' J' >ithers, James C' Chestnut, Jr' ^ AancasterC /' A' Crawford, >' C' Cauthen, 6' P' /o,inson' ^ AaurensC H' C' *oun%, *' >' @arlin%ton, John 6' >illiams, >' 6' >atts, Thomas >ier' ^ Ae)in%tonC H' #' Cau%hman, John C' @ei%er, Paul Quatle,aum' ^ "arionC >' +' /owell, Chesley 6' 7$ans, >illiam >' Harllee, A' >' +ethea' ^ "arl,oroC 7' >' @oodwin, >illiam 6' Johnson, Ale) "cAeod' ^ .ew,erryC John P' Sinard, /o,ert "oorman, Joseph Caldwell, 3imeon 8air' ^ <ran%eC Thomas >orth @lo$er, Aawrence "' Seitt, 6onald /owe +arton' ^ PickensC >illiam Hunter, Andrew 8' Aewis, /o,ert A' Thompson, >illiam 3' @risham, John "a)well' ^ Prince >illiamBsC John 7' 8rampton, >' 8er%uson Hutson' ^ /ichlandC >' 8' 6e3aussure, >illiam Hopkins, James H' Adams, "a)cy @re%%, John H' Sinsler' ^ 3t' AndrewBsC 7phraim "' Clark, Ale)' H' +rown' ^ 3t' +artholomewBsC 7' 3t' P' +ellin%er, "errick 7' Carn, 7' /' Henderson, Peter 3tokes' ^ 3t' @eor%eBs, 6orchesterC 6aniel 8lood, 6a$id C' Apple,y' ^ 3t' HelenaC /' >' +arnwell, Joseph 6aniel Pope' ^ 3t' JamesBs, @oose CreekC John "' 3hin%ler, C' P' +rown' ^ 3t' JamesBs, 3anteeC 6aniel 6uPree, A' "a=yck' ^ 3t' JohnBs, +erkeleyC >illiam Cain, P' @' 3nowden' ^ 3t' JohnBs, ColletonC @eor%e >' 3ea,rook, 3r', John Jenkins' ^ 3t' AukeBsC /' J' 6a$ant, 7' "' 3ea,rook' ^ 3t' "atthewBsC John J' >annamaker'

^ 3t' PaulBsC 7lias +' 3cott, Joseph 7' Jenkins' ^ 3t' PeterBsC Aan%don Che$es, @eor%e /hodes' ^ 3t' PhilipBs and 3t' "ichaelBsC A' @' "a%rath, >illiam Porcher "iles, John Townsend, /o,ert .' @ourdin, H' >' Connor, Theodore 6' >a%ner, /' +arnwell /hett, C' @' "emmin%er, @a,riel "ani%ault, John Julius Prin%le 3mith, #saac >' Hayne, John H' Honour, /ichard 6eTre$ille, Thomas "' Hanckel, A' >' +urnet, Thomas *' 3imons, A' >' 3pratt, >illiams "iddleton, /' 6' /ichardson, +' H' /utled%e, 7dward "cCrady, 8rancis J' Porcher' ^ 3t' 3tephenBsC T' A' @ourdin, John 3' Palmer' ^ 3t' ThomasBs and 3t' 6ennisBsC John A' .owell, John 3' <BHear' ^ 3partan,ur%C John @' Aandrum, +' +' 8oster, +en-amin 8' Sil%o, J' H' Carlisle, 3impson +o,o, >illiam Curtis' ^ 3umterC H' 6' @reen, "atthew P' "ayes, Thomas /eese 7n%lish, 3r', Al,ertus Cham,ers 3pain' ^ 4nionC J' "' @ad,erry, J' 3' 3ims, >illiam H' @ist, James Jefferies' ^ >illiams,ur%C Anthony >' 6o=ier, John @' Pressley, /' C' Ao%an' ^ >inyawC 8rancis 3' Parker, +en-amin 8aneuil 6unkin, 3amuel Taylor Atkinson, Ale)' "' 8orster' ^ *orkC >illiam +lack,urn >ilson, /o,ert T' Allison, 3amuel /ainey, A' +a)ter 3prin%s, A' #' +arron' The mem,ers who composed the 3ecession Con$ention of the 3tate of 3outh Carolina were chosen from the $arious parishes of the se$eral districts of the 3tate' 3ince the war, howe$er, the 3tate has ,een di$ided into counties, and reprepresentation from parishes is no lon%er in $o%ue' 3ourceC httpCOOwww'confederatemuseum'or%Ocamp3EOsecession9'html

"ecret meeting of "outhern !nionists during the %i2il War. "outhern !nionists were "outherners 6white and )lack8 who remained loyal to the !nionE many "outhern !nionists adhered to #ndrew $ackson3s loyalty to the !nion and his opposition to nullification and secession. # ma'ority of the "outhern !nionists li2ed in the #ppalachians, northern #la)ama, eastern .ennessee, and western Airginia. "outhern !nionists e2entually ser2ed with the !nion #rmy and fought against the Re)els to pre2ent $efferson &a2is and his <ome Cuards from conscripting IcoercingJ them into ser2ing in the Re)el army. 0any Cerman immigrants li2ing in the <ill %ountry in .e4as 6near #ustin and "an #ntonio8 remained loyal to the !nionE at least ,@ Cerman)orn !nionists were killed )y Re)el 6%onfederate8 soldiers during .he :ueces 0assacre near the :ueces Ri2er in .e4as in the early morning hours of #ugust +1, +*;(. By an order issued 6presuma)ly )y $efferson &a2is8 on 0ay ,1, +*;(, %onfederate Brigadier Ceneral Paul ?cta2e <e)ert imposed martial la! o2er the entire state of .e4as. Paul ?cta2e <e)ert was the Co2ernor of Louisiana from +*@,-+*@;.

Cornerstone Speech
#le4ander <. "tephens 0arch (+, +*;+ "a2annah, Ceorgia
When perfect Duiet is restored, F shall proceed. F cannot speak so long as there is any noise or confusion. F shall take my timeVF feel Duite prepared to spend the night with you if necessary. F 2ery much regret that e2eryone who desires cannot hear what F ha2e to say. :ot that F ha2e any display to make, or anything 2ery entertaining to present, )ut such 2iews as F ha2e to gi2e, F wish all, not only in this city, )ut in this "tate, and throughout our %onfederate Repu)lic, could hear, who ha2e a desire to hear them. F was remarking that we are passing through one of the greatest re2olutions in the annals of the world. "e2en "tates ha2e within the last three months thrown off an old go2ernment and formed a new. .his re2olution has )een signally marked, up to this time, )y the fact of its ha2ing )een accomplished without the loss of a single drop of )lood. .his new constitution. or form of go2ernment, constitutes the su)'ect to which your attention will )e partly in2ited. Fn reference to it, F make this first general remark> it amply secures all our ancient rights, franchises, and li)erties. #ll the great principles of 0agna %harta are retained in it. :o citiQen is depri2ed of life, li)erty, or property, )ut )y the 'udgment of his peers under the laws of the land. .he great principle of religious li)erty, which was the honor and pride of the old constitution, is still maintained and secured. #ll the essentials of the old constitution, which ha2e endeared it to the hearts of the #merican people, ha2e )een preser2ed and perpetuated. "ome changes ha2e )een made. "ome of these F should ha2e preferred not to ha2e seen madeE )ut other important changes do meet my cordial appro)ation. .hey form great impro2ements upon the old constitution. "o, taking the whole new constitution, F ha2e no hesitancy in gi2ing it as my 'udgment that it is decidedly )etter than the old. #llow me )riefly to allude to some of these impro2ements. .he Duestion of )uilding up class interests, or fostering one )ranch of industry to the pre'udice of another under the e4ercise of the re2enue power, which ga2e us so much trou)le under the old constitution, is put at rest fore2er under the new. We allow the imposition of no duty with a 2iew of gi2ing ad2antage to one class of persons, in any trade or )usiness, o2er those of another. #ll, under our system, stand upon the same )road principles of perfect eDuality. <onest la)or and enterprise are left free and unrestricted in whate2er pursuit they may )e engaged. .his old thorn of the tariff, which was the cause of so much irritation in the old )ody politic, is remo2ed fore2er from the new. #gain, the su)'ect of internal impro2ements, under the power of %ongress to regulate commerce, is put at rest under our system. .he power, claimed )y construction under the old constitution, was at least a dou)tful oneE it rested solely upon construction. We of the "outh, generally apart from considerations of constitutional principles, opposed its e4ercise upon grounds of its ine4pediency and in'ustice. :otwithstanding this opposition, millions of money, from the common treasury had )een drawn for such purposes. ?ur opposition sprang from no hostility to commerce, or to all necessary aids for facilitating it. With us it was simply a Duestion upon whom the )urden should fall. Fn Ceorgia, for instance, we ha2e done as much for the cause of internal impro2ements as any other portion of the country, according to population and means. We ha2e stretched out lines of railroads from the sea)oard to the mountainsE dug down the hills, and filled up the 2alleys at a cost of not less than 5(@,111,111. #ll this was done to open an outlet for our products of the interior, and those to the west of us, to reach the marts of the world. :o "tate was in greater need of such facilities than Ceorgia, )ut we did not ask that these works should )e made )y appropriations out of the common treasury. .he cost of the grading, the superstructure, and the eDuipment of our roads was )orne )y those who had entered into the enterprise. :ay, more not only the cost of the ironVno small item in the aggregate costVwas )orne in the same way, )ut we were compelled to pay into the common treasury se2eral millions of dollars for the pri2ilege of importing the iron, after the price was paid for it a)road. What 'ustice was there in taking this money, which our people paid into the common treasury on the importation of our iron, and applying it to the impro2ement of ri2ers and har)ors elsewhereN .he true principle is to su)'ect the commerce of e2ery locality, to whate2er )urdens may )e necessary to facilitate it. Ff %harleston har)or needs impro2ement, let the commerce of %harleston )ear the )urden. Ff the mouth of the "a2annah ri2er has to )e cleared out, let the sea-going na2igation which is )enefited )y it, )ear the )urden. "o with the mouths of the #la)ama and 0ississippi ri2er. $ust as the products of the interior, our cotton, wheat, corn, and other articles, ha2e to )ear the necessary rates of freight o2er our railroads to reach the seas. .his is again the )road principle of perfect eDuality and 'ustice, and it is especially set forth and esta)lished in our new constitution. 3nother "eature to !hi'h I !ill allude is that the ne! 'onstitution pro2ides that 'a inet ministers and heads o" departments may ha2e the pri2ile+e o" seats upon the "loor o" the #enate and @ouse o" 1epresentati2es and may ha2e the ri+ht to parti'ipate in the de ates and dis'ussions upon the 2arious su je'ts o" administration, I should ha2e pre"erred that this pro2ision should ha2e +one "urther, and reJuired the 7resident to sele't his 'onstitutional ad2isers "rom the #enate and @ouse o" 1epresentati2es, That !ould ha2e 'on"ormed entirely to the pra'ti'e in the 8ritish 7arliament, !hi'h, in my jud+ment, is one o" the !isest pro2isions in the 8ritish 'onstitution, It is the only "eature that sa2es that +o2ernment, It is that !hi'h +i2es it sta ility in its "a'ility to 'han+e its administration, 5urs, as it is, is a +reat approIimation to the ri+ht prin'iple, !nder the old constitution, a secretary of the treasury for instance, had no opportunity, sa2e )y his annual reports, of presenting any scheme or plan of finance or other matter. <e had no opportunity of e4plaining, e4pounding, enforcing, or defending his 2iews of policyE his only resort was through the medium of an organ. Fn the British parliament, the premier )rings in his )udget and stands )efore the nation responsi)le for its e2ery item. Ff it is indefensi)le, he falls )efore the attacks upon it, as he ought to. .his will now )e the case to a limited e4tent under our system. Fn the new constitution, pro2ision has )een made )y which our heads of departments can speak for themsel2es and the administration, in )ehalf of its entire policy, without resorting to the indirect and highly o)'ectiona)le medium of a newspaper. Ft is to )e greatly hoped that under our system we shall ne2er ha2e what is known as a go2ernment organ.

3nother 'han+e in the 'onstitution relates to the len+th o" the tenure o" the presidential o""i'e, In the ne! 'onstitution it is siI years instead o" "our, and the 7resident rendered ineli+i le "or a reDele'tion, This is 'ertainly a de'idedly 'onser2ati2e 'han+e, It !ill remo2e "rom the in'um ent all temptation to use his o""i'e or eIert the po!ers 'on"ided to him "or any o je'ts o" personal am ition, The only in'enti2e to that hi+her am ition !hi'h should mo2e and a'tuate one holdin+ su'h hi+h trusts in his hands, !ill e the +ood o" the people, the ad2an'ement, prosperity, happiness, sa"ety, honor, and true +lory o" the 'on"edera'y, But not to )e tedious in enumerating the numerous changes for the )etter, allow me to allude to one other Vthough last, not least. The ne! 'onstitution has put at rest, "ore2er, all the a+itatin+ Juestions relatin+ to our pe'uliar institutionK3"ri'an sla2ery as it eIists amon+st usKthe proper status o" the ne+ro in our "orm o" 'i2iliMation, .his was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present re2olution. $efferson in his forecast, had anticipated this, as the Rrock upon which the old !nion would split.R <e was right. What was con'ecture with him, is now a realiQed fact. But whether he fully comprehended the great truth upon which that rock stood and stands, may )e dou)ted. The pre2ailin+ ideas entertained y him and most o" the leadin+ statesmen at the time o" the "ormation o" the old 'onstitution, !ere that the ensla2ement o" the 3"ri'an !as in 2iolation o" the la!s o" natureF that it !as !ron+ in prin'iple, so'ially, morally, and politi'ally, Ft was an e2il they knew not well how to deal with, )ut the general opinion of the men of that day was that, somehow or other in the order of Pro2idence, the institution would )e e2anescent and pass away. .his idea, though not incorporated in the constitution, was the pre2ailing idea at that time. .he constitution, it is true, secured e2ery essential guarantee to the institution while it should last, and hence no argument can )e 'ustly urged against the constitutional guarantees thus secured, )ecause of the common sentiment of the day. .hose ideas, howe2er, were fundamentally wrong. .hey rested upon the assumption of the eDuality of races. .his was an error. Ft was a sandy foundation, and the go2ernment )uilt upon it fell when the Rstorm came and the wind )lew.R 5ur ne! +o2ernment is "ounded upon eIa'tly the opposite ideaF its "oundations are laid, its 'ornerD stone rests, upon the +reat truth that the ne+ro is not eJual to the !hite manF that sla2eryKsu ordination to the superior ra'eKis his natural and normal 'ondition, This, our ne! +o2ernment, is the "irst, in the history o" the !orld, ased upon this +reat physi'al, philosophi'al, and moral truth, .his truth has )een slow in the process of its de2elopment, like all other truths in the 2arious departments of science. Ft has )een so e2en amongst us. 0any who hear me, perhaps, can recollect well, that this truth was not generally admitted, e2en within their day. .he errors of the past generation still clung to many as late as twenty years ago. .hose at the :orth, who still cling to these errors, with a Qeal a)o2e knowledge, we 'ustly denominate fanatics. #ll fanaticism springs from an a)erration of the mindVfrom a defect in reasoning. Ft is a species of insanity. ?ne of the most striking characteristics of insanity, in many instances, is forming correct conclusions from fancied or erroneous premisesE so with the anti-sla2ery fanatics. .heir conclusions are right if their premises were. .hey assume that the negro is eDual, and hence conclude that he is entitled to eDual pri2ileges and rights with the white man. Ff their premises were correct, their conclusions would )e logical and 'ustV)ut their premise )eing wrong, their whole argument fails. F recollect once of ha2ing heard a gentleman from one of the northern "tates, of great power and a)ility, announce in the <ouse of Representati2es, with imposing effect, that we of the "outh would )e compelled, ultimately, to yield upon this su)'ect of sla2ery, that it was as impossi)le to war successfully against a principle in politics, as it was in physics or mechanics. .hat the principle would ultimately pre2ail. .hat we, in maintaining sla2ery as it e4ists with us, were warring against a principle, a principle founded in nature, the principle of the eDuality of men. .he reply F made to him was, that upon his own grounds, we should, ultimately, succeed, and that he and his associates, in this crusade against our institutions, would ultimately fail. .he truth announced, that it was as impossi)le to war successfully against a principle in politics as it was in physics and mechanics, F admittedE )ut told him that it was he, and those acting with him, who were warring against a principle. .hey were attempting to make things eDual which the %reator had made uneDual. Fn the conflict thus far, success has )een on our side, complete throughout the length and )readth of the %onfederate "tates. Ft is upon this, as F ha2e stated, our social fa)ric is firmly plantedE and F cannot permit myself to dou)t the ultimate success of a full recognition of this principle throughout the ci2iliQed and enlightened world. #s F ha2e stated, the truth of this principle may )e slow in de2elopment, as all truths are and e2er ha2e )een, in the 2arious )ranches of science. Ft was so with the principles announced )y CalileoVit was so with #dam "mith and his principles of political economy. Ft was so with <ar2ey, and his theory of the circulation of the )lood. Ft is stated that not a single one of the medical profession, li2ing at the time of the announcement of the truths made )y him, admitted them. :ow, they are uni2ersally acknowledged. 0ay we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate uni2ersal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system restsN Ft is the first go2ernment e2er instituted upon the principles in strict conformity to nature, and the ordination of Pro2idence, in furnishing the materials of human society. 0any go2ernments ha2e )een founded upon the principle of the su)ordination and serfdom of certain classes of the same raceE such were and are in 2iolation of the laws of nature. 5ur system 'ommits no su'h 2iolation o" natures la!s, 6ith us, all o" the !hite ra'e, ho!e2er hi+h or lo!, ri'h or poor, are eJual in the eye o" the la!, &ot so !ith the ne+ro, #u ordination is his pla'e, <e, )y nature, or )y the curse against %anaan, is fitted for that condition which he occupies in our system. .he architect, in the construction of )uildings, lays the foundation with the proper material-the graniteE then comes the )rick or the mar)le. .he su)stratum of our society is made of the material fitted )y nature for it, and )y e4perience we know that it is )est, not only for the superior, )ut for the inferior race, that it should )e so. Ft is, indeed, in conformity with the ordinance of the %reator. Ft is not for us to inDuire into the wisdom of <is ordinances, or to Duestion them. 9or <is own purposes, <e has made one race to differ from another, as <e has made Rone star to differ from another star in glory.R .he great o)'ects of humanity are )est attained when there is conformity to <is laws and decrees, in the formation of go2ernments as well as in all things else. ?ur confederacy is founded upon principles in strict conformity with these laws. .his stone which was re'ected )y the first )uilders Ris )ecome the chief of the cornerRVthe real Rcorner-stoneRVin our new edifice. F ha2e )een asked, what of the futureN Ft has )een apprehended )y some that we would ha2e arrayed against us the ci2iliQed world. F care not who or how many they may )e against us, when we stand upon the eternal principles of truth, if we are true to oursel2es and the principles for which we contend, we are o)liged to, and must triumph. .housands of people who )egin to understand these truths are not yet completely out of the shellE they do not see them in their length and )readth. We hear much of the ci2iliQation and %hristianiQation of the )ar)arous tri)es of #frica. Fn my 'udgment, those ends will ne2er )e attained, )ut )y first teaching them the lesson taught to #dam, that Rin the sweat of his )row he should eat his )read,R and teaching them to work, and feed, and clothe themsel2es. But to pass on> "ome ha2e propounded the inDuiry whether it is practica)le for us to go on with the confederacy without further accessionsN <a2e we the means and a)ility to maintain nationality among the powers of the earthN ?n this point F would )arely say, that as an4iously as we

all ha2e )een, and are, for the )order "tates, with institutions similar to ours, to 'oin us, still we are a)undantly a)le to maintain our position, e2en if they should ultimately make up their minds not to cast their destiny with us. .hat they ultimately will 'oin usV)e compelled to do itVis my confident )eliefE )ut we can get on 2ery well without them, e2en if they should not. We ha2e all the essential elements of a high national career. .he idea has )een gi2en out at the :orth, and e2en in the )order "tates, that we are too small and too weak to maintain a separate nationality. .his is a great mistake. Fn e4tent of territory we em)race fi2e hundred and si4tyfour thousand sDuare miles and upward. .his is upward of two hundred thousand sDuare miles more than was included within the limits of the original thirteen "tates. Ft is an area of country more than dou)le the territory of 9rance or the #ustrian empire. 9rance, in round num)ers, has )ut two hundred and twel2e thousand sDuare miles. #ustria, in round num)ers, has two hundred and forty-eight thousand sDuare miles. ?urs is greater than )oth com)ined. Ft is greater than all 9rance, "pain, Portugal, and Creat Britain, including England, Freland, and "cotland, together. Fn population we ha2e upward of fi2e millions, according to the census of +*;1E this includes white and )lack. .he entire population, including white and )lack, of the original thirteen "tates, was less than four millions in +/B1, and still less in 3/;, when the independence of our fathers was achie2ed. Ff they, with a less population, dared maintain their independence against the greatest power on earth, shall we ha2e any apprehension of maintaining ours nowN Fn point of material wealth and resources, we are greatly in ad2ance of them. .he ta4a)le property of the %onfederate "tates cannot )e less than twenty-two hundred millions of dollarsY .his, F think F 2enture )ut little in saying, may )e considered as fi2e times more than the colonies possessed at the time they achie2ed their independence. Ceorgia, alone, possessed last year, according to the report of our comptrollergeneral, si4 hundred and se2enty-two millions of ta4a)le property. .he de)ts of the se2en confederate "tates sum up in the aggregate less than eighteen millions, while the e4isting de)ts of the other of the late !nited "tates sum up in the aggregate the enormous amount of one hundred and se2enty-four millions of dollars. .his is without taking into account the hea2y city de)ts, corporation de)ts, and railroad de)ts, which press, and will continue to press, as a hea2y incu)us upon the resources of those "tates. .hese de)ts, added to others, make a sum total not much under fi2e hundred millions of dollars. With such an area of territory as we ha2e-with such an amount of population-with a climate and soil unsurpassed )y any on the face of the earth-with such resources already at our command-with productions which control the commerce of the world-who can entertain any apprehensions as to our a)ility to succeed, whether others 'oin us or notN Ft is true, F )elie2e F state )ut the common sentiment, when F declare my earnest desire that the )order "tates should 'oin us. .he differences of opinion that e4isted among us anterior to secession, related more to the policy in securing that result )y co-operation than from any difference upon the ultimate security we all looked to in common. .hese differences of opinion were more in reference to policy than principle, and as 0r. $efferson said in his inaugural, in +*1+, after the heated contest preceding his election, that there might )e differences of opinion without differences on principle, and that all, to some e4tent, had )een 9ederalists and all Repu)licansE so it may now )e said of us, that whate2er differences of opinion as to the )est policy in ha2ing a co-operation with our )order sister sla2e "tates, if the worst came to the worst, that as we were all co-operationists, we are now all for independence, whether they come or not. Fn this connection F take this occasion to state, that F was not without gra2e and serious apprehensions, that if the worst came to the worst, and cutting loose from the old go2ernment should )e the only remedy for our safety and security, it would )e attended with much more serious ills than it has )een as yet. .hus far we ha2e seen none of those incidents which usually attend re2olutions. :o such material as such con2ulsions usually throw up has )een seen. Wisdom, prudence, and patriotism, ha2e marked e2ery step of our progress thus far. .his augurs well for the future, and it is a matter of sincere gratification to me, that F am ena)led to make the declaration. ?f the men F met in the %ongress at 0ontgomery, F may )e pardoned for saying this, an a)ler, wiser, a more conser2ati2e, deli)erate, determined, resolute, and patriotic )ody of men, F ne2er met in my life. .heir works speak for themE the pro2isional go2ernment speaks for themE the constitution of the permanent go2ernment will )e a lasting monument of their worth, merit, and statesmanship. But to return to the Duestion of the future. What is to )e the result of this re2olutionN Will e2ery thing, commenced so well, continue as it has )egunN Fn reply to this an4ious inDuiry, F can only say it all depends upon oursel2es. # young man starting out in life on his ma'ority, with health, talent, and a)ility, under a fa2oring Pro2idence, may )e said to )e the architect of his own fortunes. <is destinies are in his own hands. <e may make for himself a name, of honor or dishonor, according to his own acts. Ff he plants himself upon truth, integrity, honor and uprightness, with industry, patience and energy, he cannot fail of success. "o it is with us. We are a young repu)lic, 'ust entering upon the arena of nationsE we will )e the architects of our own fortunes. ?ur destiny, under Pro2idence, is in our own hands. With wisdom, prudence, and statesmanship on the part of our pu)lic men, and intelligence, 2irtue and patriotism on the part of the people, success, to the full measures of our most sanguine hopes, may )e looked for. But if unwise counsels pre2ailVif we )ecome di2idedVif schisms ariseVif dissentions spring upVif factions are engenderedVif party spirit, nourished )y unholy personal am)ition shall rear its hydra head, F ha2e no good to prophesy for you. Without intelligence, 2irtue, integrity, and patriotism on the part of the people, no repu)lic or representati2e go2ernment can )e dura)le or sta)le. We ha2e intelligence, and 2irtue, and patriotism. #ll that is reDuired is to culti2ate and perpetuate these. Fntelligence will not do without 2irtue. 9rance was a nation of philosophers. .hese philosophers )ecome $aco)ins. .hey lacked that 2irtue, that de2otion to moral principle, and that patriotism which is essential to good go2ernment ?rganiQed upon principles of perfect 'ustice and right-seeking amity and friendship with all other powers-F see no o)stacle in the way of our upward and onward progress. ?ur growth, )y accessions from other "tates, will depend greatly upon whether we present to the world, as F trust we shall, a )etter go2ernment than that to which neigh)oring "tates )elong. Ff we do this, :orth %arolina, .ennessee, and #rkansas cannot hesitate longE neither can Airginia, Lentucky, and 0issouri. .hey will necessarily gra2itate to us )y an imperious law. We made ample pro2ision in our constitution for the admission of other "tatesE it is more guarded, and wisely so, F think, than the old constitution on the same su)'ect, )ut not too guarded to recei2e them as fast as it may )e proper. Noo/in+ to the distant "uture, and, perhaps, not 2ery "ar distant either, it is not eyond the ran+e o" possi ility, and e2en pro a ility, that all the +reat #tates o" the northD!est !ill +ra2itate this !ay, as !ell as Tennessee, Oentu'/y, Gissouri, 3r/ansas, et', #hould they do so, our doors are !ide enou+h to re'ei2e them, ut not until they are ready to assimilate !ith us in prin'iple,

.he process of disintegration in the old !nion may )e e4pected to go on with almost a)solute certainty if we pursue the right course. We are now the nucleus of a growing power which, if we are true to oursel2es, our destiny, and high mission, will )ecome the controlling power on this continent. .o what e4tent accessions will go on in the process of time, or where it will end, the future will determine. "o far as it concerns "tates of the old !nion, this process will )e upon no such principles of reconstruction as now spoken of, )ut upon reorganiQation and new assimilation. "uch are some of the glimpses of the future as F catch them. But at first we must necessarily meet with the incon2eniences and difficulties and em)arrassments incident to all changes of go2ernment. .hese will )e felt in our postal affairs and changes in the channel of trade. .hese incon2eniences, it is to )e hoped, will )e )ut temporary, and must )e )orne with patience and for)earance. #s to whether we shall ha2e war with our late confederates, or whether all matters of differences )etween us shall )e amica)ly settled, F can only say that the prospect for a peaceful ad'ustment is )etter, so far as F am informed, than it has )een. .he prospect of war is, at least, not so threatening as it has )een. .he idea of coercion, shadowed forth in President Lincoln3s inaugural, seems not to )e followed up thus far so 2igorously as was e4pected. 9ort "umter, it is )elie2ed, will soon )e e2acuated. What course will )e pursued toward 9ort Pickens, and the other forts on the gulf, is not so well understood. Ft is to )e greatly desired that all of them should )e surrendered. ?ur o)'ect is peace, not only with the :orth, )ut with the world. #ll matters relating to the pu)lic property, pu)lic lia)ilities of the !nion when we were mem)ers of it, we are ready and willing to ad'ust and settle upon the principles of right, eDuity, and good faith. War can )e of no more )enefit to the :orth than to us. Whether the intention of e2acuating 9ort "umter is to )e recei2ed as an e2idence of a desire for a peaceful solution of our difficulties with the !nited "tates, or the result of necessity, F will not undertake to say. F would feign hope the former. Rumors are afloat, howe2er, that it is the result of necessity. #ll F can say to you, therefore, on that point is, keep your armor )right and your powder dry. .he surest way to secure peace, is to show your a)ility to maintain your rights. .he principles and position of the present administration of the !nited "tatesVthe repu)lican partyVpresent some puQQling Duestions. While it is a fi4ed principle with them ne2er to allow the increase of a foot of sla2e territory, they seem to )e eDually determined not to part with an inch Rof the accursed soil.R :otwithstanding their clamor against the institution, they seemed to )e eDually opposed to getting more, or letting go what they ha2e got. .hey were ready to fight on the accession of .e4as, and are eDually ready to fight now on her secession. Why is thisN <ow can this strange parado4 )e accounted forN .here seems to )e )ut one rational solutionVand that is, notwithstanding their professions of humanity, they are disinclined to gi2e up the )enefits they deri2e from sla2e la)or. .heir philanthropy yields to their interest. .he idea of enforcing the laws, has )ut one o)'ect, and that is a collection of the ta4es, raised )y sla2e la)or to swell the fund necessary to meet their hea2y appropriations. .he spoils is what they are afterVthough they come from the la)or of the sla2eZ Z.hat as the admission of "tates )y %ongress under the constitution was an act of legislation, and in the nature of a contract or compact )etween the "tates admitted and the others admitting, why should not this contract or compact )e regarded as of like character with all other ci2il contractsVlia)le to )e rescinded )y mutual agreement of )oth partiesN .he seceding "tates ha2e rescinded it on their part, they ha2e resumed their so2ereignty. Why cannot the whole Duestion )e settled, if the north desire peace, simply )y the %ongress, in )oth )ranches, with the concurrence of the President, gi2ing their consent to the separation, and a recognition of our independenceN Source: <enry %le2eland, (le2ander H* Ste!hens, in Public and Private: )ith Letters and S!eeches, Before, 1uring, and Since the )ar 6Philadelphia, +**;8, pp. /+/-/(B.

3ourceC httpCOOwww'teachin%americanhistory'or%Oli,raryOinde)'aspMdocumentprint_NE

!+ecause the 6eclaration Iof the #mmediate Causes which #nduce and Justify the 3ecession of 3outh CarolinaJ thus ,aldly placed sla$ery ,efore the world as the -ustification of secession, some opposition to it appeared in the con$ention' "a)cy @re%% thou%ht it was a dishonor to the memory of those who had fou%ht a%ainst the tariff, internal impro$ements, and the ,ank' I/o,ert +arnwellJ /hett ar%ued that the !dissolution of the Constitution0 should ,e made the ,asis of the 6eclaration, and that the cause would ,e ele$ated and would recei$e more sympathy from the world if represented as a defense a%ainst ta)ation and $iolated freedom, as a contest of free trade a%ainst monopoly' +ut efforts to send the 6eclaration ,ack to committee were una$ailin%, and @re%%Fs motion to ta,le was lost ,y a $ote of 19: to 31' The ma-ority, like IAawrenceJ Seitt, were willin% to rest disunion upon the (uestion of sla$ery' !#t is the %reat central point from which we are now proceedin%,0 he said' As for the tariff, Seitt pointed out that he and all other Carolina con%ressmen had $oted for the tariff of 18 N and e$ery mem,er of the con$ention would ha$e done likewise had they ,een in Con%ress'0 1 3outh Caro ina !oes To .ar7 18<;-18<5 ,y Charles 7dward Cauthen and J' Tracy Power, p' N: Pendin% the de,ate in the 3outh Carolina Con$ention upon the declaration of causes for secession, "r' @re%%, a leadin% mem,er, o,-ected that no reference was made in it to the tariff, and internal impro$ements policy' +ut to this "r' Seitt, who had for years ,een a prominent mem,er of the 4nited 3tates House of /epresentati$es, pertinently repliedC 5Sour late /enators, and e%ery one o( your mem ers o( the 'ouse o( .e"resentati%es %oted (or the "resent tari((. #( the gentleman had een there he would ha%e %oted (or it. The tari(( is not the >uestion whi!h has rought us u" to our "resent attitude. # am willing in this issue to rest disunion u"on the >uestion o( sla%ery.60 1 3amuel 3' Co), former 4'3' Con%ressman, 188

42!er"ts o( President 1 raham Lin!oln0s :essage to Congress in /"e!ial /ession on $uly E, +,H+
TAt the ,e%innin% of the present Presidential term, four months a%o, the functions of the 8ederal @o$ernment were found to ,e %enerally suspended within the se$eral 3tates of 3outh Carolina, @eor%ia, Ala,ama, "ississippi, Aouisiana, and 8lorida, e)ceptin% only those of the Post <ffice 6epartment' >ithin these 3tates, all the 8orts, Arsenals, 6ock;yards, Customhouses, and the like, includin% the mo$a,le and stationary property in, and a,out them, had ,een sei=ed, and were held in open hostility to this @o$ernment, e)ceptin% only 8orts Pickens, Taylor, and Jefferson, on, and near the 8lorida coast, and 8ort 3umter, in Charleston har,or, 3outh Carolina' The 8orts thus sei=ed had ,een put in impro$ed conditionL new ones had ,een ,uiltL and armed forces had ,een or%ani=ed, and were or%ani=in%, all a$owedly with the same hostile purpose' The 8orts remainin% in the possession of the 8ederal %o$ernment, in, and near, these 3tates, were either ,esie%ed or menaced ,y warlike preparationsL and especially 8ort 3umter was nearly surrounded ,y well;protected hostile ,atteries, with %uns e(ual in (uality to the ,est of its own, and outnum,erin% the latter as perhaps ten to one' A disproportionate share, of the 8ederal muskets and rifles, had somehow found their way into these 3tates, and had ,een sei=ed, to ,e used a%ainst the %o$ernment' Accumulations of the pu,lic re$enue, lyin% within them, had ,een sei=ed for the same o,-ect' The .a$y was scattered in distant seasL lea$in% ,ut a $ery small part of it within the immediate reach of the %o$ernment' <fficers of the 8ederal Army and .a$y, had resi%ned in %reat num,ersL and, of those resi%nin%, a and lar%e proportion had taken up arms a%ainst the %o$ernment' 3imultaneously, and in connection, with all this, the purpose to se$er the 8ederal 4nion, was openly a$owed' #n accordance with this purpose, an ordinance had ,een adopted in each of these 3tates, declarin% the 3tates, respecti$ely, to ,e separated from the .ational 4nion' A formula for institutin% a com,ined %o$ernment of these states had ,een promul%atedL and this ille%al or%ani=ation, in the character of confederate 3tates was already in$okin% reco%nition, aid, and inter$ention, from 8orei%n Powers' 8indin% this condition of thin%s, and ,elie$in% it to ,e an imperati$e duty upon the incomin% 7)ecuti$e, to pre$ent, if possi,le, the consummation of such attempt to destroy the 8ederal 4nion, a choice of means to that end ,ecame indispensa,le' This choice was madeL and was declared in the #nau%ural address' The policy chosen looked to the e)haustion of all peaceful measures, ,efore a resort to any stron%er ones' #t sou%ht only to hold the pu,lic places and property, not already wrested from the @o$ernment, and to collect the re$enueL relyin% for the rest, on time, discussion, and the ,allot;,o)' #t promised a continuance of the mails, at %o$ernment e)pense, to the $ery people who were resistin% the %o$ernmentL and it %a$e repeated pled%es a%ainst any distur,ance to any of the people, or any of their ri%hts' <f all that which a president mi%ht constitutionally, and -ustifia,ly, do in such a case, e$erythin% was fore,orne, without which, it was ,elie$ed possi,le to keep the %o$ernment on footT #t is thus seen that the assault upon, and reduction of, 8ort 3umter, was, in no sense, a matter of self defence on the part of the assailants' They well knew that the %arrison in the 8ort could, ,y no possi,ility, commit a%%ression upon them' They knew 1 they were e)pressly notified;;;that the %i$in% of ,read to the few ,ra$e and hun%ry men of the %arrison, was all which would on that occasion ,e attempted, unless themsel$es, ,y resistin% so much, should pro$oke more' They knew that this @o$ernment desired to keep the %arrison in the 8ort, not to assail them, ,ut merely to maintain $isi,le possession, and thus to preser$e the 4nion from actual, and immediate dissolution 1 trustin%, as herein; ,efore stated, to time, discussion, and the ,allot;,o), for final ad-ustmentL and they assailed, and reduced the 8ort, for precisely the re$erse o,-ect;;;to dri$e out the $isi,le authority of the 8ederal 4nion, and thus force it to immediate dissolution' That this was their o,-ect, the 7)ecuti$e well understoodL and ha$in% said to them in the inau%ural address, !*ou can ha$e no conflict without ,ein% yoursel$es the a%%ressors,0 he took pains, not only to keep this declaration %ood, ,ut also to keep the case so free from the power of in%enious sophistry, as that the world should not ,e a,le to misunderstand it' +y the affair at 8ort 3umter, with its surroundin% circumstances, that point was reached' Then, and there,y, the assailants of the @o$ernment, ,e%an the conflict of arms, without a %un in si%ht, or in e)pectancy, to return their fire, sa$e only the few in the 8ort, sent to that har,or, years ,efore, for their own protection, and still ready to %i$e that protection, in whate$er was lawful' #n this act, discardin% all else, they ha$e forced upon the country, the distinct issueC !#mmediate dissolution, or ,lood'0 And this issue em,races more than the fate of these 4nited 3tates' #t presents to the whole family of man, the (uestion, whether a constitutional repu,lic, or a democracy;;;a %o$ernment of the people, ,y the same people;;;can, or cannot, maintain its territorial inte%rity, a%ainst its own domestic foes' #t presents the (uestion, whether discontented indi$iduals, too few in num,ers to control administration, accordin% to or%anic law, in any case, can always, upon the pretences made in this case, or on any other pretences, or ar,itrarily, without any pretence, ,reak up their @o$ernment, and thus practically put an end to free %o$ernment upon the earth' #t forces us to askC !#s there, in all repu,lics, this inherent, and fatal weaknessM0 !"ust a %o$ernment, of necessity, ,e too stron% for the li,erties of its own people, or too weak to maintain its own e)istenceM0 3o $iewin% the issue, no choice was left ,ut to call out the war power of the @o$ernmentL and so to resist force, employed for its destruction, ,y force, for its preser$ationT #t might seem, at (irst thought, to e o( little di((eren!e whether the "resent mo%ement at the /outh e !alled 5se!ession6 or 5re ellion.6 The mo%ers, howe%er, well understand the di((eren!e. 1t the eginning, they knew they !ould ne%er raise their treason to any res"e!ta le magnitude, y any name whi!h im"lies %iolation o( law. They knew their "eo"le "ossessed as mu!h o( moral sense, as mu!h o( de%otion to law and order, and as mu!h "ride in, and re%eren!e (or, the history, and go%ernment, o( their !ommon !ountry, as any other !i%ili7ed, and "atrioti! "eo"le. They knew they !ould make no ad%an!ement dire!tly in the teeth o( these strong and no le sentiments. 1!!ordingly they !ommen!ed y an insidious de au!hing o( the "u li! mind. They in%ented an ingenious so"hism,

whi!h, i( !on!eded, was (ollowed y "er(e!tly logi!al ste"s, through all the in!idents, to the !om"lete destru!tion o( the Gnion. The so"hism itsel( is, that any state o( the Gnion may, !onsistently with the national Constitution, and there(ore law(ully, and "ea!e(ully, withdraw (rom the Gnion, without the !onsent o( the Gnion, or o( any other state. The little disguise that the su""osed right is to e e2er!ised only (or =ust !ause, themsel%es to e the sole =udge o( its =usti!e, is too thin to merit any noti!e. With re ellion thus sugarA!oated, they ha%e een drugging the "u li! mind o( their se!tion (or more than thirty years L and, until at len%th, they ha$e ,rou%ht many %ood men to a willin%ness to take up arms a%ainst the %o$ernment the day after some assem,la%e of men ha$e enacted the farcical pretence of takin% their 3tate out of the 4nion, who could ha$e ,een ,rou%ht to no such thin% the day ,efore' This sophism deri$es much;;;perhaps the whole;;;of its currency, from the assumption, that there is some omnipotent, and sacred supremacy, pertainin% to a 3tate;;;to each 3tate of our 8ederal 4nion' <ur 3tates ha$e neither more, nor less power, than that reser$ed to them, in the 4nion, ,y the Constitution;;;no one of them e$er ha$in% ,een a 3tate out of the 4nion' The ori%inal ones passed into the 4nion e$en ,efore they cast off their +ritish colonial dependenceL and the new ones each came into the 4nion directly from a condition of dependence, e)ceptin% Te)as' And e$en Te)as, in its temporary independence, was ne$er desi%nated a 3tate' The new ones only took the desi%nation of 3tates, on comin% into the 4nion, while that name was first adopted for the old ones, in, and ,y, the 6eclaration of #ndependence' Therein the !4nited Colonies0 were declared to ,e !8ree and #ndependent 3tates0L ,ut, e$en then, the o,-ect plainly was not to declare their independence of one another, or of the 4nionL ,ut directly the contrary, as their mutual pled%e, and their mutual action, ,efore, at the time, and afterwards, a,undantly show' The e)press pli%htin% of faith, ,y each and all of the ori%inal thirteen, in the Articles of Confederation, two years later, that the 4nion shall ,e perpetual, is most conclusi$e' 'a%ing ne%er een /tates, either in su stan!e, or in name, outside o( the Gnion, when!e this magi!al omni"oten!e o( 5/tate rights,6 asserting a !laim o( "ower to law(ully destroy the Gnion itsel(? :u!h is said a out the 5so%ereignty6 o( the /tatesC ut the word, e%en, is not in the national ConstitutionC nor, as is elie%ed, in any o( the /tate !onstitutions. What is a 5so%ereignty,6 in the "oliti!al sense o( the term? Would it e (ar wrong to de(ine it 51 "oliti!al !ommunity, without a "oliti!al su"erior6? Tested y this, no one o( our /tates, e2!e"t Te2as, e%er was a so%ereignty. 1nd e%en Te2as ga%e u" the !hara!ter on !oming into the GnionC y whi!h a!t, she a!knowledged the Constitution o( the Gnited /tates, and the laws and treaties o( the Gnited /tates made in "ursuan!e o( the Constitution, to e, (or her, the su"reme law o( the land. The /tates ha%e their status #3 the Gnion, and they ha%e no other legal status. #( they reak (rom this, they !an only do so against law, and y re%olution. The Gnion, and not themsel%es se"arately, "ro!ured their inde"enden!e, and their li erty. &y !on>uest, or "ur!hase, the Gnion ga%e ea!h o( them, whate%er o( inde"enden!e, and li erty, it has. The Gnion is older than any o( the /tatesC and, in (a!t, it !reated them as /tates. 8riginally, some de"endent !olonies made the GnionC and, in turn, the Gnion threw o(( their old de"enden!e, (or them, and made them /tates, su!h as they are. 3ot one o( them e%er had a /tate !onstitution, inde"endent o( the Gnion. 8( !ourse, it is not (orgotten that all the new /tates (ramed their !onstitutions, e(ore they entered the GnionC ne%ertheless, de"endent u"on, and "re"aratory to, !oming into the Gnion. 4n(uestiona,ly the 3tates ha$e the powers, and ri%hts, reser$ed to them in, and ,y the .ational ConstitutionL ,ut amon% these, surely, are not included all concei$a,le powers, howe$er mischie$ous, or destructi$eL ,ut, at most, such only, as were known in the world, at the time, as %o$ernmental powersL and certainly, a power to destroy the %o$ernment itself, had ne$er ,een known as a %o$ernmental;;;as a merely administrati$e power' This relati$e matter of .ational power, and 3tate ri%hts, as a principle, is no other than the principle of %enerality, and locality' >hate$er concerns the whole, should ,e confided to the whole;;;to the %eneral %o$ernmentL while, whate$er concerns only the 3tate, should ,e left e)clusi$ely, to the 3tate' This is all there is of ori%inal principle a,out it' >hether the .ational Constitution, in definin% ,oundaries ,etween the two, has applied the principle with e)act accuracy, is not to ,e (uestioned' >e are all ,ound ,y that definin%, without (uestion' >hat is now com,atted, is the position that secession is consistent with the Constitution;;;is lawful, and peaceful' #t is not contended that there is any e)press law for itL and nothin% should e$er ,e implied as law, which leads to un-ust, or a,surd conse(uencesT The seceders insist that our Constitution admits of secession' They ha$e assumed to make a .ational Constitution of their own, in which, of necessity, they ha$e either discarded, or retained, the ri%ht of secession, as they insist, it e)ists in ours' #f they ha$e discarded it, they there,y admit that, on principle, it ou%ht not to ,e in ours' #f they ha$e retained it, ,y their own construction of ours they show that to ,e consistent they must secede from one another, whene$er they shall find it the easiest way of settlin% their de,ts, or effectin% any other selfish, or un-ust o,-ect' The "rin!i"le itsel( is one o( disintegration , and upon which no %o$ernment can possi,ly endure' #f all the 3tates, sa$e one, should assert the power to dri$e that one out of the 4nion, it is presumed the whole class of seceder politicians would at once deny the power, and denounce the act as the %reatest outra%e upon 3tate ri%hts' +ut suppose that precisely the same act, instead of ,ein% called !dri$in% the one out,0 should ,e called !the secedin% of the others from that one,0 it would ,e e)actly what the seceders claim to doL unless, indeed, they make the point, that the one, ,ecause it is a minority, may ri%htfully do, what the others, ,ecause they are a ma-ority, may not ri%htfully do' These politicians are su,tle, and profound, on the ri%hts of minorities' They are not partial to that power which made the Constitution, and speaks from the pream,le, callin% itself !>e, the People'0T This is essentially a Peo"le0s !ontest. <n the side of the 4nion, it is a stru%%le for maintainin% in the world, that form, and su,stance of %o$ernment, whose leadin% o,-ect is, to ele$ate the condition of men 1 to lift artificial wei%hts from all shoulders 1 to clear the paths of lauda,le pursuit for all;;;to afford all, an unfettered start, and a fair chance, in the race of life'

:ew ?rleans was a thri2ing commercial and financial city in the ante)ellum "outh, strategically located on the 0ississippi Ri2er near the Culf of 0e4ico. !.". President .homas $efferson purchased the city of :ew ?rleans and the Louisiana colony from 9rance in +*1, for 5+@ million. #merican merchants and farmers in "t. Louis, %incinnati, Louis2ille, 0inneapolis, and other commercial cities depended on the ports in :ew ?rleans for their commerce. %onfederate power)rokers $ohn "lidell and $udah P. Ben'amin 6a 7ale dropout8 li2ed in :ew ?rleans )efore the %i2il War. # large population of 9rench-speaking %reoles, free people of color , and English-speaking #mericans li2ed in :ew ?rleans )efore the %i2il WarE Louisiana was a )ilingual state 6English and 9rench8 )efore the %i2il War. .wo of #merica3s largest $ewish communities )efore the %i2il War were :ew ?rleans and %harleston.

$udah P. Ben'amin 6left8 and $ohn "lidell 6second from left8 li2ed in :ew ?rleans for many years. Both $udah Ben'amin and $ohn "lidell represented Louisiana while ser2ing in the !nited "tates "enate prior to the %i2il War. $udah P. Ben'amin was raised in %harleston, "outh %arolina and mo2ed to :ew ?rleans after attending 7ale !ni2ersity for two years. $ohn "lidell was raised in :ew 7ork %ity and mo2ed to :ew ?rleans after graduating from %olum)ia !ni2ersity. William Preston $ohnston 6second from right8 ser2ed as the first President of .ulane !ni2ersity in :ew ?rleans from +**- until his death in +*BB. $ohnston graduated from 7ale !ni2ersity in +*@(E he was a mem)er of "kull = Bones at 7ale !ni2ersity. $ohnston was a %olonel in the %onfederate army and ser2ed as $efferson &a2is3s aide-de-camp during the %i2il War. %onfederate Lt. Cen. Richard .aylor ser2ed as a Louisiana "tate "enator from +*@; until +*;+. .aylor ser2ed as the %ommander of the I%onfederateJ #rmy of .ennessee in +*;@. .aylor graduated from 7ale !ni2ersity in +*-@E he was a mem)er of "kull = Bones at 7ale !ni2ersity.

+ank notes of the !Confederate 3tates of America0

2Photo and 3ourceC Di'ie 8etrayed7 6ow the 3outh )ea y Lost the Ci(i .ar ,y 6a$id J' 7icher5

.7> *</S C#T* & TH7 !A<3T CA4370

.ew *ork City Hall

:ew 7ork &emocrats, left to right> 9ernando Wood, William 0arcy Boss .weed, #ugust Belmont "r., and $oseph "eligman 9ernando Wood was the 0ayor of :ew 7ork %ity in +*;+ and a mem)er of the &emocratic Party. William 0arcy Boss .weed, who ser2ed as a Crand "achem of .ammany <all in :ew 7ork %ity, !.". %ongressman 6&-:ew 7ork, +*@,-+*@@8, &eputy "treet %ommissioner of :ew 7ork %ity 6+*;+-+*/18, and :ew 7ork "tate "enator 6+*;/-+*/+8, was arrested and con2icted for em)eQQlement in +*/-. Boss .weed escaped from prison in &ecem)er +*/@, was captured in "pain, and died in prison in :ew 7ork %ity on #pril +(, +*/*. :ew 7ork %ity )anker and Rothschild agent #ugust Belmont "r., a $ewish )anker )orn in Cermany, was the %hairman of the &emocratic Party from +*;1 to +*/(E #ugust Belmont "r. was a mem)er of the .ammany <all in :ew 7ork %ity. $oseph "eligman, a prominent $ewish )anker and )usinessman )orn in Cermany, was a prominent !nion financier and war profiteer during the %i2il War.

!>ith our a%%rie$ed ,rethren of the 3la$e 3tates, we ha$e friendly relations and a common sympathyT Then it may ,e said, why should not .ew *ork City, instead of supportin% ,y her contri,utions in re$enue twoUthirds of the e)penses of the 4nited 3tates, ,ecome also e(ually independentM T #n this she would ha$e the whole and united support of the 3outhern 3tatesT0 1 .ew *ork City "ayor 8ernando >ood, on January E, 18E1

Fnternational Bankers = the #merican %i2il War

Fnternational )akers, left to right> #ugust Belmont "r., Baron $ames 0ayer de Rothschild, Baron Lionel :athan de Rothschild, and $unius "pencer 0organ. $unius "pencer 0organ was an #merican )anker who li2ed in London during the %i2il War.

!The di$ision of the 4nited 3tates into two federations of e(ual force was decided lon% ,efore the Ci$il >ar ,y the Hi%h 8inancial Power of 7urope' These ,ankers were afraid that the 4nited 3tates, if they remained in one ,lock and as one nation, would attain economical and financial independence, which would upset their financial domination o$er the >orld' The $oice of the /othschilds predominated' They foresaw tremendous ,ooty if they could su,stitute two fee,le democracies, inde,ted to the Jewish financiers, to the $i%orous /epu,lic, confident and self;pro$idin%' Therefore, they started their emissaries in order to e)ploit the (uestion of sla$ery and thus to di% an a,yss ,etween the two parts of the /epu,lic' Aincoln ne$er suspected these under%round machinations' He was anti;3la$erist, and he was elected as such, +ut his character pre$ented him from ,ein% the man of one party' >hen he had affairs in his hands, he percei$ed that these sinister financiers of 7urope, the /othschilds, wished to make him the e)ecutor of their desi%ns' They made the rupture ,etween the .orth and the 3outh imminentR The masters of 8inance in 7urope made this rupture definiti$e in order to e)ploit it to the utmost' AincolnBs personality surprised them' His candidature did not trou,le themC they thou%ht to easily dupe the candidate woodcutter' +ut Aincoln read their plots and soon understood, that the 3outh was not the worst foe, ,ut the Jew financiers' He did not confide his apprehensionsL he watched the %estures of the Hidden HandL he did not wish to e)pose pu,licly the (uestions which would disconcert the i%norant masses' He decided to eliminate the #nternational ,ankers, ,y esta,lishin% a system of Aoans, allowin% the 3tates to ,orrow directly from the people without intermediary' He did not study financial (uestions, ,ut his ro,ust %ood sense re$ealed to him, that the source of any wealth resides in the work and economy of the nation' He opposed emissions throu%h the #nternational financiers' He o,tained from Con%ress the ri%ht to ,orrow from the people ,y sellin% to it the B,ondsB of 3tates' The local ,anks were only too %lad to help such a system' And the @o$ernment and the nation escaped the plots of the forei%n financiers' They understood at once, that the 4nited 3tates would escape their %rip' The death of Aincoln was resol$ed upon' .othin% is easier than to find a fanatic to strike'B ' ' 'The death of Aincoln, was a disaster for Christendom' There was no man in the 4nited 3tates %reat enou%h to wear his ,oots' And #srael went anew to %ra, the riches of the >orld' # fear that Jewish +anks with their craftiness and tortuous tricks will entirely control the e)u,erant riches of America, and use it to systematically corrupt modern ci$ili=ation' The Jew will not hesitate to plun%e the whole of Christendom into wars and chaos, in order that `the earth should ,ecome the inheritance of #srael'F0 1 <tto $on +ismarck, Chancellor of @ermany, in 18NE 23ourceC BAa ?ieille 8rance,B .;91E, "arch, 1G915 !The money power preys upon the nation in times of peace and conspires a%ainst it in times of ad$ersity' #t is more despotic than monarchy, more insolent than autocracy, more selfish than ,ureaucracy' #t denounces, as pu,lic enemies, all who (uestion its methods or throw Ai%ht upon its crimes' # ha$e two %reat enemies, the 3outhern Army in front of me and the +ankers in the rear' <f the two, the one at my rear is my %reatest foe'''# see in the near future a crisis approachin% that unner$es me and causes me to trem,le for the safety of my country' As a result of the war, corporations ha$e ,een enthroned and an era of corruption in hi%h places will follow, and the money power of the country will endea$or to prolon% its rei%n ,y workin% upon the pre-udices of the people until all wealth is a%%re%ated in a few hands and the /epu,lic is destroyed'0 1 4'3' President A,raham Aincoln, .o$em,er 91, 18E:, in a letter to Col' >illiam 8' 7lkins
6Reference> The Lincoln #ncyclo!edia, #rcher <. "haw 60acmillan, +B@1, :ew 7ork8

!#f that mischie$ous financial policy which had its ori%in in the .orth American /epu,lic should ,ecome indurated down to a fi)ture, then that %o$ernment will furnish its own money without cost' #t will pay off its de,ts and ,e without a de,t' #t will ha$e all the money necessary to carry on its commerce' #t will ,ecome prosperous ,eyond precedent in the history of the ci$ili=ed %o$ernments of the world' The ,rains and wealth of all countries will %o to .orth America' That %o$ernment must ,e destroyed or it will destroy e$ery monarchy on the %lo,e'0 1 editorial in The Times of London in 18E9

7)cerpts from The Chica$o Tri"une 218E:5

!7.C<4/A@7"7.T;;.<T 8</ TH7 B/<TH3CH#A63F The fact that the Chairman of the .ational 6emocratic Committee is the a%ent of the /othschilds %i$es the Copperheads an immense ad$anta%e in recei$in% an unlimited amount of funds from the money kin%s of the old rotten despotisms of 7urope in order to secure the election of "cClellan and the destruction of the @o$ernment' That Copperhead 6emocracy and 7uropean despotism are workin% for the same end, there cannot ,e a particle of dou,t' The hand of +elmont is most directly seen in the second plank of the Copperhead platform, and in fact it is demonstra,le from the lan%ua%e of it, that it was all made in the interest of Jeff' 6a$is and his alies, the aristocrats and despots of 7urope' 3hrewd, far;seein% men on the other side of the Atlantic understand this matter perfectly' <ne of our citi=ens who has ,een makin% an e)tensi$e tour in 7urope, writes to the Treasurer of the 4nion 3tate Central Committee as followsC `7nclosed is an order on ;;;;;;;;;, for three hundred dollars, to aid the 4nion party in pu,lishin% and disseminatin% that proper information in order to secure the re;election of A,raham Aincoln to the office of President of the 4nited 3tates, and to aid in the election of the nominees of that party in the 3tate of #llinois' ^ ^ ^ # ha$e written to ;;;;;;;;; to pay this order for me, and to respond to any calls of years to the e)tent of two hundred dollars more if you think it will ,e wanted' # feel that the future interests of our ,elo$ed country depend much on the re;election of "r' Aincoln and the success of the 4nion party, and thou%h a,sent, # wish to do what # can to secure that result' # hope to ,e home in time to $ote for the 4nion candidates, ,oth 3tate and .ational, in .o$em,er'F <ur shrewd patriotic citi=en takes a wise and enlar%ed $iew of his duties, and of his interests as wellL for if the Copperhead party succeed in the election, his ample fortune would not ,e worth the cost of a monthBs so-ourn in 7urope or elsewhere' The destruction of the @o$ernment;;the sure result of a Copperhead triumph;;would destroy all $alues, and all personal and pu,lic safety for the ne)t %eneration'0 1 The Chica$o Tri"une, pa%e 9, 10 <cto,er 18E:

!+7A"<.TB3 C<.8767/AT7 +<.63' The Chica%o re,el or%an is annoyed ,y the pu,lication of the fact that a controllin% share in the stock of the Copperheads machine has ,een ,ou%ht up ,y Au%uste +elmont, the American mem,er of the /othschilds family and firm, well known e$erywhere to ,e controllin% owners not only in the +ritish de,t and the Aondon Times, which to%ether control the +ritish aristocracy and oppress the #rish people, ,ut also of the "a)imillian de,t, 2which fact accounts for the strikin% out of the "onroe doctrine from the Chica%o Platform,5 and finally of the re,el de,t, 2which accounts for +elmont spendin% two millions dollars to nominate a war man on a peace platform'5 These facts are a little incon$enient to the Copperheads' They were ne$er intended ,y them for pu,lication' They are decidedly em,arrassin%' #t is perhaps somewhat flatterin% to our national pride to know that the /othschilds, who hold up e$ery despotism in 7urope, ha$e concluded that it would ,e cheaper to ,uy up one of our political parties, and in that way secure the dissolution of the 4nion, than to ha$e their a%ents in 7n%land and 8rance interfere and fi%ht us' +ut #rishmen and @ermans ha$e a somethin%, which for ,re$ity we will all a Bcrop,B and this fact sticks in their crop, that the oppressors of #reland and @ermany, the money kin%s of 7urope, not darin% to carry out their first pet pro-ect of ,reakin% down this @o$ernment ,y the armed inter$ention, of 7n%land and 8rance, for the re,els, which would shake the ,ourse, lower the rates of consols and take away the ducats of the /othschilds, ha$e adopted the cheaper and easier mode of accomplishin% the same o,-ect, ,y ,uyin% up the Copperhead leaders and runnin% the 6emocratic machine' The /othschilds want ducats, ,ut to make their ducats they want $otes' ?otes for the Peace party will send stocks up and so the /othschilds make their ducats' ?otes for "cClellan send the 4nion stock, which the money kin%s ha$e no share, down, and so the /othschilds make their ducats' ?otes for the dissolution of the 4nion relati$ely stren%then 7n%land and 8rance and send consols up;;and so the /othschilds make their ducats' The 4nion dissol$ed and "a)imillian will not ,e o$erthrown, nor will 7n%land ha$e to pay for her re,el pri$ateerin%, nor will #reland, ,acked ,y our @o$ernment, re,el and ,e free, nor will +ritish America unite with us, ,y all which the /othschilds and +elmont, chairman of the 6emocratic party, make ducats' The /othschilds will fish with a sil$er hook for $otes which net them so %ood a profit, ,ut e$en the sil$er hook must ,e ,aited, and the Chica%o Times is authori=ed to ad-ust the ,ait' #t is `authori=ed to say that +elmont owns no Confederate stock, and that he knows that the /othschilds do not'F .ow, we are authori=ed to say that all 7urope ha$e known for months and years that they do' >e know that a ,anker may, ,y the scratch of his pen, own nothin% ,ut Confederate stock one minute and nothin% ,ut fi$e;twenties the ne)t' >e happen to ha$e heard of some Copperhead ,ankers who own little ,esides fi$e;twenties on the day the Assessors calls' +ut the financial community know in what stocks financiers are interested, in spite of anythin% true or false which re,el papers may ,e `authori=ed to state'F Aet +elmont state o$er his own si%nature, if he can that he and /othschilds ha$e not, directly or indirectly, in their own name, or in that of others, operated in Confederate stocks durin% this re,ellion' 4ntil he can face the music in that style it matters little what tune any of the Copperhead penny whistles may ,e authori=ed to ,low, as they are $ery seldom authori=ed to state anythin% that is true'0 1 The Chica$o Tri"une, pa%e 9, 1E <cto,er 18E:

TH7 8/7.CH #.?A3#<. <8 "7D#C< 218E9;18EN5C /<TH3CH#A6 <P7/AT#<.M

Left photo> Battle of Pue)la, in 0e4ico )etween the 9rench #rmy and the 0e4ican #rmy on 0ay @, +*;( 6%inco de 0ayo8 Right photo> Emperor 0a4imilian F of 0e4ico ruled 0e4ico from +*;- to +*;/E he was the )rother of #ustria3s Emperor 9ranQ $osef.

.he E4ecution of Emperor 0a4imilian F of 0e4ico )y the 0e4ican #rmy in Mueretaro, 0e4ico on $une +B, +*;/. &uring the %i2il War, $efferson &a2is and $udah Ben'amin proposed to cede .e4as and Louisiana to 9rance in e4change for diplomatic recognition and military inter2ention )y the 9rench #rmyE the 9rench #rmy had conDuered most of 0e4ico and forced 0e4ico3s President Benito $uareQ into temporary e4ile. .he %onfederate en2oy to 9rance during the %i2il War was $ohn "lidellE $ohn "lidell3s niece married #ugust Belmont "r., a Rothschild agent, prior to the %i2il War. 9rance in2aded 0e4ico after the 0e4ican go2ernment defaulted on its de)t payments to 9rance.

3alomon de /othschild Tours America 218E15

/alomon de .oths!hildMs Jisit to 1meri!a

Baron James de Rothschild, father of Salomon de Rothschild

#n the fall of 18 G, 3alomon de /othschild, the son of +aron James de /othschild of Paris, came to the 4nited 3tates as a tourist' His tra$els in the .orth and 3outh were recorded in a series of letters to his cousin .athaniel in Aondon, which are stored in the "anuscripts 6i$ision of the Ai,rary of Con%ress' Althou%h /othschildBs $isit was as a pri$ate tourist and not a ,usiness trip for his familyBs ,ankin% firm, he met with prominent personalities and commented intelli%ently on the issues of the day' His $iews on the conflict ,etween the .orth and the 3outh were decidedly pro;Confederate and his letters ur%ed his cousin to use all his familyBs influence to %ain the reco%nition of the Confederacy ,y the 7uropean powers'

3ourceC Jewish;American History 6ocumentation 8oundationL httpCOOwww'-ewish;history'comOsalomonOinde)'html

3alomon de /othschild Tours America 218E15

1meri!a at the 4nd o( an 4ra

New York, October 17, 1859 People are rather preocc pied !ith the internal politics of the co ntr". #he aborti$e attempt of %the abolitionist John& Bro!n and his accomplices, and their e'ec tion, ha$e a(ain aro sed the hatreds of the t!o (reat parties !hich di$ide )merica, and there are some !ho (o so far as to fear a complete schism bet!een the states of the So th and those of the *orth. #he pr dent men of the *orth, in order to a$oid an" s ch e'treme, declare themsel$es in fa$or of maintainin( the status quo, b t the pop lation is enra(ed a(ainst sla$er", and it is aro sed in this feelin( b" s+ilf l rin(leaders. )t their head is %the Re$erend ,enr" -ard& Beecher, the brother of .rs. %,arriet& Beecher Sto!e, a thor of Uncle Tom's Cab n. /$er" da" he deli$ers the most fier" speeches, and since he is a cler("man, he (enerall" chooses S nda" and the ch rches to (i$e $ent to his elo0 ence. 1n -ashin(ton, the 2on(ress is so di$ided that it has not as "et been able to name a president %Spea+er of the ,o se&. 1n Philadelphia there ha$e been dist rbances, and in So th 2arolina 3244,444 ha$e been p t aside in case of !ar !ith the *orthern states. ) pathetic nion5 B t 1 thin+ that all this e'citement !ill (o p in smo+e5 1 am be(innin( to become pop lar in this ne! life6 e$er"one is $er" polite to me and 1 ha$e been (ettin( in$itations b" the do7en. 1n m" tra$els 18m fre0 entl" am sed b" the si(ht of fires. #he" are so fre0 ent here that people pa" no attention to them, and e$en the people ne't door are not e$en dist rbed. Fire9fi(htin( ser$ices are admirable or(ani7ed6 the fire en(ines are ma(nificent and manned b" $ol nteers !ho $ie !ith one another to arri$e at the scene of the misfort ne first. So it happens that if t!o companies of firemen arri$e at the same time, the one that arri$es first has the ri(ht to command the other, b t the" be(in to battle abo t precedence. )n"!a", the fires (enerall" don8t last lon(6 the fire en(ines are !ell9 s ited to the tas+. Some of the en(ines are r n b" steam and the" tra$el b" themsel$es in the streets. B t the" ha$e the disad$anta(e that each time the" mo$e, the" cr sh se$eral people and o$ert rn carria(es. : tside of that, the" are $er" sef l. B t there is an e$ent here more serio s than most important political happenin(s; it is the constr ction and the establishment of a (arden or par+ !hich !ill be nine miles in circ mference. #h s all )mericans tell me !e are (oin( to ha$e a par+ more bea tif l than the Bois de Bo lo(ne %in Paris&. 1t !ill cost 314,444,444. %2entral Par+& New York, October 19, 1859 1 m st confess that *e! <or+ has made pon me an alto(ether different impression from !hat 1 e'pected. 1n it 1 fo nd the most aristocratic sentiments side b" side !ith the most thoro (hl" democratic instit tions. 1 ha$e seen fe! co ntries !here societ" !as more e'cl si$e, and "et this e'cl si$eness is fo nded on nothin(. -ealth, political position, ed cation are not the criteria that (et "o admitted. <o are fashionable or "o are not, and the reason is completel" n+no!n to those !ho are the ob=ect of this preference and to those !ho besto! it. 1t is, in m" opinion, the most pec liar and often the most n= st str ct re of societ" possible. 1 fo nd the men infinitel" better informed and more !orldl" than 1 e'pected, and 1 !o ld find them perfectl" all ri(ht, if the" didn8t ha$e a constant tendenc" to e'a((erate the fa lts of their motherland. #he financial and ind strial acti$it" has rather disappointed me, and !ith the e'ception of the nbelie$able e'pansion of the dr" (oods trade >importin( of man fact red (oods?, and the immense scale on !hich these ho ses are established, b siness seems to me 0 ite limited at this time. 1t is tr e that the diffic lties arisin( in / ropean politics, and the fears concei$ed in this co ntr" of a dissol tion of the )merican nion, !ere dominant in the slo!do!n of commerce and lon(9term enterprises. *o! 1 s ppose

that e$er"thin( !ill res me a(ain here, for the 1talian 0 estion has been considered entirel" resol$ed since the 2on(ress anno ncement %of @illafrance di @erona, J l" 1A59, !hereb" the emperors of ) stria and France settled, as the" tho (ht, the 1talian B estion&, and the differences bet!een France and /n(land completel" ended b" the nion of the forces of the t!o co ntries in the 2hinese e'pedition %in 1A59 to brin( that co ntr" into the sphere of / ropean infl ence&. )s for the internal politics of the co ntr", = dicio s people ha$e been so fri(htened b" the conse0 ences of a r pt re bet!een the *orth and So th that a stron( reaction !ill s ddenl" arise from all sides. .eetin(s ha$e been held in fa$or of the Cnion, at the same time as people are e'pectin( to see the anti9sla$er" >Rep blican? candidate named president of 2on(ress %Spea+er of the ,o se&. *e$ertheless, the nderstandin( bet!een the *orth and So th !ill be re9established, and the (reat problem of the sla$es !ill be left dormant ntil ne't "ear. )nother thin( that astonishes me $er" m ch is that, !ith rare e'ceptions, statesmen in p blic office or in 2on(ress are so li(htl" esteemed, and people pa" so little attention to them. <et there are some that possess (reat elo0 ence, and if there are some interestin( matters nder disc ssion, 1 shall (o to -ashin(ton ne't month to attend some of the debates. New York, J nu r! ", 18#$ 1t is bitter cold. ) sno!storm has made sleddin( possible, b t 1 don8t find that pleasant99"o ris+ comin( bac+ !ith "o r nose or "o r ears fro7en, b t !hat is reall" nice is ice s+atin(, and 2entral Par+ offers a stran(e spectacle !ith its D,444 s+aters, (oin( to and fro, =ostlin( one another and fallin(. this par+ !ill certainl" be one of the most bea tif l in the !orld, and )mericans are as pro d of it as of -ashin(ton. Spea+in( of -ashin(ton, 1 thin+ 18ll (o ne't !ee+ to see the cit" that bears this name, for then 2on(ress !ill be or(ani7ed and the assembl" %the ,o se of Representati$es& !ill be interestin( to see. ri(ht no! political passions ha$e reached their pea+, and the problem of sla$er" !ill be fore$er b ried, or there !ill be a r pt re bet!een the So thern and *orthern states, and perhaps a ci$il !ar !ill follo! as a res lt of the breach. #o +no! !hat political passions are, "o m st see them here, and it is a stran(e si(ht for a forei(ner. )fter st d"in( the problem on its o!n terrain, 1 m st tell "o somethin( that !ill ma+e "o = mp and ma+e me fall considerable in "o r estimation. 1f 1 !ere an )merican and had to (i$e m" opinion, 1 !o ld be as m ch a Esta nch sla$er" manE as the oldest plantation o!ner in the So th... New York, J nu r! 1%, 18#$& #he ne(li(ence of the (o$ernment in pre$entin( all sorts of accidents is shamef l, and 1 am s rprised that e$en (reater disasters don8t happen. )n en(ineer !ho, thro (h his fa lt, ne(li(ence, and inabilit", ca sed the death of a n mber of people, !ent np nished. B t 1 hope that the latest fri(htf l accident that has = st occ rred !ill brin( abo t increased s per$ision. ) man fact rer had b ilt cotton mills at Fa!rence %.assach setts&. 1n order to sa$e a co ple of tho sand dollars, ho!e$er, he did not ha$e the b ildin(s constr cted as st rdil" as the" sho ld ha$e been. P blic opinion !as aro sed o$er it, b t the (o$ernment claimed it had nothin( to do !ith it as lon( as no misfort ne occ rred. #he da" before "esterda" the b ildin( s ddenl" collapsed on A44 !or+ers %mostl" !omen and children& !ho !ere !or+in( at their looms and almost b ried them nder the debris. #he !or+ of sal$a(e !as immediatel" be( n, !hen, on top of e$er"thin(, fire bro+e o t amon( the r ins and b rned to death the nfort nate people !ho had not been cr shed. .ore than 344 perished in this catastrophe and 154 !ere in= red, some serio sl". 1t !o ld reall" be a (ood deed for h manit" if / ropean ne!spapers too+ this nfort nate accident as an opport nit" to attac+ the )merican (o$ernment, !hich is infinitel" more concerned !ith its political infl ence than !ith the !elfare and the sec rit" of those !hom it !as s pposed to (o$ern paternall". #he !ord l bert! means here, as in all democracies, bein( able to do an"thin( b t h rt one8s nei(hbor or to incon$enience him.

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Gossi" Politi!al and /o!ial

-ith respect to democrac", the da" before "esterda" someone too+ me to the #amman" ,all Gemocratic ball. -hen 1 !as led into the hall !here the commissioners !ere (atherin( stren(th in a h (e p nch bo!l, 1 be(an to deal o t handsha+es, ri(ht and left, to the cobbler and to the corner (rocer. #hen all these (entlemen, t!o abreast and (i$in( each other their arms to co nterbalance the effects of the r m, marched for!ard, !ith a band at their head, and follo!in( a pole s rmo nted b" a more or less Phr"(ian cap, tho (h altered b" sil+ and (old (alloons. #he" e'plained to me that this cap represented the $ictor" !on b" Heneral %)ndre!& Jac+son o$er the /n(lish at *e! :rleans. /nmeshed in this procession, 1 ad$anced tri mphantl" in the middle of t!o ro!s of ladies. -hat fi( res and !hat clothes5 -h", in addition to all that, the" !ere prett"5 )fter se$eral topical speeches, the dances be(an. B t "o mi(ht ha$e tho (ht the" !ere done b" apes...For a !hile this stran(e spectacle am sed me 0 ite a bit, b t since 1 had for(otten m" /a de 2olo(ne, 1 escaped... <esterda" there !ere more $er" heated debates in the ,o se of Representati$es. -hen one member co ldn8t find !ords s fficientl" e'pressi$e, he p lled o t a re$ol$er from his poc+et. ,is opponent immediatel" pro$ided himself !ith a Bo!ie +nife. #he !omen, thrilled b" this incident, cro!ded into the pper (alleries, cr"in(; EFet me see the fi(ht.E B t the attendants separated the fier" orators, !ho after!ards apolo(i7ed to one another. 1 shall soon send "o %,inton Ro!an& ,elper8s broch re %T"e #mpen$ n% Cr s s&, !hich is ca sin( a (reat stir ri(ht no! and !hich is a res me of Rep blican doctrine... New York, J nu r! 1#, 18#$ ...1n the So th, e'asperation has reached its pea+. Some 1rishmen and )mericans of the *orthern states !ho had formed an nseasonable opinion on the 0 estion of sla$er" !ere flo((ed in the p blic s0 are, then co$ered !ith tar and feathers, and !ere sent bac+ to the *orth dressed in this simple b t embarrassin( cost me. S ch e'cesses are certainl" $er" re(rettable, b t one has to admit that the Rep blicans are to blame. #he $iolence of their in$ecti$es and the co nsels of re$olt (i$en to the blac+s !o ld nat rall" lead to reprisals on the part of a passionate and inconsiderate pop lace. 1 thin+, ho!e$er, that the (ood sense of the nation !ill pre$ail and !ill pre$ent dis nion and conflict, b t people are co ntin( m ch more on financial interests to 0 iet the tro ble. #he lar(e man fact rers are afraid that if the So th secedes, it ma" ref se its cotton to the *orth and establish its o!n ind strial plants. 1 ha$e alread" !ritten "o all m" tho (hts on )merica, b t 1 can add that the more 1 see of thin(s, the less 1 am s!a"ed in fa$or of this form of (o$ernment... Cni$ersal s ffra(e confers a thorit" pon persons n!orth" of it and !ho often lac+ the aptit de necessar" for p blic affairs. these persons, in order to retain the fa$or of the m ltit de, often s pport dan(ero s ideas and appoint to s bordinate offices those !ho can be sef l to them for their re9election... #his s"stem is carried so far that e$en in *e! <or+ the cit" a thorities se the enormo s ta'es imposed on the inhabitants, not for the bea tification or for the maintenance of the cit", b t to enco ra(e the s pport of the part", and "o !ill be astonished !hen "o reali7e that the ta'es amo nt to the s m of 3A,444,444 >D4,444,444 francs?... New York, Febru r! #, 18#$ ...<o complain abo t the filthiness of Paris. -hat !o ld "o sa" of *e! <or+, in comparison !ith !hich #et an is a !a'ed ballroomI <o sho ld see *e! <or+5 1t sno!s e$er" da", b t the s n is (i$en the tas+ of meltin( the sno! and ma+in( it disappear. #he res lt; sl sh, three feet deep. )s far as the ma"or (oes, he !as named b" the cit" contractors. ,e is their representati$e, to the (reat f r" of the propert" o!ners !ho pa" 3A,444,444 in ta'es and enrich the sco ndrels. 1 la (h heartil" !hen 1 thin+ of the benefits of e0 alit" and find that one has to pa" dearl" and s ffer not a little in order to bear the (lorio s title of )merican citi7en...

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Carni%als and .ailroads

N&Y&, Febru r! #, 18#$ -hile hi(h societ" is am sin( itself, lo! societ" isn8t losin( time either. <esterda" there !as a celebration at a !ine merchant8s. Se$eral "o n( men, !antin( to celebrate this solemn occasion in their o!n !a", !ent and (ot a cannon, !hich the" loaded and fired t!ice, amid (reat appla se from their comrades. #he police !atched them do this !itho t b d(in(, b t since it !as three o8cloc+ in the mornin(, all the (ood citi7ens of the nei(hborhood, !ho had been a!a+ened !ith a start, came do!n scantil" clothes, thin+in( that some n+no!n enem" !as ta+in( o$er the cit". #his is one of n mero s )merican =o+es. Fent contin es to case a $eil of sadness o$er *e! <or+. 2elebrations ha$e completel" ceased, and there are onl" se$eral occasional dinners (i$en. #he ladies (o to the theatre, the (entlemen to the bo'in( matches and fi(hts !ith (lo$es. 1 sa! one of these e'hibitions, and !hat interested me most !as the a dience made p of representati$es of all the dan(ero s classes of *e! <or+. #his t"pe of am sement is of m ch (reater interest to )mericans than the most important political debates. New York, ' rch 18, '#$& <esterda" !e had a celebration in honor of Saint Patric+, the saint of the 1rish, !ho reall" had their fill of it. #he cit" !as entirel" theirs. From mornin( to ni(ht h (e parades f rro!ed the main thoro (hfares and stopped traffic. *e$er ha$e 1 seen s ch a (rotes0 e thron(. #he car cond ctors, thin+in( that the" alone had the ri(ht to obstr ct traffic, became an(r". #here !ere fi(hts. #here !ere bro+en heads. ,orses !ere +illed. 1n the e$enin( the celebration !as ended b" settin( fire to a ho se, !hich, of co rse, !as ins red. #he theatres, !hich the people of *e! <or+ lo$e passionatel", aren8t !orth $er" m ch. Seldom ha$e 1 seen s ch depra$ed taste. #he !ea+est pla"s or sta(e farces !orth" onl" of the St. 2lo d fair are the ones that are appla ded. #his bad taste e'ists e$er"!here in the arts and in letters. <o m st see the creations of )merican painters5 #here is a French theatre, !hich !ent ban+r pt three times this "ear. 1 ha$e not as "et (otten p the co ra(e to (o there... New York, ' rch "$, '#$& ...1 too+ a rather short b t interestin( trip to -ashin(ton, (oin( thro (h Philadelphia and Baltimore. 1 can8t sa" 1 admire the !a" )mericans tra$el. #heir railroads are in a deplorable state and don8t seem to care !hat8s (oin( to happen. #o (o to -ashin(ton, "o 8$e (ot to chan(e si' times, ta+e the steamboat >+no!n as the ferr"? three times, and herd an infinite n mber of times into a (reat cosmopolitan omnib s. B t here is the (reat =o" in )merican railroads; there is onl" one class, in !hich e$er"one tra$els !itho t distinction. <o sho ld see then !hat fine tra$elin( companions "o (et. Ho ahead, (o amon( those "o see, tho (h the" spit obno'io sl" and tho (h the" ind l(e in all sorts of similarl" offensi$e beha$ior5 <et, there are some !ho +eep follo!in( "o re(ardless of !hat "o do, and findin( themsel$es at ease in "o r compan", (et others and others to =oin them, a$ n& n tum' #his happened to me, to the (reat horror of m" faithf l Pierre, !ho said to me in a fri(htened manner; E18$e = st fo nd fi$e b (s in "o r tr n+.E EJill them,E 1 ans!ered him, !ith the stoicism of a 2ato. )s far as the comfort of the cars is concerned, one sho ldn8t tal+ abo t that either. #he" are first9class cars, adapted for the se of si't" persons. -hen the people enter, the" p rchase the ri(ht of doin( an"thin( the" please, e'cept ma"be the ri(ht to lean comfortabl". For !hen "o finall" do fall asleep on "o r arm, "o are al!a"s a!a+ened !ith a start, ro (hl" sha+en b" the po!erf l hand of the cond ctor, !ho as+s "o for one of "o r man" tic+ets. :r "o are bro (ht bac+ to realit" b" the lo d $oice of the bo" !ho offers "o ne!spapers and the latest p blications. Fort natel", !e arri$ed in -ashin(ton onl" a fe! ho rs late. -hen the train !as in Penns"l$ania, the en(ine decided to imitate the local shoema+ers; it boldl" !ent on stri+e in the middle of a field and ref sed to b d(e, despite all the enco ra(ement it recei$ed. 1ts location !as 0 ite npleasant, since the railroad had onl" one trac+. F c+il", the approachin( train had the co rtes" to stop, !hich permitted o rs to dra! a!a", than+s to a relief en(ine.

: r arri$al in -ashin(ton !as hi(hl" am sin(. )s in all the cities of the Cnion, a le(ion of hac+ne" dri$ers, !orse than the cartaneros of @alencia, ar( e amon( themsel$es for the %pri$ile(e of con$e"in(& the nfort nate tra$elers, !hom the" ass me to be s fficientl" rich to allo! themsel$es to be transported in their berlins. the" be(in b" fi(htin( amon( themsel$es, b t then the" ma l the tra$eler nder the prete't of leadin( him to their $ehicles. <o 8re 0 ite fort nate if "o enter one of them !itho t a scratch on "o r bod" or a rent in "o r clothes.

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The Politi!os, 1 Lady, and the Prin!e o( Wales

Since )lphonse8s $isit to the capital of the Cnion >it is the seat of the dis nion5? -ashin(ton has (ro!n lar(e, b t it certainl" hasn8t chan(ed... 1n a fe! da"s 1 became ac0 ainted !ith the most distin( ished people of the co ntr", some of !hom 1 had alread" seen in *e! <or+; %J dah P.& Ben=amin...%..S.& Fatham, one of the senators from 2alifornia, $er" "o n( and destined to become the first man of his co ntr"6 President B chanan, the 2abinet members, and all the candidates for the presidenc"; there are fift"9three of them. 1n the Rep blican part", %-illiam ,enr"& Se!ard has the best chance6 amon( the Gemocrats, Joe Fane, %R...#.& , nter, or %John 2.& Brec+enrid(e. #he latter, !ho is no! @ice President, has all m" s"mpathies. ,e is a "o n( man, charmin(, f ll of fire, intelli(ent, and, !hat is rare, a perfect (entleman. %John& Slidell (a$e a dinner in honor of Ben=amin, %/do ard de& Stoe+el, the minister from R ssia, and m"self. #he most interestin( men of the area attended, and 1 !as sho!ered b" all these (entlemen !ith in$itations !hich 1 co ld a$oid onl" b" promisin( to come bac+ soon. Brec+inrid(e, !ho presides o$er the Senate, too+ me to the 2apitol, !hich is a $er" bea tif l str ct re, and sho!ed me in detail the t!o ,o ses, the S preme 2o rt, and all their representati$es. 1 had intended...to (o do!n to spend se$eral da"s at the 2harlesto!n %2harleston, S.2., Gemocratic presidential nomination& con$ention, b t 1 too+ (ood care not to do so, after se$eral lar(e placards posted in 2incinnati anno nced to the p blic that the Rothschilds had sent incalc lable millions to b " a President of their choice... 1n m" opinion, the Gemocrats !ill lose the (ame and Se!ard !ill !in o t... <o m st ha$e heard of the capt re of t!o .e'ican steamers b" the )merican fleet, !hich is = st !aitin( for a prete't to mi' into e$er"thin(. Brother Jonathan %the Cnited States& is li+e John B ll; he !orries little abo t = stice and b sies himself onl" !ith his o!n interest. -ithin t!o "ears, .e'ico !ill be a pro$ince of the Cnion6 mean!hile, the )merican (o$ernment, as a re!ard for ser$ices rendered to the ca se of J are7 %President of .e'ico&, !ill allo! itself to be ceded the port of Sonora. -hen "o ha$e tasted the ca+e, "o !ant to eat it all. #he <an+ees are also t rnin( co$eto s e"es to!ard the bea tif l island of 2 ba. 1t !o ld be so happ" nder )merican r le5 1t !o ld be in the interests of h manit" to resc e her from the Spaniards5 #he prete't !ill arise, as it has arisen for .e'ico. Besides, Heneral %-illiam& -al+er %the filib sterer& is hi(hl" esteemed here, tho (h his intimate friend and confidant !as arrested se$eral da"s a(o for s!indlin(, b t this is a detail of relati$el" little importance... New York, (pri) %#, '#$& ...Somethin( 0 ite n s al happened to me the other da". 1 recei$ed a letter, tellin( me that an old !oman, a(e si't"9se$en, sic+, and confined to her room, had an important messa(e to (i$e me. 1t as+ed me to stop o$er at her place at a certain time, !hen her famil" !o ld be o t. #he letter !as si(ned b" a !ell9+no!n and honorable name, b t !arned that 1 had to (o alone to the address indicated.

1n this co ntr" s ch a meetin( co ld be a dan(ero s thin(, so 1 !as told. B t the billet do ' seemed so a thentic that 1 !ent to the place it mentioned...armed !ith m" re$ol$er, a preca tion !hich 1 considered completel" seless. 1 !as escorted thro (h man" rooms and t!o or three dar+ corridors. ) hea$" door closed behind me. 1 be(an to feel 0 ite happ" that 1 had si' b llets at m" disposal, !hen 1 !as led into the room !here the old lad" !as. She almost fell do!n at m" feet, than+in( me for ha$in( come. 1 as+ed her !hat 1 co ld do for her. She ans!ered that she !as a Je!ess, that her dream had al!a"s been to see a member of the Rothschild famil", and that no! she co ld die happ", since she had satisfied the most ardent of her desires. Since 1 !as $er" happ" to please this poor lad", 1 had no need to ma+e se of m" re$ol$er... New York, ' ! 1, '#$& ...1 sho ld li+e to as+ "o to come in J ne, to spend some time in 2anada, !here the Prince of -ales is e'pected, and !here his arri$al !ill ser$e as a prete't for $er" elaborate 2anadian and 1ndian celebrations. #he Prince is then sched led to $isit the Cnited States, !here there is a (reat deal of embarrassment as to ho! to recei$e him. Since it !ill be impossible to establish cate(ories and to declare !hich social class !ill ha$e the ri(ht to entertain the f t re Jin( of /n(land, = st abo t no one e'cept (o$ernment officials !ill be able to recei$e him, and since these persons s all" ha$e onl" a d bio s ed cation, the (ood <an+ees fear, and ri(htl" so, that people !ill ma+e f n of them. Ri(ht no! the" are in a dither tr"in( to fi( re o t ho! to recei$e properl" the Japanese embass" !hich is (oin( to arri$e in -ashin(ton, and 1 can8t tell "o ho! am sin( the ne!spapers are !ith their ad$ice on ho! to recei$e these noble barbarians. #he" !ant to impress these ne! ( ests !ith )merican ci$ili7ation. B t since /mperor #ei ,o8s representati$e is sched led to (o to / rope after!ards, the" are afraid of a comparison, and don8t +no! !hat to do, especiall" since the" do not !ant to ntie their p rse strin(s. #his Japanese embass" !ill share the honors of p blic interest !ith Heneral #om #h mb and the Barn m m se m...

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The .ail /"litter and the Ca inetmaker

New York, ' ! %%, '#$& -e !o ld ha$e had a politicall" insi(nificant and monotono s !ee+ if the Rep blican con$ention at 2hica(o hadn8t nominated %)braham& Fincoln of 1llinois, a man of stron( opinions. #his, to a (reat e'tent, ass res the presidential opport nities of %Senator Stephen ).& Go (las. People are tal+in( m ch abo t the treatment of the *e(roes. )merican !arships ha$e sei7ed se$eral sla$e ships, b t certain ne!spapers cens re their $i(ilance, for the )merican is philanthropic !hen it costs him nothin(, and each *e(ro costs the (o$ernment 3244 to ha$e him sent bac+ to his co ntr"... 1t seems that the Japanese ha$e bro (ht ma(nificent presents to the President of the Cnited States. Since 2ommodore %.atthe!& Perr", father9in9la! of %the ban+er, ) ( st& Belmont, !as the first to ma+e a treat" !ith Japan, the ambassadors are to ma+e their first $isit in *e! <or+ to .rs. Belmont, !ho !ill (i$e them a part"... New York, ' ! %7, 18#$& #he" pla" politics here also, and the" pla" it perhaps more bitterl" than in an" other co ntr"...#he same scenes that dishonored the Gemocratic con$ention at 2harlesto!n too+ place at the Rep blican con$ention in 2hica(o. So Se!ard !as sacrificed in fa$or of Fincoln. #he latter had all sorts of =obs before he reached the %candidac" for& President. ,e !as in t rn a sailor, a (rocer, a sailma+er, a rail splitter, etc., etc. 1t !as this lo!l" ori(in that (ot him his nomination. B t Go (las, before becomin( a la!"er, !as a cabinetma+er. #he Gemocrats claim that the t!o candidates sho ld be treated in accordance !ith their abilities, and sho ld each be entr sted !ith the !or+ !hich the" nderstand best. %#h s the" sa";& EFincoln is then to be intr sted !ith the care of ma+in( rails, and Go (las !ith that of ma+in( cabinetsE...

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The &altimore #n!ident

New York, ' ! %7, '#$& Fet s lea$e politics aside and let me tell "o a stor" abo t the Baltimore police. :ne da" %!hen 1 !as in Baltimore& 1 dined o t and !as ret rnin( home aro nd 1F44 a.m. 1t !as one of those pitch blac+ ni(hts !hen "o are afraid "o 8re (oin( to step into the ( tter. #o ma+e a short c t, 1 !ent into a little street e$en dar+er and narro!er, if this is possible. S ddenl" 1 sa!, or rather felt, that 1 !as bein( follo!ed b" a...h (e fi( re. 1 0 ic+ened m" step...b t !hen 1 stopped there !as m" companion crossin( the street ri(ht in bac+ of me. ,e !as abo t to p t his hand on m" sho lder !hen 1 t rned aro nd and sei7ed him !ith m" arms, holdin( bac+ his hands so that he co ldn8t se them. )s lo d as 1 co ld 1 sho ted; EPolice5E #he fello! str ((led a moment, then finall" said; EB t !hat are "o hollerin( li+e thatI 1 am an officer.E ,ere pon a half do7en policemen, attracted b" the noise, ran p and as+ed !hat had happened. #he fello! r bbed his hands and said, E1 had seen that man $er" near a store and tho (ht that he had bad intentions.E #he" 0 estioned me and 1 ans!ered that it !as a shame to to ch a peaceable forei(ner in a free co ntr", as he !as re9enterin( his o!n ho se. #hose policemen co ldn8t belie$e it !hen 1 told the man !ho had arrested me; E<o ha$e (one be"ond "o r d t", and 1 shall ha$e "o s spended. Hi$e me "o r n mber.E #o these !ords the" replied; ESir, "o can (o.E 1 didn8t !ait to be told a(ain. 18m l c+" 1 left m" leaded cane at home, for !ith one blo! 1 !o ld ha$e dismembered a p blic officer and !o ld ha$e spent the ni(ht in the station ho se.

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The Politi!al Chaos Called a 3omination

New York, June 1%, '#$& ...People are scarcel" occ pied !ith an"thin( beside politics here. -ho !ill be nominatedI -ho !ill be the l c+" one to be electedI #hose are the 0 estions of the da". 1n a !ee+ part of the (reat secret !ill be re$ealed. B t a $iolent mo$ement of dissol tion has started in the Cnited States. -hate$er the res lt of the str ((le ma" be, the malcontents !ill secede and !ill tr" to ta+e alon( !ith them a section of the states. ) r pt re is th s imminent bet!een the *orth and the So th. Gespite ass rances to the contrar" !hich 1 recei$e on all sides, and despite the smiles of incred lit" on the faces of all m" friends, 1 am s re that !ithin a $er" short time )merica !ill be di$ided into *orthern states and So thern states, !hich !ill soon be handed o$er to some ad$ent rers s ch as !e +no! in / rope. 1t is probable that 1 shall (o to Baltimore for a fe! da"s ne't !ee+ to attend that political chaos called a nomination, that (reat str ((le !here all ambitions and all intri( es battle, !here all means are sed, honest or other!ise, !here corr ptions, threats, and infl ence =oin in battle, and pro$e to the !hole !orld that this co ntr", despite its apparent (reatness, despite its "o th, despite its $i(or, is li+e a fr it rottin( before it has a chance to ripen. 18ll stop ri(ht here, for if "o let "o rself (o too far in "o r tho (hts, "o !o ld become a misanthrope. 1 shall (o at once and rene! m" stren(th b" ta+in( a sho!er bath nder one of the falls of *ia(ara, and 1 shall see if the homeland of the .ohicans has chan(ed an" in appearance and in nat re since it !as described b" %James Fennimore& 2ooper.

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The Gentlemen From $a"an

3ew Sork, $une +,, MH*. '''Aast "onday the Japanese made their triumphal entry into .ew *ork' Accordin% to the newspapers, such a spectacle will ne$er a%ain ,e presented to human eyes' The reception of Queen ?ictoria in Paris and the coronation of 7mperor Ale)ander in "oscow were nothin% compared to the American ma%nificence' All the windows of houses on the parade route had ,een rented in ad$ance at e)or,itant prices' All stores and pu,lic ,uildin%s were closed for this national cele,ration' 7$en the 3tock 7)chan%e was to ,e idle' The city of .ew *ork, with its pretensions of ,ein% a metropolis and its fee,le claim of ,ein% the real capital of the 4nited 3tates, wanted to distin%uish itself' 8irst of all, a police order en-oined the pu,lic to ,eha$e decorously' At +altimore the poor <rientals had ,een ro,,ed' At Philadelphia people shouted at them contemptuously, callin% them ,e%%ars, monkeys, etc', etc' These %entlemen donBt know much 7n%lish, ,ut they know enou%h to understand that they werenBt ,ein% complimented' Aast 3aturday cannon shots announced the landin% of the representati$es of the Tycoon' To honor them, or rather to e)hi,it them to the pu,lic, they were taken on a fi$e;hour tour of the entire city' All the troops were out, showin% a%ain how the .ational @uard looked ,efore B:8' There was one difference, howe$er' 7ach re%iment could choose its own uniform' As a result, there was a 3cotch re%iment, a 8rench re%iment, a Prussian re%iment, and so on' The 3cotchmen, the 8renchmen, and the 8ifth, a nati$e re%iment, were the only ones with any sem,lance of military ,earin%, ,ut they ne$er mana%ed to keep ranks despite se$eral $ery comical attempts'

Parade of the Japanese .ission in *e! <or+, 1AK4 The procession went ,y ,efore us in the followin% orderC first came a four;wheeled ca,riolet that carried one of the police chiefs' He had a %old;kno,,ed cane, and used this instrument to make the crowd mo$e out of the way, and let the wheels of his carria%e roll o$er the feet of those who didnBt %et ,ack swiftly enou%h' Then came a s(uad of policemen on foot, and another s(uad of mounted police'''who paid much more attention to their animals than to the pu,lic' Then came the troops, who kept filin% ,y for two hours, with an occasional stop for rest' The people took ad$anta%e of this pause to sit down on the sidewalks or to %et a drink at a ,ar' The rich militiamen had a ne%ro at their side to hold their rifles durin% the moments of rest' After a lon% wait, we finally %ot a %limpse of the principal actors in this %rotes(ue e)hi,ition' The city had really done thin%s in %rand style' 7ach distin%uished Japanese had his own carria%e' The three am,assadors were each accompanied ,y a na$al officer

and rode in four;horse $ehicles adorned with the Japanese colors' The coachmen wore round hats, frock coats, waistcoats, trousers ad i"itum2 ,ut to compensate for this, they each wore a ma%nificent pair of dark canary yellow %lo$es' #t must ,e admitted that the carria%es were a ,it old and the coachmenBs dress was not ,eyond reproach' After the three am,assadors came the ,o) containin% the treaty and two hi%h functionaries entrusted with its careL they were not supposed to let it out of their si%ht for any reason whatsoe$er' #n other cities less opulent than .ew *ork, a sufficiently spacious $ehicle could not ,e found to hold the precious ,o)' An omni,us had therefore ,een chosen, and the case and its %uardians were perched on top' This time there had ,een constructed a special type of carria%e, all co$ered with colored paper and with Japanese;American streamers' #f it had had a lar%e ,o), it would ha$e made a $ery presenta,le tra$elin% theater' A youn% Japanese ,oy whom people here call Tommy was sittin% triumphantly on the case and makin% faces at the men who were throwin% kisses to the ladies' Then came the other forei%ners of inferior rank, each accompanied ,y an alderman or a common councilman' 2# call them the Kcommon men of the councilK5' These %entlemen looked a lot like the coachmen who dro$e their $ehicles, the only difference ,ein% that they had on their 3unday suits, ma%nificent %rey hats, and the same dark canary yellow %lo$es of which mention was made a,o$e' +ut inwardly they seemed irritated and ill at ease, thou%h their sufferin%s seemed compensated for ,y the effect which they thou%ht they were producin% on the crowds round a,out them' The rest of the militia ,rou%ht up the rear of the procession' The Japanese are $ery u%ly;;;They are shri$eled like ,aked apples and are often hea$ily pock; marked' Their hair is sha$ed to a point from the forehead to the crown'''Their hands are white, small, and $ery aristocratic, and their fin%ernails would make the prettiest Parisienne -ealous' They make enormous purchases here, ,ut always ,uy o,-ects of $ery little $alue, for which they ha%%le e)cessi$ely' 3e$eral shopkeepers offered them as presents the articles which they admired most' They accepted without the sli%htest shame, takin% ad$anta%e of their pri$ile%ed position as ,ar,arians to i%nore the laws of reciprocity' they ha$e no taste for the arts and prefer a childBs toy or a clock worth fifteen francs to a well;wrou%ht piece of sil$erware''' 7$ery day there are cele,rations %i$en in their honor' "onday there is the %reat ,all %i$en ,y the city, and Tuesday "rs' +elmont is recei$in% them''' 3ourceC Jewish;American History 8oundationL httpCOOwww'-ewish;history'comOsalomonOsalo08'html

Codgers at War and &rothers in 1rms

#he con$ention at Baltimore is still in pro(ress b t so far has (otten no!here, and animosit" bet!een the *orthern and So thern dele(ates is on the increase. #hese (entlemen ta+e ad$anta(e of intermissions at the sessions to ta+e a po+e at each other, !hich prod ces the most shamef l scenes. ,ere8s an incident that too+ place, in passin(; #he Cnion 2l b is made p mostl" of old cod(ers, amon( !hom are t!o (entlemen !hose a(es total 154; .essrs. *iel and Bo"ant, $er" respectable other!ise and $er" rich. #he" had be( n a political disc ssion on %the 1talian leader, H iseppe& Haribaldi. :ne of the men claimed he !as an 1talian6 the other said he !as of Scotch ori(in. )fter the most pers asi$e ar( ments, .r. Bo"ant s pported his lo(ic !ith a terrific p nch !hich, be a fatal coincidence, hit .r. *iel on the nose. #his nose, !hich is 0 ite lon(, met the fin(er and (ot an(r". #hen its o!ner, nderta+in( its defense, fell pon his interloc tor !ith mi(ht and main, and the battle !as be( n !ith p nches. -hen the t!o enra(ed sept a(enarians had been separated, the" !ent off, pistols in hand, to *orfol+ to settle their 0 arrel. .r. *iel recei$ed a b llet !o nd in his arm, !hich ma+es him $er" pro d... J *estown +New York, Ju)! -, '#$& 1 shall tell "o some more abo t the Japanese. 1 m st tal+ abo t them = st once more, and 1 s!ear to "o it !ill be the last time. Besides, those noble barbarians ha$e, than+ hea$en, reta+en the road to their penates, the )mericans ha$in( told them that the" %the )mericans& are the (reatest nation in the !orld and ta+in( (ood care not to let them $isit / rope, or e$en the EHreat /asternE %a British steamship, then the lar(est in the !orld&. Before their depart re, the 2it" of *e! <or+ and %) ( st& Belmont each (a$e a celebration in their honor. #he cit" celebration too+ place in the .etropolitan ,otel, !hich had been connected for the occasion !ith a lar(e theatre called the *iblo. #hat co ld ha$e been $er" nice, b t the" onl" s cceeded in brin(in( in a filth" cro!d...-e !ere part of a lar(e (ro p of societ" people to (o to this celebration, to !hich 12,444 persons had been in$ited... )fter bein( am sed for a lon( time b" the shapes and the cost mes of the ( ests, and !ith a certain amo nt of diffic lt" ma+in( o r !a" thro (h a solid mass of 3,444 persons, as !e !aited impatientl" for se$eral ho rs for the s pper hall to open, !e !ent to pa" o r respects to the )siatic princes, !ho had not been embellished b" their so=o rn in *e! <or+. the" !ere sittin( on a platform, offerin( competition to the mena(erie of @an )mber(h. 1n order to complete the similarit", there !as a man standin( b" !ith a lar(e staff in his hand, !ho, to = d(e b" his fi( re and his clothes, co ld ha$e passed for an e'hibitor of bears. )t the top of his l n(s he +ept "ellin(; EPass on, (entlemen, pass on5E -hen !e !anted to lea$e, !e !ere all separated b" the cro!d, and 1 !o nd p !ith t!o !omen in m" arms. #he fair se' loses all its l c+ in a cro!d. 1 confess 1 considered m"self e'tremel" fort nate !hen, after an ho r, 1 fo nd m"self in the street. Belmont8s part", !hich too+ place the follo!in( da", !as one of perfect ele(ance. #he Japanese spent their time eatin( and !ere (reatl" deli(hted b" a li0 e r from their co ntr" called so+i %sa(e& !hich 2ommodore Perr" had bro (ht bac+. #his be$era(e is $er" m ch li+e )thenian !ater... ,ere %in Jamesto!n& 1 ha$e been able to st d" the )merican character in a form completel" ne! to me. 2orr ption has as "et not penetrated here, nor that false ci$ili7ation !hich 1 co ld not end re in *e! <or+. Gemocratic and e$en nco th !a"s are carried to the e'treme. <o dine at the same table and eat the same food as the !or+in(man. ) man in tatters !ill e'tend his hand to "o and !ill be offended if "o don8t ta+e it. <o 8$e (ot to p t a!a" "o r aristocratic tho (hts if "o still ha$e an" left. B t these are (ood people, refined b" !or+, al!a"s read" to be of assistance, !ho ha$e the reali7ation of their stren(th and their independence,. #he" are self9made men are are pro d of it. From childhood on the" ha$e onl" one tho (ht; EHo ahead.E #he coachman !ho dro$e m" carria(e !as certainl" no more than nine "ears old, and a tin" chap fi$e "ears old, seein( me ta+in( pict res, came and as+ed me serio sl" to emplo" him, sa"in( that he !o ld ta+e t!o piasters a da". #hat8s the !a" "o (o places. )nd as m ch as the corr pt people of the cities of the Cnion dis( st me, so m ch to the people of the co ntr" aro se m" admiration...

#oda" !as the Fo rth of J l", a hallo!ed da" in all the states of the Cnion, on !hich there are celebrations in e$er" little $illa(e6 the anni$ersar" of the Geclaration of 1ndependence. -e !ere in$ited to (o to Randolph %*e! <or+& to ta+e part in the p blic celebrations and in a meal more cordial than appeti7in(. #he toasts fle! thic+ and fast, and 1 !as not too !ell pleased !hen 1 heard m" name prono nced, beca se 1 had to respond. B t oh, psha!5 1 s!allo!ed m" fear and 1 arose bra$el". )fter ha$in( e'pressed m" than+s and m" re(rets that m" sli(ht familiarit" !ith the /n(lish lan( a(e did not permit me to ans!er properl", 1 told ho! 1 had been impressed !ith the (reatness of the co ntr", its stren(th, its po!er, its commerce, etc. etc. 1 !as happ" to be in their midst to celebrate the anni$ersar" of the Geclaration of 1ndependence. 1f their immortal (lor" la" in their accomplishin( in a fe! "ears !hat it too+ others cent ries to achie$e, one of the most (lorio s pa(es in the histor" of s children of France !as to ha$e nderstood them and to ha$e helped them (ain their independence, of !hich the" ha$e since made s ch noble se. Rochambea , Fafa"ette, Fran+lin, -ashin(ton, !ere brothers %in the Re$ol tion&. -e on the other side of the )tlantic ha$e cherished those sentiments of fraternit" to!ard )merica, !hose e$er" ne! pro(ress brin(s s the (reatest =o". :n arri$in( in this co ntr", 1 had seen that this feelin( !as shared b" the )mericans. 1 hoped, therefore, that m" dinin(9room companions !o ld =oin me in the toast, E#o an eternal friendship bet!een France and )merica.E 1 had said eno (h !hen 1 finished, altho (h the n mero s +ni$es noisil" stri+in( a(ainst the (lasses and the table pro$ed to me that m" a dience !as satisfied...

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/hakers, Politi!ians, and :at!hmakers

New York, (u.ust 5, '#$& ...Fet me tell "o abo t Febanon, the $illa(e of the Sha+in(9B a+ers, for s ch is the name of 544 or K44 fools that harm no one and spend their time cleanin( their ho ses and !or+in( !ith stra!. #he" claim that it is not !ith the heart and lips alone that one sho ld pra" to the 2reator, b t !ith the entire bod"6 and the" p t this theor" into practice b" performin( the most bi7arre dance d rin( !orship. /$er" part of the bod"99arms, head, le(s99is set in motion, and if "o allo! "o rself to la (h, "o are immediatel" as+ed to lea$e. /$er"one is admitted into the midst of the con(re(ation, pro$ided that the" !ill dance, an e'ercise !hich is some!hat hot at this time of the "ear. #he B a+ers are of both se'es, b t the" don8t ha$e the ri(ht to comm nicate !ith one another. Cpon enterin( into the con(re(ation, the" (i$e p all their possessions, !hich are sed in prosel"ti7in(. their (reat hope is that at a certain f t re time, !hen e$er"one !ill ha$e become B a+ers, the !orld !ill come to an end5 Sho ld 1 tell "o abo t Sarato(aI <o ha$e to be an )merican and to ha$e li$ed in )merica in order to nderstand !hat Sarato(a is. 1t is a !aterin( place !here "o drin+ !aters !itho t feelin( thirst", !here people come to(ether to en=o" themsel$es, b t !here no one (ets an" en=o"ment. <o ne$er lea$e the hotel e'cept to s!allo! d st or to let "o rself (et co$ered !ith mire. ,ere e$er"bod" dances, and s!ears at the heat. ,ere the" let "o star$e to death, tellin( "o all da" that the" are (oin( to feed "o soon. ,ere "o see people of all $arieties and opinions. )ll )merica is represented here. #he politicians hold dail" meetin(s !here the" disc ss opposin( $ie!s. <o n( ladies p t on a different dress e$er" da" to attract admirers. -hen one of them has a n mber of men aro nd her, she enco ra(es them all ntil she finall" comes to a decision in fa$or of one of them. :n se$eral occasions 1 too+ part in these manoe $ers as a confidant, and it !as 0 ite am sin(, 1 ass re "o . #he "o n( ladies (i$e their hand+erchiefs, their (lo$es, e$en their slippers, b t that doesn8t mean a thin(. #he married !omen are less t'tra$a(ant,

altho (h the" ma+e e'ceptions in the case of a fe! persons. )ccordin( to m" calc lation, 1 ha$e a prett" collection of poc+et hand+erchiefs, for 1 ne$er as+ for an"thin( else. #he da" before 1 left, there !as a h (e meetin( in fa$or of Go (las, !here the spea+ers called the residents of the So th rascals, traitors, etc. #o displa" e$en (reater enth siasm, the partisans of the EFittle HiantE %Senator do (las& p t a barrel of tar and of resin in the middle of the street and set fire to it. #he flame !as bea tif l. S ddenl" there arri$ed an omnib s dri$en b" a coachman of a different part". 1n this co ntr" coachmen are (reat pol t cos. ,e directed his $ehicle onto the barrel, !hich o$ert rned and shattered into pieces, and in a second, the inflammable matter spread and ca sed a fire that the people in the meetin( had to e'tin( ish themsel$es. -hat rascals all these people are5 New /ort +0hode 1s) nd,, (u.ust 1#, '#$& ...)ll *e! <or+ societ" is assembled here. Boston, Philadelphia, and especiall" the So th ha$e ampl" sent their share...,ere people do a lot of Ecotta(in(,E that is, the" pass the time $isitin( and meetin( in small, intimate parties at the homes of those !ho ha$e cotta(es. Belmont has rented a $er" bea tif l ho se and EentertainsE !ith $er" (ood taste. *e! Port is the ref (e of almost all the cities of the Cnion, beca se it is 0 ite cool d rin( the periods of intolerable heat in *e! <or+. 1t is here that "o can made st dies of )merican manners5 #he matchma+in( that (oes on5 %#he sa"in( (oes,& E/$er" "o n( lad" has to loo+ o t for herself,E and applies herself ardentl" to the p rs it of a h sband. #here is nothin( so am sin( as to be a disinterested spectator of all the endless, little intri( es. 1 am behind the scenes, (enerall" bein( friendl" !ith the mothers and the married !omen. Since the "o n( ladies +no! that 1 am not Eon the mar+et,E %Salomon de Rothschild !as betrothed to his co sin )dele& the" lea$e me on the sidelines and are not afraid to confide secrets to me... 1t is $er" am sin( to follo! the "o n( ladies in their diplomatic ne(otiations. #he" p t into them more tric+s and pran+s than the si(natories of the #reat" of Paris. the" are charmin( !ith e$er"one, (i$in( hope to all, b t the" ne$er lose from si(ht the handsome "o n( man or the lar(e fort ne on !hich the" ha$e set their choice. #he thin( 1 can8t nderstand is that, after bein( so close to so man" "o n( men, these !omen become s ch faithf l !i$es. #he" sa" here that it8s lo$e that !or+s this miracle, b t 1 thin+ the h sband8s re$ol$er and +nife help most in fri(htenin( (entlemen friends a!a". Besides, the social constit tion of the co ntr" is s ch that societ" thro!s the blame on the man as m ch as on the lad", and al!a"s bac+s p the h sband re(ardless of !hat his !ron(s ma" be. *e$ertheless, 18ll tell "o that a forei(ner has the ri(ht to be some!hat d mbfo nded !hen, at ten o8cloc+ at ni(ht, he sees a (entleman ret rnin( !ith a married or nmarried lad", !ho had (one off b" themsel$es for a !al+ or for a carria(e ride or a horsebac+ ride...

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1!ro ats o( Plat(orm and Tightro"e

New York, Septe*ber 15, '#$& 18m bac+ in *e! <or+. #he cit", altho (h filled !ith forei(ners, is sad and is li+e Paris in the month of ) ( st >min s Paris?. 1 intend to (o to .assach setts to the heart of the mo ntain co ntr", !hich 1 am told is ma(nificent, for *e! <or+ is too f ll of e'citement !ith the presidential campai(n. )ll the streets are crossed !ith immense can$ases that ser$e as ad$ertisements for the different parties. /$er" da" or e$er" ni(ht there is some form of demonstration. -ednesda", a monster meetin( !as called at Jones!ood %Jones -ood& in honor of Go (las. #!ent" or thirt" tho sand Gemocrats !ere assembled. Since it !as cold and there !as fear there !o ldn8t be eno (h enth siasm, the" (ot p the idea of (i$in( the cro!d a ban0 et. #he" roasted a !hole o', a sheep, a calf, and a pi(, so that there !o ld be somethin( for e$er"one8s taste. Fi$e h ndred barrels of beer !ere prepared to !ash do!n this h (e mass of $ict als. #he +itchen facilities !ere of the most primiti$e t"pe; a deep hole d ( in the earth and t!o sta+es holdin( a colossal roastin( spit. S ch !as the si(ht, more pict res0 e than in$itin(, that this part of the celebration offered. #he political side of the celebration consisted of fo r platforms that had been prepared for the orators. #he meetin( !as opened, not b" a ban0 et, not e$en b" a repast, b t b" a real animal9li+e feed pon !hich the famished cro!d thre! itself li+e a pac+ of ho nds. :nce the feed !as finished, the" then (ro ped themsel$es aro nd the platforms. 1 shall spare "o the political part, and shall tell "o onl" that Belmont, Go (las8 friend, !as acclaimed president of the meetin( and addressed the cro!d in a !ell9presented, tho (h impro$ised, speech. #he ne't da", #h rsda", !as the Rep blicans8 t rn. From ei(ht o8cloc+ in the mornin( on, traffic !as stopped b" a h (e demonstration6 from all parts of the cit", the bands headed for 2ooper 1nstit te %2ooper Cnion&, !here the meetin( too+ place. -hen the speeches !ere o$er, the a dience, mostl" dressed in red, formed into companies, each person bearin( a torch. #he" !ent thro (h the most pop lated sections, +eepin( perfect order, b t ma+in( the most infernal noises. 1 can8t describe to "o the impression made pon me b" that scene, !hich !as !orth" of Gante. 1t reminded me of the sad da"s of %the re$ol tion of& 8DA6 it made me thin+ of the perils !hich are e$er dan(lin( o$er o r heads, and made me forsee for this co ntr" an era of re$ol tions and ci$il !ars. Se$eral ho rs after the Jones!ood political meetin(, Go (las !as replaced b" %2harles& Blondin, an acrobat of a different +ind. #he famo s clo!n performed his st nts on a rope 2,444 feet lon( and at a hei(ht of 244 feet, !ith a stron( !ind blo!in(. Some of those !ho attended this performance compared the sensation the" e'perienced to the one "o (et !hen "o see a man han(ed. Blondin, !ho +no!s the $al e of time, left immediatel" for *ia(ara, !here he !as to !or+ before the Prince of -ales. Gespite the reiterated ref sal of the Prince, Blondin carried his a(ent on his bac+ alon( the entire len(th of the rope. #hen he immediatel" made the dan(ero s crossin( on stilts, to the (reat horror of the "o n( man, !ho became sic+ from it. Still, se$eral p re9blooded <an+ees !ere $er" m ch dissatisfied and !anted their mone" bac+6 some bad =o+er had started a r mor in the cro!d that it !as the Prince of -ales !hom Blondin !as to carr". #hose nai$e spectators fo nd themsel$es robbed...

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The &ritish 'a%e ComeL

New York, October 15, '#$& -e ha$e had s ch a b s" !ee+ of political demonstrations and of celebrations in honor of the Prince of -ales %later to become Jin( /d!ard @11& that 1 reall" don8t +no! !here to be(in. Before the arri$al of the noble heir to the cro!n of /n(land, the cit" !as set astir !ith processions e$er" da". :ne da" it !as the Rep blicans !ho paraded their 12,444 E!ide9a!a+esE >a $eritable arm", niformed in red oilcloth?L #he" carried lar(e torches and )merican fla(s, as !ell as h (e banners !ith their professions of faith. #hese men !ent thro (h the streets sho tin( in fa$or of their candidates. #he cro!d ans!ered, accordin( to its con$ictions, either !ith h rrahs or !ith c rses, !hich sometimes led to pri$ate sc ffles of no conse0 ence. #hese men, !ith their scarlet niforms and torches, loo+ed li+e demons = st come p from hell. #he ne't da", the partisans of the Cnion #ic+et, %John& Bell and %/d!ard& /$erett, made a co nterdemonstration !ith colored torches and bands. )nother e$enin(, a lar(e (ro p of K4,444 persons (athered for a demonstration aro nd 2ooper 1nstit te. B t politics had to come to a halt in the presence of the Prince of -ales, and the most enth siastic partisans of the most di$er(ent opinions called a tr ce to their internal disc ssions in order to celebrate his arri$al. 1ma(ine all the ships in the port and in the ba" adorned !ith fla(s, the !hole arm" and militia in f ll dress passin( in re$ie!, and then follo!in( the Prince8s carria(e, and a thron( of a million%5& people cro!din( at the !indo!s and in all the streets alon( his ro te. #he poor people !aited ncomplainin(l" from ten and ele$en o8cloc+ in the mornin( ntil se$en at ni(ht, beca se the militar" re$ie! (reatl" dela"ed the procession. -hen he did arri$e, it !as ni(ht and impossible to see an"thin(, b t "o sho ld ha$e heard the frantic h rrahs of those fine rep blicans !ho (reeted that ro"al scion !ith more enth siasm than the" !o ld ha$e sho!n for a liberator of their co ntr". Ford *e!castle said to one of the members of the reception committee, .r. Belmont; E1 ha$e ne$er sitnessed s ch a scene in m" life and ne$er !ish to !itness an" !hich co ld diminish the impression this one has made pon me.E 1ndeed, there !as nothin( more bea tif l than this pop lar reception !here the spontaneit" of feelin( !as itself !orth all the mone" that the celebration cost. B t, at the same time, !hat a lesson it teaches the politicians of this co ntr", !ho disp te !ith each other o$er po!er, and !ho offer to the people nothin( b t the si(ht of their careless dress and their ntrimmed beards5 #his co ntr" is too m ch in lo$e !ith (reat names, bi( titles, decorations99in a !ord, !ith e$er"thin( that (litters99to be able to +eep its democratic (o$ernment for $er" lon(, and 1 am becomin( more and more confirmed in m" opinion that !ithin fifteen or t!ent" "ears, as 1 ha$e told "o se$eral times, )merica !ill be di$ided, and that the different parts of this lar(e co ntr" !ill each be (o$erned b" a man !ho !ill be a +in(, an emperor, or a president. #he name !on8t matter, either, beca se in realit" he !ill be a dictator, and if he (i$es celebrations, if he introd ces an aristocrac" into )merica, he !ill be adored, for here, as e$er"!here else, there are t!o 0 ite distinct classes, one that lo$es to see, the other that lo$es to be seen. Ri(ht no! the first class can find onl" an occasional forei(n prince or some Japanese ambassador to satisf" its fanc"6 the other class, to its (reat re(ret, has nothin( to sho!. #he taste for pomp 0 ic+l" in$ades this co ntr", and those !ho !ill see the co ntr" a(ain !ithin ten "ears !ill find it 0 ite chan(ed.

)ll the horses dra!in( the coach of the Prince of -ales and those sed b" him and his retin e in the procession belon(ed to the leadin( men of the cit". 1n the procession, the prince rode a charmin( little mare o!ned b" .rs. Belmont. 18ll s+ip the ne't t!o da"s, !hich !ere spent b" ,is ,i(hness in $isitin( *e! <or+, and b" the people in loo+in( at him, follo!in( him, and h rrahin( him5 #he (rand ball, (i$en in the )cadem" of . sic b" D44 s bscribers each of !hom contrib ted 3144, too+ place on Frida" ni(ht. #hree tho sand persons !ere in$ited...#here !ere a (reat man" tric+s sed to (et tic+ets. 1 m st confess that those in attendance !ere !ell9+no!n people !ho beha$ed admirabl". Some of the ladies !ore dresses of nparalleled ele(ance and costliness, and mar$elo sl" bea tif l =e!els. B t !hat m st ha$e str c+ the "o n( prince more than an"thin( else >despite his mother8s !arnin( a(ainst raisin( his e"es to the fair se'? is the (reat n mber of prett" ladies that had assembled. 1ndeed, ne$er in m" life ha$e 1 seen an" similar collection. #he s pper !as splendid and !as ser$ed in a speciall" b ilt hall to !hich onl" three or fo r h ndred persons !ere admitted at a time. #he ser$ice !as admirable, !ith almost one ser$ant for each ( est. /$er"one !as alread" there !hen the Prince arri$ed. #he hall, f ll" dec+ed !ith flo!ers, offered the most en(a(in( si(ht. #he orchestra section !as f ll of people, and the bo'es o$erflo!ed !ith prett" !omen in splendid dresses. #he orchestra be(an to pla" EHod Sa$e the B eenE and then E,ail 2ol mbia.E #he last note had scarcel" died a!a" !hen the orchestra section bro+e do!n nder the !ei(ht of the lar(e n mber of people cro!ded there... ,ere 1 m st (i$e credit to the )merican !omen. *ot one stirred6 after the first cr", not a f rther !ord !as heard. ) panic !o ld ha$e ca sed the (reatest disaster, b t perfect order pre$ailed d rin( the clearin( a!a" of the debris, and the onl" in= ries !ere some sprained an+les, a fe! torn dresses, and one !oman !ho fainted b t soon came to. ) lon( ho r and a half !as spent in repairin( the dama(e done to the floor. #his thre! some cold !ater on the entire celebration. )t midni(ht the Prince opened the ball, dancin( !ith .rs. .or(an, the !ife of the (o$ernor. ,e +ept on dancin( ntil 3;34 a.m. ,is dancin( partners !ere chosen from amon( the most ele(ant matrons and maids of the ball, .rs. Belmont bein( amon( them. B t the most bea tif l spectacle presented to the Prince too+ place on Sat rda" ni(ht; the firemen torchli(ht procession. #his is a specialt" of the co ntr", and one of the most bea tif l thin(s 1 ha$e seen. 1 !as opposite the Prince8s hotel, so that 1 co ld see e$er"thin( in detail. )ll the firemen corps not on d t" !ere there. K,444 men in (rand cost me; blac+ helmets !ith copper ornaments, scarlet flannel shirts, blac+ flannel tro sers, and !hite belts. #he" marched b" companies, preceded b" a band. /ach fireman carried a torch, and the" p lled their fire en(ines. :ne !ho has not been in )merica doesn8t +no! !hat a fire en(ine is, !ith all its accessories. there are fire en(ines of all shapes and si7es, some of them of colossal si7e. Some are dra!n b" men, others b" horses, and still others b" steam. #o the fireman, the fire en(ine is the most important thin( in the !orld. 1t is dearer to him than his famil". ,e spends e$er"thin( he can to adorn it !ith =e!els, paintin(s, ornaments in (old and sil$er. J d(e !hat he m st do on an occasion li+e this, tr"in( to ma+e his tr e mistress be more bea tif l than those of the others. So these ma(nificent machines !ere co$ered !ith @enetian lamps, flo!ers, fla(s, and torches. Some of them !ere lit !ith Ben(al fires, or !ith electric or (as li(htin(. -hen the" passed b" the Prince8s balcon", each fireman shot off fire!or+s !hich lit p a (reat !a" off the immense streams of people cro!ded to(ether for this splendid spectacle. )fter the procession !as o$er, the $ario s companies scattered thro (h the cit", !hich seemed to be lit p as tho (h at midda"...

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1n 1rm!hair $eremiah Forsees the Destru!tion

2 )ti*ore, No3e*ber 18, '#$& 1 am $er" (lad that the political sit ation in / rope is no! less alarmin(. 1 can8t sa" as m ch for )merica. #his (reat bod" is in the process of dissol tion. <o ha$e do btless read in the ne!spapers abo t the initial conse0 ences of Fincoln8s election6 !itho t a!aitin( the the definiti$e res lt, se$eral So thern states >Florida, Heor(ia, )labama, and .ississippi?, follo!in( So th 2arolina8s lead, ha$e indeed seceded from the Cnited States, and are (oin( to form a ne! confederation. #he" ha$en8t as "et informed the federal (o$ernment of their intention, b t act all" the" are no lon(er part of the Cnion. )ll the federal officers ha$e handed in their resi(nations, and ha$e not been replaced6 the" no lon(er ha$e either senators or representati$es. 1n -ashin(ton, the" ha$e replaced the )merican fla( !ith the EPalmetto Fla(,E the fla( of the So th. #he $ario s le(islati$e bodies ha$e assembled to $ote on a ne! constit tion and to clamp hea$" ta'es on the prod cts of the other states. 2harlesto!n is (oin( to be declared a free port. .oreo$er, dele(ates ha$e been sent to Paris to recommend the ne! (o$ernment to the French (o$ernment and to effect a ne! commercial treat" bet!een the t!o. 1f this state of affairs contin es, the c t! of *e! <or+, !hose interests are intimatel" bo nd p !ith those of the So th, !ill secede from the state of *e! <or+, !ill declare itself a free port, and !ill form a ne!, independent state nitin( Staten 1sland, Fon( 1sland, and Jin( 2o nt" %Broo+l"n&. #his !ill hardl" be able to be done e'cept thro (h a re$ol tion, and !ill onl" be the last e'treme. ,o!e$er, 1 don8t thin+ that there !ill be a ci$il !ar bet!een the states6 the separation !ill perhaps be able to be effected amicabl". #here !o ld probabl" be t!o !a"s of settin( these thin(s in order. #he first >!hich seems impractical to me? !o ld be for Fincoln and %,annibal ,amlin&, fri(htened b" the political and financial crisis that their election has aro sed, to resi(n, and for the electors to appl" their $otes to Bell and /$erett, candidates of the f sion part" of the Cnion. #he second e'pedient !o ld be for the sla$e states that don8t !ant to secede, b t !hose interests are a+in to those of the separatist states99.ar"land, #ennessee, *orth 2arolina, and Fo isiana99to inter$ene as mediators6 the" !o ld ind ce the t!o sides to ma+e m t al concessions. #he hori7on is nonetheless as blac+ as possible, for the political crisis has bro (ht in its !a+e a financial crisis !hich is more $iolent than that of 837 or that of 857. P blic f nds ha$e fallen from thirt" to fift" percent. Paper notes of the first order %promissor" notes& are ne(otiated !ith diffic lt" at one and a half percent per month. .one" is bein( hidden and is not to be fo nd6 it is in$isible. -hat has (i$en immense and incalc lable proportions to the catastrophe is the senseless confidence !hich the spec lators ha$e had for se$eral "ears, the e'orbitant prices to !hich the madness of the capitalists and of the stoc+ mar+et pla"ers has carried p blic f nds and ind strial stoc+s. -hat has r ined )merica is this limitless confidence !hich its inhabitants ha$e in its stren(th, its po!er, its richness, and its $italit". <o !ill (i$e me credit for the fact that 1 ha$e ne$er let m"self be blinded b" these appearances of prosperit" and (reatness, and that for months 1 ha$e been predictin( to "o !hat is ta+in( place toda". :nl" 1 didn8t thin+ that m" pre$isions !o ld be reali7ed so soon. 1 !as alone in m" opinion at that time, and the )mericans, all optimists !hen it is a 0 estion of their co ntr" and themsel$es, la (hed at m" fears and m" do bts. *o! it is too late to repent6 half of )merica is r ined... New York, 4ece*ber 1-, '#$& *othin( ne! here, e'cept that secession is bein( carried o t and, despite the efforts of the conser$ati$e side, 1 don8t thin+ that there is an" !a" to preser$e the Cnion of the states. So th 2arolina !ill secede the ei(hteenth of this month6 *orth 2arolina, .ississippi, Heor(ia, )labama, Florida, at the be(innin( of Jan ar". Foans ha$e been floated in all the states, and arms are bein( bo (ht to repel b" force an" material obstacle that !o ld s b=ect the federal (o$ernment to the !ishes of the people of the So th. Fet s hope that the separation !ill be effected peaceabl". #he *orth is be(innin( to become fri(htened, and a stron( reaction is alread" ma+in( itself felt, b t 1 fear that it is too late. Still, in .assach setts, that center of abolitionism, the m nicipal elections of se$eral cities ha$e

(i$en a lar(e ma=orit" to the Gemocratic Part". #he E)lmi(ht" GollarE is be(innin( to raise its $oice lo der than political sentiments. Factories are closin( do!n d e to lac+ of !or+. 2ommerce is at a standstill, and tho sands of people are !itho t !or+. Po$ert" is alread" e'treme. -hat !ill it be li+e in mid!interI 1t !ill be a $eritable !ar of the poor a(ainst the rich, of the idle laborer a(ainst the o!ner. #hen "o !ill see ho! ri(ht 1 !as !hen 1 told "o se$eral months a(o that e$er"thin( in the 2onstit tion of the Cnited States !as false. ,o! !ron( !ere those in hi(h position not to fear that fier" cro!d !hich the" flattered to (et it to $ote in the direction of their pri$ate ambition !hen, on the contrar", the" sho ld ha$e acted a(ainst it !ith meas res dictated b" the simplest pr dence5 #he political re$ol tion has ta+en place6 the social re$ol tion !ill follo! soon. .a" Hod !ill that 1 am !ron(5... #he /n(lish ne!spapers, !hich, accordin( to their praise!orth" c stom, mi' into !hat doesn8t concern them, are appla din( the tri mph of the Rep blican ca se in this co ntr", e'citin( the abolitionists to hold firm. -hat !ill the" sa" !hen the crisis in$ades their co ntr"I Besides, let them m se a little on the so $er" happ" condition of the coolies !ho ta+e the place of the blac+ sla$es in the /n(lish colonies...5

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With &u!hanan and Lin!oln #nto the 3ew Sear

3ew Sork, $anuary F, MH+.
'''Here .ew *earBs 6ay, far from ,ein% a family cele,ration, is literally the festi$al of people who are unimportant and e$en unknown' The ladies start %ettin% dressed up at 8C00 a'm' in e$enin% clothes to recei$e their $isitors' The youn% men ,e%in their rounds of yearly compliments at 10C00 a'm', and, in one %ulp, they take in all the dinners, dances, suppers, etc', of the .ew *ear' 3o, for the most part, all they do is walk in and walk outL there are some of them who ha$e a list of 1 0 to 900 $isits to make' 8or my part, # had a fri%htenin% num,er of $isits to make, ,ut at EC30 p'm' # stopped at the fortiethR Amon% this num,er, # went to see two persons that # didnBt know at all' #n each house there is a ,uffet copiously stocked, and certain people $isit only the different ,uffets'''The ,arroom proprietors also ser$e free drinks to their re%ular customers and, as a result, in the e$enin% the streets of .ew *ork present a sli%htly ,acchic and eccentric spectacle' # was personally $ery well treated ,y the fair se), for # recei$ed a rather lar%e (uantity of em,roidered, knit, and crocheted articles''' Politics is still as it was' the statesmen keep pace so little with conditions that they commit error after error and make a mess of e$erythin% each time there is a %limmerin% of hope for a settlement' *esterday they were a,out to appeal to the people, with the hope that e$erythin% would ,e settledL ,ut today reinforcements were sent to "a-or Anderson Iat 8ort 3umterJ and the dispute is ,ecomin% e)asperated' 8rom one moment to the ne)t # e)pect the first cannon shot, which will ,e the si%nal for ci$il war' 3ince the %o$ernment is and considers itself to ,e powerless to control the storm, President +uchanan concei$ed of a day of fastin% and pu,lic prayer' >eBre ,ack in the days of 7sther and "ordecaiR 3o therefore, on January :th, e$erythin% was closed e)cept the churches 2my faithful Pierre ha$in% naturally made his arran%ements for my ,reakfast the day ,efore, for despite my stron% desire to see the 4nion sa$ed, # canBt actually sacrifice for it my stomach and my desire for nourishment5' The churches and temples o$erflowed with penitents' 7ach Kre$erendK %a$e a topical sermon from his own point of $iew' +ut the most remarka,le sermon was that of /a,,i /aphael of the @erman con%re%ation I"orris J' /aphall of Con%re%ation +Bnai JeshurunJ' The 4nionist Ifusion partyJ leaders found it so ,eautiful that they allocated funds to print and distri,ute hundreds of thousands of copies of it in all the states of the 4nion, in order to enli%hten the people as to their duties and their true interests' # am not at all so enthusiastic, for he says that the ,i,le authori=es sla$ery' 8orsoothR the +i,le shows us A,raham and Jaco, with a num,er of wi$es, not to mention ISin% 3olomonJ my KnamesakeK' 3ew Sork, $anuary O+, MH+. # wonBt talk at %reat len%th a,out American politics today, for # am too profoundly dis%usted with the lack of patriotism and astonished ,y the complete worthlessness of all these dema%o%ues' .o one wants to sacrifice any of his ideas or pretensions' # ,elie$e that it is all up with the 4nion of the statesL any compromise will come too late' @eor%ia seceded the day ,efore yesterday' Aouisiana is %oin% to follow suit within two weeks, and then the ,order states will ,e forced to make common cause with the secessionists' The 3outhern states will then ,e a,le to form a powerful confederation' As for Aincoln, the future President, he is entirely ,elow his position, and the /epu,licans themsel$es re%ret ha$in% nominated him' He refuses all compromises and thinks only of repression ,y force of arms' He has the e)ternal appearance of a peasant and all he does is tell ta$ern anecdotes' The other day # saw one of his partisans who had %one to see him at 3prin%field I#llinoisJ, to chat with him a,out the current situation' He found him seated, in shirt slee$es, his feet on the mantelpiece, his hat on his head, amusin% himself ,y makin% hu%e semicircles with to,acco -uice that he s(uee=ed out of his (uid' After a con$ersation that threw no li%ht on "r' AincolnBs $iews, the $isitor, who is one of the /epu,lican chiefs, went off, %reatly disappointed in the future President' Here nullities %i$e no um,ra%eL the %reatest claim to pu,lic fa$ors is to ,e unknown''' 3ourceC Jewish;American History 8oundationL httpCOOwww'-ewish;history'comOsalomonOsalo1:'html

3ew 8rleans
New Or)e ns, (pri) %, '#1& ,er%r&mann, the famo s prestidi(itator, !ho !as one of the passen(ers %on the steamboat (oin( from *e! <or+ to *e! :rleans&, did a fe! tric+s for them. #his ,er%r&mann is a topnotch man, !ith e'traordinar" talent in his profession. ,is e'treme m nificence has (otten for him the honorar" distinctions of so$erei(ns and the most flatterin( testimonials of pri$ate indi$id als. ,e is co$ered !ith decorations and medals. )n 1sraelite b" birth, he has remained stron(l" attached to his faith. *o! that he has established his entire famil" and donated more than A44,444 francs for the poor in the $ario s co ntries he has been thro (h, he is (oin( to retire in ,amb r( !ith a fort ne of 1,444,444 francs.... New Or)e ns, (pri) 5, '#1& #he entr" into *e! :rleans is $er" stri+in(, !ith all those h (e, three9dec+ed ships lined p side b" side. #he" loo+ li+e bucentaurs, or li+e ancient Spanish (alle"s. #he" are $eritable stron(, floatin( chatea ', and beside them ordinar" ships loo+ li+e p"(mies. *e! :rleans is a $er" French cit" !hich has preser$ed the c stoms of the mother co ntr". Gespite the )n(lo9 Sa'on element !hich is be(innin( to become dominant, the old French cit" %still e'ists&. 1 as+ed !hat lan( a(e 1 sho ld spea+ in the cit", and !as told; EFrench on the ri(ht of 2anal Street, /n(lish on the left.E... #he 2reole !omen are $er" bea tif l and e'tremel" nice. #he" ha$e the most bea tif l e"es and the prettiest feet in the !orld. #he" are (enerall" nlearned, e'cept those !ho ha$e been bro (ht p in / rope. #heir con$ersation ne$er rises abo$e the commonplace. )t the races, !here the" (ot to(ether last !ee+, the" !ere in f ll dress and occ pied a platform similar to the one in 2hantill". #here !ere abo t t!o or three h ndred of them there, each more bea tif l than the other and all belon(in( to societ". 1 ne$er in m" life sa! a more perfect and bea tif l si(ht. 1 !as admirabl" recei$ed....r. J. .. 2all, a rich planter !hom 1 met at *e! Port, made it his b siness to do me the honors of his cit" and his state. #he other da" he too+ me to his plantation ei(ht" miles north of *e! :rleans, and he in$ited se$eral people to accompan" s... .r. J. .. 2all8s plantation is !ell9+ept and !ell9directed. ,e o!ns 254 ne(roes, and 1 confess fran+l" that the" seem better fed and in better health and happier than man" of o r co ntr"men, and especiall" better than the free ne(roes. #here is a complete difference bet!een these and the 2 ban sla$es, = st as there is bet!een a st pid peasant from the mo ntains and the intelli(ent !or+man of the cities. 1 cannot den" that the ne(roes are p nished !hen the" do not beha$e !ell, b t at the same time the (reatest care is ta+en of their health, and e$en of their !ell9bein(. /ach settlement has its hospital and its doctor. #he ne(roes do not !or+ on S nda"s, and often the" are ta+en, as a re!ard, in carts to the nei(hborin( cit", !here the" can dance and ha$e as m ch f n as the" !ant. 2onse0 entl", a ne(ro prefers to recei$e t!ent"9fi$e lashes than to be +ept in on S nda". #he sla$er" 0 estion in the Cnited States is not nderstood in / rope. 1t is e$en less nderstood in the *orthern states, !here political passions and hereditar" pre= dices obsc re still more the = d(ments in this re(ard. 1 m"self at *e! <or+ did not concei$e an e'act idea of the state of affairs, and it is onl" thro (h bein( here that 1 ha$e been able to arri$e at an impartial reali7ation of the sit ation. #he So th co ld not do other!ise than separate. #he in$adin( element of the *orth !o ld annihilate and r in it, and it !o ld perhaps not ha$e the stren(th and the reso rces that it no! has. #herefore it cannot (o bac+ on its decision, and !hate$er the national administration does, the So thern states !ill defend their independence at the cost of their last cent and of their last drop of blood. #herefore the / ropean states sho ld indeed intercede in order to a$oid bloodshed !hich !o ld be seless and $er" detrimental to their commerce. 1 am here in the center of the ne!s, arri$in( at each moment and (enerall" contradictor".

-e are e'pectin( the bombardment of 2harlesto!n %S.2.&. B t !hat interest there is in seein( this ne! (o$ernment bein( formed5 .en are enlistin( en masse, b t mone" is lac+in(... New Or)e ns, (pri) %$, '#1& #he political ne!s is so important and occ pies the minds of all to s ch an e'tent that there remains little inclination to bother !ith minor ne!s and !ith tittle9tattle. /$er"one still contin es to be $er" nice to!ard me and tries to sho! me that the So th is not inhabited b" sa$a(es. )nd, indeed, in all m" tra$els th s far 1 ha$e fo nd nothin( that is so m ch li+e Paris. 1t is tr e that the n mero s 2reole families !hich came here at different times to see+ their fort ne, or to escape from political or reli(io s persec tion, ha$e preser$ed those old traditions, !hich, nfort natel", tend to disappear from o r co ntr" as the da"s (o b". Fife on the plantations amidst the ne(roes is the life of a co ntr" (entleman, the (reatest comfort !itho t the sli(htest l ' r". #he ho ses in *e! :rleans are for the most part small, b t ele(ant and comfortable, and $er" (ood for receptions. #he chief feat re of the social ma+e9 p of the co ntr" is the horse races. #he season lasts a !ee+, b t there is onl" one race a da", and these ha$e little interest beca se of the small n mber of horses in$ol$ed. <et the race trac+ is the meetin( place for all the ladies in the cit", and 1 can8t describe to "o !hat a prett" $ie! the" offer. #he 0 adr peds, therefore, aren8t the heroes of the da", b t rather it is the bipeds to !hom m ch more attention is paid. Since the race trac+ belon(s to a pri$ate societ", li+e o r Joc+e" 2l b in Paris, the members don8t admit an"one b t E(entlemen,E and the" ha$e a lar(e, bea tif l (aller" reser$ed e'cl si$el" for themsel$es and the Ein$ited ( ests.E #his (aller" leads into another one !here all the ladies assemble. Beneath this last (aller" there is a lar(e hall !here, at all ho rs, a ma(nificent l nch is ser$ed for the ladies, paid for b" the members of the societ", !ho are $er" (allant, as "o see. #he (reat ra(e in the 2onfederate States and in the Cnited States is to or(ani7e fairs. #he ladies de$ote themsel$es to this pro=ect !ith an ardor !orth" of o r most indefati(able alms collectors. 1f "o don8t (o there, the" maltreat "o 6 if "o do (o there, "o are Eta+en for a rideE8 b t 1 m st admit that the !omen merchants are 0 ite prett", and that the" ha$e e$er"thin( the" need to rob "o . Some of them sell, others !or+ the lotteries, and the prettiest are at the refreshment or the s pper table. 1 sa! one of these ladies as+in( t!ent"9 fi$e piasters for a chic+en !in(5 1n this !a" the" do a (ood b siness for their ca se... -hat is astonishin( here, or rather, !hat is not astonishin(, is the hi(h position occ pied b" o r coreli(ionists, or rather b" those !ho !ere born into the faith and !ho, ha$in( married 2hristian !omen, and !itho t con$ertin(, ha$e for(otten the practices of their fathers. J dah P. Ben=amin, the )ttorne" Heneral of the 2onfederate States, is perhaps the (reatest mind on this continent. ,... ,"ams, the lie tenant (o$ernor of Fo isiana, .o"se, the Secretar" of the 1nterior, etc. )nd !hat is odd, all these men ha$e a Je!ish heart and ta+e an interest in me, beca se 1 represent the (reatest Je!ish ho se in the !orld. ,"ams, for e'ample, !ho is a topnotch man and on !hose sho lders rests all the !or+ of the state of Fo isiana, comes to see me almost dail", or as+s me to come to see him, and (i$es me a co rse, so to spea+, in )merican and So thern politics. ,e has read to me a $er" lar(e n mber of chapters from boo+s !ritten t!ent" "ears a(o, to help me nderstand the present problem, (i$in( me the pros and the cons, and ha$in( me read all the statistics that his position permits him to ha$e, and (i$in( me all possible information on the 0 estion of the tariffs, !hich is no! the principal 0 estion of the moment. #han+s to him and to se$eral other obli(in( persons, 1 can flatter m"self that 1 +no! the )merican problem more deepl" than an" forei(ner or than a lar(e n mber of nati$es...

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The Causes o( the Ci%il War

,y 3alomon de /othschild # am writin% you a separate letter on politics, which is e$en more confused here than in 7urope, ,ut # cannot recommend to you stron%ly enou%h to use e$ery influence of our family and our friends to ha$e the /epu,lic of the 3outhern Confederacy reco%ni=ed as soon as possi,le' *ou will tell me that my ideas ha$e chan%ed, ,ut when you read my other letter, you will tell me # am ri%ht, for in this way ,loodshed and an immense destruction of property would ,e stopped' 3ew 8rleans, 1"ril O,, MH+ # ha$e ,een in .ew <rleans for a month now, and # had e)pected to spend only a few days here' +ut the political e$ents, which followed one another with such rapidity, were of such a thro,,in% interest to me that # thou%ht it was my duty to prolon% my stay and to make a thorou%h%oin% study of this $ery difficult and delicate matter' Ha$in% stayed in the .orth and in the 3outh, ha$in% heard all possi,le discussions in fa$or of and a%ainst each side, # had the leisure to form a completely independent opinion of my own' # am %oin% to try to transmit it to you, thou%h it is difficult to do so in writin%' Therefore, # should start a little farther ,ack' *ou know that the former 4nited 3tates was made up of two %reat parties, the 6emocrats and the /epu,licans' These two parties were su,di$ided into %roups, few in num,ers, ,ut e)tremely $iolent' The a,olitionists were the ultra; /epu,licansL the Kfire;eatersK or secessionists, the ultra;6emocrats' 8anaticism and e)treme factions always carry thin%s their way, and as # %a$e you a presentiment a lon% time a%o, a,olition on the one side and secession on the other won o$er the moderate neutrals, in spite of themsel$es' The point of departure, then, as you know, was the (uestion of sla$ery' .aturally, since this institution is the source of the wealth of the 3outh, it was defended to the utmost ,y those who deri$ed profit from it' Two reasons impelled the inha,itants of the .orth to seek the destruction of sla$ery ,y all possi,le means' The first, which was %i$en ,y those who wanted to decei$e, to win o$er, chi$alrous hearts and to lure 7uropean sympathies, was a simple reason, that of humanity' #n a free country like America, there shouldnBt ,e any sla$es, and complete e(uality should pre$ail amon% all classes' The proof that this reason was not sincere is that the a,olitionists spent millions in order to incite insurrections amon% the sla$es, or to induce them to flee from their masters, ,ut let them die of hun%er ,ecause they were free, and %a$e them no opportunity for moral ad$ancement' Howe$er, the real sentiments which %uided them, and which they did not dare admit in that moment, was that feelin% of le$elin% where,y e$ery,ody would ha$e to ,e nominally e(ual' They couldnBt ,ear to see the inha,itants of the 3outh with 900 hands at their ser$ice, when they had only two hands themsel$es' This feelin% was the first %erm of the social re$olution which is now swiftly followin% the political re$olution' *ou will recall that # ha$e ,een talkin% to you a,out this for a lon% time' The 3outh had numerous sympathi=ers in the .orth, ,ut these sympathi=ers were more interested than it was ,elie$edL they knew that with the help of the 3outhern states they could keep power' This state of affairs could ha$e continued for many years if the two di$isions, 3outh and .orth, of the 6emocratic party had not split at the last electoral con$ention' 3ince each of them carried a different dandidate, they surrendered power to a third thief, Aincoln, the /epu,lican choice' The cotton states understood that there was no lon%er any security for them in a union in which the chief of state and all his ministers were their most implaca,le enemies' They seceded' 4nfortunately for them, the secession was carried out, as e$erythin% is done on this continent, ille%ally and ,oastfullyL and their ,ra$ado alienated many moderate men from them and pre$ented the central sla$e states from -oinin% them ri%ht away' The /epu,lican administration, thinkin% that it was dealin% with -ust a small num,er of states without a lar%e population, and supposin% that within these $ery states the 4nionist feelin% was still $ery much ali$e and was silent

only ,ecause of the $iolence and coercion of some dema%o%ic rin%leaders, resorted to repressi$e measures, for which the constitution of the 4nited 3tates %a$e it no authori=ation at all' The first effect of these measures was to make the sentiment for secession unanimous in the @ulf states and stron%ly to estran%e the central states' The latter made a last effort to ,rin% the two factions to%ether, ,ut failed on ,oth sides' After ha$in% promised the e$acuation of 8ort 3umter, the administration tried to resupply it' 3e$eral warships appeared in the roadsteadL the population of Charlestown was aroused and, perhaps in too much haste, ,om,arded the fort and captured it' This first cannon shot decided the (uestion' Aincoln issued a proclamation orderin% the re"e s to dis,and within twenty days and to raise the fla% of the 4nited 3tates a%ain under penalty of ,ein% punished and coerced ,y force of arms' The situation was ,ecomin% clear' The entire deep 3outh was unitedL the .orth was ,e%innin% to ,e, ,ut it still had within its ranks many persons who fa$ored 3outhern ri%hts' Pecuniary interests did the rest' The %reat (uestion o$er which the representati$es of the 3outh and those of the .orth had ,een locked in ,itter com,at for thirty years was the (uestion of tariffs' The 3outh was a producer of raw materials, and a consumerL the .orth was a manufacturer' 8ree trade, or at least $ery moderate custom;duties, was the desire of the inha,itants of the 3outh' The .orth was contendin% in fa$or of protection, often e$en of the prohi,ition Iof importsJ' +y the old tariff law, the eastern states and .ew 7n%land furnished the other states merchandise which these latter could procure in 7urope at reductions of twenty;fi$e and thirty percent' As soon as the /epu,lican administration 2the protector of tariffs5 came to power, Con%ress passed the "orrill Tariff, which raised duties to an unprecedented rate' The states which had seceded responded with a $ery %reat decrease in these same tariffs, intimatin% their e$entual, complete a,olition when the peaceful state of the country should allow them freedom from recourse to e)traordinary measures' The .orth understood that it was lost if secession continued and made pro%ress' >ho would then come to ,uy the iron products of Pennsyl$ania and the manufactured %oods of .ew 7n%landM #t would no lon%er ,y the 3outh, for the 3outh would %et its supplies in the 7uropean markets and would find a way to pass its purchases into the western states' 8rom that moment on, the 3outh no lon%er had a supporter in the .orthL /epu,licans and 6emocrats crowded around the fla% of the 4nion' Patriotism and the old memories played some part in thisL ,ut ,elie$e me, the principal moti$e was the pocket' #t was therefore necessary to %et rid, at all cost, of this spirit of re$olt which was makin% daily pro%ress and ,rin%in% the .orth closer to its ruin' The western and eastern states offered their troops and their treasuries to the %o$ernment, and were willin% to %o to any e)treme of sacrifice, ,ut this appeal re$er,erated in a different way in the states which had as yet not decided' ?ir%inia seceded immediately and, ,rin%in% to the 3outhern Confederacy the help of her numerous population and of her ine)hausti,le storehouses, sou%ht to make up for lost time ,y sei=in% the federal arsenals' Tennessee and Sentucky answered that they didnBt ha$e a sin%le man to aid the administration to coerce the states of the 3outh, ,ut that they would find a hundred thousand men to defend them' @o$ernor IC'8'J Jackson of "issouri, who was not counted on at all, for that state is surrounded ,y a,olitionist populations and is only half sla$e, answered Aincoln Kthat his re(uest was ille%al, unconstitutional'''and dia,olical'K "aryland also re$olted, and the 8ederal troops had to make their way throu%h +altimore amidst a rain of pa$in% stones, which killed some of them and wounded many more'
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The Pri%ate Di"lomat Jiews the War

,ere in Fo isiana99and 1 am told that it is the same in the other states99e$er"one is r shin( to the defense. /$er"one old eno (h to bear arms, from the a(e of fo rteen to se$ent"9fi$e, is enlistin( in the $ario s companies. #he "o n( men are at the disposition of the President of the 2onfederate States, to be sent !here$er the ser$ice of the state re0 ires. #he old men remain in the cities, to defend their hearths a(ainst an" nforeseen attac+. #he "o n( men of the better families, acc stomed to a soft and idle e'istence, are enlistin( as pri$ates and, !ith +napsac+s on their bac+s, are lea$in( !ith their compan" to defend Pensacola, to attac+ Fort Pic+ens, or to fi(ht in @ir(inia. )ll con$ersation is abo t battles, armament, and attac+. #he !omen themsel$es, !ho !itho t hesitation ha$e (i$en their sons and their brothers to the common ca se, !or+ all da" se!in( sandba(s and ma+in( cannon9cartrid(es. .iss / stace herself made 1D4 hoods to protect the soldiers a(ainst mos0 itoes. :ne compan" !hich had = st been formed had no time to (et its niforms made6 it had recei$ed orders to proceed immediatel" to Pensacola. #he (o$ernor8s !ife and t!ent" other ladies bo (ht cloth, too+ their se!in( machines, embar+ed !ith the troops, and !hen the compan" arri$ed at .obile, it !as fitted o t. #he first ladies of the cit"99and there are some $er" prett" ones99ha$e or(ani7ed to care for the !o nded. 1n short, there is a stron( !ill here to resist a forei(n in$asion to the last breath. )nd, as 1 sa", it is not here onl". 1n #e'as, for e'ample, the" sei7ed all the forts and se$eral ships of the Cnited States, and the" sent here fift" or si't" men !ho had been capt red. #hese !ere treated perfectl" and sent bac+ to the *orth. -ith the border states, the secedin( states !o ld ha$e a pop lation of from ten to t!el$e million inhabitants6 this is almost half of the pop lation of the Cnited states. %)ct all" it !as abo t one9third.& Fea$in( aside the disc ssion of the federal la! !hich permits or ref ses the ri(ht of secession, a disc ssion !hich each side, !ith a little 0 ibblin(, can t rn to its o!n profit, it seems to me that !hen )merica stretched forth its hand to all the peoples !ho !anted to re$olt a(ainst their so$erei(ns, !hen it pheld !ith its promises and its !ritin(s the rather contested ri(hts of , n(ar" and of 1tal", !hen its le(ists and its orators pro$ed that in a case of oppression re$ol tion and rebellion !ere not a ri(ht b t a d t", !hen it declared a h ndred times that the states !ere so$erei(n and that no state had the ri(ht to encroach on the interests of another, ho! can the *orth stop thirteen states from secedin( !hen it is in their interestI )nd e$en if the" didn8t ha$e this le(al ri(ht, there is the nat ral la! !hich 2on(ress has proclaimed a h ndred times. 1f t!el$e million !ant to secede, "o !on8t stop them from it. So the !as !hich the *orth is (oin( to !a(e a(ainst the So th is an impio s, barbaro s, fratricidal !ar. 1n order to sa$e a fe! pennies for those arro(ant man fact rers, members of one and the same famil" are (oin( to find themsel$es opposed to each other, old friends !ill c t each other8s throats, and ri$ers of blood !ill be shed. #he *orth and the So th are (oin( to h rl themsel$es pon each other li+e t!o locomoti$es dri$en at f ll steam and meetin( on the same trac+. #here !ill be no (ratification e'cept the br tal passion of $en(eance, no res lt e'cept death and destr ction. -hen the t!o sides ha$e e'ha sted all their reso rces, !hen the" ha$e seen the flo!er of their "o th perish, !hen the" ha$e s0 andered millions in that bottomless ab"ss, the 2i$il -ar, the" !ill find themsel$es ri(ht bac+ !here the" started and, f rthermore, !ith a ( lf bet!een them. #he !ar !ill ha$e to end. #he" !ill ha$e to ma+e a treat"6 the" !ill ha$e to ma+e m t al concessions, for re(ardless of !ho con0 ers, there !ill be no con0 ered, !ith each side fi(htin( p to the $er" last moment for the ri(hts it claims to ha$e. )(ain, all that the So th is as+in( is that it be left alone and permitted to (o$ern itself as it sees fit. 1t !ill not attac+ e'cept in its o!n defense6 it is therefore senseless to belie$e that the So th can be s bd ed. Besides, the *orth8s blindness has reached s ch a point that it !ants to fi(ht the So th re(ardless, and hopes to con0 er it b" bloc+adin( its ports. B t it is not the So th alone that it !ill harm6 it is all / rope, !hich needs its cotton and its other prod cts. 1t is therefore for the sa+e of its o!n interests, as !ell as for those of h manit" and ci$ili7ation, that / rope o (ht to inter$ene in one manner or another. 1t sho ld e'ert all its efforts to stop this desperate and seless !ar. #he sooner the (reat / ropean states reco(ni7e the So thern 2onfederac", !hich can in$o+e in its fa$or the theor" of &a ts accompl s, the sooner the" !ill ha$e f lfilled a mission of peace and h manit". F rthermore, it is in their interest, for the independence of the So th brin(s !ith it free trade and an immense mar+et for all

o r prod cts as !ell as /n(land8s. Besides, the lon(er the !ar lasts, the more embittered the hatreds !ill become and the more diffic lt it !ill be to reconcile these inimical brothers. 1 therefore entreat "o to se all "o r infl ence to (et the So thern 2onfederac" reco(ni7ed as soon as possible. 1 spea+ in this !a" !ith the (reatest impartialit", for 1 do not permit m"self to be infl ences b" an" other consideration than that of h manit" and that of (ood sense6 and if m" former ideas ha$e been modified a little, it is beca se circ mstances ha$e chan(ed. /$ents ha$e mo$ed for!ard, and personall", and b" m" o!n efforts, 1 ha$e been able to con$ince m"self of e$er"thin( that 1 propose.

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The Constitutional 9uestion

2ou)o.ne, Sund !, June %", '#1& ." dear 2o sin... 1t has been a lon( time since 1 ha$e had the pleas re of (i$in( "o the details abo t m" trip, and e$ents ha$e mo$ed s!iftl" in )merica since m" last letter. 1 left that co ntr" in e'treme disorder, and 1 can8t tell "o ho! calm life in Paris seems to me after all that political e'citement !hich, !itho t to chin( "o directl", carries "o alon( despite "o rself, and ma+es "o ta+e the interests of others to heart as if the" !ere "o r o!n... 1 don8t thin+, m" dear co sin, that 1 ha$e !ritten "o in detail since m" sta" at *e! :rleans. Since then, 1 tra$ersed the !hole So th, the -est, and the *orth, and attenti$el" obser$ed the march of e$ents. 1 came to the reali7ation of the ideas pre$alent in the different parts of the co ntr". 1 s cceeded in formin( for m"self an impartial = d(ment amidst the e'a((erations of the t!o opposin( sides. *o! the str ((le has been entered into bet!een the *orth and the So th, a str ((le of (iants, or rather of boule-$o%ues) in !hich no one !ill "ield, and !herein, after months and perhaps "ears of implacable combat, the t!o sides !ill find themsel$es bac+ at the $er" place from !hich the" started, both of them !ea+ened, !ith their reso rces e'ha sted, their co ntr" r ined, !ith the best of their blood sacrificed, and !ith no other res lt obtained than deepenin( the ab"ss bet!een them. #he 2onstit tion of the Cnited States is s ch that a (ood la!"er can easil" find the pro and the con in it. #he So th claims that it has the ri(ht to secede. )t *e! :rleans the forei(ner !ho listens to the ar( ments !ill be pers aded b" them. #he *orth affirms that the Cnion of the states is an nassailable principle6 if "o ret rn to *e! <or+ "o !ill find that it also is perfectl" ri(ht. 1 am not (oin( to disc ss the problem from the le(al point of $ie!. 1 onl" !ant to (i$e "o an idea of the facts and m" appreciation of the str ((le !hich is (oin( to brea+ o t. Se$eral So thern states, as "o +no!, !ere bo (ht b" the first states...principall" of the *orth and the -est. #he" are Fo isiana, ceded b" France for the s m of ei(ht" millions %francs&6 Florida, bo (ht from Spain for si't" millions6 #e'as, and *e! .e'ico. #o +eep these states, the federal (o$ernment !as obli(ed to spend additional lar(e s ms and to sacrifice a lar(e n mber of troops in order to e'pel the 1ndians from them. 1t made all these sacrifices in order to possess the H lf of .e'ico and to be master of the mo th of the .ississippi. Since the 2onstit tion declared that e$er" inte(ral part of the Cnited States m st ha$e e0 al pri$ile(es, these ne! states !ere placed on an e0 al footin( !ith the old ones, and the" !ere (ranted all the pri$ile(es !hich the others possessed, incl ded in !hich !as the theor" of the so$erei(nt" of the states. #his theor", !hich is one of the prero(ati$es of absol te libert", !as no dan(er to the e'istence of the federal (o$ernment as lon( as each state !as too !ea+ to defend itself alone, and !hen the most complete nion !as necessar" for defense a(ainst forei(n in$asion or internal enemies, as lon( as their interests seemed to be the

same, and the pop lation had not attained the de$elopment !hich it has no!. #oda", the So thern states, !hich !ere enticed to tili7e the mone" and the forces of the *orth for (ro!th and preser$ation, find that their interests are no lon(er the same. 18ll come bac+ later to the Esla$er"E 0 estion, !hich !as the first prete't for secess on, b t !hich !as = st a prete't and is no! secondar". #he tr e reason !hich impelled the So thern states to secede is the 0 estion of tariffs. #he So th is simpl" a prod cer and cons mer6 the -est and the *orth, and especiall" the /ast, are almost entirel" man fact rers, b t the" need stron( protection. #he So th co ld s ppl" itself !ith all necessar" items in / rope, at prices from t!ent"9fi$e to fort" percent lo!er than !hat the" ha$e been pa"in( p to no!. 1t contends that these d ties do it no (ood and that the mone" (oes bac+ into the poc+ets of the *orthern man fact rers. #herefore it !ants to escape from this ta'. #he s ppression of, or e$en a stron( red ction in, these d ties !o ld completel" r in the eastern states of *e! Jerse" and Penns"l$ania, !hich co ld not compete !ith the cheap prices attained b" /n(land and e$en b" France. #ho sands of men !o ld find themsel$es nemplo"ed and !o ld therefore threaten the !ell9bein( and the $er" e'istence not onl" of their emplo"ers, b t e$en of the merchants and the prod cers in those areas, leadin( to an imminent dan(er of social re$ol tion, !hich the *orth m st a$oid at all costs. #his 0 estion of tariffs has been disc ssed in the deliberati$e assemblies for more than t!ent" "ears, and despite the efforts of the So th, despite the ma=orit" !hich its s pporters in the *orth (a$e it, the co ntr" has leaned more to!ard protectionism than to!ard free trade. Since a Rep blican President !as elected, the So th felt that its ca se !as lost, that the encroachments on its principles !o ld become (reater and (reater each da" nder the protection of the federal (o$ernment. 1t therefore preferred to fi(ht at once rather than be paral"7ed b" the meas res of the President. 1n accordance !ith the theor" of the so$erei(nt" of the states, the So th declared that since the federal (o$ernment did not +eep the terms of the contract !ith the So th and threatened its liberties, it had the ri(ht to secede, and it did so, impelled to this e'treme decision b" ambitio s politicians !ho e'ploited the passions of the masses to their ad$anta(e, and !ho hoped in this !a" to preser$e the po!er !hich the" lost thro (h the election of the Rep blican candidate. #he *orth sa"s that certain states ha$e the ri(ht to secede, if the ma=orit" of the states meetin( in (eneral con$ention permits them to, b t that the" cannot do so !itho t this a thori7ation. 1t sa"s that the Cnion is one of the principles of the 2onstit tion, and that it m st be maintained at all costs. )nd, indeed, if it is not, the *orth !o ld cease to e'ist as a nation. 1f the principle of secession is reco(ni7ed, there are no reasons !h", !ithin the t!o ne! confederations that !o ld be formed, there sho ld not be an indi$id al secession of dissatisfied states, or, !ithin the state itself, a secession of cities or of co nties. )n(lo9Sa'on )merica !o ld then be red ced to the !retched state reached in Spanish So th )merica b" the application of this nfort nate principle. /$en s pposin( that thin(s didn8t (o that far, all the ad$anta(es !o ld be fo nd on the side of the So th, and the *orth !o ld ha$e no mar+et. >1? -ith an ima(inar" and (eo(raphical line bein( the onl" separation bet!een t!o co ntries of the same ori(in, of the same race, and of the same lan( a(e, the smallest matter co ld pl n(e the co ntr" bac+ into !ar. >2? -h" did the *orth spend millions and fi(ht for man" "ears to brin( the So th into the CnionI 1t !as certainl" not beca se of philanthrop" for the people that inhabited it, b t rather to be master of all the ports of the )tlantic and of the H lf of .e'ico, and of those of the Pacific, from 2anada to the Rio Hrande. F rthermore, it !as in order to ha$e a s re mar+et for the prod cts of the -est thro (h the .ississippi Gelta. B" reco(ni7in( the So thern 2onfederac", the other states !o ld abandon themsel$es to the (ood !ill of a ri$al nation, !hich, on an" (i$en da", co ld bloc+ade all commerce for the p rpose of obtainin( ne! concessions. #he *orth !o ld be committin( s icide morall". 1t therefore prefers to perish and to be r ined, !ith its !eapons in its hands and !ith a chance for s ccess, rather than to die from a lin(erin( illness. .an" people thin+ that the str ((le !on8t last lon( beca se of the important 0 estion of the E)lmi(ht" GollarE6 it is precisel" the E)lmi(ht" GollarE that !ill prolon( the contest.

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The $oined #ssue /u mitted to 1r itrament y War

<o see then, m" dear co sin, that it is a 0 estion of life and death for the *orth. 1t !ill ma+e the (reatest sacrifices and !ill "ield nothin(. 1t is nanimo s on this matter. Rep blicans and Gemocrats are fi(htin( side b" side, b t from a different point of $ie!. #he Rep blican, !ho, not thro (h ne(rophile philanthrop", b t in order to (i$e the !hites a (reater e'tent of territor", restricts the e'tension of sla$er", !ants to p sh the sla$es bac+ into the confines of the cotton states, and to emancipate those of the central states. 1n the blindness of political passions, he belie$es himself stron( eno (h to reach this (oal. #he Gemocrat fi(hts for the reconstr ction of the Cnion and for this reconstr ction alone. ,e !ants to (i$e the So th all possible concessions, pro$ided that it re9enters the Cnion. ,e doesn8t !ant to ma+e a con0 ered co ntr" of it, b t he doesn8t !ant to ha$e to fear f rther dan(ers from it. #he 0 estion has become s ch an embittered one, the facts falsified to s ch an e'tent b" those !ho find their ad$anta(es in the ci$il !ar, that the t!o sections of the co ntr" do not +no! each other an" more, and are completel" na!are of their m t al intentions6 and the farther the" (o, the less the" !ill reco(ni7e them. Beca se of the immi't re of part" considerations, the point of depart re !ill soon be for(otten, and, as 1 ha$e alread" seen, it all becomes a 0 estion of personalities and of self9esteem. 1 ha$e tra$eled thro (h the entire So th, and 1 ha$e fo nd there a complete nanimit" for secession. #he more or less ima(inar" (rie$ances a(ainst the *orth loom p lar(er and lar(er in the minds of the secessionists, and some $er" distin( ished men, (enerall" peacef l and calm, ha$e told me that the" !o ld prefer to li$e nder the l beral (o$ernment of Fo is *apoleon rather than to end re the nbearable oppression of the *orth. #he" sa" that the" !ill fi(ht to their last breath and !ill shed their last drop of blood and, !hat is most important, !ill spend their last cent. Besides, mediation b" forei(n po!ers !ill onl" a((ra$ate the 0 estion. 1n the *orth, 1 ha$e been told that if it is necessar", the" !ill r(e the sla$es to ins rrection and stir p a sla*e !ar in the So th. <o see, then, that it is a str ((le !hich has no !a" o t. -ith minds so determined and principles so opposed, re nion is impossible and secession is no less so. #he *orth, !ith its 24,444,444 inhabitants and m ch more mone", !ill ha$e the pper hand, b t A,444,444 inhabitants can prolon( the fi(ht for man" "ears. 1 see no possibilit" at all for a reconciliation, e'cept thro (h some entirel" nforeseen e$ent !hich ma" be amon( the decrees of Pro$idence...

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